1
ENGLISH (PARTS OF SPEECH/GRAMMAR)
Category
1. Content words (open set) have specific
meanings, like nouns, verbs, adverbs,
adjectives, and question words.
2. Function words (closed set) do not have
specific meanings / grammar use/ articles,
conjunctions,
modals,
pronouns,
prepositions, and auxiliary verbs.
Parts of Speech
1. Noun (Pangngalan)- name of person, place,
things, idea (dog, group, happiness, UNESCO)
2. Pronoun (Panghalip) - takes the place of a
noun in a sentence (you, yourself, one, anything)
3. Adjective (Pang-uri)- describes or modifies a
noun or pronoun (sad , green, asleep, burnt)
4. Preposition
(Pang-ukol)
establishes
relationship between the noun and the rest of the
sentence. (to, about, on, of, like)
5. Verb (Pandiwa)- action words (do, be, walk,
shall)
6. Adverb (Pang-abay)- describes or modifies
verb, adjective, adverb (well, later, near,
however)
7. Conjunction (Pang-ugnay)- connect words and
phrases and clauses (and, or, since, if)
8. Interjection- express strong feeling or emotion
(No! Alas! Oh!)
NOUNS - name of person , things, place
Classification/Kinds Of Nouns
1. Proper- specific nouns; American, USA, Mr.
Angcaya
2. Common- general terms; ex. citizen, country
3. Concrete- perceivable/senses; flower, chicken
4. Abstract- feelings and concepts; love, hate,
justice
5. Countable- has plural form and can be counted;
bike, leaf
6. Uncountable- has no plural form and can’t be
counted; freedom, milk, water
7. Compound- made with two or more words
• Open/spaced- post office
• Closed/ solid- bystander
• Hyphenated- short-term
8. Collective- refers to a group of something
• A herd of sheep
• A pack of wolves
• A flock of birds
• A gang of crooks
Confusion Plural, Possessive, Contraction
1. Plural- many = s [ex. boyfriends]
2. Possessive – shows ownership
Add (‘s)
- Singular words that not ending in “s”
(Karen’s)
- Proper nouns that end in the “s” (Princess’s)
- Plural nouns that don’t end with s
(children’s)
Add (‘)
– plural nouns that end with “s” (students’/
class’)
3. Contraction – 2 word [describe]; (shorten) =’s
Uses/ Functions Of Nouns
1. Subject- who or what the sentence is all about
Ex. Karen teaches English
2. Object
a. Direct Object- a noun that answers “whom”
or “what” after an action verb/ receiver of the
action/ can be noun or pronoun
Ex. Karen teachers SF students
b. Indirect Object- a noun that answers “to/for
whom/what” after an action verb
Ex. Karen teaches SF students English/
When she came out the shower, she saw
Harry Potter!/
c. Object of the preposition- a noun that
follows a preposition
Ex. Karen teachers on the stage
3. Complement
a. Predicative
nominative/
Subject
Complement – defines subject after the
linking verb
Ex. Karen is a teacher (can be noun/
adjective)
* verbal – not function as verb but noun
(teaching – gerund)
b. Object Complement- modifies the objects/
a noun that renames the direct object; comes
after the direct object
Ex. Karen dyed her hair Burgundy
4. Appositive- a noun that renames another noun
next to it; set off by comma.
Ex.After seeing Harry Potter, the con artist,
Severus shouted, “You do note is he liar, is my
peyk.”
2
PRONOUNS
1. Personal- pronouns for people, animals, and
objects
a. Nominative/subjective- functions as subject
(he, she, we, they, it, you)
b. Objective- functions as object (me, you, her,
it, us, them)
c. Possessive- can be subject or object that
shows possession (mine, yours, his, hers,
ours, yours, theirs)
Singular
Subjectiv
e
1st person I
2nd
You
3rd
He
masculin She
e
It
feminine
neuter
Objectiv
e
Me
You
Him
Her
It
Possessiv
e
My/mine
Your/yours
His
Her/hers
its
7. Interrogative Pronouns- who, whom, whose,
that, and which.
ADJECTIVES – words that descdescribeoun or
pronoun
NOSASCOMP
1. Number
2. Opinion
3. Size
4. Age
5. Shape
6. Color
7. Origin
8. Material
9. Purpose
Order of Adjectives
Adjectives changes in form when they show
comparison.
•
•
Plural
st
1
person
2nd
3rd
Subjective
We
Objective
Us
Possessive
Our/ours
You
They
You
Them
Your/yours
Their/theirs
•
Positive Degree: When there is no comparison
Comparative Degree: when it is used to
compare two nouns/pronouns
Superlative Degree: when it is used to compare
more than two nouns/pronouns. We used the
article ‘the’ before the superlative degrees.
2. Indefinite- pronouns for non-specific people,
and objects / (sg) someone, anyone, no one,
somebody, anybody, nobody, something,
someone, everyone, everybody (PI)- both,
many, few, several, others (Singular or plural)according to sense; all, most, some)
a. Singular- no one, someone, anyone
(with one)
b. Plural- several, few, both, many
3. Reflexive- pronouns with ‘self/selves’ functions
as object. Removing them will make the thought
incomplete. / are used to refer back to the
subject –as the form of the object if the object is
the same person as the subject (ends in –self or
–selves.) [She found herself in a difficult
situation.]
Ex. I love myself. She made herself happy.
4. Intensive- pronouns with ‘self/selves’, used o
intensify thought. Removing hem will not make
the sentence incomplete.
Ex. I, myself, did all the household chores.
5. Demonstrative- pointing pronouns (this, these,
that, those) (D1- this & these – near the speaker
/ D2- that those – far from the speaker)
6. Relative- pronouns that connects clause/
phrase to a noun/ pronoun
Ex. I love my friend who always treats me.
Limiting – define not describe
1. Articles - a/an – (not specific) the (specific)
Ex.
Bring me a child – indefinite
Bring me the child – definite
2. Numerals – Cardinal/ Ordinal
Types Of Adjectives
1. Demonstrative – use to point something
Must be followed by a noun! (this, these, that,
those)
2. Possessive – shows ownership
Must be followed by a NOUN! (My, your, his, her,
our, its, their)
3. Indefinite – adjectives formed from pronouns.
All, many, few, some, several, most, etc.
3
Commas For Adjectives
a. Coordinate adjectives = with commas
“individually modify a noun/ same category”
Ex. I bought a heavy, bulky, and rough box.
b. Cummulative adjectives = without commas
“not same in category”
Ex. She was a smart Muslim woman
Prepositions (Pang ukol) are used to express a
number of relationships, including time, location,
manner, means, quantity, purpose, and state or
condition.
TIME
1. At - hours, parts of the day, time, holidays
without day
2. In - Century, decade, year, month, weak,
seasons, period of time, holidays, parts of the
day.
3. On - days, dates, specific day, holiday with day
PLACE
1. At - address, specific location
2. In - country, city, means of transport (cannot
stand), enclosed
3. On - streets, avenues, surfaces, means of
transport (can stand), island
USE PREPOSITION EXAMPLE
TIME
• About -about noon (approximately)
• After -after the review; after dinner
• At -at three o’ clock
• By -by noon (no later than)
• For- for thirty minutes (duration)
• From- from Sunday toSaturday
• In- in the morning; in spring; in ten minutes (at
the end of); in time (early enough)
• Of- a quarter of three (15 minutes before)
• On- on Friday (day of the week); on May 8 (date);
on time (punctual)
• Past- A quarter past three (15 minutes after)
• To- A quarter to three (15 minutes before)
PLACE OR DIRECTION
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Around- It’s just around the corner
At- She’s at home. (Coy was at the restaurant.)
Down- They lived down the hill.
From- We emigrated from Pampanga in 1991.
In- He lives in a kariton.
Inside- Put it inside this box
On- We sat on the bench.
Through- We walked through the glass tunnel at
Manila Ocean Park.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
To- Give it to me.
Up- He walked up the stairs.
With- He went with her.
By- He was hit by a bat
From- His success results from careful planning.
In- He takes pleasure in it.
On- They live on rice and salt.
With- He chased the thief with a bolo.
MEANS
• At- My friend is at home.
• By- They are by themselves. (alone)
• In- She was in a state of shock.
• On- He is on duty (scheduled work).
• For- I mistook you for someone else.
• As- I see you as a good friend.
STATE OR CONDITION
• For- We drove for 30 minutes just to get here.
• By- We bought them by crates.
CHOOSE THE RIGHT PREPOSITION
1. In my opinion
2. In compliance with
3. On behalf of my friends who can’t be
here- representing group/others
4. to donate goods in behalf of the poor- for
somebody’s of the poor
Adverb (Pang-abay) modifies verbs, adjectives,
and adverbs.
1. Manner [how?] – well, automatically, with care
2. Frequency [how often?] – never, sometime,
occasionally, seldom, often, daily, always, every
3. Place [where?] – here, there, inside, outside,
near, nearby
4. Time [when?] – now, later, tomorrow, earlier,
yesterday, as soon as possible
5. Degree [to what extent?]- immensely,
completely, partly, mainly, rather, fairly, too, so
6. Negation – not, never, by no means
QUASM – question, auxiliary, subject, main
verb
subj
ect
Beth
ver
b
swi
ms
manner
enthusia
stically
pla
ce
In
the
po
ol
Who – sino
Whose – na siyang
Whom – kanino
For whom – para kanino
time
Ever
y
mor
ning
deg
ree
Bef
ore
daw
n
nega
tion
To
keep
in
shap
e
4
Where to place adverbs
• Manner – before or after the verb
• Time and place – end position
• Frequency – before the verb
• Purpose – end position
• Degree – before the word it modifies
Conjunctions (Pang-ugnay) – words that connect
ideas
1. Coordinating – FANBOYS -for, and, nor, but,
or, yet and so
2. Correlative Conjunction – both..and/ not..but/
not only .. but also/ either.. or/ neither.. nor/
although.. yet/ Pair that works together
3. Conjunctive Adverb – joint independent
clause together
4. Subordinating Conjunction – after, unless,
although/ Not equal emphasis/ Connects
subordinating clause to independent clause
Verb (Pandiwa) is a word or group of words that
expresses time while showing an action, a
condition, or the fact that something exists.
Classification of English Verbs
1. Linking/ Copulative/– show state of being (is,
am, are) these verbs are used to complete the
verb phrase / link the subject with a work in the
predicate
2. Auxiliary/ Helping/ Ascriptive – a verb used in
forming the tenses, moods, voices of the verbs
(Have, Has, Had, Do, Does, Did, Be, Am, Is, Are,
Was, Were, Been, Can, Could, Shall, Should,
Will, Would, May, Might, Must, Being)
3. Action/ active – shows actions (physical or
mental)
▪ Action ex. She tastes the food
▪ Linking ex. The food tastes delicious
▪ (some action verbs can be linking verbs)
4. Transitive- needs direct object/ these verbs are
followed by noun phrases as their direct object.
[She sings Halleluiah)
5. Intransitive- doesn’t need direct object/ these
verbs do not have complements (She dances
good)
6. Modal – these verbs occur before the main verb,
and denote modification of the basic meaning of
the main verb, in terms of attitude, conditionality
of the action, and the like, eg., must (necessity),
may (permission), can (ability)
1. Can -show ability/ permission/ present ability
Could -past ability
2. Will – willingnss/request/question
Would (past)
3. Shall – advisability/futurity
Should – obligation/ strong obligation
4. May – possibility/ permission (High possibility)
Might – low possibility
5. Must - possibility/ certainty/ obligation from the
speaker
Must not – prohibition (speaker setting the rule)
Can not – prohibition (against the rule larger
authority)
6. Have to – obligation (comes from someone rule
/law)
7. Ought to – ought to + verbs – same with
should
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
Certainty – must
Possibility – may, might, can, could
Willingness – will, would
Obligation – should, must, have to
Necessity – must, have to
Ability – can, could
Advice/Suggestion – should, can
VERBS - IRREGULAR VERBS
Basic form
Bear (to carry)
beat
be
Begin
bet
bit
choose
drink
forgive
mistake
ring
go
know
swear
Past tense
Bore
beat
was
Began
bet
bitten
chose
drank
forgave
mistook
rang
went
knew
swore
Principal Parts of Verbs
Infinitive
present
(3rd
per,
sg)
Climb
Climbs
Speak
Speaks
Fight
fights
Past
Participle
Borne
Beaten or beat
Been
begun
Bet
bitten
Chosen
Drunk
Forgiven
Mistaken
rung
Gone
Known
sworn
Past
Past
participle
Climbed
Spoke
Fought
Climbed
Spoken
Fought
5
Tenses- the time period in which the verb of a
sentence places an action
Aspects - how an action relates to time or how it
extends to time.
PAST TENSE
• Simple – occurred in the past (She played)
• Continuous/ Progressive – action ongoing in
the past (She was playing)
• Perfect- action is done before another event
took place (She had played)
• Perfect continuous – continuing action in the
past began before another past action began or
interrupted the first action (She had been
playing)
PRESENT TENSE
• Simple – occurring in the present (She plays)
• Continous/Progressive – continuing nature of
an action (She is playing)
• Perfect – action began in the past and
continuous into the present/ has just been
completed (She has played)
• Perfect continuous – action that has begun in
the past and continuous in the present (She has
been playing)
FUTURE TENSE
• Simple – action will take place (She will play)
• Continous/Progressive – action ongoing in ithe
future (she will be playing)
• Perfect – action will be completed sometime in
the future before another action takes place (She
will have played)
• Perfect continuous – continuing action that will
be completed at some specified time in the future
(She will have been playing)
Phrasal Verb – verb + preposition/ adverb = has
different meaning
▪ verb followed by a preposition (stand, for)
▪ verb followed by an adverb (slow down),
▪ verb followed by both adverb and preposition
(watch out for).
It has an idiomatic meaning that is often quite
different from the literal meaning of the individual
words:
1. Take
Take up – start a new hobby
Take after – resemble in character or appearance.
Take in – to understand
2. Fill
Fill in - hallows
Fill out – form
Fill up – container
3. Break
Break up – separate
Break in – balik
Break off – end relationship
Break down – crycry
Breakthrough – moving on/success
Bring back – memories
Carry on – moving on
Calm down – kalma
4. Come
Come across – encounter/experience
Come over – tara
Close down – to see operation/ tumigil
Cool off – temporary seaparation
5. G
Get along – nakikisama/bord
Give up –
6. K
Keep off – stay in a distance
Kick out – to remover
Leave behind – iwan
Try out – to make an attempt
Voice of Verb CROSS
1.A verb is active if its subject performs/doer the
action. [Thomas Edison invented the light bulb]
2.A verb is passive if a sentence which subject is
the receiver of the action/ its action is performed
upon the subject. [Light bulb was invented by Edison
.]
MOOD refers to the way by which a language
signals an attitude about or an interpretation of the
idea being expressed in the sentence.
1. Indicative –states fact or supposition; asks a
question;
2. Subjunctive –qualifies the truth of the statement
3. Imperative –expresses a command
If, with certain verb inflections, signals significant
distinctions in time, truth, and probability. These
combinations are known as the conditionals.
1. Zero conditional -general truth [If hydrogen is
mixed with oxygen, an explosion occurs.
2. 1st conditional- future-probable. [If I take your
offer, I will be richer.
3. 2nd conditional –present-unreal. [If I took your
offer, I would be richer.
4. 3rd conditional –past-unreal. [If I had taken your
offer, I would have been richer.
6
VERBALS are forms of verb which take auxiliaries
other than tense. These are derived from the basic
formulation.
1. Infinitive: to + verb stem
2. Gerund: verb stem + ing
3. Participle:
Present: verb stem + ing. [The boy dancing is the
director’s son.]
Past: verb stem + part [Satisfied, the producer
began paying the artists.
Perfect: having + verb stem+ part [Having
recovered her voice, the soprano hits her top notes
well.
AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB
A. Singular subject takes singular verb. [The
student likes to attend a party.]
B. Plural subject takes plural verb. [The students
like to attend a party.
1. Auxiliary verbs – “Do, and have” are plural,
while “does and has” are singular.
2. Personal Pronouns as Subject – I am, I was,
You are, You were, He/she/It was, we are, we
were, they are
3. Indefinite pronouns as subject –(sg)
everyone, everybody, everything (pl) many,
some, few (sg/pl) all, most, some
4. Collective nouns as subjects –audience,
cabinet, commission, committee, council,
couple, crew etc. are singular if the reference is
to group altogether, and as a plural if the
reference is to the members of the group as
individuals.
5. Singular noun ending in –s –Economics,
linguistics, mathematics are always singular
6. Subjects with of phrase –“a number” is plural,
while “the number” is singular.
7. Compound subjects –nouns joined by “and”
are plural. When subject nouns are joined by or,
nor, either or neither, the verb agrees with the
nearer noun.
8. Subject with modifiers –modifying phrases
beginning with with, together with, along with,
and as well as do not affect the number of the
simple subject. [Jerry, as well as his brother, is
prepared for the exam.
9. Subjects with quantifiers and Terms of
measurement –the quantifiers every, each, and
many a, modify singular nouns. Even if the
nouns are in a series, the subject remains
singular in number. [Every driver, technician and
supervisor is suppose do time in.] Expressions of
time, amount of money and rate are singular.
[Fifty pesos is….]
10. Subject which follow the verb – in an inverted
order, the verb agrees with the subject. [Here
comes the bride.]
11. Adjectives as subject – An adjective with ‘the’
is treated as plural. [Only the good die young.]
RULES ON GRAMMAR
Subject-verb agreement - Singular subjects need
singular verbs and plural subjects need plural
verbs.
1. If the subject is singular, use is.
Example:
1. My brother is a nurse.
2. The man was alone when I saw him.
2. When the word who, which, or that is used
as a subject in a subordinate clause, we use
either the singular or plural form of the verb
depending on the number of antecedent.
Example:
1. She is the only one among the applicants who
has qualified for the said position.
2. She is the only qualified person of the trainees
who have applied.
3. If the noun is in plural form but is singular in
meaning, use the singular form of the verb.
(Nouns that show weight, extent, quantity,
depth or volume).
Example:
1. Twenty kilos of beef was delivered.
2. Two liters of water was given to me in the
competition.
4. If the subject is in third person and the verb
to be used is in present tense, add an –s or
–es to the verb.
Example:
1. The cat catches the mouse.
2. The car runs on gasoline.
5. The indefinite pronoun none can be either
singular or plural. It doesn’t matter unless
there are determinants of number.
Example:
1. None of you claims responsibility for the event.
2. None of you claim responsibility for the event.
3. None of the students have done their homework.
(Note: The word „their‟ indicates that the verb to be
use is plural.)
6. Indefinite pronouns such as anyone,
everyone, someone, no one, nobody and
each are always singular and require
singular verbs.
Example:
1. Everyone is invited to the event.
2. Nobody said it was easy.
3. Each of the students was given a topic to
discuss. (Note: The subject is each, not students.)
7. The words all and some are singular or
plural depending on what they’re referring
to (Can it be counted?).
Example:
1. Some of his teeth are missing.
2. All of the water is gone.
7
8. The pronouns neither and either are always
singular and we use the singular form of the
verb even though they seem to be referring
to two things.
Example:
1. Neither of the clocks is working.
2. Either suit is fine with me.
9. If the words or, nor, neither-nor, either-or,
not only-but also are used, the verb that we
use must agree with nearer subject.
Example:
1. Either the slaves or the master is going to prison.
2. Neither the president nor his subordinates are
eating in the hotel tonight.
10. Words such as glasses, pliers, pants, and
scissors are regarded as plural unless the
word pair precedes them.
Example:
1. My pants are torn.
2. A pair of scissors is in the drawer.
11. There are instances when modifiers get in
between the subject and its verb, these
modifiers does not affect the agreement
between the subject and the verb.
Example:
1. The mayor, along with his brothers, is finally
going to jail.
12. Collective nouns require a singular verb
when the group is thought of as a unit, but it
requires a plural verb when the individuals
composing the group are thought of acting
as separately.
Example:
1. The committee was discussing the business
proposal.
2. The herd was found on top of the hill.
3. Members of the committee have placed their
votes.
13. The pronoun “you”, requires a plural verb
regardless of number.
Example:
1. You are the best.
2. All of you are exempted from taking the finals.
14. If the words Both-And join the parts of a
compound subject, the verb required is
plural.
Example:
1. Both the book and magazine are inside the
drawer.
2. Both the pen and the pencil are on my desk.
15. Expressions such as half of, a part of, a
percentage of, a majority of are sometimes
singular and sometimes plural, depending
on the meaning. Mathematical operations
are always expressed as singular and
require singular verbs. Fractions take a
singular verb if the OF-PHRASE that follows
it is singular!
Example:
1. Some of my classmates are angry.
2. Two times three is six.
3. One fifth of the class is taking the finals
4. One third of the troops were missing in action.
16. The phrase the number requires a singular
verb and the phrase a number requires a
plural verb.
Example:
1. The number of students who failed is thirty.
2. A number of students have passed the test.
17. To indicate possession (who owns) of a
singular noun, we add an -„s... To indicate
possession of a plural noun but ending in –
s, we add an „ only...
Example:
1. This is John‟s Money.
2. These are the dogs‟ collars.
Points to Remember:
1. Make sure that he subject agrees with the verb.
2. Don’t be distracted with the words in between
them.
3. Only the subject will agree with the verb.
4. Be sure that a pronoun, a participial phrase, or
an appositive refers clearly to the proper
subject.
MODIFIERS -words, phrases, and clauses used to
give additional information
1.
Misplaced- modifier is far from the modified
word
2. Dangling- modifier that does not modify any
word
3. Squinting- modifier that may modify two words
FAULTY PARALELLISM - Mixing different
syntactic structures (not equal structure)
1. When giving a list- “I enjoy reading, writing,
and to calculate”. (calculating)
2. Comparison- “I like swimming rather than to
hike.” (hiking)
3. With correlative conjunctions- what you give
to one conjunction should have the same
structure with its partner. – “you are either for
us or you are against us.” (against us)
8
PROSODIC FEATURES OF SPEECH
1. Stress- emphasis to a syllable in a word (could
be seen to vowels (sounds only) that changes
the meaning
Ex. Noun- PREsent , Verb-preSENT
2. Intonation—rise and fall of voice (pitch)
a. Rising- yes/no questions
b. Falling- statements, commands, WHquestion
3. Juncture- temporary stoppage on words and
sentences that presents a different idea.
Ex. Better go/ naked people don’t mind. Better go
naked/ people don’t mind.
FRAGMENTS, CLAUSES, SENTENCES
1. Fragment- X subject and verb; incomplete [ate
the cake]
2. Clause- with subject and verb; can and can’t
stand [after he ate]
• Subject – (independent )- Can stand on its
own / sentence already
• Predicate/verb (dependent) - Cannot
stand on its own/ Needs the independent
one/ With Subordinating Conjunctions/
Fragment
3. Sentence- with subject and verb; complete
[He ate the cake]
BASIC SENTENCE PATTERN
1. S – IV - She jumped.
2. S – TV – DO - She danced Tinikling.
3. S – LV – C - She is good
4. S – TV – DO – OC - She cut her hair short.
5. S – TV – IO – DO - She builds me a sand
castle.
TYPES OF SENTENCES
1. Simple- subject and verb; complete thought.
[He ate his cake]
2. Compound- 2 independent clauses;
coordinating conjunctions. [He ate, and he
danced.]
3. Complex – 1 independent clause, and 1(or
more) dependent clauses; subordinating
conjunctions.
[After he ate, he slept.]
4. Compound – complex – 2 independent
clauses, and 1 (or more) dependent clause;
coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.
[After he ate, he slept and (he) dreamt of her.]
PHRASE is a group of words, without a subject and
a verb that functions in a sentence as one part of
speech.
1. Preposition phrase [the chair in the corner is
wobbly.] (modifies the noun chair)
2. Appositive phrase [I will race with my best
stroke, the butterfly.] (the butterfly renames
stroke)
3. Verbal phrase
a. Gerund – boasting about your success is
not good.
b. Infinitive –Mr. Torres chose to accept
cheerfully.
c. Participial –Tuning the radio, I soon had a
clear station.
DIRECT STATEMENT reports a person’s exact
words or thoughts and is enclosed in quotation
marks. [I will ask the Congress to appropriate more
funds to help urban communities.]
INDIRECT STATEMENT rephrase someone else’s
words. They are not the exact words of the
speaker. [The president said that he would ask the
Congress to appropriate more funds to held urban
communities.]
ORDER OF WORDS
1. Normal Word Order - Subject before Verb
2. Inverted Word Order - Verb before Subject
(Interrogative Sentences, Conditional Clauses
w/o “if,” and negative declarative sentences )
• Interrogative - Can you get my wallet inside
the bag?
• Conditional Clauses - Had it not rained
yesterday, we would have finished painting the
walls.
• Negative Sentences - Never did I spend
money for that ticket.
Common errors in Writing
1. Misplaced Modifier
The modifier is far from the word/s it modifies.
A large painting attracts the visitor’s eye on the
west wall.
2. Dangling Modifier
The modifier that does not modify any word.
After playing Frisbee all evening, my English paper
did not get finished.
3. Squinting
The two-way modifier/sandwich modifier
As the ship sank suddenly the life boats were
lowered.
4. Run-On Sentences - A run-on sentence occurs
when two or more independent clauses are
connected improperly.
5. Faulty coordination - Two unequal ideas/
clauses are connected
Faulty: Mr. Green is the CEO of the company,
and he is a native of Arkansas.
Correct: Mr. Green, the CEO of the company, is
a native of Arkansas
6. Faulty Parallelism - Mixing syntactic
structures/ not equivalent in grammatical
structure
Faulty: I enjoy reading, writing, and to
calculate. calculating.
Correct: I enjoy reading, writing and
9
COMMON GRAMMAR ERRORS
1. Run-on Sentence
A run-on sentence is a sentence where two or more
independent clauses are joined without proper
conjunctions or punctuations.
Wrong: My duty was very tiring I extended until 4
am.
Correct: My duty was very tiring. I extended until 4
am.
2. Fragmented Sentences
A sentence fragment is simply a phrase with
incomplete thought.
Wrong: Many people standing dangerously close
to the edge of the cliff.
Correct: Many people were standing dangerously
close to the edge of the cliff.
3. Comparative versus Superlative case
Do not use the superlative form of the verb when
comparing two persons or things.
Wrong: The scientists are searching for the best
solutions.
Correct: The scientists are searching for the best
solution.
4. Error in the case of a noun or pronoun
Case problems involve the use of personal
pronouns, which are in the nominative case (I, he,
she, we, they, who) when they are used a subjects
or predicate nominatives, and in the objective case
(me, him, her, us, them, whom) when they are used
as direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of
prepositions.
Wrong: I can have coffee or tea. I wonder which is
best.
Correct: I can have coffee or tea. I wonder which is
better.
Wrong: Between you and I, this job is a piece of
cake.
Correct: Between you and me, this job is a piece of
cake.
5. Dangling modifiers
A dangling modifier occurs when a noun being
modified is not placed next to its modifier.
Wrong: Having climbed Mt. Kanlaon, Mt. Banahaw
is more scenic.
Correct: Having climbed Mt. Kanlaon, I find Mt.
Banahaw more scenic.
6. Lack of Parallelism
Words or phrases in a series should be similar in
form.
Wrong: We practiced reloading, disarming and
how to shoot.
Correct: We practiced reloading, disarming and
shooting.
7. Use of Capital Letters
All proper nouns should be capitalized including
titles of movies, songs, names, etc.
Wrong: I love listening to Michael Buble’s
“alwayson my mind.”
Correct: I love listening to Michael Buble’s
“Always on my mind.”
•
VERBOSITY - Use of more words than
necessary
Despite the fact that = Although
Ex. Students worked collaboratively on unfamiliar
and open ended problems.
Students collaborated on unfamiliar and open
ended problems.
•
REDUNDANCY - Use of more words that say
the same thing
Blend together, browse through, adequate enough,
each and every, first and foremost, free gifts,
Innocent civilians, manually by hand, past history,
plan in advance, repeat again, whole entire
The accused was guilty of false misstatement
The accused was guilty of misstatement.
MAIN IDEA - The most important/ central thought
of paragraphs (overall idea of text)
TYPES OF ESSAY
1. Narrative - Tells a story about a real-life
experience/ Usually written in the first person
POV
2. Descriptive - Describe a person, place, object,
or memory/ Show using sensory details and not
tell/ Appeals to reader’s emotion (evocative)
3. Expository - Informative piece that uses facts/
No personal feelings, no first person POV
4. Persuasive - Convince readers to accept
writer’s POV/ Present all sides and use
reasoning
PROSODIC FEATURES OF SPEECH
1. Stress - Emphasis given to certain syllables in
a word/ Only stress the vowels
Nouns - present
Verbs – present
2. Intonation - Emphasis on how we say things
Falling – Statements, Commands , WH questions, Tag questions that request
confirmation, Exclamations
Rising - Yes/ No Questions/ Tag questions that
show uncertainty
3. Juncture - The temporary stoppage of the flow
of speech
Better go/ naked people don’t mind.
Better go naked/ people don’t mind.
10
PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS- Awareness of
ability to manipulate sounds
PHONEMIC AWARENESS - Sub skill: ability to
manipulate smallest unit of sounds
1. Segmentation – break down of sounds
2. Deletion – sound of word if one sound is
omitted
3. Matching – identify words that begin with same
sounds
4. Counting – identify how many sound
5. Substitution – changing one sound
6. Blending – combine sounds created
7. Rhyming – tell words that rhyme
8. Isolation – tell the place and sound
Different sounds of -d & -ed in regular verbs
1. Rule # 1: If the verb base ends in a voiceless
sounds (p, f, k, s, sh, ch, th), the -ed sounds like
/t/. The /t/ is blended and not another syllable.
Examples: worked – divorced
2. Rule # 2: If the verb base ends in a voiced
sounds (b, v, g, z, j, th, l, m, n, r), the –ed
sounds like /d/. The /d/ is blended and not
another syllable.
Examples: moved, returned
3. Rule # 3: If the verb base ends in a /d/ or /t/
sounds, the -ed sounds like /id/ or /ud/. It is
pronounced as an extra syllable.
Examples: started
, separated
SPEECH PROCESSES
1. Respiration - inhalation/ exhalation
2. Phonation - sound production
3. Resonation - amplification/ modification
4. Articulation - specific speech sound production
TYPES OF LANGUAGE
1. Slang very informal language (spoken rather
than written)
2. Colloquialism - everyday conversation (not
formal) – want to = wanna
3. Jargon - language of specific group
4. Solecism - grammatical mistake in writing/
speech
COMMON PUNCUATION MARKS AND THEIR
USES
1. COMMA (,)
• To separate items in a series.
Example: Our itinerary included Rome, London and
Madrid.
• Use before and, but, or, nor, for, so and yet
when they join independent clauses (unless the
clauses are short.)
Example: The story gets off to a slow start, but it
gets exciting toward the end.
• To set off nonessential clauses and phrases.
Example: My father, who started this company,
really knows his stuff.
• Use after introductory elements.
Example: Well, how do you do? Before you leave,
turn off the lights.
• To set off an expression that interrupts a
sentence.
Example: The article in The Herald, our local paper,
is about writing skills. Cabs in New York, I’m
certain, obey the speed limit.
• To separate items in dates and addresses, after
the salutation and closing of a letter, and after a
name followed by a title.
Example: January 12, 2012
New York, NY
Dear Shirley,
Michael Brown, Ph. D.
2. APOSTROPHE (‘)
• To form the possessive case of a singular noun,
add an apostrophe and an S.
Example: Bob’s car.
• If the addition of an “s” produces an awkward
sound, add only the apostrophe. Usually, this is
when there is already a double “s” sound.
Example: Moses’
for old times’ sake
for goodness’ sake
• To form the possessive case of a plural noun,
add an apostrophe after the s.
Example: girls’ teams
• If the plural form of the word does not end in s,
add an apostrophe and ad s.
Example: women’s team
• To show where letters have been omitted in a
contraction.
Example: can’t = cannot
it’s = it is
3. SEMICOLON (;)
• Use between independent clauses not joined by
and, but, nor, for, yet and so.
Example: Read what you’ve written; don’t just pass
it on
• Use between independent clauses joined by
such words as for example, besides,
nevertheless, etc.
Example: I think he’s right; however, it’s difficult to
know.
• Use between items in a series if the items
contain commas.
Example: Winners in the competition are Bill, first
place; Amy, second place; and Jeff, third place.
4. COLON (:)
• Use to mean “note what follows.”
Example: When you go to training, take these
items: paper, pencil and an alert mind.
• Use before a long, formal statement or
quotation.
11
5. HYPHEN (-)
• Use to divide a word at the end of a line.
Example:
If you are not sure where to hyphenate a word,
look it up in the dic-tionary.
• Hyphenate a compound adjective when it
precedes the word it modifies.
Example: fast-moving train long-distance runner
6. DASH (–)
• Use to indicate an abrupt break in thought.
Example: The truth is – and you probably know it –
we can’t do without you.
• Use to mean namely, in other words, or that is
before an explanation.
Example: It was a close call – if he had been in a
worse mood, I don’t think I’d still be here.
7. QUOTATION MARKS (“”)
• Put periods and commas inside quotes.
• Put colons and semicolons outside quotes.
• Vary placement of exclamation and question
marks according to meaning.
8. QUESTION MARK (?)
• Use when asking a query.
Example: What is your name?
9. PERIOD (.)
• Use only for a declarative sentence.
Example: I am a man.
10. EXCLAMATION POINT (!)
• Use when using an exclamatory sentence or to
denote emotions.
Example: Enough!
COMMON MISUSED WORDS/PHRASES
1. Lie, lay
• Lie - is an intransitive verb meaning to recline
or rest on a surface. Its principal parts are lie,
lay, lain.
• Lay - is a transitive verb meaning to put or
place. Its principal parts are lay, laid.
Example: Chickens lay eggs.
I lie down when I am tired.
2. Set, Sit
• Set - is a transitive verb meaning to put or to
place. Its principal parts are set, set, set.
• Sit - is an intransitive verb meaning to be
seated. Its principal parts are sit, sat, sat.
Example: She set the dough in a warm corner of
the kitchen.
The cat sat in the warmest part of the room.
3. Who, Which, That
• Do not use Which to refer to persons.
• Use Who instead.
Example: I just saw a boy who was wearing a
yellow banana costume.
Where is the book that I was reading?
• That, though generally used to refer to things,
may used to refer to a group or class of people.
Example: I have to go to math next, which is my
hardest class.
4. Accept, Except
• Accept - is a verb meaning to receive.
• Except - is usually a preposition meaning
excluding.
Example: I will accept all the packages except that
one.
5. Affect, Effect
• Affect - is usually a verb meaning to influence.
• Effect - is usually a noun meaning result; it can
also be a verb meaning to bring about.
Example: The drug did not affect the disease, and it
had several adverse side effects.
6. Allusion, Illusion
• An Allusion Is An Indirect Reference. An
• Illusion Is A Misconception Or False
Impression.
Example: Did you catch my allusion to
Shakespeare?
Mirrors give the illusion of depth.
7. Capital, Capitol
• Capital - refers to a city or may also refer to
wealth or resources.
• Capitol - to a building where lawmakers meet.
Example: The capitol has undergone extensive
renovations. The residents of the state capital
protested the development plans.
8. Elicit, Illicit
• Elicit is a verb meaning to bring out or to
evoke.
• Illicit is an adjective meaning unlawful.
Example: The reporter was unable to elicit
information from the police about illicit drug traffic.
9. Climactic, Climatic
• Climactic is derived from climax, the point of
greatest intensity in a serious or progression of
events.
• Climatic is derived from climate, it refers to
meteorological conditions.
Example: The climactic period in the dinosaurs’
reign was reached just before severe climatic
conditions brought on the ice age.
12
10. Emigrate From, Immigrate To
• Emigrate means to leave one country to region
settle in another.
Emigrate begins with the letter E, as does Exit.
When you emigrate, you exit a country.
• Immigrate begins with the letter I, as does In.
When you immigrate, you go into a country.
Example: In 1900, my grandfather emigrated from
Russia.
Many immigrate to the US to find work.
26. Older, Elder
• Older – comparing ages of people
• Elder – comparing ages of the family member
11. Principle, Principal
• Principal is a noun meaning the head of a
scholar or an organization or a sum of money.
• Principle is a noun meaning a basic truth or
law.
Example: The principal taught us many important
life principles.
Verbal analogy - tests the examinee’s reasoning
ability. This type of questions would usually ask you
to identify the relationship existing between the
given two words and you must find a pair of words
with a similar relationship. There are generally two
formats for these type of questions namely:
18. Its, It’s
• Its – a possessive pronoun (the puppy played
with its toys
• It’s – contraction of it is ( I think it’s going to
rain)
19. Lose, Loose
• Lose – a verb, to suffer the loss of something
• Loose – adjective, free or released from
attachment, not bond together
20. During , While’
• During – followed by a noun (always take notes
during class
• While – followed by a subject and a verb (They
all took notes while the professor gave the
lecture)
21. Say, Tell
• Say something to someone – helen said”I love
you” to her dad
• Tell someone (something) – Helen told her dad
that she loved him
22. Fewer, Less
• Fewer- used for countable nouns
• Less – used for uncountable nouns
23. Especially, Specially
• Especially – for particular
• Specially- for a purpose
24. Farther, Further
• Farther – about distance
• Further – about the degree
25. Altogether, All together
• Altogether – completely, in total
• All together – all in one place
27. Beside, Besides
• Beside – next to
• Besides – in addition to
VOCABULARY
1. SINGLE-WORD
In this format, you are given a pair of words
followed by another word. You are then presented
with choices where you must pick the best related
to the third word parallel to the relationship of the
second word to the first word.
In the single-word approach, express the
relationship between the first two words; substitute
the third word for the first, and think of an
appropriate substitute for the second word.
Example: Dog: Bark::Pig:_________
a. Neigh b. purr c. grunt d. quack
Answer: C (animal: sound made)
2. PAIRED
In this format, you are only given a pair of words
and you must pick among the pair of words in the
options that has a similar relationship with the given
pair of words.
Like in the single-word approach, you have to:
(1) look for the special relationship of the given pair;
and then, (2) find a pair that exactly or most closely
matches the original pair. This principle of
parallelism must be observed.
Example: Cow: milk::_______:________
a. Dog: Pup
b. Chicken: Egg
c. Stallion: Mare
Answer: B (animal: product)
TIPS IN ANSWERING VERBAL ANALOGY
a. Read and understand the analogy as a
sentence.
Narra: tree :: Bangus: __________
Read: Narra is to tree as Bangus is to?
b. Establish the relationship
Narra: tree :: Bangus: __________
Analyze: Narra is a type of tree while Bangus is a
type of...
Answer: FISH
13
c. Do not reverse the order
• Make sure that the words in each pair are in the
same order – the order in which those words
appear in the question.
GENERAL TIPS:
1. Read, read and read!
2. Always have a thesaurus with you. It never hurts
to look up any unfamiliar word.
3. Memorize at least 5-10 words from the list above
each day.
4. Practice using each word in a sentence.
5. If there is a phrase or sentence given, look for
context clues.
6. Eliminate any distracters on the options.
COMMON VERBAL RELATIONSHIPS
Synonym-Antonym
Rich: Poor
Classification/
Hammer: Tool
Characteristic/Category Dirty: Garbage
Parts-Whole/
Fur: Bear
Specific-General
Wheel: Car
Sequence
Caterpillar: Butterfly
Wriggler: Mosquito
Cause-Effect
Excelling
Flood: Typhoon
Complement
Spoon: Fork
Function, Purpose
Shovel: Dig
Tool/ Instrument: Uses: Stethoscope:
Object of action
Doctor
Rolling pin: Dough
Composition
Wood: Table
Glass: Silica
Degree of difference
Car: Truck
Intensity, Quantity,
Pond: Ocean
Amount
Measure
Meter: Length
Shape, Color, Smell,
Ball: Round
etc.
Position/ Location
Quezon City: Metro
Manila
Worker: Product
Engineer: Building
Worker: Action
Nurse: Cares
Worker: Tool
Hammer:
Carpenter
Action: Significance
Bow: Respect
Symbolism
Dove: Peace
Grammatical/ Verbal
She: hers :: he: his
Work: wrought ::
fight: fought
Sex
Mare: Horse
FIGURES OF SPEECH
1. Simile- compares two unlike things and uses
the words “like” or “as”
EX. The new teacher is as tall as a giraffe.
2. Metaphor- compares two unlike things
WITHOUT “like” “as”
EX. The new teacher is a giraffe.
3. Hyperbole- an exaggeration that is created to
emphasize a point or bring out a sense of
humor.
EX. I told you a million times that he’s tall.
4. Personification- attribution of human
characteristics to non-living objects.
EX. The sky cries.
5. Apostrophe- a speaker directly addresses
someone that is not present or cannot respond
in reality.
EX. Death, where is your sting?
6. Onomatopoeia- names something or an action
by imitating the sound associated with it.
EX. The wind swooshed loudly.
7. Synecdoche- uses one part to refer to the
whole, or the whole to refer to the part.
EX. He’s rich now and can afford expensive
wheels.
8. Metonymy- an object or idea is substituted by
something closely associated with it.
EX. He promised to remain loyal to the crown.
1. Simile – comparison using “like” or “as” that has
common qualities
2. Metaphor – implied comparison between two
unlike things
3. Personification – giving human quality to
inanimate object
4. Hyperbole – Exaggeration used for artistic effect
5. Onomatopoeia – sounds making in words
6. Synecdoche – part to whole, individual for a
class
7. Metonymy – idea to a word (representation)
8. Apostrophe – Direct address to something dead
or inanimate
9. Oxymoron – contradictory words
14
ANSWERING TESTS ON SYNONYMS
1. Determine whether the word is a noun, verb,
adverb or adjective. Once decided, for instance,
the word is a verb, eliminate from the choices
those which are not verbs. That way, you will
lessen the number of your choices and increase
your chances of guessing the right answer.\
2. Eliminate options that are based on words that
look or sound like the word to be defined. Most
likely, those words were included in order to
distract you.
Example: A hero’s talisman
a. wise man d. foolish man
b. story teller e. lucky charm
c. seller
•
Although talisman sounds like wise man and
foolish man, and also a salesman (seller), the
correct answer is option e.
3. If the word to be defined is used in a phrase,
understand the context in which it is used. The
context of a word is that part of a phrase or of a
sentence which throws light on its meaning.
Example: in deference to his superior
a. conformity d. dissimilarity
b. objection e. respect
c. fairness
• In the example, the word that can give a clue to
the meaning of the word deference is superior.
Note the words that can be used in relation to
one’s superior and eliminate the other option.
The words that can be used with superior are
conformity, respect and fairness. Dissimilarity
and objection may be outrightly eliminated
since they are not usually used in relation to a
superior.
4. Substitute all possible options for the given
word. In the example above, the options may
be substituted as follows: in conformity to his
superior (with, not to) in respect to his superior
(for, not to) in fairness to his superior
• Among the three choices, the word that is most
commonly associated with a superior is respect.
Therefore, option 2 is the correct answer.
5. If the word to be defined is somewhat familiar,
use it in a sentence. Then substitute each
option for it as in step 4.
COMMON SYNTONYMS
Abate – Lessen
Surly – Rude
Arid – dry
Thermal – Warm
Blasphemous – Profane
Vagrant – Tramp
Carice – Fancy
Vogue – Fashion
Cotemptuous – Approving Accent – Emphasize
Delete – Reduce
Banal – Boring
Eblem – Symbol
Bravado – Boldness
Fater – Stumble
Colloquial – Informal
Gamut – Range
Debonair – Groomed
Haven – Refuge
Distress – Suffering
Jeopardize – Endanger
Ennui – Boredom
Juxapose – Put next to
Feign – Pretend
Maudlin – Sentimental
Genre – Type
Mire – Swamp
Instigate – Initiate
Obfuscate – Darken
Jibe – Agree
Penurious – Stingy
Kudos – Compliments
Putrid – Rotten
Menial – Fickle
Quench – Extinguish
Naïve – Immature
Rapacious – Greedy
Odious – Hateful
Scald – Injury
Petty – Small
Stalwart – Strong
Qualm – Bad feeling
Quibble – Bad feeling
Saccharine – Sweet
Secluded – Sheltered
Stupefy – Amaze
Taboo – Banned
Tyro – Beginner
Vanguard – Forefront
Zenith – Top
Acme – Pinnacle
Befuddle – Confuse
Burgeon – Multiply
Conflagration – Fire
Denizen – Inhabitant
Dumbfounded –
ShockedFad – Craze
Fickle – Changing
Ghoul – Ghost
Jaunt – Trip
Jovial – Festive
Lethargic – Sluggish
Merger – Combination
Nefarious – Wicked
Omniscient – All knowing
Profuse – Abundant
Queer – Odd
Rampant – Extensive
Salient – Prominent
Sentry – Guard
Stupendous – Surprising
Tacky – Shabby
Ubiquitous – Everywhere
Verdant – Green
Scathing – Severe
Wrath – rage
Omnipotent – Almighty
Glib – Fluent
Daunt – Frightened
Cupidity – Greed
Knack – Gift
Paragon – Model
Valiant – Heroic
Whim – Caprice
Prowess – Bravery
Homage – Tribute
15
ANTONYMS: words which mean the opposite of
another.
• It is best to know the category under which the
words fall – whether positive or negative, and
pleasant or unpleasant.
COMMON ANTONYMS
Abdicate – Accept
Ameliorate – Worsen
Cowardice – Bravery
Disdain – Respect
Genial – Unwelcoming
Hail – Chide
Acclaim – Admonish
Boon – Disadvantage
Cunning – Simple
Extol – Deprecate
Genteel – Vulgar
Imbue – Empty
Alleviate – Aggravate
Castigate – Praise
Deluge – Drought
Flagrant – Veiled
Grueling – Easy
Imperious – Subservient
Laud - Decry
Magnanimous – Stingy
Nebulous – Clear
Pious – Offensive
Taiturn – Loyal
Wax – Wane
Lierty – Captivity
Mitigate – Oppose
Pademonium – Order
Seblance – Difference
Tout – Disparage
Lugubrious – Ebullient
Muddle – In order
Panegyrize – Denigrate
Shackle – Encourage
Tranquil - Noisy
Pacify – Repel
Tout –
Disparage
Panegyrize – Denigrate
Mollify – Rebuff
Allay – Incense
Decorous – Irascible
Extol – Censure
Hail – Chide
POSITIVE GENEROUS
Munificent
Effusive
Charitable
Beneficent
Benevolent
Altruistic
Hospitable
Magnanimous
Philanthropic
NEGATIVE CHEAP
Spartan
Parsimonious
Paltry
Miserly
Niggardly
Frugal
Penurious
Skin flinty
Thrifty
COURAGEOUS
Valiant
Dauntless
Gallant
Audacious
Stalwart
Intrepid
TIMID
Timorous
Indisposed
Laconic
Diffident
Reticent
Reserved
PLEASANT
Decorous
Engaging
Unblemished
Codial
Affble
Ageeable
Cogenial
Oblging
Sportive
UNPLEASANT
Ireful
Obstinate
Petulant
Gruff
Callous
Captious
Contentious
Peevish
Perverse
LIELY
Brsk
Inspiring
Provocative
Dynamic
Ebullient
BLEAK
Dejected
Muted
Prostrate
Forlorn
Lackluster
RICH
Copious
Myriad
Plentiful
Affluent
Multifarious
Opulent
Profuse
Plethoric
POOR
Destitute
Indigent
Paucity
Dearth
Impecunious
Insolvent
Scanty
Penurious
CAREFUL
Provident
Circumspect
Chary
Discreet
Exacting
Gingerly
Heedful
Conscientious
CARELESS
Reprehensible
Felonious
Culpable
Insouciant
Lackadaisical
Negligent
Perfunctory
Indifferent
16
VOCABULARY
2. Composure – aplomb/ calmness
3. Loquacious – verbose/ madaldal
4. Pulchritude – loveliness/ kagandahan
5. Abase – demoted/belittle – ibinaba
6. Despotic – cruel/ malupit
7. Dexterity- manual skill/ kagalingan sa kamay
8. Amorphus- shapeless/
9. Penchant – fondness – pagkahilig
10. Transmuted – change
11. Rancor – bitterness
12. Mundane – ordinary
13. Profanity- obscenity
14. Apocalyptic – prophetic
15. Apocalypse – prophecy
16. Impertinent – irrelevant
17. Voracious – very eager
18. Conflagration – large fire
19. Queue – line
20. Euphoria – state of well being/ extreme
happines
21. Erudite – learned/intelligent
22. Acapella- without accompaniment
23. Frivolous – worthless
24. Candor – frankness
25. Alter-ego – close and inseparable friend
26. Light banter – persiflage
27. Excellent-first rate
28. Stingy – parsimonious
29. Clear- lucid
30. Wordly- carnal/ sophisticated
31. Imminent – near
32. Eminent- respected
33. Transcendental – supernatural
34. Baduy – awkward looking
35. Abandoned- left behind
36. Docile- easy to management
37. Correlation – no relation
38. Prodigy – offspring
39. Formally – unconventionally
40. Agitation – nervousness
41. Hiatus – lapse
42. Gullible – easy deceived
43. Emulate – imitate
44. Vouchsafe- grant
45. Abeyance – suspended
46. Furtive – sneaky
47. Denigrate- malign
48. Remonstrate – protest
49. Corroborate – confirm
50. Germane- relevant
51. Plebeian – common
52. Vulpine- cunning
53. Spendthrift – spender
54. Impolitic – unwise
55. Terse- concise
56. Stupefy- make numb
57. Pariah – outcast
58. Wizened – shriveled
59. Dubious – doubtful
60. Incriminates – accuse
61. Poigant -sad/sentimental
BORROWED PHRASE
1. Soiree – evening party
2. Connoisseur – expert in a matter of taste
3. Chauffer – driver
4. Mesdames – plural of madam
5. Renaissance – rebirth
6. Caveat emptor – let the buyer be aware/decide
7. Ad nauseam – sickening/ annoyingly/repetitive
8. Coup de grace – a death blow
9. Sine qua non – indispensable
10. Amor con amor se paga – love begets love
11. Hereto force - formerly
17
IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
Red letter day – special day
At sixes and sevens – state of confusion
Green thumb – good at gardening
Finger in the pie – take an active part in
something
5. White lies – excusable
6. First rate – excellent
7. Making both ends meet – limited
8. Man’s inhumanity to man – cruel behavior
9. A snowball chance in hell – no chance at
all
10. The face that launched a thousand ships
– Helen of troy
11. All hours - A very late time
12. Belling the cat -Try to do seemingly
impossible task
13. Bend the truth -To say something that is
only partially true
14. Bite the bullet -To deal with an unpleasant
and unavoidable situation.
15. Bone of contention -A subject or issue over
which there is continuing dispute
16. Bread is buttered - To have in a position of
advantage
17. Builder’s tea Strongly-brewed English
breakfast tea with milk
18. Chew somebody alive -To show you are
very angry with somebody.
19. Clam up -To be silent or stop talking
20. Clear the air -To improve a tense situation
21. Crack the whip -To use your authority
forcefully
22. Dangled a number of carrots -Offered
many things to somebody with a view to
persuade them to do something
23. Deaf and dumb -Neglectful
24. Easy does it -To slow down or do something
slowly or carefully
25. Face the music -To accept responsibility for
something bad you have done
26. Full of beans -Someone who is energetic,
lively or enthusiastic
27. Go cold turkey -To suddenly and
completely stop using an addictive
substance
28. Hit the sack -To go to bed in order to sleep
29. Hue and cry -Strong public protest or
agitation
30. In apple pie order -Well-organized
1.
2.
3.
4.
31. Lob the ball -To make somebody
responsible for something
32. Lose one’s touch -No longer able to do
something as well as you could do before
33. Night and day -Continually
34. Not one’s cup of tea -Something you do not
like or are not interested in
35. Put the cart before the horse-To do
something in the order which is incorrect
36. Splash out -To spend a lot of money on
something
37. Spill the beans -To reveal information that
was secret
38. Ring a bell -When something seems familiar
or you’ve heard it before.
39. To have under your belt -To have achieved
40. Twist someone’s arm -To convince
someone to do what you want them to do
41. Under cloud -On suspicion
42. Up in the air -A decision or plan is uncertain
or unsure
43. Waste not, want not -If you use what you
have to the full, then you won’t desire or need
more
44. Wild goose chase -A hopeless pursuit,
something that is unattainable
ENGLISH (LITERATURE)
AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS
A. PHILIPPINES
1. Aida Rivera Ford - Now and At the Hour
2. Alejandro
Philippine
G.
Abadilla-
Modern
AGA,
Poetry
/
Father
of
Challenged
Established form
3. Amadis Ma. Guerrero- Children of the City
4. Amado Hernandez- Isang Dipang Langit;
manunulat ng mga manggagawa , Labor Leader
5. Amador Daguio - The Wedding Dance
6. Arturo Rotor- Zita
7. Aurelio Tolentino- Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas
8. Bienvenido
Santos-
Filipino-americation
Fiction, non –fiction and poetry writer/ The
Volcano
9. Carlos Bulosan - America is in the Heart
10. Carmen Guerrero Nakpil- My Humble Opinion
18
11. Cirilo Bautista- The Archipelago
35. Ricardo Demetillo -No Certain Weather
12. Edith Tiempo- His Native Coast
36. Salvador Lopez- Literature and Society-
13. Estrella Alfon - Magnificence and Other Stories-
37. Severino Reyes- Walang Sugat, lola basyang,
14. Francisco
‘balagtas’ Baltazar- Prince
of
Tagalog Poet
38. Tita Lacambra Ayala - Sunflower Poems-
15. Francisco Benitez - What is an Educated
Filipino?
39. Zoilo Galang- A child of sorrow
B. WORLD
16. Francisco Sionil Jose- Ermita
17. Genoveva Matute- Kwento ni Mabuti, 1st
palanca awardee
19. Gregorio Brillantes -The Living and the Dead
20. Jessica Hagedorn - Dogeaters
21. Jose Garcia Villa- doveglion, comma poet, 1st
national artist/ Man songs
22. Jose Rizal – El Filbusterismo, The Reign of
Greed, The Count of Monte Cristo, Alexander
Political
Novel,
Work
of
Mind,
GomBurZa, Valentin Venture/ Noli Me Tangere,
Touch Me Not , Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Harret
Beecher Stoew, Romantic Nivel, Work of Heart,
Motherland, Maximo Viola
1score=20yrs
24. Kerima Polotan-Tuvera - The Virgin
4. Aristophanes- Lysistrata
5. Aristotle - Ethics
6. Boris
Paternak
–
Dr.
Zhivago
-Russian
Totalitarianism
7. Charles Dickens -Pickwick Papers
8. Chinua Achebe- Things Fall Apart; the most
influential Nigerian writer
9. Christopher Marlowe – Father of English
Tragedy
10. Dante Alighieri- Divine Comedy/ Purgatory/
11. David Herbert Lawrence- Sons and Lovers
12. David Hume- An Enquiry Concerning-
25. Leona Florentino - Poems in Spanish and
Ilocano
13. E.M. Forster - A Passage to India
14. Edgar Allan Poe- The Rave, Annabelle Lee -
26. Lope ka Santos- Banaag at Sikat; Father of
Philippine Grammar, Ama ng Balarilang Filipino
27. Magdalena Jalandoni - Juanita Crus
consumption; Father of American Short Story;
Father of Modern Detective story; Horror
15. Edith Wharton- The Age of Innocence
28. Manuel Arguilla- How my brother Leon brought
home a wife/ Other Stories
16. Emily Dickinson - The Soul Selects Her
17. Gabriel Garcia Marquez- One hundred Years of
29. Maria Luisa Igloria- Encanto
Solitude
30. Maximo Ramos- The Creatures of Philippine
31. Nick Joaquin- Quijano de Manila, Filipinospanish culture, belief and traditions./
3. Antoine De Saint Exupery- The Little prince
Inferno/ Paradiso
23. Juan Crisostomo Soto- Ang Sigalot/ Lidia-
The
Woman Who Had Two Navels
32. Paz Latorena - Small Key
33. Paz Marquez Benitez- Dead stars
34. Pedro Bukaneg- Biag ni Lam-ang; Father of
Ilocano Literature
1. Abraham Lincoln – Gettysburg Address –
2. Alexis De Tocqueville- Democracy in America
18. Gilda Cordero- Fernando - Lower Mythology
Dumas,
father of Tagalog drama
18. Geoffrey Chaucer- Morning Star and Father of
English Literature, Pioneer in English Literature,
Frame Story, Canterbury Tales
19. George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) – Silas Marner
20. George Orwell- Animal Farm
21. Gustave Flaubert - Madame Bovary
22. Guy de Maupassant- Ball of Fat, The Necklace,
Foremost French Short story Writer
19
23. H.B Stowe – Uncle Tom’s Cabin – initiated civil
war in US
52. Nikolai Gogol- Dead Souls
53. Omar Khayyam – Rubaiyat – grasp pleasure –
24. Henry Fielding -Tom Jones
25. Herman Melville - Moby Dick
carpe diem (yolo)
54. Phantom of the Opera – not Shakespeare
26. Herodotus- The Histories
27. Homer-
51. Niccolo Machiavelli - The Prince -
Mythical
geographer,
Iliad
and
55. Plato - The Republic -
Odyssey; Pioneers in Greek and Classic
56. Psalms of King David – Greatest lyric poet
Literature
57. Publius Vergilius Maru/ Vergil- Aenid
28. Ivan Turgenev- Fathers and Sons
29. J.K
(Joane
Kathleen)
Rowling
58. Rabindranath Tagore- Gitanjali- collection of
(Robert
Galbraith) – Harry Potter
poetry, songs of offerings – Indian National Poet/
1st Asian to win Nobel Prize
30. James Joyce - Ulysses
59. Robert Frost- The road not taken, Decision-
31. Jane Austen - Pride and Prejudice
making, Fate
32. Jean Jacques Rousseau - Confessions
60. Rudyard Kipling- The jungle book
33. Johann Wolfgang and Von Goethe- Faust
61. Samuel Coleridge - The Ancient Mariner-
34. John Locke - Second Treatise of Government-
62. Sigmund Freud- The Interpretation of Dreams-
35. John Milton – Lost Paradise
63. Sophocles -Theban Plays-
36. John Stuart Mill - Oh Liberty-
64. Sssu-Ma Ch’ien -Records of the Grand-
37. Jonathan Swift - Gulliver’s Travel
65. St. Augustine - The Confessions -
38. Kalidasa- India’s Shakepeare Greatest Sanskrit
66. Sun-Tzu - The Art of War-
poet/ Shakuntala
67. Thucydides -The History of the Peloponnesian
39. Laurence Sterne- Tristram Shandy
War-
40. Leo Tolstoy- War and Peace
68. Valmiki - The Ramayana -
41. Leqi-Unninni - The Epic of Gilgamesh – first
69. Victor Hugo- Les miserable; the Hunchback of
epic
42. Lewis
Notredame
Caroll
–
Alice’s
Adventure
in
Wonderland/ Narnia
43. Louisa Alcott – Litte Women
70. Voltaire- Candide –
71. Vyasa - The Mahabharata – longest epic of
India
44. Marcus Aurelius - Meditations
72. William Faulkner -The Sound and the Fury-
45. Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens) – Adventure of
73. William
Shakespeare-
Greatest
English/
Chronicles/ Huckebery Finn
Sonnet Writer/ Romeo and Juliet – (love and war
46. Mencius - The Book of Mencius
– not included in influential) / Macbeth –(ambition
47. Moliere - The School of Wives
for power)/ Merchant of Venice – (mercy)/
48. Muhammad - The Koran
Hamlet – (To be or not to be)/ “Bard of Avon”
49. Nathaniel Hawthorne – Scarlet Letter – behave
when there is observer “When cat is away the
mouse will play”
50. Nelson Mandela – dream – democratic/ trait –
forgiving/ method – non violence
74. William Wordsworth - The Prelude
20
LITERATURE
• Derived from the Latin word “litera” meaning
LETTER.
• It is a faithful reproduction of man’s various
experiences blended into one harmonious
expression.
• This is an expression of man’s loves, griefs,
thoughts,
dreams
and
aspirations
communicated in beautiful language.
A. PROSE
1. Fiction-imaginative, not true, fantasy
Types of Fictions
a. Short story- story with one plot
b. Novels- long story with many plots, divided
into chapters
c. Legends- Fictions, narratives which are
usually about origins
d. Fables- story with animals
e. Drama – a composition in prose or verse
designed for stage performance through
mime and dialogue
f. Allegory – a symbolic fictional account
conveying meanings beyond the literal.
g. Folktales – traditional narrative
Elements of Fiction
1. Character - Moral agents of actions/
Invented personages in fiction
Major
1. Protagonist – Central character where
the story revolves
2. Antagonist – Prevents the protagonist in
solving the conflict
Minor
1. Foil – opposite traits of the main
protagonist
2. Confidant – serves as the friend of the
protagonist
3. Background characters – not closely
related with the protagonist
Kinds
1. Round: character was able to undergo
change
2. Flat: there was no change in the outlook
and action of the character.
2. Setting
• Serves as the background of the story,
may it be physical, mental or spiritual.
• Serves as the backdrop and sets the
mood of the characters.
Elements of setting
a) Time- Sets the duration of the events.
b) Place- Locality of the events
c) Atmosphere- Emotion or the mood
3. Plot
• The arrangement of incidents, the narrative
structure, the organization of a narrative and the
logical sequence of actions.
Types:
a. Organic- The story sprouted from just one
conflict
b. Episodic- There are two or more sources of
conflicts
Organization:
a. Chronology- The events are arranged
according to time and space
b. ClimaxThe events are organized
according to order of suspens
4. Conflict
• Considered as the soul of the plot and it is the
tension between opposing forces in the story.
• External: conflict is from outside forces
• Internal: conflict resides with the main character
• Types:
a. Physical – Man vs. nature
b. Social – Man vs. man
c. Psychological – Man vs. self
d. Cosmic – Man vs. God
• Points of View -Vantage point where the story
is narrated
• First person -A principal character in the story
in the one narrating it
• Second person -An indirect disclosure of the
narrating self for characterization and analysis
• Third person (Unlimited)- AKA Omniscient
point of view where the narrator is an all-knowing
maker
• Third person (Limited) -AKA Central
intelligence point of view wherein the author
chooses a character from whose consciousness
the entire story is told
• Camera Eye -Presents the dialogues, and the
incidents of a narrative like a mechanical
recording device
• Revolving- Characterized by a narrative shift
from one point of view to another
• Composite- Comprehensive view of the events
and incidents in the story through the different
angles adapted by several narrating character
21
2. Non-Fiction- reality, truth
a. Biography- Deals with the life of a person
which maybe about himself or that of
others.
b. Essay- viewpoint of writer about an issue
c. Play- divided into acts played on
stage(maybe fiction as well)
d. Anecdote - Creation of the writer’s
imagination and the main is to bring out
lessons to the reader more characters in
one plot and one single impression.
e. News – current events
f. Oration – public speech
B. POETRY
1. Narrative- tells a story in poetic form
a. Epic- supernatural, adventure of a
hero/Extended narrative about heroic
exploits often under supernatural control.
• Gilgamesh - oldest epic (Mesopotamia)
• Beowulf - England
• Iliad and Odyssey - Greece (Homer)
• Biag Ni Lam-ang – Ilocos
• Hudhud at ALim – Ifugao
• Bidasari – Mindanao
• Ybalon – Bicol
• Hudhud at Alim (Igorot)
b. Tale- imaginative narrative (fairy tales)/
Stories about supernatural being
c. Ballad- Narrative song to be sung (single
incident) /Short poems adapted for singing,
simple plot and metrical structure.
2. Lyric – expresses emotions and feelings of the
poet. This is usually easy to understand and
short literatures.
a. Folk song- Awiting Bayan/ Short poems
intended to be sung
b. Sonnet- 14 line poem dealing with emotions,
feelings or ideas
c. Elegy- poem about dead
d. Ode- Poem of a noble feeling, expressed with
dignity on a certain object
e. Psalms- Songs praising God and containing
a philosophy of Life
f. Awit- intended to be sung (guitar, banduria)
12 syllables (Florante at Laura)
g. Korido- Recited and with elements of fantasy
- Composed of 8 syllables (Ibong Adarna)
• HAIKU- 3 lines, 17 syllables, 5-7-5, nature
• TANKA- 5 lines, 31 syllables, 5-7-5-7-7, nature
and love
3. Dramatic- tells through a character /first person
POV
a. Comedy- Derived from the Greek word
“komos” which means festivity or revelry. Its
purpose is for amusement or happy ending.
(amusing)
b. Tragedy – ex. Hamlet - sad ending /Involves
the hero who struggles mighty against
dynamic forces until he meets death.
(struggling)
c. Force - An exaggerated comedy which
seeks to arouse mirth by laughable lines.
Situations are too ridiculous to be true
d. Melodrama - Arouses immediate and
intense emotion and is usually sad but a
happy ending is set for the principal
character.
Famous Writings
1. Didactic – literary pieces with moral lessons
2. Epistolary – exchange of letters
3. Elizabethan – Era of Shakespeare/ The Virgin
Queen
4. Gilgamesh – First Epic
5. Mahabarata – longest epic of India
6. Nibelungenlied – Medieval Geramn Epic
7. Panchatantra – collection of Indian Fables/
Stories
System of Writings
1. Cuneiform- Mesopotamia / Sumerian
2. Hieroglyphics – Egypt
3. Calligraphy – China
4. Alphabet – Greek
5. Sanskrit - India
22
AUTHORS AND WORKS
Prominent Figures In Philippine Literature
1. Jose P. Rizal
▪ Noli Me Tangere
Touch Me Not/ “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” -Harriet
Beecher Stowe-/ Romantic Novel/ Work of
Heart/ Motherland/ Maximo Viola
▪ El Filibusterismo
The Reign of Greed/ “The Count of Monte Cristo”
-Alexander Dumas-/ Political Novel/Work of
Mind/ GomBurZa/ Valentin Ventura
2. Manuel Estabilla Arguilla
▪ Ilokano writer in English, patriot, and martyr.
▪ He is known for his widely anthologized short
story "How My Brother Leon Brought Home a
Wife”
▪ Won first prize in the Commonwealth Literary
Contest in 1940.
▪ His stories "Midsummer" and "Heat" were
published in Tondo, Manila by the Prairie
Schooner.
7. Severino Reyes
▪ He was a Filipino writer, playwright, and director
of plays.
▪ He used the pen name Lola Basyang. (also the
title of one of his most popular work “Mga
Kuwento ni Lola Basyang”)
▪ He was nicknamed "Don Binoy“
▪ He is known also for his Zarzuela entitled
“Walang Sugat”
8.
▪
▪
▪
Zoilo Galang
author of the first Philippine
novel written in the English
language, A Child of Sorrow, published in
1921.
9.
▪
▪
▪
Jose Corazon De Jesus
He is known by his pen name Huseng Batute.
He was a Filipino poet who used Tagalog
poetry to express the Filipinos' desire for
independence during the American occupation
of the Philippines, a period that lasted from
1901 to 1946.
His famous work is entitled “Buhay Maynila”
▪
3. Nicomedes Márquez Joaquín
▪ Best known for his short stories and novels in
English that depict Filipino – Spanish cultural
belief and traditions.
▪ He also wrote using the pen name Quijano de
Manila.
▪ National Artist of the Philippines for
Literature awardee
4. Bienvenido n. Santos
▪ Filipino-American fiction, poetry and nonfiction
writer.
▪ He is widely credited as a pioneering Asian
American writer.
5. Paz marquez – benítez
▪ Authored the first Filipino modern English
▪ language short story, Dead Stars, published in
the Philippine Herald in 1925.
▪ She was among the first generation of Filipino
people trained in the American education
system which used English as the medium of
instruction
6. Jose Garcia Villa
• He was a Filipino poet, literary critic, short
• story writer, and painter.
o He was awarded the National Artist of
the Philippines title for literature in
1973.
o He is known as “Comma Poet”
o His penname is Doveglion
10. Pedro Bukaneg
▪ Father of Ilocano Literature
▪ Was a Filipino poet and blind since birth
▪ The author of “Biag ni Lam-ang”, epic of the
Philippines
▪ “Bukanegan”, the Ilocano equivalent of the
Balagtasan.
11. Juan Crisóstomo Caballa Soto
▪ His pen name is Crissot
▪ Father of Kapampangan Literature
▪ He wrote a play based on Romeo and
▪ Juliet which is entitled “The Marriage of the
Dead”
▪ His most famous work is “Ang Sigalot”
KNOWN
1. Alejandro G. Abadilla - AGA, Father of
Philippine
Modern
Poetry,
Challenged
Established Form
2. Genoveva Matute - Kwento ni Mabuti, First
Palanca Awardee
3. Amado V. Hernandez - Labor Leader, Makata
ng mga Manggagawa
4. Aurelio Tolentino - Kahapon, Ngayon, AT
Bukas
5. Severino Reyes - Lola Basyang, Father of
Tagalog Drama, Walang Sugat
6. Lope K. Santos - Father of Philippine Grammar,
Ama ng Balarilang Filipino, Banaag at Sikat
7. Perdro Bukaneg - Father of Ilocano Literature,
Biag ni LamAng
8. Francisco Baltazar “BALAGTAS” - Prince of
Tagalog Poet
23
PROMINENT FIGURES IN WORLD
LITERATURE
1. Homer
• Born sometime between the 12th and 8th
centuries BC
• Great blind Poet of Greece
• He is famous for the epic poems “The Iliad
and The Odyssey”
• He employed Melic Poetry in order for his
work to be heard during ceremony or ritual.
2. William Shakespeare
• bapt. 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616
• English poet, playwright and actor
• -Regarded as the greatest writer in the
English language and the world's preeminent dramatist
• He is often called England's national poet
and the "Bard of Avon".
• He is known also for his Sonnets and Play
3. Kālidāsa
• Classical Sanskrit writer, widely regarded as
the greatest poet and dramatist in the
Sanskrit language of India.
• His plays and poetry are primarily based on
the Vedas (hymns), the Mahabharata (epic)
and the Puranas (sacred writings).
• He is also known as the Indian counterpart of
William Shakespeare because of his play
“Shakuntala”
4. Rabindranath Tagore
• A poet, musician and artist.
• Author of Gitanjali
• First non-European to win the Nobel Prize in
Literature in 1913
• He is referred to as "the Bard of Bengal".
5. John Milton
• was an English poet, polemicist
• (controversial debate), man of letters, and
civil servant for the Commonwealth of
England
• Wrote “Paradise Lost” (1667) using “Blank
Verse”
6. Geoffrey Chaucer
• Father of English Literature
• Considered the greatest English poet of the
Middle Ages.
• First poet to be buried in Poets' Corner of
Westminster Abbey.
• Canterbury Tales became his best known and
most acclaimed work.
7. Henri René Albert Guy De Maupassant
• A French writer, remembered as a Master of
the Short Story form
• His first published story, (Ball of Fat", 1880),
is considered his masterpiece.
8.
•
•
•
Publius Vergilius Maro
Known as Virgil or Vergil
An ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period
He wrote three of the most famous poems in
Latin literature: the Eclogues, the Georgics, and
the epic Aeneid.
KNOWN
1. William Shakespeare - Most famous writer of all
time, Bard of Avon
2. Geoffrey Chaucer - Pioneer in English
Literature, Frame Story, Morning Star and Father
of English Literature
3. Dante Alighieri - The Divine Comedy – “Inferno,
Purgatorio, and Paradiso”
IMPORTANT LITERARY DEVICES
KINDS OF PLOT
1. Linear Plot
▪ Known as A-Z plot
▪ It follows the chronological order
2. Circular Plot
▪ is a non-linear plot that progresses more or less
chronologically
▪ It uses either flashback or foreshadowing
3. In medias res
▪ It means “in the middle of” / It usually starts at
the middle of the story
▪ The narrative then goes directly forward, and
exposition of earlier events is supplied
by flashbacks.
CHARACTER TRAITS
1. Hamartia -Fatal flaw leading to a downfall of a
hero or heroine
2. Hubris - Another word for “pride” / Lost of
gratitude to someone else
3. Deus Ex Machina - refers to a character or
event that seems to exist just to effortlessly solve
a problem that seems unsolvable. / It uses
“divine intervention”
4. Allegorical - Characters have meaning
5. Symbolical - Objects, situations, or events have
meaning
6. Figurative - uses words or expressions to
convey a meaning that is different from the literal
interpretation.
7. Foreshadowing - Writer gives an advance hint
or clue on what will happen later in the story
8. Flash-forward - Known as “prolepsis” / An
advance scene that will happen later in the story.
9. Flashbacks - These are past events, in order to
provide background or context to the current
events of a narrative.
24
REVIEW OF LITERARY WORKS
CLASSICAL LITERATURE
•
▪
•
▪
The literature of Ancient Greece and the Golden
and Silver Ages of Rome.
These will be Greek Literature and Roman
Literature.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1. The Epic Of Gilgamesh (-2000 BCE)
world’s oldest epic, predating Homer by many
centuries.
The story tells of Gilgamesh’s adventures with
the wild man Enkidu, and of his arduous journey
to the ends of the earth in quest of the
Babylonian Noah and the secret of immortality.
-Aside from theme about family and friendship,
its all
about mankind’s eternal struggle with the fear of
death.
2. The Homeric poems
The Iliad and Odyssey(-800 BCE)
Iliad talks about Love and War
Odyssey talks about love of family and
adventures
3. The Mahabharata (350 BCE)
Longest epic in the world (it has 220,000 lines)
Epic of India
Narrated by Vyasa
its panoramic view of everything from spirituality
to morality have had an impact on Indian society
for thousands of years
4. The Aeneid – Virgil (19 BCE)
Epic of the Romans
Aeneas is the main character of this epic
It talks about love, war and adventures
•
•
•
•
•
•
5. Beowulf (-8th – 11th Century Bce)
Britain’s national epic, but it is in fact celebrated
as a national text in most Nordic countries
Its main character is Beowulf who killed
Grendel.
King Hrothgar ask Beowulf to protect his
kingdom from this monster.
6. The
Canterbury
Tales (Middle
English: Tales Of Canterbury)
a collection of 24 stories that runs to over
17,000 lines written in Middle English by
Geoffrey Chaucer between 1387 and 1400.
The tales (mostly written in verse, although
some are in prose) are presented as part of a
story-telling contest by a group of pilgrims as
they travel together from London
to Canterbury to visit the shrine of
Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral.
7. Paradise Lost – John Milton (1667)
Milton retell s both the story of the fall of Lucifer
(Satan) in heaven and The fall of Adam and
Eve in the Garden of Eden.
It talks about the sinning of Adam and Eve
8. Arabian Nights (One Thousand And One
Nights)
It's an epic collection of Arabic folk tales written
during the Islamic Golden Age.
Main characters are King Shahryar and
Scheherazade
9. Uncle Tom’s Cabin – Harriet Beecher
Stowe (1852)
Epic of USA
Also known as “Life Among the Lowly”
an anti-slavery novel