ECE 01a – Electronic Circuits
Devices & Analysis (Lecture)
BSEE II GI
BSEE II GJ
ENGR. JOEL ANTHONY L. SEVILLA
APRIL 2023
RECTIFIERS
An important application of the diode is one that
takes place in the design of the rectifier circuit. A
rectifier circuit converts alternating current (ac)
to direct current (dc). This is an essential circuit
in ac-to-dc power supply design.
When employed in the rectification process, a
diode is typically referred to as a rectifier. Its
power and current ratings are typically much
higher than those of diodes employed in other
applications, such as computers and
communication systems.
Rectifiers are found in all dc power supplies that
operate from an ac voltage source. A power
supply is an essential part of each electronic
system.
The dc power supply converts the standard 220
V, 60 Hz ac available at wall outlets into a
constant dc voltage. It is one of the most
common electronic circuits that you will find.
The dc voltage produced by a power supply is
used to power all types of electronic circuits.
Basic block diagrams for a rectifier and complete power supply
The rectifier can be either a half-wave or a fullwave. It converts the ac input voltage to a
pulsating dc voltage. The filter eliminates the
fluctuations in the rectified voltage and produces
a relatively smooth dc voltage. The regulator is a
circuit that maintains a constant dc voltage for
variations in the input line voltage or in the load.
Regulators vary from a single device to more
complex integrated circuits. The load is a circuit
or device for which the power supply is
producing the dc voltage and load current.
Half wave rectification
The diode only
conducts when it
is forward biased,
therefore only
half of the AC
cycle passes
through the diode
to the output.
The dc output voltage is 0.318Vm,
where Vm = the peak ac voltage.
input
output
half wave rectifier signal
The effect of using a silicon diode with VT = 0.7 V is
demonstrated in the forward-bias region. The
applied signal must now be at least 0.7 V before the
diode can turn “on.” For levels of vi less than 0.7 V,
the diode is still in an open circuit state and vo = 0 V
as shown.
When conducting, the difference between vo
and vi is a fixed level of VT = 0.7 V and vo = vi - VT.
The net effect is a reduction in area above the
axis, which naturally reduces the resulting dc
voltage level.
For situations where Vm >>VT, the below
equation can be applied to determine the
average value with a relatively high level of
accuracy.
Vdc = 0.318(Vm - VT)
If silicon rather than ideal diodes are used, an
application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the
conduction path would result in:
vi - VT - vo - VT = 0
and vo = vi - 2VT
The peak value of the output voltage vo is
therefore:
Vomax = Vm - 2VT
PIV (PRV)
The diode is only forward biased for one-half of
the ac cycle, and is reverse biased for one-half
cycle. It is important that the reverse breakdown
voltage rating of the diode be high enough to
withstand the peak, reverse-biasing ac voltage.
PIV (or PRV) > Vm
where:
PIV = Peak inverse voltage
PRV = Peak reverse voltage
Vm = Peak ac voltage
Full wave rectification
The rectification
process can be
improved by using a
full-wave rectifier
circuit.
Full-wave rectification
produces a greater DC
output:
Half-wave: Vdc = 0.318Vm
Full-wave: Vdc = 0.636Vm
Bridge Network
The most familiar network for performing full
wave rectification with its four diodes in a bridge
configuration.
Full-wave: Vdc = 0.636Vm
Bridge Network
If silicon rather than ideal diodes are used, an
application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the
conduction path would result in:
vi - VT - vo - VT = 0
and vo = vi - 2VT
The peak value of the output voltage vo is
therefore:
Vomax = Vm - 2VT
For situations where Vm >> 2VT, the below
equations can be applied for the average value
with a relatively high level of accuracy.
Vdc = 0.636(Vm - 2VT)
Center Tapped Transformer
A second popular full-wave rectifier with only
two diodes but requires a center-tapped (CT)
transformer to establish the input signal across
each section of the secondary of the
transformer.
Vdc = 0.636Vm
Center Tapped Transformer
Summary of Rectifier Circuits
Rectifier
Ideal VDC
Realistic VDC
Half Wave Rectifier
VDC = 0.318Vm
VDC = 0.318(Vm – VT)
Bridge Rectifier
VDC = 0.636Vm
VDC = 0.636(Vm – 2VT)
Center-Tapped
Transformer Rectifier
VDC = 0.636Vm
VDC = 0.636(Vm –VT)
Vm = peak of the ac voltage.
In the center tapped transformer rectifier circuit, the peak
ac voltage is the transformer secondary voltage to the tap.
Clippers and Clampers
Diode circuits called limiters or clippers, are
sometimes used to clip off portions of signal
voltages above or below certain levels. Another
type of diode circuit, called a clamper is used to
add or restore a dc level to an electrical signal.
Clippers
A clipper network have the ability to “clip” off a
portion of the input signal without distorting the
remaining part of the alternating waveform.
The half-wave rectifier is an example of the
simplest form of diode clipper—one resistor and
diode. Depending on the orientation of the
diode, the positive or negative region of the
input signal is “clipped” off.
Clippers
There are two general categories of clippers:
series and parallel. The series configuration is
defined as one where the diode is in series with
the load, while the parallel variety has the diode
in a branch parallel to the load.
Series Clippers
The response of the series configuration to a
variety of alternating waveforms is provided as
shown. Although first introduced as a half-wave
rectifier (for sinusoidal waveforms), there are no
boundaries on the type of signals that can be
applied to a clipper. The addition of a dc supply
can have a pronounced effect on the output of a
clipper. Initial discussion will be limited to ideal
diodes, with the effect of VT reserved for later.
Series Clippers
Responses to a series clipper
Series Clippers with a dc supply
There is no general procedure for analyzing
networks, but there are a few thoughts to keep
in mind as you work toward a solution.
1. Take careful note of where the output voltage
is defined.
2. Try to develop an overall sense of the
response by simply noting the “pressure”
established by each supply and the effect it will
have on the conventional current direction
through the diode.
3. Determine the applied voltage (transition
voltage) that will result in a change of state for
the diode from the “off” to the “on” state.
4. It is often helpful to draw the output
waveform directly below the applied voltage
using the same scales for the horizontal axis and
the vertical axis.
Example:
1. Determine the output waveform of the figure
below:
Solution:
vo with diode in the “on” state.
Determining the transition level for the clipper.
Parallel Clippers
The network of the figure below is the simplest
of parallel diode configurations with the output
for the same inputs from the previous example.
The analysis of parallel configurations is very
similar to that applied to series configurations,
as demonstrated in the next example.
Parallel Clippers
Responses to a parallel clipper
Example:
2. Determine the output waveform of the figure
below:
Solution:
The polarity of the dc supply and the direction of
the diode strongly suggest that the diode will be
in the “on” state for the negative region of the
input signal.
vo = V = 4V
Solution:
For the open-circuit state the network will
appear as shown:
where:
vo = vi
Solution:
The transition state can be determined where
the condition id = 0 A at vd = 0 V has been
imposed. The result is vi (transition) = V = 4 V. Since
the dc supply is obviously “pressuring” the diode
to stay in the short circuit state, the input
voltage must be greater than 4 V for the diode to
be in the “off” state. Any input voltage less than
4 V will result in a short-circuited diode.
Solution:
Determining the transition level
Sketching vo for example 2
Summary of Clipper Circuits
Clampers
A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a
resistor and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to
a different dc level without changing the
appearance of the applied signal.
A diode and capacitor can be combined to
“clamp” an ac signal to a specific dc level.
Clampers
The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such
that the time constant τ = RC is large enough to
ensure that the voltage across the capacitor
does not discharge significantly during the
interval the diode is non conducting. Throughout
the analysis we will assume that for all practical
purposes the capacitor will fully charge or
discharge in five time constants.
Clampers
Clamping networks have a capacitor connected
directly from input to output with a resistive element
in parallel with the output signal. The diode is also
parallel with the output signal but may or may not
have a series dc supply as added element.
During the interval 0 → T/2
the network will appear as
shown, with the diode in the
“on” state effectively
capacitor charging
“shorting out” the effect of the Diode “on” andtotheV volts.
resistor R. The resulting RC time constant is so small
(R determined by the inherent resistance of the
network) that the capacitor will charge to V volts
very quickly. During this interval the output voltage
is directly across the short circuit and vo = 0 V.
When the input switches to
the -V state, the network
will appear as shown, with
the open-circuit equivalent
for the diode determined by
the applied signal and stored voltage across the
capacitor—both “pressuring” current through
the diode from cathode to anode. Now that R is
back in the network the time constant
determined by the RC product is sufficiently
large to establish a discharge period 5τ much
greater than the period T/2 → T, and it can be
assumed on an approximate basis that the
capacitor holds onto all its charge and, therefore,
voltage (since V = Q/C) during this period.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the
input loop will result in:
-V - V - vo = 0 and vo = -2V
The negative sign resulting
from the fact that the polarity
of 2V is opposite to the
polarity defined for vo. The
output signal is clamped to 0 V
for the interval 0 to T/2 but
maintains the same total swing
(2V) as the input.
For a clamping network:
The total swing of the output is equal to the total
swing of the input signal.
The following steps may be helpful when
analyzing clamping networks:
1. Start the analysis of clamping networks by
considering that part of the input signal that will
forward bias the diode.
2. During the period that the diode is in the “on”
state, assume that the capacitor will charge up
instantaneously to a voltage level determined by
the network.
3. Assume that during the period when the
diode is in the “off” state the capacitor will hold
on to its established voltage level.
4. Throughout the analysis maintain a continual
awareness of the location and reference polarity
for vo to ensure that the proper levels for vo are
obtained.
5. Keep in mind the general rule that the total
swing of the total output must match the swing
of the input signal.
Summary of Clamper Circuits