CHAPTER II
Review of Related Literature and Studies
The related literature has different forms wherein it comes from different
resources such as, books, journals, articles, news, and other pertinent resources
which are highly relevant and related to the premises of research. Notably, the
review of related literature should identify, define, describe, summarize, evaluate,
clarify and enumerate that previous research being pinned by different prestigious
authors. It honors the different formulated and come-up studies of previous
creators and researchers.
In this part of the study, there is presumption that when the researchers
mentioned the name of the author stating the previous work in the field study
presumably, the author has evaluated, read and assimilated such work. The
related literature of this study would enable the readers to fully understand the
contents of the study posits by the researchers. The content specified herein will
tackle the literature from the great – famous authors that supplied the information’s
and ideas about the present study.
Crime Reduction
The crime reduction refers to comprehensive strategies that have been
implemented by the communities, business, individuals, and non-governmental
organizations in order to target environmental and social factors.
The crime
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prevention approaches are herein stated. Environmental Crime Prevention, is
conditions within the environments which lead the crime takes place which includes
comprehensive and situational planning activities. It aims to bring changes and
modifications within the environment which leads it declination of crimes which
takes place in the environment. This approach is concern with manipulating,
controlling and identifying the environmental factors which lead to crime
occurrence in the community. The society is most prone of the occurrence of theft
and stealing property, thus, there should be provision of utilization of alarms, street
lightning, and there should be an appointment of security guard to have regular
check of people’s entry. Urban Design and Planning, refers to transformation built
in the environment which creates safer places which are less prone to crime and
make people safe. It has taken into consideration the design of the public places
which encourage the big numbers of people which can then provide natural
investigation as well as provide lighted pedestrian thoroughfares. Lastly, let it be
sure that there is no place the offender could hide.
Developmental Crime Prevention, is based on the premise that intervening
early in the development of the young person, in order to produce significant long
term social and economic benefits. It is an intervention which leads development
of an individual in order he or she will not get involved in any kinds of crimes. The
individual should be guided in order he or she could follow good paths and never
offend anyone. Social Crime Prevention, is an intervention which influence the
economic and social causes of crime which includes crime prevention measures
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which are time consuming in producing the good results and an action in improving
housing, health, educational achievement as well as improved community
cohesion. This prevention directly focusses on the social crime prevention which
is formulating measures that improves the social living status of an individuals.
Community Development, is social and physical organization of communities
which may have impact on the conduct of individuals. The lack of social cohesion
and high level of social elimination most caused violence or crimes in the society.
As such, the community development focus on developing some areas such as
but are not limited to, employment, education, health care, provision of facilities,
harmony, peace and civic amenities among individuals. (Kapur, 2018).
Police visibility
Police visibility is a public expectation of policing. It is the presence of
protection in the society. It is the capacity in managing risk and threats to have
security. The visibility of the police presence provides the feelings of security and
safety of the citizens because, they are totally aware that police are just around
preventing any crimes to happen and about to emerge any time. The increased of
police visibility reduce the fear of the citizens on crime and they increase the feeling
of safety. An increased visible police presence has been shown to reduce citizen’s
fear of crime and increase their feelings of personal safety as well as it enhances
citizens reassurance. It being considered as symbolic communication. It is an
impression management in their patrol practice. It also shows their police-public
interaction.
(Weston, Lisa Anne, 2016). Verily, the foot patrol improves feelings
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of citizens about their safety and it increase their perception on the credibility of
police reputation. Police officers are generally perceived on foot and bike
compared to a vehicle.
Mobile Patrol
(Simpson, 2017) Automobile patrol is usually used to rove around the towns,
cities and barangay. The patrol officers intentionally stop for several minutes at
some locations to ensure safety and no crimes ensue and they just wanted to
develop police omnipresence. Patrol activities are one of the duties of police to
maintain public peace and order and see to it that they prevent crimes in the
barangay. These activities are held so that police and its auxiliaries can be seen
and felt by the community. The patrol is being held always so that police officers
and its auxiliary can be seen in the community. Patrol is a crime deterrent in
reducing those crimes about to be committed by offender thus, in this case, police
employ presence in the society. Patrol officers acquired experiences and first-hand
information on the situation in the society identifying those suspects, crime prone
areas and recidivists. Thus, the appropriate deployment and conduct of patrol
officers in reducing crimes is very important component of policing.
(PNP
Managing Patrol Operations Manual, 2015)
Police patrols plays significant role in public service through preventing
crimes, deterring and responding incidents. The patrolling is relevant component
and functions of police officers. Verily, the objectives and goals of police patrol
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includes the criminal apprehension, crime prevention, order maintenance, traffic
enforcements and public services. Notably, the police officers can manage their
daily operations through schematic design from the command officers and choice
of patrol strategies within police units. According to Zhang & Brown (2013) that
there are three (3) major types of patrol strategies for patrol officers: random patrol,
directed patrol and active patrol.
The patrol routes should be random so that the criminals cannot predict the
presence of the police. Some patrol officers choose one strategy or make
combination in accommodating the specific conditions in the area. Other patrol
officers take more efforts in crime hotspot in order they can directly reduce the
crimes in the said area or hotspots. One of the patrol principles is beat integrity
where the patrol officer is expected in remaining within the assigned patrol district.
In active patrol, the patrol officers should use every opportunity to detect, observe,
discover and interdict the unusual happening. The Beat integrity patrol can be
relative or absolute depending on the size of the patrol district and number of patrol
units assigned and activity within the area. In relative beat integrity, patrol officers
remained within the patrol unit and leave only for justifiable reason such as but are
not limited to, respond to a call for service (CFS) incident in another district and/or
back up another officer in patrolling the hotspot area. The absolute beat integrity,
the patrol officers remained in the assigned patrol district at all times. In beat
integrity cases, it denotes that when there is call of service (CFS) incident, the
nearest police car responded to the emergency call. It is noteworthy to stress out
that patrol districts should be designed in a systematic and rational manner. Some
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scholars believed that there are several factors to be considered in designing patrol
districts such as, natural or manmade barriers, workload indicators like, criminal
incidents, the size of the area to be patrolled should not exceed the limit that a
single officer can cover and significant area characteristics like, major shopping
centers. Different cities have different crime pattern. Crime incidents are more
likely to happen in some areas thus, police patrol resources should be allocated
based on the characteristics of the place. The major determinant of the
effectiveness of patrol operations are the shape, size, geography and
demographics of the patrol district.
Police Checkpoints
The checkpoints are constituted in order to deter impaired driving and not
to increase arrests. Police just arrest drivers being detected at checkpoints and
publicize those arrests. The checkpoint arrest should not be used as a measure of
checkpoint effectiveness. The checkpoint takes place in which the law enforcement
officers stop the vehicles to determine if the driver has no impairment. Police
officers urge the drivers to stop at regular interval to make sure the driver is sane
and there is no reason the police will perceive an arrest to him.
Thus, the
checkpoint should be extensively publicized, visible and conducted regularly.
(UNC Highway Safety Research Center, 2011) Checkpoint has positive results
such as, it reduces injury, alcohol-related fatal, and property damage, it reduces
alcohol among others. The implementation of checkpoints can be done quickly if
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officers are well-trained in detecting impaired drivers and with proper knowledge
on operational procedures. They should also consider other instances when doing
checkpoints such as, police officers check whether the seat belt is use, check for
valid driver’s license, stolen vehicles, outstanding warrants, traffic incidents and
criminal infractions.
According to Revised Philippine National Police Operational Procedures
(2013) that checkpoint is a place where the police regularly check the pedestrian
traffic and vehicular traffic and they enforced control measures to maintain
orderliness and see to it that other rules, regulations and laws are not impeded. It
also established to arrest an individual when there is fugitive and criminal from
justice. It prevented the escape of individuals with criminal records. More so, it is
administered to deny the transfer and proliferation of instruments of crime. Some
studies considered checkpoints as a crime detection activity and traffic
enforcement scheme. It yields an apprehension for illegal firearms, drug violations,
stolen vehicles, and outstanding warrants. The opportunity of the individuals to
commit the crime is reduced when there is high visibility of police in the area most
especially in the hotspot places. Criminals recognized risk of being arrested for
their other criminal acts and intentions.
The PNP police visibility activities such as, checkpoints, nature of the
checkpoint, frequency of the checkpoint, patrolling are grounded on the theory and
psychology of police omnipresence. (Nunn & Newby, 2011) It eliminates the
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criminals on the desire of committing a crime when the police or other law
enforcement officers are always present in particular time and place. It is implanted
in the mind of the criminals the presence of police 24/7 in specific area thereby, it
compels them to commit any crimes. Thereupon, employing more police officers
and allocating officers heightens the possibility of apprehension on the substantial
marginal deterrent effects. (Durlauf & Nagin, 2011) Furthermore, the general public
really believes that the visibility and number of officers are more effective in
tackling crime rather than addressing the root causes of crime. The contention is
rebutted by the Revised Police
Community Relations Manual (2012) that community policing can be
achieved through three (3) types of activities such as, organizational work,
community interactions, and patrol activities. As such, community policing is a
system which links the PNP to the society.
Thereafter, they created a cohesive and positive community interaction
which leads welfare to the citizens living in the community.
Foreign Studies
Effectiveness of Police Visibility
Police visibility through constant patrolling creates an atmosphere of safety
and security in the community. Through patrolling, patrol officers are able to
discuss with their superiors the problems they come across in the community and
the peace and order concerns of the residents. The College of Policing (2018)
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guidelines present the most up-to-date formulation of police visibility in community
engagement work where it remains characterized as part of a service centered on,
and responsive to, the community. The guidelines support the commitment to
proactive policing in communities set out in the National Police Chief’s Council
Policing Vision 2025; a ten-year policing plan signed up to by all police forces and
their Police Crime Commissioners. The vision recognizes the primacy of
developing and utilizing local police functions to keep people safe and provide an
‘effective, accessible and value for money service’ (APCC and NPCC, 2016, p.12).
A more recent experiment by Simpson (2017) confirmed that police officers
are generally perceived more favorably when presented on bike or on foot in
comparison to a vehicle. However, these analyses of citizen perception, as
researchers in the Newark Foot Patrol Experiment acknowledged, lack a more indepth consideration of what happens between police officers and the public on
patrol. There are a number of studies which focus more on the interventions
delivered by police officers on foot patrol. More recently, Cowell and Kringen’s
(2016) qualitative research on foot patrol as a community engagement strategy in
five US states developed the citizen perspective on interaction with police officers
on patrol. The study revealed that citizens are more likely to engage with foot patrol
because it humanizes police officers, makes them more approachable and
increases the opportunities for interaction in Literature Review 39 comparison to
motorized patrol. The preceding studies indicate that citizen engagement with
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patrol is influenced by the type of patrol and the nature of the interaction with police
officers.
One US study compared the effectiveness of different policing strategies by
randomly assigning 83 hot spots of street violence to receive high-intensity foot
patrol, problem-solving or the standard police response (Taylor and others, 2015).
During the 90day intervention period, the intensive patrol hot spots showed large
initial reductions in violence compared to the other areas. However, this effect was
not sustained, and crime returned to its previous level in the 90-day follow-up
period when the intervention was withdrawn. In comparison, while problem-solving
took slightly longer to reduce crime, it had a larger and longer-lasting effect overall.
This pattern of results suggests that a combined approach could be an effective
strategy – using targeted foot patrol to bring crime down initially alongside problemsolving to have a more lasting impact.
One study found that property crime fell by 31% in hot spots patrolled by
marked police cars compared to hot spots where business as usual was
maintained (Ratcliffe and others, 2020). Property crime did not fall in hot spots
patrolled by unmarked police cars, highlighting the importance of the police
providing a visible deterrence. Importantly, systematic reviews have shown that
crime displacement tends not to happen with focused police activity in high crime
places. The crime reduction benefits may even spread to the areas immediately
surrounding the targeted locations (Braga and others, 2019; Santos, 2014; Ariel
and others, 2016).
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On strategies of the mobile patrol unit in its anti-criminality campaign, one
of the three themes which emerged on the Strategies of the MPU or Mobile Patrol
Unity is increased police visibility. People feel that they are secured if there is a
heightened police visibility in the area. Referring to the anatomy of the crime, the
only thing that police visibility can deny is the opportunity to commit crimes, hence
this will cater huge part in preventing crimes. In the study of Johnson, M, et al.
(2015), argued that the forest crime reduced when the police started to have a
program that will directly address the illegal loggers. With this, we could see that
police visibility plays a vital role not only to protect the general welfare of the public
but also to preserve the welfare of the entire habituation. The notion that
community residents are key players responsible for the well-being of the larger
society has become a cornerstone of approaches to modern policing in democratic
societies. That is, residents’ partner with police to help maintain social order (Nalla,
Mesko, et al., 2016). This is where community satisfaction resides and will
dependent on the police effectiveness.
Local Literature
Public Participation and Cooperation in Crime Reduction
The infrastructure of crime is an inadequate job skill, the lack of educational
or recreational opportunities are activities which properly belong to the community
pillar. These are social conditions wherein the social criminal justice cannot
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resolve. Some community actions which can contribute to a lesser crime are the
gradual improvement of family and home life, reduction of criminal opportunities,
safeguarding of the integrity of the government and delivery of health and
treatment services. The government has several ways of to urge the community to
join anti-crime campaign which includes providing venues for community-based
participation in localized crime fighting, tie up partnerships with non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), and ask assistance from media groups in imposing
communication strategies which improves public awareness. The citizens should
participate in crime prevention for process of change and decision making and
innovation. There should be a community-based strategy in crime prevention
programs which the main function of community-based crime prevention groups is
the very protection of their own community and surveillance as ancillary to regular
police group.
The primary function is in information dissemination and information and
neighborhood policing. In the crime prevention, the Presidential Decree No. 1232
authorized organizations of community in participating crime prevention like, the
Barangay Initiated Ronda System. The Ronda System is the community-based
crime prevention program implemented by the Barangay Council and being
conducted by Barangay Tanods, Barangay Security and Development Officers.
Verily, the Barangay Tanods are the volunteers who are responsible for peace
keeping activities in the barangay. Recruited civilian volunteers will be engaged
primarily in unarmed civilian assistance which includes neighborhood watch,
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assistance in the identification, implementation of community development
projects, intelligence information-gathering, and gathering data and relevant
information as inputs to peace and order research and planning. There are some
non-government organizations or groups involve in crime prevention programs
such as, the Movement for the Restoration of Peace and Order (MRPO), The
Crusade Against Violence (CAV), and the Citizens’ Action Against Crime (CAAC).
They undertake relevant movements such as, sustained court watch, protest rallies
for effective response of the government in criminal justice matters, legal
assistance, information campaigns to increase awareness of victims and their
families on reporting crimes and pursuing cases in court, public education
campaigns on crime prevention to encourage vigilance on anti-violence and anticrime, and monitoring of cases pending with law enforcement agencies and the
Department of Justice.
The most recent programs in barangay which was organized by barangay
crime watch centers involved the street watch (program designed to get the
community actively involved in preventing crime and urge neighbors in helping
each other in dealing crimes in neighborhood). They expected to look-out
emergencies and crimes within the community premises. There should be activities
in improving public awareness such as, the media should forecast the problems of
criminality, make the public more conscious about crimes, machinery of criminal
justice system, and arduous process of prosecution. Lastly, there should be a
criminal justice communication plan which should conduct an Information
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Education Communication (IEC) Campaign. This campaign was initiated to
enhance public order, justice and safety through sustained and integrated
communication program. (Caparas, Donna Lynn, 2021).
Interns Perception
Students are the main and the most important resource in the teaching and
learning process. Students perception is the process of preferential treatment of
the students toward information they get from an object or any matters. Those
perceptions affect those student’s willingness to participate actively in questions
or studies. Students’ perceptions toward their internship experiences can be
defined variously. Green, Graybeal & Madison (2011) argued that student’s
internship perceptions were the perceived-values that students apply during the
internship which can develop into important traits that employers valued. These
traits are the important elements to reach the ultimate goal of the internship, which
is to clarify the future career of the participants. Yongmei, Jun and Weitz (2011)
also categorize perceptions as the attitude’s students possessed which will
influence the satisfaction and the outcome of the internship experience. According
to Hess, Strough, & Lockenhoff (2015) a growing body of research has examined
age differences in decision-making. However, compared to other areas of the
gerontological literature, empirical evidence in this field is relatively disjointed and
distributed across multiple disciplines.
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Local Studies
Checkpoints are important in maintaining public safety and reducing
criminality in the streets. PNP (2015) describes checkpoints as “the conduct of at
least 2 hours’ police check of vehicular and/or pedestrian traffic by at least 8-man
complement in a place normally considered chokepoint or crime hotspot in order
to enforce control measures, laws, ordinances and other regulations; police
stations shall be required to organize a minimum of 3 teams and conduct
simultaneous checkpoints within 8 or 12-hour shift.” Moreover, checkpoints must
not cause inconvenience nor intimidate citizens. Instead, they should provide a real
sense of safety and security (PNP, 2013).
In order to provide a better assignment of police-man or beat patrols within
the Central Business District of Cagayan de Oro, this study uses integer
programming in order to maximize police visibility within their respective areas of
responsibility in the Central Business District (CBD) of Cagayan de Oro City,
Philippines. To provide better protection in the beat areas, it might be interesting
to consider the case when exact positions of policemen within the beat areas are
identified in such a way that whenever a post becomes vacant or needs assistance,
the police in the adjacent beat can respond
.
As Mayor Rolando “Klarex” A. Uy implemented the “OPLAN REKISA” ( July
22, 2022). Klarex leads cops, regulators in Oro patrol. TEAMS of policemen and
City Hall regulators swooped into several bars here Saturday night, hours after a
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28-year-old resident of nearby Opol town was shot and killed following a rumble
among customers. Mayor Rolando Uy led the policemen and the City Regulatory
Compliance Board in the inspection of bars along Corrales Avenue and the uptown
area in the city. The killing of Mahorenos and three other cases alarmed Uy who is
just less than 18 days in office after winning the Cagayan de Oro mayoralty race
last May 9. “I wanted to know to check if the bars and restaurants are complying
with our ordinances to ensure the safety of the public,” Uy said. Uy said he wants
to help the establishments to be profitable again after suffering economic losses
when most of them closed because of the lockdowns and strict health protocols.
According to RA 8551, “The Philippine National Police shall be a community
and service-oriented agency for the maintenance of peace and order and public
safety. The PNP shall be so organized to ensure accountability and uprightness in
police exercise of discretion as well as to achieve efficiency and effectiveness of
its members and units in the performance of their functions”. The Cagayan de Oro
Police Office (COCPO) along with the Regulatory Compliance Board (RCB),
National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) and Task Force Oro conducted an Oplan
REKISA tonight in the bars located on Corrales Street in this city. In order to
provide security to the people including the establishments to stay away from the
crime happening in the city, the administration of Mayor Klarex plans to monitor
the environment, especially the security of the people. (Oplan Rekisa, Mayor
Klarex A. Uy July 22, 2022).
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Patrol is the unit of every police department that answers calls, delivers
service, prevents crime, and is considered the core of policing. Police patrol can
provide much more service when assigned optimally. Due to the limited number of
police but unlimited service requirements, police decision-makers have to properly
apportion its allocation while also properly considering the designated locations.
The patrol police location-allocation problem aims to determine the assignment of
patrol police to strategic locations in an optimal manner. This problem usually
involves many factors that may be conflicting in nature. This study introduces the
analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and goal programming methodology to solve the
patrol police location-allocation problem for Cagayan de Oro City. Results of the
study show that the proposed model provides better police visibility and maximum
protection compared to the current patrol police assignment around the city. In
reality, the police cannot stand alone in the fight against crime and the
maintenance of peace and order. They rely on the support of the community,
especially in gathering crime information and extending the much-needed human
resources. The community becomes the force multiplier of the police when properly
organized and utilized (PNP Managing Patrol Operations, 2015).
Effects of Police Visibility as Crime Reduction Measure
Police visibility is not necessarily exclusive to the physical presence of
police officers in a given area. Although the study of Reiss [3] suggest that the
presence of a law enforcer in a given area reduce victimization significantly, Adams
et al. [4] claim that presence alone is not enough. They claimed that awareness of
27
the programs implemented by the police increase the public’s confidence on the
police force. Competence also plays an important role in reducing crime rate and
fear of crime. Cordner [5] showed that the public responded positively in the
improvement of the police’s problem-solving skills. However, the Cordner [5] thinks
that there would be no public observation on the police’s competence without them
being visible to the public. This would only mean that most of the people’s
assessment on the police would rely on police visibility.