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1.0 Introduction
Teaching English as a second language is not a simple job especially to primary school
pupils having lower knowledge of grammar. Grammar is a common problem in almost all skills
of a language, mainly the writing skills. The same case is true with some Malaysian primary
school pupils, especially in rural area when teaching simple sentences to them. Similarly,
Nesamalar, Saratha and Teh (2001) claim that Malaysian students are found to have writing skill
deficiencies as cited in (Azhar & Naidu, 2017). The students use prior knowledge of sentence
structure, from their first language (L1) which is different from English sentence structure. For
example, most of the times they omit article (the) in English sentences which results from direct
translation made in pupils’ mind. Moreover, the lack of preliminary grammar knowledge to
differentiate the syntactic categories, parts of speech, and placing these parts in their correct
position in a sentence makes the process more challenging. One way to deal with such problem
is to make the teaching more interesting to the pupils through associating different colors with
elements of sentences. Learning through colors is more effective and had been stated in
numerous studies such as in map processing (Hall & Sidio-Hall, 1994), geometric concepts
(Hativa & Teper, 1988), narrative skills (Hettiarachci, 2015), tone (Godfroid, Lin & Ryu, 2017),
text software (Al-Khalifa & Muhaureq, 2016), color words (Soja, 1994), grammatical gender
(Dias de Oliveira Santos, 2014), semantic evaluation (Norman & Scott, 1952), multimedia
learning (Ozcelik, Karakus, Kursun & Cagiltay, 2009), long-term memory (Hanna, &
Remington, 1996), assessing learning process (Dzelzkaleja and Kapenieks, 2016), acquiring L2
color words in relation to L1 (Chieh-Fang Hul, 2008) and basic-color terms (Pitchford, &
Mullen, 2002). In these studies, the findings show that color coding was more effective for
students in understanding the concepts.
2.0 Past studies on the use of Color Coding
Many people are visual learners and color is an important part of their visual experiences.
Colors, advance learners’ sensory perception and as well as their organization of the visual world
(Hanna & Remington, 1996, p.322). Enhancing visual sensory experiences, color is one of the
significant means and topic in research on learning. Numerous EFL teachers have perceived that
the use of color in visual teaching aids often captures pupils’ attention more than similar
materials in black and white. Also, it helps in learning the names of everyday objects and this
process appears naturally which usually takes place with a single hearing of the word in real
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context (Pitchford & Mullen, 2002). In addition, color can affect learners’ behaviors, attention,
and achievement (Gaines & Curry, 2011). Color coding is especially important for children
because they, like adults, are very aware of color and the colors have a link with “brain
development” (Gaines & Curry, 2011) which decrease absenteeism and enhance productivity.
Prior research Mayer and Gallini as cited in (Ozcelik, et al., 2009) found that those pupils who
studied text with illustration, color, had better understanding compared those who studied only
simple text (p.445).
Many studies have been conducted on colors in various fields: Colors and Synesthesia;
Chiou, Rich, Rogers, and Pearson (2018) researched on the functional nature of synaesthetic
color. They reported various evidence that conscious vision can be influenced by synesthetic
color which differs from color perception and as well as imagery. De Smedt and Van Keer
(2014) have done another study on synesthesia and suggested further researches in this field, to
mix structured form of collaborative writing with strategy instruction, and to scrutinize its effect
on cognitive and non-cognitive results. Moreover, Wrembel (2009) investigated synesthesia
which shows important interactions between particular colors and every vowel sounds for all
second language English vowels. The results reveal that the mappings of vowel sounds in
nonsynesthetic perception become visible non arbitrary. Furthermore, Rich, Bradshaw and
Mattingley (2005) reported a research work which included 192 adults with synesthesia and their
study shows the commonness of synesthesia about 1 in 1150 female adults and 1 in 7150 male
adults. In many cases, the enhancement of lexical color synesthesia incorporates the experiences
common to all individuals in early stage. Rothen, Seth, Witzel, and Ward (2013) also has worked
on Synesthesia and concluded that the experiencing colors in response to number or letter
stimulus is widely used method for evaluating grapheme color synesthesia stimulus. Their
findings suggest developed heuristics for the assessment of behavior grapheme-color synesthesia.
On the other hand, Barnett, Feeney, Gormley and Newell (2009) explored synesthesia
and indicated that colors did not have consistent relation to the meaning of words across
languages. Instead, colors had relation more to the word property through languages, mainly
visual structure. Similarly, Root, Rouw, Asano, Kim, Melero, Yokosawa, and Ramachandran
(2018) studied synesthesia in the usage of a five-language dataset (Dutch, native English,
Japanese, Spanish and Korean speakers), they compared the estimates provided by each factor
and indicated that consistent prediction can only be made by an ordinal explanation across the
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five languages. Their findings demonstrate the similarities and differences of cross-linguistic in
synesthesia.
In addition, Hettiarachchi (2016) evaluated the approach of colorful semantics for
developing narrative skills of Sri Lankan kids identified with intellectual problems. The findings
showed improvement both quantitatively and qualitatively in the narrative skills. He proposed
that this approach is very effective for developing the narrative skills of the kids who have
intellectual problems. Mack (2013) studied color coding in instruction and he stated, after his
experiment, that the color coded method helps a lot with students and takes less time.
Wichmann, Sharpe and Gegenfurtner (2002) examined color coding in memory and used
a memory paradigm of recognition in order to evaluate the relation between color information
and visual memory for natural scene images. They concluded that the memory representation
includes the surface property of color. Ostergaard and Davidoff (1985) scrutinized the role of
color in understanding and naming of everyday objects. The results demonstrated that color
could facilitate but not inhibit object naming and did not affect object recognition. Pitchford and
Mullen (2002) studied whether the learning of color terms in childhood is constrained by a
developmental order of acquisition. They suggested that children learn the knowledge of color
terms in two different periods which replicate the formation of firstly the exterior (black, blue,
yellow, white, green, orange, pink, purple and red) and secondly the interior (grey and brown) of
abstract color space. The findings didn’t support Berlin and Kay order of prediction, and
proposed that color term knowledge improvement is mainly unconstrained.
Hines (2009) explored the usefulness of a color-coded, onset-rime–based on decoding
intervention with first-graders at serious risk for reading disabilities using a single-subject
multiple probe design. Learners’ ability for decoding instructional words increased on average of
73% over baseline. It was effective for those students who were largely at risk or disabled
students and often did not respond to effective remedial programs. Terwogt and Hoeksma (1995)
researched color in relation to emotion within three age groups (7-year-old children, 11 -year-old
children, and adults). Within these age groups, learners constantly preferred for colors and
emotions, but the preference differed from one age group to another group particularly in the
youngest group.
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3.0 Second Language (L2) Writing
Learning a new language requires the mastery of all four language skills, and writing is
one of the most fundamental skills among language skills. Having an early foundation in writing
makes the learners to express their thoughts effectively and efficiently (Graham et al., 2012).
Bell and Burnaby (1984) pointed out that writing is an extremely complex cognitive activity in
which the writer is required to demonstrate control of a number of variables simultaneously. At
the sentence level, these include control of contents, format, sentence structure, vocabulary,
spelling and letter formation. Beyond the sentence, the writer must be able to structure and
integrate information into cohesive and coherent paragraphs and text as cited in (Nunan, 1989,
p.36).
Moreover, L2 writing is one of the most discussed issues in the field of SLA. Many
researches have been done on its nature, complexity, ability and the effect of L1 writing on L2.
Mastuda (2013) talked about its importance, the issues and the changes occurred in L2 writing.
He further discussed the different perspectives on L2 writing and also the transformation in this
field. In addition, the shift of L2 writing field from interdisciplinary to transdisciplinary is
discussed. Similarly, Zhang (2013) stated the importance and development of second language
writing and briefly discussed the four aspects of second language writing from his perspective as:
an essential source to support SLA, as a platform for ESL/EFL learners to experience bordercrossing, a discipline and practice involves ESL/EFL learners’/writers’ identity reformulation
and an initiative both of and for teacher progress. Kobayashi and Rinnert (2013) talked about the
separation of L2 writing from L1 and L3. They argued that L2 writing cannot be disassociated
from L1 and L3. Also, they believed that second language writing has a parallel connection with
writing in other languages (L1 &L2), but it is a part of comprehensive multilingual writing
competence. According to Canagarajah (2013), second language writing refers to both as a
discipline and as an activity and concept. First, second language writing was studied as a distinct
activity then it led to as a discipline. Now the current developments and issues in this field led it
to be perceived as a concept. Kubota (2013) discussed the disciplinarity of second language
writing field and then talked about the possibilities which dislimit each field. Ferris (2013) talked
about (what does L2 writing mean to me) and answered the question from practical/pedagogical
and political views. Williams (2012) discussed the role of second language writing in language
learning as a facilitative. Moreover, the article focused on three aspects of second language
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writing as (1) its slower pace (2) the continuing record and (3) the need for greater accuracy in
language use. In its conclusion, it is suggested that writing may help in the development of a
language in different stages. Kormos (2012) stated about the role of individual differences and
the impact of these differences on writing process and product. In the article, the role of
cognitive factors, and the role of motivational factors are explored. Also, three important
individual differences are discussed as: aptitude, working memory capacity and motivation and
recommends further studies.
3.1 The Effects of L1 on L2 Writing
As mentioned before, there are many prior studies on second language writing, and some
of the studies are on the relationship between first language and second language. In addition, the
effects of first language on the second language writing are also a part of these studies. Weijen,
Bergh, Rijlaarsdam and Sanders (2009) observed the usage of first language while writing in
second language. The writings (four essays) of twenty students written both in their first
language and second language were examined. The results showed that all of the participants
used their first language while writing in L2, and this usage was considered negatively.
Furthermore, more studies and researches were suggested to test L1 effects experimentally.
Ahangari (2007) also studied the relationship between L1 and L2 writing. The research was
conducted to examine the impact of first language skills on second language writing ability. The
findings showed that L1 usage may facilitate L2 writing. Kecskes (2008) also talked about the
effects of first language on second language and vice versa especially in writing. Mehrabi (2014)
observed the consequences of first language writing ability on second language writing ability,
and the result revealed that first language writing ability is affected by second language writing
ability.
3.2 Sentence Writing in L2
Learning to write a sentence in a second language is the most crucial and primary stage of
L2 writing. There have been a limited number of studies and researches in this regard though
sentence writing is the driving force in second language writing. Shin (n.d.) studied the sentence
production process, its mechanism, the relationship between the conceptualizer and the
formulator in L2 learning and the variables of L1 which influence L2 sentence production. An
experiment is done on 27 English learners resulting in that the relationship between the
conceptualizer and the formulator in sentence production in L2 is not that much autonomous as
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in L1. Moreover, the learners had problems when they faced sentences different in in grammar
from their L1. Pichette, Seres and Lafontaine (2011) talked about the relationship between
sentence writing and sentence reading for the acquisition of incidental vocabulary in L2. Azhar
and Naidu (2016) also conducted a small research on year 3 and 5 pupils to improve their writing
skills of simple sentence in L2. Jazz chanting was adapted to teach these skills. It also helps
teachers to improve their classroom teaching by applying such strategies. Research finding
showed that the use of jazz chanting helped year 3 pupils to improve their writing skills.
Moreover, it is suggested to use this technique for other types of sentences and also for teaching
pronunciation in the future.
4.0 Role of Grammar in L2 Writing
Grammar is the basic and indispensible source of learning a language. Many people think that
grammar learning is necessary for a language. When someone send a message with the correct
grammar, it will be very easy to understand the meaning and objective of the message. When
people want to communicate they should know the grammar of that language to express and send
their message effectively. Grammar also has a vital role in the field of writing. If the writing has
grammatical errors and poor punctuation, it will be difficult to read and sometimes not to be
understood. According to Debata (2013), people should study grammar to speak clearly and
effectively. For the person who is not aware of the grammar, use of simple language may be easy
for him. But those who want to communicate in aesthetic way with good structure should have
in-depth study about what the grammar says.
(Wang, 2010) states that talking about a language is made possible by grammar. The words and
word groups which are named by grammar for making sentences can be used not only in English
but also in every language. People can make sentences and use grammar even children can do,
but to know types of words and word groups and how can they build sentences then they should
know the grammar. Sentences and paragraphs can be made clear, interesting and precise with the
help of grammar. (p. 314). It is clear that English is an international and universal language.
Thus, learning of English grammar is also very important for learning English as a foreign or
second language. Especially, use of words in sentences and teaching English grammar to the
pupils or primary school children is also important. In the grammar part how can school-aged
children use vocabulary?
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A lot of research work has been done in grammar and some of the past studies are as below.
Safford (2016) research examined that (1) from the time of introduction of the rules of spelling,
pronunciation and grammar (SPaG) test in primary schools; with the time spending of teachers
the importance of decontextualized and contextualized grammar has been increased; (2) the
teaching of grammar is explicit and formal in daily classroom as literacy;(3) the grammar
teaching content and approaches are influenced by test; (4) instructors supervise the students that
they like to learn grammar and they like test; (5) instructors dislike extension that for teaching
and testing which explicit grammar is effective in language and literacy skills of pupils; (6)
teachers are confidents when they teach grammar.
According to Rispoli and Hadley (2001), the result showed that separated sentences can be made
longer and complex than easy sentences for the majority of children. The size of length and
complexity is definitely connected with the promotion of children in grammar. The research also
found that differences between easy sentences versus normal complexity of separated sentences
can be increased by grammatical promotion although if the length of sentence is constant.
However some other researchers do not accept the importance of teaching of formal grammar
and teaching sentence combination. Andrews, Torgerson, Beverton, Freeman, Locke, Low, and
Zhu, (2006) states that results show little indication that teaching grammar formally and teaching
of combining of the sentence have good result. In spite of many decades of investigation and
discussion about the issue, no satisfactory proof has found for the case with each approach and
more research is needed.
5.0 Conclusion
Overall, many research have been conducted on color coding in different fields including
language learning and teaching. For example, cognitive psychologists studied color coding to
examine the impacts of colors on memory, synesthesia, and learners with learning disabilities.
Similarly, color coding is an issue discussed in language pedagogy among the researchers. The
findings of these studies reflect the importance and effectiveness of color coding particularly in
teaching some language skills such as reading, vocabulary and spelling. However, to the
knowledge of researchers little studies have been carried out on the usage of color coding in
writing L2 especially teaching of simple sentence writing.
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13
figures could be interpreted to mean that more than half of the subjects (i.e. 66%) are in favour of literal
language while only 34% favour figurative language.
From this table, one could say that the overall results seem to be in favour of literal language. In all the
six questions surveyed, the number of subjects preferring literal language is always higher than that of
subjects in favour of figurative language.
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