21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World (Q4) Ludielyn Salvador Mahinay, LPT Table of Contents Module 4: Literary Genres, Traditions, and Forms from Different Cultures Introduction Learning Objectives Lesson 1. English Literature Lesson 2. American Literature Lesson 3. European Literature Lesson 4. Latin American Literature Lesson 5. Asian Literature Lesson 6. African Literature Assessment Tasks Summary References 109 109 110 112 113 114 116 117 119 121 121 Module 5: Basic Textual and Contextual Reading Approaches Introduction Learning Objectives Lesson 1. Figures of Speech Lesson 2. Literary Techniques Lesson 3. Literary Reading through a Biographical Context Lesson 4. Literary Reading through a Linguistic Context Lesson 5. Literary Reading through a Sociocultural Context Lesson 6. Critical Reading Strategies in Literature Assessment Tasks Summary References 123 123 124 128 135 136 139 141 144 146 146 MODULE 4 LITERARY GENRES, TRADITIONS, AND FORMS FROM DIFFERENT CULTURES Introduction The category “world literature” is a very broad term, it encompasses hundreds of countries with dozen or so major religions, and thousands of different languages. It is quite difficult to come up with one definition because the literary traditions of the world vary in many ways. It is important that we always consider worldviews. It is not enough to just appreciate what is ours, but it’s vital to understand the principles, values, and philosophies that shape the way we interpret the things around us (Sanchez, Lizada, Agustin, & Cuartero, 2016). In this module, we will know some well-known writers around the globe and review a few selected literary works that reflect World Literature. We will look at how variations between various cultures, such as literary styles, customs and forms, influence the production of World literature. Learning Outcomes At the end of this module, writing a close analysis and critical interpretation of literary texts and doing an adaptation of these require from the learners the ability to: 1. identify the representative texts and authors from England, America, Europe, Latin America, Asia, and Africa 2. compare and contrast the various 21 st century literary genres and their elements, structures, and traditions from across the globe; and 3. express appreciation for the cultural and aesthetic diversity of the literature of the world 109 Lesson 1. English Literature English literature is one of the world's richest, most established, and most important bodies of literature. It involves both written and spoken works by UK authors. Quipper Philippines (n.d.) presented some of the prominent literary forms and examples of English literature: Epic poem - This is a long narrative poem usually about a hero and his deeds. A wellknown example is Beowulf. Sonnet - This poem has fourteen lines that follow a rhyme scheme. A well-known example is Sonnet 18 of William Shakespeare. It starts with the famous line, “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” Drama - This piece of writing tells a story through dialogue, and it is performed on stage. A well-known example is The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde. Novel - This is a long prose narrative usually about fictional characters and events, which are told in a particular sequence. Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations is a great example. Old English Literature (500 - 1100) Old English, the earliest form of the English language, was spoken during the fifth century by the Anglo-Saxons, a Germanic tribe living in Britain. Beowulf, the longest epic poem in Old English, is one important work written in Old English. It is known for its use of kennings, which are phrases or compound words used to implicitly label individuals, locations, and things (Mastin, 2011). Middle English Literature (1100 - 1500) As stated by Mastin (2011), Middle English is a blend Old English and Norman French, the French dialect spoken by the Normans (people of Normandy). The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English literature, is a fine example of Middle English literature. Elizabethan Literature (1558 - 1603) The Elizabethan period is the golden age of English literature. Also, it is the golden age of drama. Known as the “Bard of Avon,” William Shakespeare wrote his plays during the period. 110 His best plays include Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, Othello, and The Merchant of Venice. Also, he wrote 154 sonnets, many of which are the best loved and the most widely-read poems in the English literature (Quipper Philippines, n.d.). The Romantic Period (1800 - 1837) The golden age of lyric poetry is this period. As indicated by Quipper Philippines (n.d.), Poetry is the manifestation of the poet’s personal thoughts and emotions. Songs of Innocence and Knowledge by William Blake, Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems by John Keats, "Don Juan" by Lord Byron, and "Ode to the West Wind" by Percy Bysshe Shelley are some of the notable works of poetry of this period. The Victorian Period (1837 - 1900) Quipper Philippines (n.d.) stated the following facts about Victorian Period: The period saw the rise of the novel. Charles Dickens, considered to be the greatest English novelist of the 19th century, wrote Great Expectations. This novel was published as a serial in a weekly periodical from December 1860 to August 1861. Alfred Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning each wrote fine poetry during the period. Tennyson’s In Memoriam A.H.H. is a requiem for his friend Arthur Henry Hallam. It is widely considered to be one of the great poems of the 19th century. Browning, who is known for his dramatic monologues, wrote the famous poem “My Last Duchess.” In a dramatic monologue, the poet addresses an audience through an assumed voice. Oscar Wilde is the best dramatist of the period. He wrote the masterpiece The Importance of Being Earnest. Twentieth Century (1900 - 2000) William Butler Yeats and Thomas Stearns Eliot wrote Modernist poems during the period. Yeats wrote The Tower, The Winding Stair, and New Poems, all of which are known to have potent images. Eliot’s masterpieces are “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” and “The Waste Land.” Virginia Woolf in her story Mrs. Dalloway and James Joyce in his work Ulysses use stream of consciousness, a literary technique in which the flow of thoughts of a character is described in words (Quipper Philippines, n.d.). 111 Lesson 2. American Literature American literature refers to all English-language works produced in the United States. A course in Quipper Philippines (n.d.) presented the following notable authors of American literature during 19 th and 20th Century: The 19th Century William Cullen Bryant (1794 - 1878) was known for his "Thanatopsis" (1817). This poem marked a new start for American poetry. Washington Irving (1783 - 1859) was known for the first American short stories, "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." These were part of his work The Sketch Book, the first American work to become globally famous. Edgar Allan Poe (1809 - 1849) was famous for his macabre stories, such as "The Fall of Usher 's House" (1839) and "Amontillado's Cask" (1846). He also published the first detective novel, "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" (1841), and the poem "Raven" (1845), for which he gained instant fame. Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804 - 1864) was known for his symbolic tales such as "The Three Hills Hollow" (1830) and "Young Goodman Gray" (1835). He also published The Scarlet Letter (1850), a gothic romance. Walt Whitman (1819 - 1892) was popular for Leaves of Grass, which was first published in 1855. In this collection of poems Whitman demonstrated the common man 's experiences. Emily Dickinson (1830 - 1886) wrote odd poems. She used the incomplete rhyme often, and ignored standard rhythms. In 1890 a compilation of her poems, Emily Dickinson's Poems, was published. The 20th Century Robert Frost (1874 - 1963) composed poems with conventional stanzas and a blank verse, a verse without rhyme in the iambic pentameter. His poems represent common people in everyday circumstances such as "Mending Wall," "The Path Not Taken," and "After Apple-Picking," all published in 1914. 112 E. E. cummings (1894 - 1962) was famous for his unusual phrasing and punctuation. The collection of his poems was in Complete Poetry (1968). Ezra Pound (1885 - 1972) was the Imagists' leader who stressed the use of simple and sparse language and realistic images in writing poetry. His two works include Ripostes (1912) and Lustra (1916). Sherwood Anderson (1876 - 1941) wrote prose using everyday speech. His best works appeared in Winesburg, Ohio (1919) and Death in the Woods (1933). Ernest Hemingway (1899 - 1961) was known for his succinct writing, which was widely imitated. His writing was very straightforward and objective - not verbose and sentimental. Two of his finest stories are “The Killers” (1927) and “The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber” (1936). Allen Ginsberg (1926 - 1997) was known for his work “Howl” (1956), a poem with incantatory rhythms and raw emotion. He was one of the Beat poets, who aimed to bring poetry back to the streets. Anne Sexton (1928 - 1974) became known for her confessional poetry, a kind of poetry that deals with the private experiences of the speaker. Her work Live or Die (1966) won a Pulitzer Prize. Lesson 3. European Literature European Literature, also known as Western Literature, refers to Indo-European language literature, including Latin, Greek, Roman, and Russian. It's recognized as the world 's largest body of literature (Augustyn, 2018). Some of the notable personalities of Latin, Greek, and Italian literature were introduced by Quipper Philippines (n.d.): Latin Literature Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 BCE–43 BCE) was the most prominent Roman orator. The first part of Latin Literature's Golden Age (70 BC – AD 18) is named after him, The 113 Ciceronian Period (70–43 BC). He was able to express abstract and complicated thoughts simply in his speeches, using Latin as a literary medium. Pro Cluentio, is one of his well-known speeches. Virgil (70 BCE–19 BCE), the greatest Roman poet, was known for Aeneid, an epic poem. He wrote it during the Augustan Age (43 BC–AD 18), the second part of the Golden Age. Greek Literature Homer is popular for The Iliad and The Odyssey. These epics deal, respectively, with the heroic feats of Achilles and Odysseus. Sophocles (496 BC–406 BC) was a tragic playwright. He was known for Oedipus the King, which marks the highest level of achievement of Greek drama. Italian Literature Francesco Petrarca, or Petrarch (1304–1374) perfected the Italian sonnet, a major influence on European poetry. Written in the vernacular, his sonnets were published in the Canzoniere. Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375) is known for Decameron, a classic Italian masterpiece. The stories were written in the vernacular. Lesson 4. Latin American Literature Latin American Literature refers to all works of literature in Latin American countries like Chile, Argentina, Mexico, Cuba, Guatemala, Colombia, and Peru. Most of the countries in this region were former colonies of either Spain or Portugal, hence the term “Latin”- Spanish and Portuguese are Romance languages originating from Latin (Echevarria et al., 2009). The writers also included the following key points about Latin American Literature: 114 The Vanguardia The Vanguardia (avant-garde in English) took place in Latin America between approximately 1916 and 1935. It collectively referred to different literary movements. Four of those were Creacionismo, Ultraismo, Estridentismo, and Surrealism. Pablo Neruda (1904–1973), a Chilean poet, wrote Residence on Earth (1933), a collection of poetry inspired by surrealism. Octavio Paz (1914–1998), a Mexican poet, wrote poems with surrealist imagery. His major works were published in Freedom Under Parole (1960). Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986) was known for his fantastic stories, published later as a collection entitled Ficciones (1944). Alejo Carpentier (1904–1980), a Cuban writer, wrote The Kingdom of This World (1949), a novel of the magic realism genre, in which elements of fantasy or myth are included matter-of-factly in seemingly realistic fiction. Miguel Angel Asturias (1899–1974), a Guatemalan writer, wrote the novel The President (1946). This novel along with Carpentier’s novel introduced magic realism. The Boom Novels These were essentially modernist novels, which appeared in the second half of the 20th century. They had features that were different or absent from the works of the regionalist writers of the past. (Regionalist writers were those that used local color, which refers to interesting information about a particular place or its people.) The boom novels were the following: The Death of Artemio Cruz (1962) by Carlos Fuentes (1928–2012), a Mexican writer Hopscotch (1963) by Julio Cortazar (1914–1984), an Argentine fictionist The Time of the Hero (1963) by Mario Vargas Llosa, a Peruvian writer One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967) by Gabriel Garcia Marquez (1927–2014), a Colombian fictionist “Post-Boom” Writers The post-boom literature has been recognized also as the 21 st century literary canon of Latin America, largely articulating the position of the region within the political frame of globalization. Post-boom writers included a host of women who published works in the last twenty years of the 20th century. Three of them were Isabel Allende, a Chilean writer who 115 wrote The House of Spirits (1982); Diamela Eltit, a Chilean writer who wrote E. Luminata (1983); and Luisa Valenzuela, an Argentine writer who wrote Black Novel with Argentines (1990). Other writers were Roberto Bolaño, Giannina Braschi, Cristina Peri Rossi, and Elena Poniatowska. They have emerged as the new wave of writing in Latin America after the demise of the boom era. These writers reject the elitism, patriarchal and oligarchal politics, and marginalization of women that characterized the past (Echevarria et al., 2009). Lesson 5. Asian Literature Asian literature refers to the body of literature produced in the countries in Asia. It covers East, Central, West and South East Asia. The literature of India, China, and Japan has been the most popular among other Asian countries due to its longevity and influence over other countries. Asian literature has a rich collection of stories that both reflect the beliefs, culture, and feeling of the people (Mendoza & Silva, 2011). Chinese Literature As stated by Mendoza and Silva (2011), this body of works is in Chinese. It has more than 50 000 published works in a wide range of topics. They also presented the two notable poets of Chinese literature: Du Fu (712–770) is considered as China’s greatest poet. He was known for his works of lüshi. A lüshi has eight lines, each of which has five or seven syllables following a strict tonal pattern. It became widely popular in Chinese history during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), the golden age of art and literature. Li Bai (701–762), also called Li Po, rivaled Du Fu for the title of China’s greatest poet. Unlike Du Fu, he wrote less formal verse forms. A famous drinker, he frequently celebrated drinking in his poetry. Japanese Literature In addition to Asian Literature, this body of works is mainly in the Japanese language, except for the early writings in Chinese (Quipper Philippines, n.d.). Kakinomoto Hitomaro, Japan’s first literary figure, was known for his works of tanka and chōka. The tanka, the basic form of Japanese poetry, has five lines with a syllable 116 pattern of five-seven-five-seven. On the other hand, the chōka has five and seven syllable alternating lines and finishes with an additional line of seven syllables. Having no definite length, it can have from seven lines to 150. Hitomaro’s works were included in Man’yōshū, the oldest anthology of Japanese poetry which was produced during the Nara Period (710–784). Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694) was regarded as the supreme haiku poet. Emerged from the early Tokugawa period (1603–1770), the haiku is composed of three lines with five-seven-five syllable pattern. It originated from the hokku, the first three lines of a renga, a poem usually with a hundred linked verses. Bashō’s verses appear with his travel accounts like The Narrow Road to the Deep North (1694). Indian Literature This body of works is produced in India in a variety of vernacular languages like Sanskrit, Hindi, Punjabi, Tamil, and Urdu (Quipper Philippines, n.d.). The Mahabharata is an Indian epic written in Sanskrit. It is the longest poem in history with about 100 000 couplets. It is traditionally ascribed to an Indian sage named Vyasa. The Hindus regard the epic as both a text about dharma (the Hindu moral law) and a history. Bhagavadgītā, the most celebrated of its episodes, gives spiritual guidance. The Ramayana is another Indian epic in Sanskrit. The sage Valmiki was traditionally regarded as its author. It is shorter than Mahabharata, with some 24 000 couplets. The Panchatantra is a collection of Indian animal fables. Originally written in Sanskrit, it is a mixture of prose and verse. The stories are attributed to Vishnusharman, a learned Brahmin. Lesson 6. African Literature The African authors' literary works in English are part of the African literature. According to Mendoza and Silva (2011), this collection of works refers not only to those produced in Afro-Asian and African languages, but also to those works in English, French, and other European languages by Africans. African literature, both oral and written, reflects many diverse and rich cultures of its population. The writings on black Africa started in the middle ages when Arabic was introduced 117 to them and then it moved forward in the 1800s with the coming of the alphabet. Negritude (which means “blackness”) literary movement was given birth on the 1930s-1950s by some of the French-speaking African and Caribbean writers living in Paris. This served as a protest against the colonial French rule and assimilation policy. The leading figure in this movement was Leopold Sedar Senghor (1st president of the Republic of Senegal in 1960). Some of the common themes in African writers 'works are the colonizers' oppression of the African people, the European influences on African native culture, racial discrimination, and pride in African past and resilience. According to Quipper Philippines (n.d.), many African writers had significant contributions in the quality of African poems. These writers include: Chinua Achebe (1930–2013) – This Nigerian writer was renowned for his novel Things Fall Apart (1958), considered the best-known 20th century African novel. This deals with developing Africa, where local peoples, including the Igbo community of Achebe, have come in contact with white missionaries and their colonizers. The novel is the first in the African Trilogy. Wole Soyinka – This Nigerian writer was awarded the 1986 Nobel Prize for Literature and was the first black African to win such distinction. As a playwright, he wrote the satire A Dance of the Forests (1963), his first significant play depicting his people 's traditions, the Yoruba. It was staged during celebrations of Nigerian independence in 1960. Then he wrote poetry and fiction. Nadine Gordimer (1923–2014) – This South African writer was awarded with the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991. She was known for her works that dealt with the effects of apartheid on her country. Apartheid was a system in which people of color had less political and economic rights than that of the white people, so the former was forced to live separately from the latter. An ardent opponent of such system, she wrote novels that focused on the oppression of nonwhite characters like A World of Strangers (1958), The Late Bourgeois World (1966), Burger’s Daughter (1979), and July’s People (1981), all of which were banned in her country. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie – This Nigerian author is known for her critically acclaimed novels Purple Hibiscus (2003), Half of a Yellow Sun (2006), and Americanah (2013), all receiving awards. The story of Purple Hibiscus is told through a fifteen-year-old girl named Kambili as she together with her family endured domestic violence in the hands 118 of her father. During the Nigerian Civil War or Biafran War (1967–1970) the story of Half of a Yellow Sun transpired. Lastly, Americanah tells the story of a young woman from Nigeria who came to the US to study and live for work. 119 Assessment Tasks Task 1. In this module, we have learned that World literature is very rich and diverse. Through a poster, present your understanding on how different countries with different literary genres, traditions and forms made up the literatures of the world. Post your output in your blog or social media account. 120 Task 2. Analyze writers and their literary works, choose one from World literature and compare and contrast it to a Philippine literary work. Write your analysis in 500 to 600 words. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 121 Summary English literature is a very large body of diverse literature that encompasses works by writers from the United Kingdom. American literature is a rich body of literature. This applies to all works of English literature written in the United States, which over the years has produced many great authors. European literature refers to Indo-European language literature. It's regarded as the world 's largest body of literature. Latin American Literature refers to all works of literature in Latin American countries. The 20th century saw some of its best writers. Asian literature refers to the body of literature produced in the countries in Asia, which includes the Chinese, Japanese, and Indian literatures. Literary works by African authors in English such as Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, Chimamanda Adichie and Nadine Gordimer are part of African literature, a series of works created in Afro-Asiatic and African languages as well as African works in English, French and other European languages. References Augustyn, A. et al. (2018). Western Literature. Retrieved on September 16, 2020 from https://www.britannica.com/art/Western-literature Baker, P.S. (2020). English Literature. Retrieved on September 16, 2020 from https://www.britannica.com/art/English-literature Cruz, K. (20180. 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World. Retrieved on August 5, 2020 from https://21stcenturylitph.wordpress.com/introduction-to-world-literature/ Echevarria, R.G. et al. (2009). Latin American Literature. Retrieved on September 18, 2020 from https://www.britannica.com/art/Latin-American-literature Mastin, L. (2011). The History of English. Retrieved on September 18, 2020 from https://thehistoryofenglish.com/history_old.html Mendoza, P. & Silva, M. (2011). 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World. Retrieved on July 07, 2020 from https://www.scribd.com/document/412634387/21st-Century-Literature-of-thePhilippines-and-of-the-World-1 122 Quipper Philippines. (n.d.). 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World. Retrieved on August 1, 2020 from https://link.quipper.com/en/organizations/58a9266b5ef7df11f100002d/curricul um#curriculum Sanchez, L.A., et al. (2016). 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World. Quezon City: Vibal Group, Inc. Tayao, M., Alonzo, R. & Flores, E. (2017). 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World for Senior High School. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc. 123 MODULE 5 BASIC TEXTUAL AND CONTEXTUAL READING APPROACHES Introduction All literary texts were written by different authors with different background, culture, society, language, etc. On the other hand, we, readers also differ from the writer and other readers of the literary text. That becomes a reason for us to develop appreciation of the basic textual and contextual reading approaches. Basic textual approaches involve looking at the text and identifying what literary devices are used on it. While, contextual approaches help us understand texts based on their authors’ biography, society, and language and how these factors connect to our own experience and reading. In this module, we can ensure better understanding in the study and appreciation of literature. This will help us understand the different literary texts that we will encounter not only in this subject but also during our leisure reading. Learning Outcomes At the end of this module, students should be able to: 1. analyze figures of speech and literary techniques used in different text types 2. identify the different ways one may evaluate a literary text, specifically by examining its biographical context, sociocultural context, and linguistic context; 3. distinguish various critical reading strategies; and 4. analyze different literary texts through different contexts using different critical reading strategies. 124 Lesson 1. Figures of Speech As stated by Sanchez, et al (2016), Figures of speech, produces figures (pictures), also known as figurative language, in the reader's or listener 's mind. Such pictures help to express the message more easily and more vividly than words alone. In "figurative language" we use speech figures to add color and excitement, and to awaken imagination. From literary plays like Shakespeare or the Bible to everyday expression, pop music and television advertisements, figurative language is everywhere. It allows the reader or listener use their imagination and more comprehensible than the plain words. Figurative language is the opposite of literal language. Literal language implies what exactly is written. Figurative language means something different from what it says on the surface (and generally more so than). Literary authors use figures of speech to improve the consistency of their works of literature. Figures of speech add vividness and liveliness to the writing, and often underline the message the writer wishes to convey. The use these words often helps readers to feel connected to literary work by sparking their creativity and uprising their emotions (Sanchez et al., 2016). Quipper Philippines (n.d.) stated that there are several figures of speech, and these can be divided into different categories. Among these categories are the following: Figures of relationship Figures of emphasis Figures of sound Figures of Relationship Figures of relationship are simile, metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche. Simile A simile is a comparison of two items which are completely different but have something in common. The terms as or like add similarities. Example: O my Luve is like a red, red rose, That's newly sprung in June; 125 O my Luve is like the melody That’s sweetly played in tune. –from "A Red, Red Rose" by Robert Burns Explanation: The speaker compares a red rose and a sweet melody to his love. Metaphor A metaphor makes a direct comparison of two unlike objects that have something in common. It does not use the words like and as. Example: I’m a little pencil in the hand of a writing god, who is sending a love letter to the world. –Mother Teresa Explanation: In the given quote, the speaker compares herself to a little pencil without using connective words such as like and as. Metonymy Metonymy refers to the use of an entity or concept not referred to by its own name but by another, a name of something with which it is closely connected. Example: …the officer of the deck happen to forget his duty in that respect, the probability would be that he and his shipmates would never again remember it, on account of all hands gently subsiding to the bottom. –from Herman Melville’s Moby Dick Explanation: In the given line, all hands are not simply used to refer to hands literally, but rather to all the people who work on the crew of the ship. 126 Synecdoche A synecdoche uses a part of something to represent a portion of the whole, or the whole to part. Example: The Eyes around- had wrung them dryAnd Breaths were gathering firm For the last Onset- when the King Be witnessed-in the Room–from "I hear a Fly buzz-when I died” by Emily Dickinson Explanation: The words eyes and breaths are used to refer to people. Figures of Emphasis Hyperbole, oxymoron, and paradox are among the common figures of emphasis. Hyperbole Hyperbole uses intentional exaggeration to achieve emphasis or produce a comic effect. Example: “I’ll love you, dear, I’ll love you till China and Africa meet, And the river jumps over the mountain And the salmon sing in the street, I’ll love you till the ocean Is folded and hung up to dry And the seven stars go squawking Like geese about the sky.” –from “As I Walked Out One Evening” by W.H. Auden Explanation: It simply emphasizes the love of the persona in the poem. Oxymoron 127 An oxymoron is a word or a combination of words with contradictory meanings, as in bittersweet and open secret. Example: Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate! O anything, of nothing first create! –from Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare Explanation: The phrase loving hate is an oxymoron, as it makes use of two contradictory terms. Paradox A paradox is a statement that appears to hold contradictory ideas but may actually be true. Example: I must be cruel only to be kind. –from Shakespeare’s Hamlet Act 3 Scene 4 Explanation: The given statement presents contradicting ideas, but what it conveys is that there is good in wickedness. Figures of Sound Among the figures of sound are alliteration and onomatopoeia. Alliteration Alliteration refers to the use of closely spaced words that have the same initial sounds. Example: Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before –from "The Raven" by Edgar Allan Poe 128 Explanation: The neighboring words doubting, dreaming, dreams, dared, and dream begin with the d sound, adding rhythm, color, and beauty to the line. Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is the use of words that imitate the sound of what they are referring to. Example: Hark, hark! Bow-wow. The watch-dogs bark! Bow-wow. Hark, hark! I hear The strain of strutting chanticleers Cry, ‘cock-a-diddle-dow!’ –from The Tempest by William Shakespeare Explanation: The words bow-wow and cock-a-diddle-dow are examples of onomatopoeia, as they are animal sounds. Lesson 2. Literary Techniques Literary techniques or devices refer to any unique, deliberate constructions or language choices which an author uses in a particular way to express meaning. Using a literary technique by an author typically happens at one point in a text with a single word or phrase, or with a specific group of words or phrases. Literary techniques are not necessarily present in any text as opposed to literary elements; they reflect deliberate, conscious choices made by individual writers. On the other hand, readers look for many literary techniques when reviewing or evaluating a text or simply determining the artistic merit of a text (Tayao, 2017). Quipper Philippines (n.d.) added some literary techniques that writers make use of in their works. Among these techniques are the following: 129 Anaphora Anaphora is a literary device that displays creative or heightened effect at the beginning of a sentence or text by repeating a word or phrase. It helps emphasize feelings or emotions among readers. It makes the text easier to memorize or remember because of the rhythm added. Example: 'Tis a fault to heaven, A fault against the dead, a fault to nature To reason most absurd. . .. -from Hamlet by Shakespeare, Act 1 Scene 2) Explanation: Claudius was convincing Hamlet to stop mourning for his father. He emphasized that it is “a fault” against heaven, the dead, and nature to do since we know that everyone must die sooner or later. Antihero/ Antiheroine An antihero is a protagonist who does not have the conventional qualities that the hero/ heroine usually has, such as honesty, bravery, and the like. Anti-heroes are often described as naive, and are typically mischievous. Example: Don Quixote (An Excerpt) By Miguel Cervantes One of those, however, that stood near him, fancying he was mocking them, lifted up a long staff he had in his hand and smote him such a blow with it that Sancho dropped helpless to the ground. Don Quixote, seeing him so roughly handled, attacked the man who had struck him lance in hand, but so many thrust themselves between them that he could not avenge 130 him. Far from it, finding a shower of stones rained upon him, and crossbows and muskets unnumbered levelled at him, he wheeled Rocinante round and, as fast as his best gallop could take him, fled from the midst of them, commending himself to God with all his heart to deliver him out of this peril, in dread every step of some ball coming in at his back and coming out at his breast, and every minute drawing his breath to see whether it had gone from him. Explanation: The excerpt shows that Don Quixote, despite of having spirit of knight-errantry, is a coward. Instead of helping his squire Sancho from the mob, he fled to save himself. Cliffhanger Cliffhanger is a literary technique that ends a chapter or story abruptly to arouse the curiosity of readers. Instead of providing a resolution to the climax or conflict faced by the characters, the author intentionally ends it. Writers utilize cliffhangers in their works to keep the readers focused and interested as to what will happen next. This technique is common in serialized works. Example: Divergent (An Excerpt) By Veronica Roth I turn the gun in my hands and press it into Tobias’s palm. He pushes the barrel into my forehead. My tears have stopped and the air feels cold as it touches my cheeks. I reach out and rest my hand on his chest so I can feel his heartbeat. At least his heartbeat is still him. The bullet clicks into the chamber. Maybe it will be as easy to let him shoot me as it was in the fear landscape, as it is in my dreams. Maybe it will be just a bang, and the lights will lift, and I will find myself in another world. I stand still and wait. (Roth, Veronica. Divergent. New York: Katherine Tegen Books, 2011) 131 Explanation: The main character Tris Prior was in an intense situation as Tobias, under a simulation, was about to shoot her. However, the author did not divulge whether Tobias did it or not until the next chapter. Juxtaposition Juxtaposition is a technique authors use in their works to compare two different things, or two contrasting ideas to be able to emphasize their differences, such as good and evil, life and death, truth and lies, among others. This technique is also used to develop a character, resolve a conflict, or clarify various concepts. Example: A Tale of Two Cities (An Excerpt) By Charles Dickens “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way…” Explanation: Charles Dickens used juxtaposition in “A Tale of Two Cities.” In the opening line, contrasting ideas were used to highlight factors that led French Revolution. Foreshadowing Foreshadowing is a plot device in which the story presents an image or scene that will give the reader clues to events that will occur in the future. Being able to foreshadow an event adds excitement and enjoyment of reading. It also develops the ability to observe and to think critically about the observation. 132 Example: The Iliad (An Excerpt) By Homer Then Thetis spake unto him, shedding tears the while: “Doomed then to a speedy death, my child, shalt thou be, that thou spakest thus; for straightway after Hector is thine own death ready at hand." Explanation: The lines foreshadowed the return of Achilles to the battlefield and the death of Hector through Thetis. Catharsis Catharsis is derived from the Greek word katharsis, which means “purification” or “purgation.” It refers to the emotional release or cleansing of the characters, or audience or readers, from strong emotions usually brought by learning of the truth or when confronted with difficult situations. This technique is commonly found in tragedies, such as Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and Sophocles’ Oedipus the King. Example: Oedipus the King (An Excerpt) By Sophocles Second Messenger: (. . . .) Guided his footsteps; with a terrible shriek, As though one beckoned him, he crashed against The folding doors, and from their staples forced The wrenched bolts and hurled himself within. Then we beheld the woman hanging there, A running noose entwined about her neck. But when he saw her, with a maddened roar 133 He loosed the cord; and when her wretched corpse Lay stretched on earth, what followed—O 'twas dread! He tore the golden brooches that upheld Her queenly robes, upraised them high and smote Full on his eye-balls, uttering words like these: "No more shall ye behold such sights of woe, Deeds I have suffered and myself have wrought; Henceforward quenched in darkness shall ye see Those ye should ne'er have seen; now blind to those Whom, when I saw, I vainly yearned to know." Explanation: The excerpt presents the scene where Oedipus discovered that he married his mother Jocasta and killed his father Laius. Upon learning of the truth, Jocasta committed suicide while Oedipus become blind. Stream of Consciousness Stream of consciousness, sometimes referred to as interior monologue, is a literary technique that is usually associated with Modern writers. The plot is developed based on the characters’ reminiscence or recollection of events and thought fragments. Instead of using dialogues to show the characters’ reaction or emotion, writers make use of stream of consciousness to show each character’s complex nature. More so, readers are taken into the depths of the characters’ mind and witness how these characters process their thoughts when faced with a particular situation or emotion. Example: Mrs. Dalloway (An Excerpt) By Virginia Woolf Mrs. Dalloway said she would buy the flowers herself. . . . 134 For Lucy had her work cut out for her. The doors would be taken off their hinges; Rumpelmayer's men were coming. And then, thought Clarissa Dalloway, what a morning-fresh as if issued to children on a beach. What a lark! What a plunge! For so it had always seemed to her, when, with a little squeak of the hinges, which she could hear now, she had burst open the French windows and plunged at Bourton into the open air. How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air was in the early morning; like the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as she then was) solemn, feeling as she did, standing there at the open window, that something awful was about to happen; looking at the flowers, at the trees with the smoke winding off them and the rooks rising, falling; standing and looking until Peter Walsh said, "Musing among the vegetables?"--was that it?--"I prefer men to cauliflowers"--was that it? . . . Explanation: The passage presents the thoughts and feeling of Mrs. Dalloway as they flow from present to past. All these came into thecharacter’s head while she was on her way to buy flowers. Hamartia Hamartia, or tragic flaw, is a technique commonly found in Greek tragedies. It refers to the tragic hero’s error in judgment, which leads to his or her downfall. Most of the time, this error is committed unknowingly, such in the case of Oedipus when he killed his father Laius and married his mother Jocasta. Hamartia is used to have the audience identify themselves with the protagonist (that he or she has weaknesses too) and to provoke pity because of the miserable turn of events he or she went through. Additionally, it is used to impart a moral objective among readers or audience to improve or change for the better so as to avoid the tragedy that has befallen the protagonist. Example: Medea (An Excerpt) By Euripides An easy answer had I to this swell 135 Of speech, but Zeus our father knoweth well, All I for thee have wrought, and thou for me. So let it rest. This thing was not to be, That thou shouldst live a merry life, my bed Forgotten and my heart uncomforted, Thou nor thy princess: nor the king that planned Thy marriage drive Medea from his land, And suffer not. Call me what thing thou please, Tigress or Skylla from the Tuscan seas: My claws have gripped thine heart, and all things shine. Explanation: Medea’s hamartia or tragic flaw was her excessive love for Jason, who cheated on her. This led Medea to cast her revenge to Glauce, poisoning her, and to kill their children as she knew how greatly it would hurt Jason. Lesson 3. Literary Reading through a Biographical Context A biographical context refers to the author’s life and the factors that influenced and shaped it, such as social, political, and economic conditions during his or her time. This also includes his or her educational background, religion, ethnicity, among others. When you read based on a biographical context, you employ a biographical criticism (Quipper Limited, 2018). In analyzing a text based on its biographical context, you should consider not only how the previously mentioned variables have had an impact on the author, but also how these variables have been reflected in his or her work(s) and helped shape it. It is important to take into consideration the literary background of the author. You need to investigate who and what the author reads, as they may also have influenced him or her and his or her work(s). However, Quipper Philippines(n.d.) added that one should not mistake a biographical analysis from a biography. Remember that when you analyze a text based on the biographical 136 context, you gather information about the author’s life as it can help you understand some difficult concepts or extract profound meanings in an author’s work. Moreover, a biographical analysis helps you understand the relationship of the author and his or her work(s), not produce a detailed account of his or her life–thus, a biography. Literature, aside from being form of expression, can be based on real or orchestrated events. These events included by the author in his or her work(s) are sometimes different from what really transpired in real life. Sometimes these events are a reimagination, exaggeration, or wishful thinking. Example: Manuel E. Arguilla’s “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” is a story told through Baldo’s, Leon’s brother, point of view. He narrated how Leon brought his soon-to-be wife, Maria, in their hometown (Nagrebcan, La Union) to meet his family. To analyze this story, let us first consider some facts about Arguilla: - Arguilla was born on 17 June 1911 to Crisanto Arguilla and Margarita Estabillo, in Bauang, La Union. - He was the fourth child and his family owned a small piece of land in their town. - He was married to Lydia Villanueva, who was from Ermita, Manila. Explanation: Based on the facts presented above, we can infer that Arguilla’s “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” was a creative retelling of how his then girlfriend Lydia Villanueva met his folks in La Union. Moreover, Maria fondly calls Leon “Noel,” which also reads as Leon in a reverse manner or simply referring to the author since his first name was “Manuel.” The Ilocano culture of calling an older woman or man manang or manong respectively was also evident. Additionally, this story was published during the American occupation in the country. Since the country as a whole was transgressing from its conservative roots, not to mention that the English language was widely used then (which also lacks words to describe an elder sibling such as ate or kuya), perhaps this was Arguilla’s way of preserving his Ilocano upbringing (Sanchez et al, 2016). 137 Lesson 4. Literary Reading through a Linguistic Context As stated in a course published by Quipper Limited (2018), reading through a linguistic context focuses on the language used in the literary work and how it is used to convey meaning. Here are some reasons to read literature through the linguistic context presented by Quipper Limited (2018): Reading the text on its own, regardless of the author’s biography and sociocultural context, may help you understand the literary text through analyzing the words, sentences, patterns, imagery, etc. of the text. Analyzing the literary text’s grammar, syntax, or phonemic pattern may help you find the meaning of the text within its form and help you interpret it by simply analyzing the content of the literary work. The following are some strategies you may use to read a text through the linguistic context (Quipper Limited, 2018): Analyze the diction or choice of words in the text. Examine the texts’ syntax or use of sentences, clauses, phrases, line cuts, etc. Observe the use of figurative language. Analyze the mood and tone of the text. Observe the text’s overall structure. Analyze the content of the text. Here are guide questions added by Quipper Limited (2018), that may help you when you read literature through the linguistic context: What were the striking words in the text? What words were unfamiliar to you? Which words attracted your attention? What words were dramatic? What nouns are the most prominent? Are these concrete or abstract nouns? What about verbs? Does the author use common words or lofty diction? Are the words short or long? Is there any word that has two or more meanings? Are the sentences in the usual order of subject-predicate? What are the dependent clauses? What are the independent clauses? If you restructure a sentence or a phrase, 138 would it make a difference? Is the voice active or passive? Is there a rhythm in the sentence structure in relation to the length of the sentences or lines? What literary devices are used? Are there images? Do those images stand for anything aside from their literal meaning? What is the tone? Is the speaker happy about the subject? Is the tone negative or positive? What is the structure of the text? Is it a narrative? Is it linear or nonlinear? What is the point of view of the text? Is it a poem? What type of poem is it? Does the language help in delivering and understanding its content? Is there a theme? What is it saying about its subject matter? How do the literary elements contribute to the effectiveness of the text? What is the text saying about the world in general? Take note of the following before reading a text through the linguistic context as presented by Quipper Limited (2018): Even if literature uses language, it does not mean that the structure of literature and the language are the same. Some writers may not follow grammatical rules, and this kind of deviation may be used in your analysis. You may ask, “Why is the text not following standard grammar?” and other similar questions. The characteristics of the language in which the text was written may help in analyzing the text. You may also ask, “Why is the text written in this language?”, “Is this considered a weak language or a strong language?” and other similar questions. You may consult literary approaches that focus on language. Structuralism, poststructuralism, and formalism have linguistic aspects. These approaches may lead you in your view of reading through the linguistic context. Perspective Explanation Structuralism Structuralism relays the texts being examined to a larger structure. The structure may be a particular genre, a range of intertextual connections, a model of a universal narrative structure, or a system of recurrent patterns or motifs. 139 Formalism (or New Formalism is a school of literary criticism and literary theory that Criticism) focuses on the structure of a particular text. It examines a text without taking into account any outside influence. Poststructuralism Poststructuralism is the reaction to structuralism. In the linguistic context, there may be underlying structures that may have different interpretations based on how the words or phrases were used in the text. Below is a poem that Jose Rizal has written presented by Bethge (2007): Josephine, Who to these shores came, Searching for a home, a nest, Like the wandering swallows, If your fate guides you To Shanghai, China, or Japan, Forget not that on these shores A heart beats for you. Analyze the poem through its literary context by answering the following questions: 1. What are the striking words used in the poem? 2. How many meaningful statements are used in the poem? 3. How were the lines cut? Did the line cuts help in conveying the message of the poem? 4. Are there rhymes? Is there a certain rhythm? How does the presence or absence of rhyme and rhythm help convey the message of the text? 5. What imagery was used in the poem? 6. What is the mood of the poem? 7. Did the use of language help in conveying the poem’s message? How? Lesson 5. Literary Reading through a Sociocultural Context In reading using the sociocultural context, you will examine the factors that affect the writing of the literary text and how the work was received by the readers during the time it was written. 140 The following are reasons to read literature through sociocultural context (Gioia & Kennedy, 2007): Reading using the sociocultural context helps you understand the social, economic, political, and cultural forces affecting the work that you are reading. Analyzing the sociocultural context of the text makes you examine the role of the audience (readers) in shaping literature. How can we analyze a text through a sociocultural context? Here are guide questions that you may answer when you are reading literature through the sociocultural context (Quipper Limited, 2018): What is the relationship between the characters or the speakers in the text and their society? Does the text explicitly address issues of gender, race, or class? How does the text resolve these issues? Who has the power? Who does not? What is the reason for this setup? How does this story reflect the nation? What does this say about the country and its inhabitants? Who has the economic or social power? Is there oppression or class struggle? How do the characters overcome this? Does money or finances play a large role in the narrative? What is the prevailing social order? Does the story or poem accept or challenge it? Take note of the following before reading a text through the sociocultural context: You may use several sociological, economic, and cultural perspectives when reading using the sociocultural context. Marxism is one of the famous perspectives used for this reading. Feminism, queer theory, historicism, postcolonialism, and New Historicism are also perspectives or literary theories that you may use (Brizee et al., n.d.). Perspective Marxism According to the Marxist perspective, literature shows class struggle and materialism. Thus, it looks into the social classes portrayed in the work. It also looks into how the text serves 141 as a propaganda material. It also examines oppression, social conflicts, and solution to these struggles as shown in the literary work. Feminism The feminist perspective examines the role of the women in the literature. It looks into how the female character may be empowered or discriminated against. Queer Theory The queer perspective is concerned with the queer or the third gender. The perspective itself was named in 1991. Under this perspective, the third gender, meaning the gay, lesbians, and other characters or persona in literature that may fall under queer are being examined. Historicism Historicism or traditional historical criticism is a perspective dealing with the history that influenced the writing of literature. Postcolonialism Postcolonialism is a literary perspective that looks into the changes in the attitude of the post colonies after the colonial period. Through this perspective, the dependence or independence of decolonized countries or people are being examined. New Historicism New Historicism is another perspective in the sociocultural context. It focuses not only on the history when the literary text was written, but also how the history happened. In New Historicism, the abovementioned perspectives can be integrated with each other. When reading a text or writing a critique, set aside your personal political ideologies through the sociocultural context. For instance, if you strongly believe that boys should only like girls and vice versa, it should not prevent you from analyzing a text in an objective way using the queer theory. Even if the text is not related to your political inclinations, your personal ideologies can cause you to overread the text according to what you believe in. In reading, do your best to be unbiased (Quipper Limited, 2018). 142 Lesson 6. Critical Reading Strategies in Literature We read for entertainment, leisure and fun sometimes. It takes a keen observer to become a critical reader and a valid researcher. Being a critical reader means that in the text you are reading, you do not simply aim to memorize facts and information. Being a critical reader means that you are looking for ways to think about the text you are reading about the subject matter. To help you in your critical reading, listed below are the steps or modes of analysis that are reflected in three types of reading and discussion as presented by Kurland (2000): What a text says is the restatement. At first, you simply talk about the same topic as what is written in the original text. What a text does is the description. Next, you discuss and examine the aspects of the discussion or the content of the text. What a text means is the interpretation. As you read critically, you should analyze the text and assert a meaning for the text as a whole. Here are the three main goals of critical reading that require inference from reading within the text (Kurland, 2000): First is to consider the intent of the author, which includes inferring a basis for content and language choices. Second is to understand the tone and persuasive elements of the text including the classification of the nature of the language choices used by the author. Third is to identify the bias involving the description of the nature of patterns of choice and the language used in the text. As mentioned by Quipper Limited (2018), the following critical reading strategies will help you cope with different reading texts: Previewing. Before you begin reading the text, preview it by gathering important information about it. Previewing helps prepare your mind for the barrage of information that is to come when you do the actual reading. When you preview a text, you skim it to get the big picture or an overview of the entire text. Consider the following: - Who wrote the text? What are the author’s other works? 143 - Where and when was the text published? What were the major events around the time the text was written or published? - What can you infer about the text based on the title? - What seems to be the general progression or organization of ideas based on the - chapter titles or section headings and subheadings? - What is your purpose for reading the text? Annotating. Annotating involves highlighting or making notes of important ideas in the text. This can be done by doing the following: - With a pencil or a pen in hand, underline important ideas such as the thesis, topic sentences, and key concepts. Also, highlight unfamiliar words so you can look them up later. - Make notes such as questions and comments or responses on the margins as you read. - Develop a symbol system. You may draw symbols to mark important words or sentences so that the text will not appear cluttered. Contextualizing. When you contextualize, you consider the historical, cultural, or biographical context of the text. Identify the context(s) in which the text was written and determine how this context differs from your own. Keep in mind that your understanding of a particular concept is influenced by these contexts, in the same way that they influence an author’s. Outlining and Summarizing. Outlining and summarizing the text help you identify the main ideas in the text and express them again in your own words. In outlining the text, you identify the basic structure of the text (i.e., the main ideas and the supporting ideas) and make connections between those ideas. Outlining helps you understand how the author developed the text through the ideas presented. After making an outline, you can now summarize the text. Summarizing the text allows you to present your understanding of the text by reviewing and synthesizing important ideas, and then restating them in your own words. Analyzing. Analyzing a text deals with examining the information presented to support the author’s argument(s). In analyzing a text, you look at the evidence, sources, and author’s bias(es). Consider the following questions: 144 - Is there enough evidence to support the author’s argument? Does the evidence relate to and support the thesis or the main point the author is trying to convey? - Are the pieces of evidence relevant, credible, and up-to-date? - Are the sources of information credible? - Why did the author take that particular position? What is the author’s background that may have led to or influenced his or her position? Rereading. Rereading requires a repeated examination of the text to enable you to improve your comprehension of the text and to identify ideas that you may not have noticed in initial reading. Critical readers read the text more than once to fully grasp the meaning of the text and what the author is conveying. Responding. After you have developed a clear understanding of the text, you are now ready to respond to the text. Responding to the text means drawing meaning from what you have read and presenting it in writing or talking about it to others. When you respond to a text, you express your thoughts, feelings, and questions about the text. You can write why you agree or disagree with the text or the author’s arguments, or you can interpret the text. You can also respond to a text by discussing it with others. Sharing the information that you gained from a text with others who have read the same text is a good way to check your understanding. 145 Assessment Tasks Task 1. Unleash Your Inner Historian! Goal: Your task is to watch one of any of these movies related to Philippine history: (1) Lualhati Bautista’s Dekada ’70, (2) Ricky and Raymond Lee’s Anak, or (3) Michiko Yamamotos’s Magnifico. The goal is to analyze the movie according to its biographical, sociocultural, and linguistic context through critical reading and viewing. Role: You are a 21st century historian/researcher who was tasked by the National Museum to conduct a critical study of the history behind the movie through utilizing the strategies of critical reading. Audience: The target audience is high school or university students who will take a tour at the archives center in National Museum. You need to convince them that what are shown in the movies are based on historical events and situations that transpired in the past. Situation: You need to research and learn about the past, particularly the period depicted in the movie you have chosen. The challenge involves dealing with critics who will tell you that you were not born yet when the incident happened. It also involves having to look through various sources and evaluating their credibility. Product/Performance and Purpose: You will create a 3 – 5-page essay that analyzes the movie according to its biographical, sociocultural, and literary context. You need to develop this critical analysis based on the different schools of thought learned in this module. Standards & Criteria for Success: Your performance needs to have reliable and credible resources. Your work will be judged based on the set of criteria listed in the rubrics: Content, Organization, Language (spelling, mechanics, grammar, and word choice), Topic (Thesis statement is well-established.), and Sources. 146 Task 2. Analyze various literary works and determine the figures of speech and the literary techniques used on it. Give at least one literary work per figure of speech and one per technique discussed. Provide a brief explanation for each answer. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 147 Summary Figures of speech, also referred to as figurative language, are words or phrases that conveys meanings in a nonliteral way. Figures of relationship are simile, metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche. Some figures of emphasis include hyperbole, oxymoron, and paradox. Among the figures of sound are alliteration and onomatopoeia. Writers make use of literary techniques or devices to convey messages or to simply add an artistic value to a text. Readers look for these techniques to help them analyze or interpret a specific body of work. Some of the literary techniques are anaphora, antihero, cliff-hanger, juxtaposition, foreshadowing, stream of consciousness, catharsis, and hamartia. Reading through a biographical context entails that readers understand the text better upon learning about the author’s life. Analyzing a text based on the biographical context adds substance to that “impact” and does not distort it. Society and culture strongly influence a writer’s work. To understand the text better then, identify its sociocultural context. Critical reading requires different critical thinking skills. In reading a piece of literature critically, you can preview it, contextualize it, ask questions about it, reflect on it, make an outline of its ideas and a summary, evaluate its argument, or compare and contrast it with another text. References Bethge, W. (2007). “Josephine Bracken - Her Bonds of Love with Jose Rizal.” Josephine Bracken - Her Bonds of Love with Jose Rizal. Accessed September 20, 2020. http://www.insightsphilippines.de/brackenengl.htm. Gioia, D. and Kennedy, X. (2007). Literature: An Introduction to Fiction Poetry, Drama, and Writing, Compact Edition. 5th ed. New York: Allyn & Bacon/Longman. Kurland, D. (2000). “What Is Critical Reading?” Dan Kurland’s. Retrieved from http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading. htm. Mendoza, P., Silva, M. (2011). 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the 148 World. Retrieved on July 07, 2020 from https://www.scribd.com/document/412634387/21st-Century-Literature-of-thePhilippines-and-of-the-World-1 Quipper Limited (2018). 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World Unit 1: Contextual Reading Approaches. Retrieved on September 20, 2020 from https://www.academia.edu/37827038/21st_Century_Literature_from_the_Phili ppines_and_the_World_Unit_1_Contextual_Reading_Approaches Quipper Philippines (n.d.). 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World. Retrieved on July 16, 2020 from https://link.quipper.com/en/organizations/58a9266b5ef7df11f100002d/curricul um#curriculum Sanchez, L.A., et al. (2016). 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World. Quezon City: Vibal Group, Inc. Tayao, M., et al. (2017). 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World for Senior High School. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc. 149
