KINSHIP
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Relationship between any entitles that share a genealogical origin, through
biological, cultural, or historical descent.
Kinship system includes people related both by descent and marriage.
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KINSHIP PATTERNS
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A network of people who are related by marriage, blood, or social practice.
Kinship is a means by which societies can socialize children and transmit culture
from one generation to the next.
Kinship creates complex social bonds.
Affinity – human kinship relations through marriage.
FUNCTIONS:
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Provides continuity between generations.
Defines a group on whom a person can rely for aid.
KINSHIP BY BLOOD (DESCENT)
1. UNILENIAL
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Descent based on links through paternal or maternal line; forms nonoverlapping descent groups that perpetuate themselves over time even
though membership changes.
2. MATRILINEAL
 The family relatives on the mother side provide greater support,
exert greater influence, and predominantly impose its norms on the
family.
3. PATRILINEAL
 The family relatives on the father side provide support, exert
greater influence, and predominantly impose its norms on the family.
4. BILATERAL
 The family relatives on both mother and father side support, exert
influence, and impose its norms on the family on equal terms.
KINSHIP BY MARRIAGE
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Marriage is of different types across the world. Types of weddings
are not to be confused with types of marriage, as weddings can of be
different types as per the community even if the type of marriage is
Monogamous. Forms of marriage are also culturally driven and
different types of marriage in the world are prevalent among variant
societies. The types of marriage in sociology are as listed and
explained below.
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Two individuals involved in a socially approved relationship.
o Intimate, mutual long-term obligations
o Fulfilled customary, ceremonial, or legal requirements.
Polygamy
o It is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one
woman at a given time. It is of two types – Sororal Polygyny
and Non-Sororal Polygyny
Sororal Polygyny – it is a type of marriage in which the wives are
invariably the sisters. It is often called sororate.
Non-Sororal Polygyny - It is a type of marriage in which the wives re
not related as sisters.
Polyandry – It is the marriage of one woman with more than one man.
It is less common than polygyny. It is of two types – Fraternal
Polyandry and Non- Fraternal Polyandry.
Fraternal Polyandry – When several brothers share the same wife the
practice can be called adelphic or fraternal polyandry. This practice
MARRIAGE
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of being mate, actual or potential to one’s husband’s brothers is
called levirate.
Non-Fraternal Polyandry – in this type of the husband need not have
any close relationship prior to the marriage. The wife goes to spend
some time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her
husbands; the others have no claim over her.
Monogamy
o It is a form of marriage in which one man marries one woman. It
is the most common and acceptable form of marriage.
o Serial Monogamy – in many societies individuals are permitted
to marry again often on the death of the first spouse or after
divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and
the same time.
o Straight Monogamy – in this, remarriage is not allowed.
 Group Marriage
o It means the marriage of two or more women with two or more
men. Here the husbands are common husbands and wives are
common wives. Children are regarded as the children of the
entire group.
KINSHIP BY RITUAL
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A type of fictive kinship created ritually to forge bonds between
people who are not literally related (i.e., the institution of
“compadrazgo” or “godparents” in general).
Confraternities were the most common form of organized religious
life in medieval and early modern Europe. They were at once the
lay face of the church, the spiritual heart of civic engagement of
government, and social kin who claimed the allegiance of peers and
the obedience of subordinates.
FAMILY AND THE HOUSEHOLD
FAMILY
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Refers to a socially defined kinship structures or set of relationships
between at least two people related by birth, marriage, blood relationship,
or adoption.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
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Nuclear – the family constitutes of the father and mother with child/children.
Extended – it is the stretched-out organization of the family that constitutes
the nuclear family and its relatives living and functioning together as a unit.
Polygynous – the family constitutes of a father with two or more mothers and
their children.
Polyandrous – the family constitutes of a mother with two or more fathers and
their children.
Single-Parent – the family constitutes of a single parent, either a father or a
mother with child/children.
AUTHORITY BASE
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Patriarchal – the father plays the dominant role in having supremacy and
predominant influence in managing the family. In the absence of the father, the
eldest male family members or the nearest and most senior male relative takes
charge.
Matriarchal – the mother plays the dominant role in having supremacy and
predominant influence in managing the family. In the absence mother, the eldest
female family members, or the nearest and most senior female relative takes
charge.
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Egalitarian – both father and mother are involved in more or less equal power
sharing and exercise of influence in managing the family.
RESIDENTIAL ARRANGEMENT
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Neolocal – the customary practice of living independently form the relatives and
whose domicile is fixed away from the extended family.
Patrilocal – the customary arrangement whereby a married couple is expected to
take up residence with relatives of the father side.
Matrilocal – the customary arrangement whereby a married couple is free to take
up residence with relatives of the mother side.
Bilocal – the customary arrangement whereby a married couple is free to take up
residence with relatives of either the mother or father side.
KINSHIP BY POLITICS
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Kinship politics is commonly found in tribal societies across the world where kin
genealogy is applied to determine the system of communal leadership. It is the
traditional pattern of bequeathing power among family members.
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POLITICAL DYNASTY
 Lineage of heredity succession to an essentially same position.
Family members follow one another to the position. A ruler in a
dynasty is sometimes referred to as a “dynast”, but this is also used
to describe any member of a reigning family who retains succession
rights to a throne.
POLITICAL ALLIANCES
 Referred to as a Political Coalition or Political Bloc
 An agreement for cooperation between different political parties on
common political agenda, often for purposes of contesting an election
to mutually benefit by collectively clearing election thresholds, or
otherwise benefiting from characteristics of the voting system or for
government formation after elections.
 A Coalition government is formed when a political alliance comes to
power, or when only a plurality (not a majority) has been reached and
several parties must work together to govern.
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STRATIFICATION
Meaning and Nature of Stratification
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Social Stratification refers to the ranking of individuals and groups in
any given society. It refers to the division of society into levels, steps
or positions. It contains strata that share unequally in the distribution
of societal rewards. Social stratification tends to be transmitted from one
generation to another. The people are ranked based on a hierarchy that are
significant in delimiting their access to the range of resources and/or
opportunities available to them.
DIMENSIONS OF STRATIFICATION
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Wealth and Income
 Wealth consists of the value of everything a person or group owns.
 Income refers to how many people get in or the amount of money a
person/group receives from work.
Inequalities of Power
 Power is the ability to control one’s own life (personal power) and
to control or influence the actions of others (social power)
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Inequalities of Prestige
 Prestige is the social recognition that a person or group receives
from others. It refers to the esteem, respect, or approval that is
gained by an individual or a collectively for the performance or
qualities they consider above the average.
SOCIAL MOBILITY AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY
OPEN AND CLOSED STRATIFICATION
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Open System – position of each individual influence by the person’s
achieved status.
Close System – allows little or no possibility of moving up.
SOCIAL MOBILTY
TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILTY
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Horizontal Mobility – is the movement within the same range of
prestige. It refers to transfer of position to another area, but no
changes in position.
Vertical Mobility – Is the movement from one position to another of a
different rank. The movement may be an upward mobility or downward
mobility.
Intragenerational – occurs when changes take place from one generation
to another.
SOCIAL INEQUALITY
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Pertains to the uneven opportunities and rewards accessible to different
positions or statuses of people in the society. It refers to the existing gap or
inequalities in the different social institutions and social groups, including
the ethnic minorities and PWD, gender and global inequalities.
Social Inequality is also visible in the other areas of society including:
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Economic (Marx) – Class – institutionalized in the form of property rights.
Symbolic/Social (Weber) – power/hierarchy – institutionalized in the form of
educational qualifications.
Cultural Knowledge (Bourdieu) – Status / recognition – institutionalized in the
form of title and nobility.
ETHNIC MINORITIES AND PERSON WITH DISABILITES (PWD)
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Social Exclusion – refers to alienating or dividing individuals or a group in a
certain society.
Race and Ethnicity have been the basis of social division in the world.
They suffer from social exclusion and discrimination because of their
disabilities.
Establishments should provide PWD friendly facilities.
GENDER INEQUALITY
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Violence against women and children
Gender discrimination among LGBTQs
GLOBAL INEQUALITY
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It refers to the unequal distribution of scarce resources and values across
territories.
 Developing (poor, agricultural) vs Developed countries (industrialized)
 First World (developed, capitalist, industrial countries) vs Third World
(developing)
 Global South (Philippines, struggling countries) vs Global North
(Singapore, US, UK, Japan)
FUNCTIONS AND IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION IN THE SOCIETY
EDUCATION
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Education is the social institution through which society provides its members
with important knowledge, including basic facts, job skills, and cultural, norms
and values.
Education is the acquisition of knowledge, habits, skills, and abilities through
instruction and training or through self-activity.
It is systematic training of the moral and intellectual faculties of the mind.
It is the process of transmitting to the young, the vital cultural heritage of a
group.
TYPES OF EDUCATION
1. FORMAL EDUCATION
- This refers to the hierarchically structured, chronologically graded educational
system from primary school to the university, including programs and institutions
for full time technical and vocational training. At the end of each level, the
learners must obtain certification to enter or advance to the next level. Formal
education shall correspond to the following levels in basic education:
 Elementary Education - Elementary education involves compulsory, formal education
primarily concerned with providing basic education, and usually corresponds to a
traditional six grades or seven grades, and in addition, to preschool programs.
Such preschool education normally consists of kindergarten schooling but may
cover other preparatory courses as well.
 Secondary Education - Secondary education, public schools, and private schools,
is concerned primarily with continuing basic education of the elementary level
and expanding it to include the learning of employable, gainful skills, usually
corresponding to four years of junior high school and two years of senior high
school.
 Tertiary Education - Institutions of higher education may be classified as
either public or private college or university, and public institutions of higher
education may further be subdivided into two types: state universities and
colleges and local colleges and universities.
2. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION
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It refers to any organized educational activity outside the established formal
system to provide selected types of learning to a segment of the population.
Example: Vocational Education
3. INFORMAL EDUCATION
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It is a lifelong process whereby every individual acquires from daily
experiences, attitudes, values, facts, skills, and knowledge or motor skill from
resources in his or her higher environment.
*SPECIAL EDUCATION - refers to the education of persons who are physically, mentally,
emotionally, socially, or culturally different from so-called “normal” individuals,
such that they require modification of school practices to develop their potential.
Special education provides distinct services, curricula, and instructional materials
geared to pupils or students who are significantly higher or lower than the average or
norm.
*SPED aims to develop the maximums potential of the child with the special needs to
enable him/her to become self-reliant and take advantage of the opportunities for a
full and happy life.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN THE SOCIETY
1. Productive Citizenry
 Education systems enable citizens to be productive members of a society, as
they are equipped with knowledge and skills that could contribute to the
development of their society’s systems and institutions.
2. Self-Actualization
 According to Abraham Maslow, self-actualization is the highest form of
human need. It was defined as “to become more and more what one is, to
become everything that one is capable of becoming.” The concept of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs is once that level is fulfilled the next level up is
what motivates us, and so on.
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Physiological needs - these are biological requirements for human
survival, e.g., air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. If
these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally.
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Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability,
freedom from fear.
 Love and belongingness needs -the need for interpersonal relationships
motivates behavior. Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and
acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being
part of a group (family, friends, work).
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Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem
for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, and independence) and (ii) the
desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).
Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important
for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.
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Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, selffulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.
Primary Education as a Human Right
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Primary education is essential in the early stages of human life. Humans need
education to enable them to adapt to the dictates of their society. The United
Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) declare that
education is a fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all
other human rights. It promotes individual freedom and empowerment and yields
important development benefits. Yet millions of children and adults remain
deprived of educational opportunities, many as a result of poverty.”
STATE INSTITUTIONS
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The Executive Branch - is comprised of the President and the Vice
President who are chosen by direct popular vote and fulfill a term of
six years. The Constitution grants the President authority to appoint
his Cabinet. These departments form a large portion of the country’s
bureaucracy.
The Legislative Branch - can make laws, alter, and reverse them
through the power bestowed in the Philippine Congress. This
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institution is divided into the Senate and the House of
Representatives
The Judicial Branch – maintains the power to resolve disputes
concerning rights that are legally demandable and enforceable. This
branch decides whether there has been a serious abuse of judgment
amounting to lack or excess of authority on the part and
instrumentality of the government. It is made up of a Supreme Court
and lower courts.
POWER - is the capacity to realize desired ends despite opposition from others.
The utilization of power is the business of government, which is defined as a
formal organization that directs the political life of a society.
AUTHORITY – a power that people perceive as legitimate rather than coercive.
Types of Authority:
1. Traditional Authority - respect for a long-standing cultural pattern is used to
legitimize power.
2. Rational -Legal Authority - or also known as bureaucratic authority; legally
created rules and regulations are used to legitimize power.
3. Charismatic Authority - extraordinary personal skills that inspire devotion and
obedience are used to legitimize power.
ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS
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is being defined as an enduring organization, practice, or relationship created
by individuals to handle and cope with basic economic dilemmas.
FORMS OF REDISTRIBUTION AND EXCHANGE OF PRODUCTS
1. Reciprocity - Transaction between two socially equal parties having the same
status with regards to values of goods or services.
Example: The dowry given by a Muslim groom to his prospective bride is a
transaction between two socially equal parties having the same status with
regards to values of goods or services. Tantamount to the wealth and educational
attainment possessed by the latter.
TYPES OF RECIPROCITY:
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GENERALIZED RECIPROCITY - A form of transaction which utilizes gestures that
expresses personal relationships than economic transactions.
Example: in the Philippines, most often than not, the eldest child expresses
generalized reciprocity to his or her family by graduating, and in exchange, they
will be providing means to sustain the academic needs of their other siblings.
BALANCED RECIPROCITY - In this form of transaction, the giver is
expected to gain something in return although it does not have to be given
instantly.
Example: One good example is the business transaction between Filipino artists
and advertisement companies. Artists will perform activities that are required of
him or her by the said advertisement company in exchange for publicity and
exposure.
NEGATIVE RECIPROCITY - This transaction is being practiced using deceiving
ways to gain profit. In this form of transaction, individuals involved try to
gain as much as conceivable while paying the least amount possible.
Example: Business ventures offered to you by persons you do not have a personal
relationship with.
2. REDISTRIBUTION - The process by which products produced out from
the community is sent to a place where they are stored, counted, and later
distributed back to the people.
Example: Taxes are collected from individuals based on their income. The money
collected is distributed to other members of society through different government
programs.
Charitable donation functions similarly.
3. MARKET EXCHANGE - The price of the transactions of deliverables and services are
supposedly governed by the rules of supply and demand.
Example: A transaction that uses money in exchange for goods or services.
NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS
BANKS - A bank is a financial institution that receives deposits from the public and
generates credit.
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Commercial / Retail Banks - Manage withdrawals and deposits as
well as
supplying short-term loans to a person and small-scale businesses.
Investment Bank - A bank that purchases large holdings of newly
issued shares and resells them to investors.
Insurance and Companies - Offers insurance policies to the public
either by selling them directly to a person or through an employer’s
benefit plan.
COOPERATION - A corporation is a legal unit that is distinct from its owners. Moreover,
a corporation has the right to enter contracts, loan and borrow money, hire employees,
own assets, and pay taxes.
COOPERATIVES - Cooperatives are jointly owned enterprises engaging in the production or
distribution of goods or services. Cooperatives are usually operated by farmers or
consumers for their mutual benefit.
TRADE UNIONS - Trade unions or also known as labor unions are consist of workforces who
have come together to attain mutual goals like protecting the integrity of its trade,
improving safety standards, achieving higher pay and benefits like health care, and
retirement.
TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY GROUPS - Organizations that are devoted to manipulating
political, economic, social, and institutional decisions across country borders.
DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES - These are independent organizations whose
goals are to help develop and support economic growth especially for the poor and
marginal portion of the society. So, they may have opportunities for income and
decent employment.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATUIONS
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International Non-governmental organizations - transcend borders in pursuit of a
common cause. Examples of INGO’s
International Governmental Organizations - refer to a grouping established by
states and are based on treatise, have formal structures, and meet at regular
intervals. Example of IGO’S
RELIGION AND BEILEF SYSTEMS
RELIGION
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is a social institution that answers questions and explains the seemingly
inexplicable. It provides explanations for why things happen and demystifies the
ideas of birth and death.
Considered as one of the most influential and universal forces in society.
RELIGIOUS PATTERNS
1. ANIMISM – refers to the belief in innumerable spiritual beings concerned with
huma affairs and capable of helping or harming human interests.
Importance of Animism
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Animism denotes not a single creed or doctrine but a view of the world consistent
with a certain range of religious beliefs and practices, many of which may
survive in more – complex and hierarchical religions.
Modem scholarship’s concern with animism is coequal with the problem of rational
or scientific understanding of religion itself.
2. MONOTHEISM – refers to the belief in the existence of one god, or in the oneness
of God; as such, it is distinguished from polytheism, the belief in the existence
of any gods, and from atheism, the belief that there is no god.
o Monotheism characterizes the traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam, and elements of the belief are discernible in numerous other
religions.
3. POLYTHEISM – belief in, or worship of, multiple gods or divinities. The word
comes from the Greek words’ poly + theol, literally “many gods”.
o Present-day polytheistic religions include Hindu- ism, Shinto, some forms
of Wicca, Vodun, and Asatru.
INSTITUTIONALIZED RELIGION
TWO FORMS OF RELIGION:
1. RELIGION (and the definition of it) – limitless and open
2. Institutionalized Religion – formed by a sect, meaning it is not limitless, and
it is closed.
Institutionalized Religion
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Organized religion, also known as institutional religion, is a social
institution in which belief systems and rituals are systematically arranged
and formally established.
Organized religion is typically characterized by an official doctrine (or
dogma), a hierarchical or bureaucratic leadership structure, and a
codification of rules and practices.
The term organized religion is frequently used in the mass media to refer
to the world’s largest religious groups, especially those known by name
intentionally, and it also refers to organizations with which one can
legally or officially affiliate oneself.
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Christianity
 The most widespread world religion
 It is derived from Judaism
 Based on the belief that Jesus Christ is the son of God and the redeemer of
mankind.
Islam
 Followers of Islam are called Muslims
 Muslims believe that the true word of God was revealed to the prophet
Muhammad around 570 A.D.
 God in Islams is the same God as the Christian and Judaic deity
Judaism
 It is monotheistic religion that predates Christianity, built on the belief
that the Israelites are the “chosen people” of God.
Buddhism
 Buddhists, most of whom live in Japan, Thailand, Cambodia, and Burma,
follow the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a spiritual teacher of the
sixth century B.C.E. Buddhism, like Hinduism, does not feature any single
all-powerful deity but teaches that by eschewing materialism, one can
transcend the illusion of life and achieve enlightenment.
Hinduism
 Hinduism is the oldest major world religion, dominant in India.
 Hindus do not worship a single person or deity but rather are guided by a
set of ancient cultural beliefs.
 They believe in the principle of karma, which is the wisdom or health of
one’s eternal soul.
 Hindus believe that karma plays a role in reincarnation, a cycle of
continuous rebirth through which, ideally, the soul can achieve spiritual
perfection.
 Karma can be strengthened with good acts and harmed by bad acts.
RELIGIOUS GROUPS
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CHURCH – religious group integrated with society
SECT – is a religious group that sets itself apart from society as a whole
CULT - is a religious group that is outside the standard cultural norms,
typically centered on a charismatic leader.
SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE
HEALTH
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BUGHAT (Ilonggo) / BINAT (tagalog) – terms used to refer to the ailments
(headache, chills, body pains, malaise, dizziness, muscle weakness, and in some
it is blindness) a mother experiences after giving birth or after having suffered
abortion or miscarriage if she did not follow certain rituals after childbirth.
SYSTEM OF DIAGNOSIS, PREVENTION AND HEALING
HEALTH AS A HUMAN RIGHT
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Means that everyone has the right to the highest attainable standard of physical
and mental health, which includes access to all medical services, sanitation,
adequate food, descent housing, healthy working conditions, and a clean
environment.
The design of a health care system must be guided by the following key human
rights standards:
 Universal access
 Availability
 Acceptable and dignity
 Quality
The human right to health also entails the following procedural principles, which
apply to all human rights:
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Non-Discrimination
Transparency
Participation
Accountability
HEALTHCARE is a human rights campaign in several U.S. states, inspired by the
example of Vermont, which in 2011 became the first state to pass a law for
universal, publicly financed health care system. All of these campaigns have
translated the human rights standards listed above into clear human rights
principles that guide their actions and policy positions:
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Universality. Everyone must have access to equal high-quality and comprehensive
health care.
Equity. Resources and services must be distributed and accessed according to
people’s needs. We get what we need and give what we can.
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