C H A P TER
44
Radiation
Bruce Busby
Introduction
Far from being an unknown force that is hard to
detect, radiation characteristics are well known and
radiation is easy to detect down to small quantities.
For many, certain images come to mind when they
hear the word ‘radiation,’ such as mushroom clouds,
smoke rising from Chernobyl, Three Mile Island cooling towers and those famous radiation mutants – the
Incredible Hulk, Spiderman, and the Fantastic Four.
Mass media has played a role in creating erroneous
ideas and myths about radiation. The Internet and
World Wide Web provide information resources for the
public and professionals. Indeed, there might be too
much information available, some good and some bad.
This article is meant to provide a reference to what the
author considers to be useful sources of books, articles,
and online information about radiation.
The general public is leery of and understands little
of what radiation is or what it is not. In the simplest
terms, radiation is energy in transit in the form of
high-speed particles or electromagnetic waves. In
typical usage, the word radiation means the ionizing
radiation, i.e. radiation with enough energy to release
electrons in the material it interacts with, such as
gamma rays and beta particles. Non-ionizing radiation sources such as microwaves or radio waves can
also be a hazard though.
Radioactive materials, substances that give off radiation, are found naturally in everything we touch, eat,
and inhale. The Earth’s atmosphere is continually
bombarded with cosmic radiation, some of which
reaches the surface. Radiation is a known carcinogen
and mutagen to which every human on the planet is
exposed to every second of every day. Radiation is a
natural part of our environment and it plays important
roles in medicine, industry, and academic research.
INFORMATION RESOURCES IN TOXICOLOGY, FOURTH EDITION
Resources
Books
ANSI Z136 Working group (2007)
ANSI Z136.1 Safe Use of Lasers
Laser Institute of America.
The technical safety standard for lasers is the Z136 series
and the revised ANSI Z136.1 (2007) provides guidance
for the safe use of lasers and laser systems by defining
control measures for each of the four laser classes.
BEIR VI Committee (1999)
Health Effects of Exposure to Radon: BEIR VI
National Academies Press.
The report is from the Committee on Health Risks of
Exposure to Radon (BEIR VI), part of the National
Research Council and National Academy of Sciences
to estimate the risk from radon. It contains a very
comprehensive listing of sources and references.
BEIR VII Committee (2005)
Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing
Radiations: BEIR VII Phase 2
National Academies Press.
The report is from the Committee to Assess Health
Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing
Radiation (BEIR VII), part of the National Research
Council and National Academy of Sciences, to estimate
395
Copyright © 2009 by Academic Press.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
396
Resources
the risk from low-level radiation. It contains a very
comprehensive listing of sources and references.
Herman Cember (1996)
Introduction to Health Physic, 3rd Edition
McGraw-Hill Medical.
Textbook and reference on radiation physics, interactions and protection, with chapters also on nonionizing radiation. Good overall review of radiation
safety, nuclear processes, internal and external dosimetry, detection, and monitoring.
Merril Eisenbud and Thomas Gesell (1997)
Environmental Radioactivity, 4th Edition
Academic Press.
Textbook and reference for radioactivity in the environment from natural and human-produced sources
including accidents. Comprehensive look at all aspects
of environmental radioactivity, from source to detection to impact on humans.
Eric Hall and Amato J Giaccia (2005)
Radiobiology for the Radiologist, 6th Edition
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Textbook and reference for radiation biology. This
book is used often as a textbook for medical schools,
health physics graduate programs, and as a reference
for anyone interested in radiation biology and medical use of radiation.
IARC and WHO (2002)
Non-Ionizing Radiation, Part 1: Static and Extremely
Low-Frequency (ELF) Electric and Magnetic Fields
(IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcino­
genic Risks to Humans)
World Health Organization.
This IARC/WHO document evaluates possible carcinogenic hazards from exposures to static and extremely
low-frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields.
Glenn F Knoll (2000)
Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd Edition
Wiley.
of radiation physics. Covers early discoveries in radiation use to modern-day applications. Designed to be
used as a textbook for health physicist students, can also
be used in all fields needing a basis in radiation physics.
Mike Stabin (2007)
Radiation Protection and Dosimetry: An Introduction
to Health Physics
Springer Science.
Textbook and reference for the field of radiation protection (health physics). This new text is organized to
introduce the reader to basic principles of radiation
emission and propagation, to review current knowledge and historical aspects of the biological effects of
radiation, and to cover important operational topics
such as radiation shielding and dosimetry.
James E Turner (2007)
Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation Protection, 3rd
Edition
Wiley-Interscience.
Introductory textbook and reference on radiation
physics, interactions, and protection. Covers diverse
topics of decay, matter interactions, detection, and
risk. Often used by health physicists as a reference.
Andrew W Wood, Colin Roy (Eds) (2005)
Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
Wiley-Interscience.
A work based on an Australian expert group’s work
and covers radio frequencies, ELF, UV, lasers, and
ultrasound.
Journals
The Health Physics Journal (1958–)
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Web: http://www.health-physics.com/
Official journal of the Health Physics Society
Health Physics provides peer-reviewed articles on
radiation, radiation safety, and health effects.
Textbook and reference for radiation-detection instrumentation. This work covers topics of instrument electronics, detector design, as well as information on
typical detectors used in the field and laboratory.
Journal of Radiological Protection (1981–)
Institute of Physics Publishing.
Official journal of the Society for Radiological
Protection (UK)
Web: http://www.iop.org/EJ/journal/0952-4746
James Martin (2000)
Physics for Radiation Protection: A Handbook
Wiley-VCH.
Journal of Radiological Protection provides peer-reviewed
articles on radiation protection including non-ionizing
radiations as well as ionizing radiations.
Textbook and reference for radiation physics. A very
comprehensive publication with a historical perspective
Medical Physics (1997–)
American Association of Physicists in Medicine
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44. Radiation
Web: http://www.medphys.org/
Medical Physics provides peer-reviewed articles on
radiation use in medical applications.
Operational Radiation Safety (1999–)
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Web: http://www.health-physics.com/
Published by the Health Physics Society quarterly
with peer-reviewed articles on operational radiation
safety topics.
Radiation Research (2000–)
Allen Press, Inc.
Official journal of the Radiation Research Society
Web: http://www.rrjournal.org
Radiation Research provides peer-reviewed articles on
basic research on radiation, including health effects.
Journal Articles
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on
Environmental Health (1998) Risk of ionizing radiation exposure to children: A subject review.
Pediatrics 101(4, Pt. 1): 717–719.
Anonymous (1997) Ionizing radiation. An overview
for the occupational health nurse. Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry. AAOHN J. 45(4):
170–183.
Bender MA (1995) Cytogenetics research in radiation
biology. Stem Cells 13(Suppl. 1): 172–182.
Cardis E (1996) Epidemiology of accidental radiation
exposures. Environ. Health Perspect. 104(Suppl. 3):
643–649.
Christmann M, et al (2003) Mechanisms of human
DNA repair: An update. Toxicology 193: 3–34.
Clarke RH (1997) Managing radiation risks. J. R. Soc.
Med. 90(2): 88–92.
Cohen BL (1995) How dangerous is low level radiation? Risk Anal. 15(6): 645–653.
Frame PW (2005) A history of radiation detection
instrumentation. Health Phys. 88(6): 613–637.
Fry RJ (1996) Effects of low doses of radiation. Health
Phys. 70(6): 823–827.
Langlais RP, Langland OE (1995) Risks from dental radiation in 1995. J. California Dental Assoc. 23: 33–34.
Little JB (1997) What are the risks of low-level exposure to alpha radiation from radon. Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. USA, 94(12): 5996–5997.
Lorimore SA, Wright EG (2003) Radiation-induced
genomic instability and bystander effects: Related
inflammatory-type responses to radiation-induced
stress and injury? A Review. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 79:
15–25.
Mathes SJ, Alexander J (1996) Radiation injury. Surg.
Oncol. Clin. North Am. 5(4): 809–824.
Miller KL (2005) Operational health physics. Health
Phys. 88(6): 638–652.
Moeller DW (2005) Environmental health physics: 50
years of progress. Health Phys. 88(6): 676–696.
Prasad K, et al (2004) Health risks of low dose ionizing radiation in humans: A review. Exp. Biol. Med.
(Maywood), 229(5): 378–382.
Poston JW (2005) External dosimetry and personnel
monitoring. Health Phys. 88(6): 557–564.
Potter CA (2005) Internal dosimetry: A review. Health
Phys. 88(6): 565–578.
Preston RJ (2005) Radiation biology: Concepts for
radiation protection. Health Phys. 88(6): 545–556.
Storb R, et al (1998) Dose rate-dependent sparing of
the gastrointestinal tract by fractionated total body
irradiation in dogs given marrow autografts. Int. J.
Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 40(4): 961–966.
Turner J (2005) Interaction of ionizing radiation with
matter. Health Phys. 88(6): 520–544.
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of
Atomic Radiation (2000 and 2001) Report to the
General Assembly with Scientific Annexes. New
York: United Nations.
Upton AC (2001) Radiation hormesis: Data and interpretations. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 31: 681–695.
Organizations
American Academy of Health Physics (AAHP)
1313 Dolley Madison Blvd Ste 402
McLean, VA 22101
Phone: 703-790-1745 X25
Fax: 703-790-2672
E-mail: aahp@BurkInc.com
Web: http://www.hps1.org/aahp/
The AAHP provides information on Certified Health
Physicists and the process of certification. Forms,
deadlines, exams are all available.
American Association of Physicists in Medicine
(AAPM)
One Physics Ellipse
College Park, MD 20740
2007.aapm@aapm.org
Phone: (301) 209-3350
Fax: (301) 209-0862
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Resources
Web: http://www.aapm.org
The AAPM mission is to advance the practice of physics in medicine and biology (i.e., Medical Physics) by
encouraging innovative research and development,
disseminating scientific and technical information,
fostering the education and professional development
of medical physicists, and promoting the highest quality medical services for patients.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville MD 20857-0001
Phone: 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332)
Web: http://www.fda.gov
The FDA is part of the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services. FDA’s Center for Devices and
Radiological Health oversees radiation safety of medical imaging systems, security systems (i.e., screening
systems for airline security), and industrial and electronic consumer products that emit radiation (i.e.,
microwave ovens, lasers, and tanning booths). For
these products, FDA establishes performance standards and recommends good practices. The FDA is
responsible for review and approval of radioactive
drugs and mammography.
Health Physics Society (HPS)
1313 Dolley Madison Boulevard
Suite 402
McLean, Virginia 22101
Phone: 703-790-1745
Fax: 703-790-2672
Email: hps@BurkInc.com
Web: http://www.hps.org/
The HPS is a professional organization whose mission
is excellence in the science, education and practice of
radiation safety. Publishes the peer-reviewed journal
Health Physics.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
P.O. Box 100
Wagramer Strasse 5
A-1400 Vienna, Austria
Phone: (431) 2600-0
Fax: (431) 2600-7
Email: Official.Mail@iaea.org
Web: http://www.iaea.org
IAEA, often called the nuclear watchdog agency of
the United Nations, has a much broader perspective,
providing information on worldwide use of nuclear
power and radiation, nuclear safeguards and safety,
nuclear law and conventions, nuclear fusion, and
Chernobyl.
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation
Protection (ICNIRP)
ICNIRP c/o BfS
Ingolstaedter Landstr. 1
85764 Oberschleissheim
Germany
Phone: 49 1888 333 2156
Fax: 49 1888 333 2155
Email: G.ziegelberger@icnirp.org
Web: http://www.icnirp.de/index.html
ICNIRP provides information on the protection against
the adverse health effects of non-ionizing radiation.
International Commission on Radiation Protection
(ICRP)
SE-171 16 Stockholm
Sweden
Telefax: 46 8 729 729 8
Email: scient.secretary@icrp.org
Web: http://www.icrp.org/
ICRP reviews the fundamental principles and quantitative bases upon which appropriate radiation protection measures can be established. ICRP offers its
recommendations to regulatory and advisory agencies
on radiological protection. While ICRP has no formal
power to impose its proposals on anyone, in fact legislation in most countries adheres closely to ICRP
recommendations.
International Commission on Radiation Units and
Measurements (ICRU)
7910 Woodmont Avenue, Suite 400
Bethesda, MD 20814-3095
Phone: (301) 657-2652
Email: icru@icru.org
Web: http://www.icru.org
ICRU’s principal objective is the development of
recommendations regarding quantities and units of
radiation and radioactivity and procedures suitable
for the measurement.
International Radiation Protection
(IRPA)
Web: http://www2000.irpa.net/
Association
IRPA provides association and communications for
radiation protection activities in all countries and is
dedicated to advancing radiation protection all over
the world. The IRPA is made up of associate radiation
protection societies from around the world.
National Council on Radiation
Measurements (NCRP)
7910 Woodmont Avenue, Suite 400,
Bethesda, Maryland 20814-3095
Protection
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44. Radiation
Phone: (301) 657-2652
Email: schauer@NCRPonline.org
Web: http://www.ncrponline.org
Chartered by U.S. Congress in 1964 as the National
Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements.
Their goal is to collect, analyze, develop, and disseminate, in the public interest, information and recommendations about protection against radiation and
radiation measurements, quantities and units, particularly those concerned with radiation protection. The
NCRP publishes recommendation in reports, commentaries, proceedings and lectures.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA)
Occupational Safety & Health Administration
200 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20210
Phone: 1-800-321-OSHA
Web: http://www.osha.gov
The OSHA is part of the U.S. Department of Labor.
They are responsible for regulation of radiation sources
not covered by other government agencies, and in
addition, non-ionizing radiation sources for workers.
Radiation Effects Research Foundation
5-2 Hijiyama Park,
Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 732-0815
Phone: 082-261-3131
Web: http://www.rerf.jp/
The objective of the Radiation Effects Research
Foundation (RERF) is to conduct research, for peaceful purposes, on the medical effects of radiation on
man, with a view to contributing to the health and
welfare of the atomic-bomb survivors and to the
enhancement of the health of mankind.
Radiation Research Society
PO Box 7050
Lawrence, KS 66044-8897
Phone: 1-800-627-0326
Fax: 1-785-843-1234
Email: sstarr@allenpress.com
Web: http://www.radres.org/
The Radiation Research Society’s objectives are to
encourage the advancement of radiation research and
to promote dissemination of knowledge in the field.
Publishes peer-reviewed journal Radiation Research.
Society of Nuclear Medicine (SNM)
1850 Samuel Morse Drive
Reston, Virginia 20190
Phone: (703) 708.9000
Web: http://www.snm.org
SNM is an international scientific and professional
organization dedicated to promoting the science, technology and practical applications of nuclear medicine
to diagnose, manage, and treat diseases.
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
1000 Independence Ave., SW
Washington, DC 20585
Phone: (202) 586-4403
Email: The.Secretary@hq.doe.gov
Web: http://www.energy.gov
The DOE as a cabinet-level agency has multiple missions, with cleaning up prior nuclear-related sites (e.g.
Hanford, INEL, Oakridge) being a priority, as well as
maintaining the country’s nuclear weapon complexes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20460
Phone: (202) 272-0167
Email: radiation.questions@epa.gov
Web: http://www.epa.gov
The EPA regulates radioactive air and water emissions
and provides guidance on radon. Also on the EPA web
site are full text versions of more than a dozen major
statutes and laws, such as National Environmental
Policy Act, that form the legal basis for the programs
of the EPA.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Public
Affairs (OPA)
Washington, D.C. 20555
Phone: 800-368-5642
Email: opa@nrc.gov
Web: http://www.nrc.gov
NRC has the responsibility for regulating much of the
use of radiation and nuclear power in the United
States.
Databases
Exploring the Table of Isotopes
Ernest O. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Web: http://ie.lbl.gov/education/isotopes.htm
Provides nuclear data in an easy-to-retrieve format.
The National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC)
Sponsored by the Brookhaven National Laboratory
and the Department of Energy’s Offices of Nuclear
Physics and Science.
Web: http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/
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Resources
The NNDC provides nuclear- and radiation-related
databases. For example, NuDat is the database for
evaluated nuclear structure and decay data, with a
good web interface for data retrieval. The NNDC also
provides evaluated atomic masses, graphic displays of
nuclear structure, radiation interaction data, and chart
of the nuclides, datasheets, and references.
The ABC’s of Nuclear Science is a brief introduction to
nuclear science.
XCOM: Photon Cross Sections Database
Supported in part by the Department of Energy, Office
of Health and Environmental Research; National
Institute of Standards and Technology
Web: http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/Xcom/
Text/XCOM.html
The Regulation and Use of Radioisotopes in Today’s
World
US Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Web: http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doccollections/nuregs/brochures/br0217/
Used to calculate photon cross-sections for scattering,
photoelectric absorption, and pair production, as well
as total attenuation coefficients, for any element, compound, or mixture.
Other Resources
ABC’s of Nuclear Science
Web: http://www.lbl.gov/nsd/education/ABC/
index.html
Radiation Information Network (RIN)
Idaho State University
Web: http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/
RIN provides information of basics of radiation.
Good reference describing the many uses in industry,
medicine, and research for radioactive material.
What You Need To Know About Radiation, 1996
Lauriston S. Taylor
Student Chapter of the Health Physics Society of the
Idaho State University
Web: http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/lst.htm
Paper published by an icon in radiation protection,
meant to provide an easy to understand description of
radiation and its associated risks.