From last week’s lecture: Environmental Issues Associated with Aquaculture • Habitat Destruction • Pollution • Introduction of alien species • Spread of diseases • Input/output ratio Habitat destruction due to aquaculture Shrimp farm, Honduras Saltwater prawn farm, Thailand Pollution, invasive species, and diseases due to aquaculture Honduras Salmon farm, Maine Thailand Input/Output Ratio circa 2000: >3 pounds of wild fish to produce a pound of farmed salmon. 0-0.75 pounds of wild fish to produce a pound of farmed carp. “Cows or Leopards?” Global Seafood Alliance (a seafood industry-backed membership organization) Source: https://www.globalseafood.org/advocate/aquaculture-input-efficiency-fifo/ (19 Apr. 2023) There is no such thing as a free (seafood) lunch. • If you catch predators (e.g., tuna, sailfish), you might disrupt ecosystems...but you might also increase populations of smaller fish. • If you catch small fish (e.g., sardines), you might disrupt food chains and hurt predators. • If you feed soy to fish, you have to grow that soy somewhere (à landuse change, pollution, pesticides). • But some options are better than others. How to Address the Problem of Bycatch? Sea turtle Problem: Bycatch of Sea Turtles Tech Solution: Gear Modifications Example: Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) Problem: Bycatch of Seabirds Tech “solution”: Streamer (“Tori”) Lines Issues with Gear Modifications • Resistance from fishers • Cost, training • Enforcement • Getting enough countries on board • May not fully solve the problem Guidelines • Choose herbivorous fish (or shellfish) instead of carnivorous fish. • Avoid fish that are depleted or harvested in harmful ways (bycatch, habitat destruction). • Eat less meat (of all sorts) and more plants. • Don’t try to be perfect (perfection is overrated); aim to be better. Fisheries II 1958 2007 Festa et al., Issues in Science and Technology: Catch Shares to Solve Overfishing • Allocate to each fisher the privilege of being able to catch a certain percentage of the allowable harvest. • Allow fishers to buy and sell those quotas. • The market determines the most efficient allocation of the resource among the fishers. • Does this match one of Hardin’s prescriptions? Catch Shares Challenges • Determining the total harvest level (to be divided among the fishers) • How do you make the initial allocation? • Will the rich get richer? • Indigenous communities • Addressing concerns about consolidation and monopolies. • Monitoring compliance. • Monitoring trades. A market mechanism built upon a strong regulatory framework (The invisible hand of the market is attached to a regulatory body.) Some Key Issues in Designing Catch Shares Programs 1. How do we make the initial allocation of shares, given major disparities within the fishing fleet (i.e., some fishers own more boats than others)? 2. Do indigenous people or local communities get special consideration? If so, how? 3. Since catch shares can lead to consolidation, should we try to stop monopolies from forming? If so, how? Approaches like catch-shares have been used to address other environmental problems, usually under the banner of “cap-and-trade.” Most notably: cutting sulfur emissions per the Clean Air Act (thereby reducing “acid rain”) Reasons to use cap-and-trade • Reduces aggregate cost of pollution reduction compared to source-specific restrictions • Stimulates continuing search for cheaper reductions in order to sell to others by giving a value to ever-lower emissions, i.e., an incentive for efficient operations, new technologies • Avoids government picking technological winners or freezing technology at a given point in time Emissions Trading in the acid-rain context Simplified version: Two sources only Goal: Permanent emissions “Cap” of 100 tons/yr on combined emissions Standard Approach: Apply same performance standard to each source: A 100 Tons/yr B Cut combined emissions in half 100 Tons/yr A 50 Tons/yr B 50 Tons/yr Alternative approach - useful if costs of cutting emissions are not identical at all sources: A Goal: reduce total emissions by 100 tons/yr B Total Cost: $7500/yr -50Ton/yr -50Ton/yr @$100/Ton @$50/Ton Or make all cuts at cheaper source: $$$ A -0 Ton/yr allowances Total Cost: $5000/yr B -100Ton/yr@$50/Ton and B can sell 50 ton/yr allowances to A for up to $5000 Certification: A Different Type of Market Mechanism • Identify products that are produced in ways that are better for the environment • Encourage consumers to preferentially buy those products • Charge a premium in some cases • Nimble: does not require a governmental intervention Marine Stewardship Council Three key criteria for MSC certification: • Fishery is sustainable • Productivity of ecosystem is preserved • Relevant national and international laws obeyed. Does not consider social issues. Does not certify aquaculture. • • Jacquet & Pauly (2010): 7% global catch certified MSC website (2023): ~19% of global catch is certified or working toward certification. Concerns About MSC Certification • Independent consultants who assess fisheries have an incentive to certify their clients. • Certification easier for large fisheries in rich countries than for small fisheries in developing countries (costly and time-consuming) • Will it squeeze small operators out of lucrative contracts? • Limited impact in Asia • MSC allows certification of depleted stocks that are supposedly recovering…but are they recovering at a slower rate due to exploitation? Jacquet & Pauly, Nature (2010); Gulbrandsen, Marine Policy (2009) Additional Concerns About MSC Certification • Certification of poorly known stocks • Do non-state bodies have the right to govern common-pool resources? • But MSC doesn’t govern! • Impossible to reward a good actor in a field dominated by bad actors. • Does certification prevent other, “stronger” actions, like marine reserves? Jacquet & Pauly, Nature (2010); Gulbrandsen, Marine Policy (2009) Other Certification Schemes: Fish Cards & Apps • • Environmental Defense Fund (http://seafood.edf.org) Monterey Bay Aquarium (www.seafoodwatch.org) Pros: Fewer conflicts of interest Can potentially address a wide range of issues Cons: Harder to get to scale Require more info than restaurants usually provide Another approach to conserving fisheries: Marine Protected Areas to Protect and Restore Fisheries • Delineated regions of the ocean where commercial fishing is prohibited or severely limited. -- “Parks for fish” • Implemented in growing number of countries. • USA definition: "... any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, territorial, tribal, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein.” (MPA Executive Order 13158) • 2.9% of oceans fully or highly protected from fishing • Another 8.2% partially protected • Goal: 30% by 2030 (30x30) MPAs of the USA • 24% of US oceans fully protected • 2.5% partially protected Source: https://mpatlas.org/countries/USA* (19 Apr 2023) Marine Protected Areas • Do they help fish inside the reserves? • Do they help fish—and fisheries—outside the reserve? • Not a complete solution by themselves. • Not up to scale Saint Lucia 5 marine reserves created in 1995 Protect 35% of coral reef fishing areas St. Lucia: Marine reserves à • more fish in reserves • more fish in surrounding areas • positive results after just 5 years Source: Roberts et al., Science (2002) Challenges Related to MPAs • Displacement of fishers from fishing grounds ü Economic hardship ü Added pressure on unprotected areas • How often do the fishers really benefit from MPAs? • “Fishing the line” • Scientific issues ü Which species or ecosystems should be targeted? How large should MPAs be? How far apart? ü Will they be placed in less productive areas (like terrestrial parks often are)? Summary • Overfishing is a classic tragedy-of-the-commons problem • Market mechanisms can be a means to reduce overfishing o Requires a strong regulatory framework o Must consider a range of social issues related to fairness and the public good o Should be used in concert with other regulatory mechanisms (e.g., marine protected areas) • Aquaculture has its problems. But aquaculture’s problems may be more tractable that many problems caused by overfishing (my opinion)
