Human Anatomy
and
Physiology
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 1
The Human Body:
An Orientation
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical
College
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Human Body—An Orientation
Anatomy
•Studies the structure of body parts and their
relationships.
Physiology
•Study of how the body and its parts work or
function
Pathophysiology
•Study of functional changes associated with
disease and aging.
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Anatomy—Levels of Study
Gross or Macroscopic anatomy
•Larger structures
•Can be seen with the naked eye
•Approached of study: Regional and
Systemic Anatomy
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Anatomy—Levels of Study
Surface anatomy
•Study of internal structures as they relate to
the overlying skin surface.
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Anatomy—Levels of Study
Microscopic anatomy
•Structures cannot be seen with the
naked eye
•Structures can only be viewed with a
microscope
•Subdivisions include cytology and
histology
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Anatomy—Levels of Study
Developmental anatomy
•Traces structural changes that occur in
the body throughout the life span.
•Embryology – concerns developmental
changes that occur before birth.
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The Language of Anatomy
•Special terminology is used to prevent
misunderstanding
•Exact terms are used for
•Position
•Direction
•Regions
•Structures
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Anatomical Position
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• prone position - anatomical position is
placed face-down
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• supine position- anatomical position is
placed face-up
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• posterosuperior view combines the posterior
and superior
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• B) anterosuperior
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Regional Terms
•Anterior body
landmarks
Cephalic
Frontal
Orbital
Nasal
Buccal
Oral
Mental
Cervical
Thoracic
Sternal
Axillary
Upper limb
Acromial
Deltoid
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Abdominal
Umbilical
Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin)
Carpal (wrist)
Manus (hand)
Digital
Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Pubic (genital)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Crural (leg)
KEY:
Fibular
Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Digital
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(a) Anterior/Ventral
Figure 1.5a
Regional Terms
Cephalic
Occipital (back
of head)
Upper limb
Acromial
Cervical
•Posterior body
landmarks
Brachial (arm)
Back (dorsal)
Scapular
Olecranal
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Vertebral
Lumbar
Manus (hand)
Digital
Sacral
Gluteal
Lower limb
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular
KEY:
Thorax
Pedal (foot)
Calcaneal
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Plantar
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(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Figure 1.5b
Directional Terms
•Superior (cranial or cephalad)
toward the head end or upper part of a
structure or the body; above
•Inferior (caudal)
away from the head end or toward the
lower part of a structure
the body; below
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Directional Terms
•Ventral (anterior)
toward or at the front of the body; in front of
•Dorsal (posterior)
toward or at the backside of the
body; behind
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Directional Terms
•Medial:
toward or at the midline of the
body; on the inner side of
•Lateral:
away from the midline of the
body; on the outer side of the
body
•Intermediate:
between a more medial and a
more lateral structure
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Directional Terms
•Proximal:
close to the origin of the body
part or point of attachment to a
limb to the body trunk
•Distal:
farther from the origin of a body
part or the point of attachment of
a limb to the body trunk
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Directional Terms
•Superficial:
toward or at the body surface
•Deep:
away from the body surface;
more internal
•Ipsilateral: on the same side
•Contralateral: opposite side
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(a) Median (midsagittal)
Vertebral
column
Rectum
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Intestines
(b) Frontal (coronal) plane
Right
lung Heart
Liver
Left
lung
Stomach Spleen
(c) Transverse plane
Liver Aorta
Spinal
cord
Spleen
Subcutaneous Stomach
fat layer
Figure 1.6
Naming Structures of the Body
PREFIX
MEANING
EXAMPLE
abdomin/o
abdomen
Peritoneal
acr/o
extremity
Acromegaly
aden/o
gland
Adenoma
angi/o
vessel
Angiogram
arthr/o
joint
Arthritis
cardi/o
heart
chondr/o
cartilage
cyst/o
bladder
Cystitis
cyt/o
cell
cytology
den/o
tooth
dermat/o
skin
derm/o
skin
duoden/o
duodenum
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Naming Structures of the Body
PREFIX
MEANING
EXAMPLE
gastro
stomach
Gastritis
hepat/o
liver
Hepatitis / Hepatoma
laryng/o
larynx
Laryngitis
my/o
muscle
Myology/Myositis
nephr/o
kidney
Nephritis
neur/o
nerve
Neurology
oste/o
bone
Osteoporosis
ot/o
ear
Otitis
path/o
disease
Pathologic Anatomy
rhin/o
nose
Rhinitis / Rhinoplasty
stomat/o
mouth
Stomatitis
thorac/o
Thorax (chest)
Pleural
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Body Cavities
•Dorsal body cavity
•Cranial cavity houses the brain
•Spinal cavity houses the spinal cord
•Ventral body cavity
•Thoracic cavity houses heart, lungs, and
others
•Abdominopelvic cavity houses digestive
system and most urinary system organs
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Body cavities (and organs found within
them):
•Dorsal
Cranial cavity
- within the rigid
skull, contains the
brain.
Spinal cavity
- which runs within
the bony vertebral
column, protects the
spinal cord.
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Body cavities (and organs found within
them):
•Ventral
•Thoracic cavity
• Pleural cavity
• Mediastinum
• Pericardial cavity
•Abdominopelvic cavity
• Abdominal cavity
- stomach
- intestines
- liver, etc.
• Pelvic cavity
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Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
•Called serous membranes or serosa
•Parietal serosa lines internal body walls
•Visceral serosa covers the internal organs
•Serous fluid separates the serosae
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Heart Serosae
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Figure 1.10b
Serous Membrane Relationship
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Figure 1.10a
Abdominopelvic quadrants (and organs found in each
region):
•Right upper
•Right lower
•Left upper
•Left lower
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Nine abdominopelvic regions (and organs in
each regions):
• Right hypochondriac
• Epigastric
• Left hypochondriac
• Right lumbar
• Umbilical
• Left lumbar
• Right iliac (inguinal)
• Hypogastric
• Left iliac (inguinal)
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Other Body Cavities
•Oral and digestive cavities
•Nasal Cavity
•Orbital cavities
•Middle ear cavities
•Synovial cavities
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Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
2 Cellular level
Cells are made
up of molecules.
Atoms
1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessels
Heart
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
different types of tissues.
Blood
vessel
(organ)
Cardio–
vascular
system
6 Organismal level
Human organisms are
made up of many organ
systems.
5 Organ system level
Organ systems consist of
different organs that work
together closely.
Levels of Structural Organization
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Figure 1.1
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Figure 1.1, step 2
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Figure 1.1, step 3
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Figure 1.1, step 4
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Figure 1.1, step 5
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Figure 1.1, step 6
Organ System Overview
•Integumentary
•Protects deeper organs from
injury due to bumps,
chemicals, bacteria, and
dehydration.
•Excretes salts and urea
•Helps regulate body
temperature
•Produces vitamin D
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• Components
• Skin
• Nails
• Hair
• Cutaneous sense
organs and glands
Organ System Overview
•Skeletal
•Protects and supports internal
organs
•Provides levers for muscular
action
•Cavities provide a site of
blood cell formation
•Stores minerals
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• Components
• Bones
• Cartilage
• Tendons
• Ligaments
Organ System Overview
•Muscular
•Produces movement
•Maintains posture
•Produces heat
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Organ System Overview
•Nervous
•Fast-acting control system
•Responds to internal and
external change
•Activates muscles and
glands
•Helps maintain short-term
homeostasis of the body
via rapid transmission of
electrical signals
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Organ System Overview
•Endocrine system
•Secretes chemical
molecules, called hormones,
into the blood
•Body functions controlled by
hormones include:
•Growth
•Reproduction
•Use of nutrients
•Plays a role in regulating
long-term homeostasis
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Organ System Overview
•Cardiovascular
•Transports materials in
body via blood pumped
by heart
•Oxygen
•Carbon dioxide
•Nutrients
•Wastes
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Organ System Overview
•Lymphatic
•Returns fluids to blood
vessels
•Cleanses the blood
•Involved in immunity
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Organ System Overview
•Respiratory
•Keeps blood supplied
with oxygen
•Removes carbon dioxide
•Contributes to the acidbase balance of the
blood
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Organ System Overview
•Digestive
•Breaks down food
•Allows for nutrient
absorption into blood
•Eliminates indigestible
material as feces
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Organ System Overview
•Urinary
•Eliminates nitrogenous
wastes
•Maintains acid-base
balance
•Regulates water and
electrolytes
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Organ System Overview
•Reproductive
•Produces offspring
•Testes produce
sperm and male
hormone
•Ovaries produce
eggs and female
hormones
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Necessary Life Functions
•Maintain boundaries
•Internal environment remains distinct from
the external environment
•Movement
•Locomotion
•Movement of substances
•Responsiveness or excitability
•Ability to sense changes and react
•Digestion
•Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
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Necessary Life Functions
•Metabolism—chemical reactions within the
body
•Break down complex molecules into smaller
ones
•Build larger molecules from smaller ones
•Produces energy
•Regulated by hormones
•Excretion
•Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions
•Wastes may be removed in urine or feces
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Necessary Life Functions
•Reproduction
•Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
•Produces future generation
•Growth
•Increases cell size and number of cells
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Survival Needs
•Nutrients
•Chemicals for energy and cell building
•Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, and minerals
•Oxygen
•Required for chemical reactions
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Survival Needs
•Water
•60 to 80 percent of body weight
•Most abundant chemical in the human body
•Provides for metabolic reaction
•Stable body temperature
•37°C (98°F)
•Atmospheric pressure
•Must be appropriate for gas exchange
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Maintaining Homeostasis
•The body communicates through neural and
hormonal control systems
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Homeostasis
•Homeostasis—maintenance of relatively
stable internal conditions
•A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
•Necessary for normal body functioning and
to sustain life
•Homeostatic imbalance
•A disturbance in homeostasis results in
disease
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3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
1 Stimulus
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sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Effector
5 Response
detects change.
produces
change in
variable.
4 Output: Information
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
Figure 1.4
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
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VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Figure 1.4, step 1
2 Receptor
detects change.
Receptor
•Receptor
•Responds to changes in the
environment (stimuli)
•Sends information to control
center
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
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VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Figure 1.4, step 2
3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
detects change.
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
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VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
•Control center
•Determines set
point
•Analyzes
information
•Determines
appropriate
response
Figure 1.4, step 3
3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
4 Output: Information
sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Effector
detects change.
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
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VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
•Effector
•Provides a
means for
response to the
stimulus
Figure 1.4, step 4
3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
1 Stimulus
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sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Effector
5 Response
detects change.
produces
change in
variable.
4 Output: Information
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
Figure 1.4, step 5
Feedback Mechanisms
•Negative feedback
•Includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms
•Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its
intensity
•Works like a household thermostat
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Feedback Mechanisms
•Positive feedback
•Increases the original stimulus to push the
variable farther
•In the body this only occurs in blood clotting
and during the birth of a baby
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Homeostatic imbalance +
•SEROSITIS – inflammation of the serous
membrane
3 TYPES:
•Pericarditis – inflammation of pericardium
(heart)
•Pleuritis – also pleurisy
- inflammation of pleura (lungs)
•Peritonitis – peritoneum
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