LECTURE NOTES PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSME ASSESSMENT NT Prepared and Screened by: Prof. Jose J. Pangngay, MS Psych, RPm CHAPTER I: BRIEF BRIEFHISTORY HISTORYOF OFPSYCHOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGICALTESTING TESTINGAND ANDPROMINENT PROMINENTINDIVIDUALS INDIVIDUALSIN IN PSYCHOLOG PSYCHOLOGICAL ICAL A. Ancient Roots Chinese Civilization Civilization– –testing testingwas wasinstituted institutedas asaameans meansofofselecting selectingwho, who,of ofthe themany manyapplicants, applicants,would wouldobtain obtaingovernment governmentjojo Greek Civilization Civilization– –tests tests were were used used to to measure measure intelligence intelligence and and physical physical skills skills European Universities Universities– –these these universities universities relied relied on on formal formal exams exams inin conferring conferring degrees degrees and and honors honors • • • B. Individual Differences Charles Darwin Darwin– –believed believed that that despite despite our our similarities, similarities, no no two twohumans humans are are exactly exactly alike. alike. Some Some ofof these these individual individual difference difference others others and and these these differences differences lead lead to to more more complex, complex, intelligent intelligent organisms organisms over over time. time. Francis Galton Galton– –he heestablished establishedthe thetesting testingmovement; movement;introduced introducedthe theanthropometric anthropometricrecords recordsofofstudents; students;pioneered pioneeredthe theapp ap questionnaire questionnairemethod, method,and andthe thefree freeassociation associationtechnique; technique;he healso alsopioneered pioneeredthe theuse useofofstatistical statisticalmethods methodsfor forthe theanalysis analysisofofpp the theGalton Galtonbar bar(visual (visualdiscrimination discriminationlength) length)and andGalton Galtonwhistle whistle(determining (determiningthe thehighest highestaudible audiblepitch). pitch).Moreover, Moreover,he healso alsonote note retardation retardation tend tend to to have have diminished diminished ability ability to to discriminate discriminate among among heat, heat, cold cold and and pain. pain. • • C. Early Early Experimental Experimental Psychologists Psychologists Johan Friedrich Herbart Herbart– –Mathematical Mathematicalmodels modelsofof the themind; mind;father father of ofpedagogy pedagogyas as an anacademic academicdiscipline; discipline;went wentagainst againstWun Wun Ernst Heinrich Weber Weber– –sensory sensory thresholds; thresholds; just just noticeable noticeable differences differences (JND) (JND) Gustav Theodor Fechner Fechner– –mathematics mathematicsofofsensory sensorythresholds thresholdsofofexperience; experience;founder founderofofpsychophysics; psychophysics;considered consideredone oneofofth experimental experimentalpsychology; psychology; Weber-Fechner Weber-Fechner Law Lawfirst first to to relate relate sensation sensation and and stimulus stimulus Wilhelm Wundt Wundt– –considered consideredone oneofofthe thefounders foundersofofPsychology; Psychology;first firstto tosetup setupaapsychology psychologylaboratory laboratory • • • • Edward Titchner Titchner– –succeeded succeeded Wundt; Wundt;brought broughtStructuralism Structuralismto toAmerica; America;his his brain brain isis still stillon ondisplay display inin the the psychology psychology departm departm Guy Montrose Whipple Whipple– –pioneer pioneerof ofhuman humanability abilitytesting; testing;conducted conductedseminars seminarsthat thatchanged changed the thefield fieldofofpsychological psychologicaltesting testing Louis Leon Thurstone Thurstone– –large large contributor contributor of of factor factor analysis; analysis;approach approachto to measurement measurement was wastermed termedas as the the law law of of comparative comparative • • • D. The The Study Study of of Mental Mental Deficiency Deficiency and and Intelligence Intelligence Testing Testing (Theories (Theories of of Intelligence) Intelligence) Jean Esquirol Esquirol– –provided provided the the first first accurate accurate description description of of mental mental retardation retardation as as an an entity entity separate separate from from insanity. insanity. Edouard Seguin Seguin– –pioneered pioneeredmodern moderneducational educationalmethods methodsfor forteaching teachingpeople peoplewho whoare arementally mentallyretarded/intellectually retarded/intellectuallydisabl disab James McKeen Cattell Cattell– –an an American American psychologist psychologist who who coined coined the the term term “mental “mental test” test” • • • Alfred Binet Binet–the –the father of IQ testing Lewis M. Terman Terman– –introduced introducedthe the concept concept of of IQ IQas as determined determinedby by the themental mentalage age and and chronological chronologicalage age • • IQ IQ Classification Classification according according to to the the Stanford-Binet Stanford-Binet 55 (*(* reflects reflects extended extended IQ IQ scores) scores) *176-225 *161-175 145-160 130-144 120-129 110-119 90-109 80-89 : Profoundly Gifted : Extremely Gifted : Very Gifted : Gifted : Superior : High Average : Average : Low Average 70-79 55-69 40-54 *25-39 : Borderline Impaired : Mildly Impaired : Moderately Impaired : Severely Impaired E. World War I Robert Yerkes Yerkes– –pioneered pioneered the first group intelligence test known as the Army Alpha (for literate) and Army Beta (for functiona • Arthur S S.. Otis– Otis–introduced multiple choice choice and and other other “objective” “objective” item type type of of tests tests Robert S. Woodworth Woodworth– –devised devised the the Personal PersonalData Data Sheet Sheet (known (known as as the the first first personality personality test) test) which which aimed aimed to to identify identify soldiers soldiers shock • • F. Personality Testers Herman Rorschach Rorschach– –slow slow rise of of projective projective testing; testing; Rorschach Rorschach Inkblot Inkblot Test Henry Murray & Christina Morgan Morgan– –Thematic Thematic Apperception Test Test Early 1940’s ––structure structure tests tests were were being being developed developed based based on on their their better better psychometric psychometric properties properties • • • Raymond B. Cattell Cattell– –16 16 Personality Factors Factors McCrae & Costa Costa– –Big Big 5 Personality Factors Factors • • G. Psychological Psychological Testing in the the Philippines Philippines Virgilio Enriquez Enriquez– –Panukat Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao or PUP Aurora R R.. Palacio– Palacio–Panukat Panukat ng ng Katalinuhang Katalinuhang Pilipino or PKP Anadaisy Ca Carlota rlota– –Panukat Panukat ng Pagkataong Pilipino Pilipino or or PPP PPP • • • Gregorio E.H. Del Pilar– Pilar–Masaklaw Masaklawna na Panukad Panukad ng ngLoob Loob or or Mapa Mapa ng ng Loob Loob Alfredo Lag Lagmay may– –Philippine Philippine Thematic Thematic Apperception Apperception Test Test (PTAT) (PTAT) • • CHAPTER CHAPTER II:II: PSYCHOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGICALTESTING TESTINGAND ANDPSYCHOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGICALASSESSMENT ASSESSMENT A. Objectives of Psychometrics 1. To measure measure behavior behavior (overt (overt and and covert) covert) 2. To To describe describe and and predict predictbehavior behaviorand and personality personality (traits, (traits, states, states, personality personality types, types,attitudes, attitudes, interests, interests, values, values, etc.) etc.) 3. To Todetermine determinesigns signsand andsymptoms symptomsofofdysfunctionality dysfunctionality(for (forcase caseformulation, formulation,diagnosis, diagnosis,and andbasis basisfor forintervention/plan intervention/planfor foractio acti B. Psychological Psychological Testing Testing vs. vs. Psychological Psychological Assessment Assessment Psychological Testing Objective Typically, Typically, to to obtain obtain some some gauge, gauge, usually usually numerical numerical in in nature, with regard to an ability or attribute Focus How one one person person or or group compares compares with with others others (nomothetic) Process Testing may be individual or group in in nature. After test administration, the tester will typically add up “the number of correct answers or the number of certain types of responses… with little if any regard for the how or mechanics of such content” content” Role of Evaluator The tester is not the key to the process; practically speaking, speaking, one one tester tester may may be be substituted substituted for for another another tester tester without appreciably affecting the evaluation. Skill of Evaluator Testing typically requires technician-like skills in terms of administering administering and and scoring scoring a test as well as as in in interpreting a test result. Outcome Typically, testing yields a test score or series of of test test scores. Duration Shorter, lasting from few minutes to few hours Sources of Data One person, the test taker only Qualification for Use Knowledge of tests and testing procedures Cost Inexpensive, especially when group testing is done C. Assumptions Assumptions about about Psychological Psychological Testing Testing and and Assessment Assessment 1. Psychological Psychological traits and and states states exist. exist. Psychological Asse Typically to answer a referral question, s arrive arrive at at aa decision through the the use of of to t The The uniqueness uniqueness of of aa given given individual, individual, gg (idiographic) Assessmen Assessmentt is typica typically lly individua individualized. lized. assessment assessment more more typically typically focuses focuses on on h processes processes rather rather than than simply simply the the results results The The assessor assessor isisthe the key key to to the the process process other other tools tools of of evaluation evaluation as as well well as as in in dr d the entire evaluation. Assessmen Assessmentt typically require requiress an edu educa ca evaluation, evaluation, skill skill in in evaluation, evaluation, and and thoug thoug integration of data. Typically, Typically, assessment assessment entails entails aa logical logical p approach approach that that brings brings to to bear bear many many sour sou shed light on a referral question. Longer, lasting from a few hours to a fe Often collateral sources, such as relativ in addition to the subject of the assessm Knowledge of testing and other assess of of the the specialty specialty area area assessed assessed (psychia (psychia requirements, etc.) Very expensive, requires intensive use professionals Trait Trait -- characteristic characteristic behaviors behaviors and and feelings feelings that that are are consistent consistent and and long long lasting. lasting. • • State State -temporary -temporary behaviors behaviors or or feelings feelings that that depend depend on on aa person's person's situation situation and and motives motives at at aa particular particular time time D. Tools Tools of of Psychological Psychological Assessment Assessment 1. Psychological Psychological Tests Tests– –aastandardized standardizedmeasuring measuringdevice deviceor orprocedure procedureused usedtotodescribe describethe theability, ability,knowledge, knowledge,skills skills ororattitud attitud Measurement Measurement– –the theprocess processofofquantifying quantifyingthe theamount amountor ornumber numberof ofaaparticular particularoccurrence occurrenceofofevent, event,situation, situation,phenome phenom Assessmen Assessmentt–the – the process processof ofsynthesizing synthesizingthe theresults resultsofofmeasurement measurementwith withreference referencetotosome somenorms normsand andstandards standards • • Evaluation Evaluation– –the theprocess processofofjudging judgingthe theworth worthofofany anyoccurrence occurrenceofofevent, event,situation, situation,phenomenon, phenomenon,object objectororperson personwhic whic • particular decision 2. Interviews Interviews– –aatool toolof ofassessment assessmentininwhich whichinformation information isisgathered gatheredthrough throughdirect, direct,reciprocal reciprocalcommunication. communication.Has Hasthree threetypes types and semi-structured). 3. Portfolio Assessment Assessment– –a a type type of of work work sample sample isis used used as as an an assessment assessment tool tool 4. Case-History Data Data– –records, records, transcripts, transcripts,and andother otheraccounts accountsinin any anymedia mediathat thatpreserve preservearchival archivalinformation, information,official officialand andinfor info data data and and items items relevant relevant to to the the assessee assessee 5. Behavioral Observation Observation– –monitoring monitoringthe theactions actions ofof other other or or oneself oneself by by visual visualor or electronic electronicmeans means while whilerecording recording qualitative qualitative aa information informationregarding regardingthose thoseactions, actions,typically typicallyfor fordiagnostic diagnosticor orrelated relatedpurposes purposesand andeither eithertotodesign designintervention interventionor ortotomeasure measur intervention. E. Parties Parties in in Psychological Psychological Assessment Assessment 1. Test Authors and Developer Developer– –create create tests tests or or other methods methods of of assessment assessment 2. Test Publishers Publishers– –they they publish, publish, market, and sell tests, thus controlling their distribution 3. Test Reviewers Reviewers– –they they prepare prepare evaluative evaluative critiques critiques of of tests tests based based on on their their technical technicaland and practical practical merits merits 4. Test Users Users– –professionals professionalssuch suchasasclinicians, clinicians,counselors, counselors,school schoolpsychologists, psychologists,human humanresource resourcepersonnel, personnel,consumer consumerpsych psyc psychologists, psychologists,social socialpsychologists, psychologists,etc. etc.that thatuse usethese these tests testsfor for assessment assessment 5. Test Sponsors Sponsors– –institutional institutionalboards boardsor orgovernment governmentagencies agencieswho whocontract contracttest testdevelopers developersor orpublishers publishersfor foraavarious varioustesting testing 6. Test Takers Takers– –those those who who are are taking taking the the tests; tests; those those who who are are subject subject to to assessment assessment 7. Society at Large F. Three-Tier Three-Tier System System of of Psychological Psychological Tests 1. Level A – these thesetests testsare arethose thosethat thatcan canbe beadministered, administered,scored scoredand andinterpreted interpretedbybyresponsible responsiblenon-psychologist non-psychologistwho whohave havecarefu care are are familiar familiar with with the the overall overall purpose purpose of of testing. testing. Educational Educational achievement achievement tests tests fall fall into into this this category. category. – Examples: Examples: Achievement Achievement tests tests and and other other specialized specialized (skill-based) (skill-based)aptitude aptitude tests tests 2. Level B – these thesetests testsrequire requiretechnical technicalknowledge knowledgeofoftest testconstruction constructionand anduse useofofappropriate appropriateadvanced advancedcoursework courseworkininpsychology psycholog – examples: examples: Group Group intelligence intelligence tests tests and and personality personality tests tests 3. Level C – these thesetests testsrequire requirean anadvanced advanceddegree degreeininPsychology PsychologyororLicense LicenseasasPsychologist Psychologistand andadvanced advancedtraining/supervised training/supervisede test test (Examples: (Examples: Projective Projective tests, tests, Individual Individual Intelligence Intelligence tests, tests, Diagnostic Diagnostic tests) tests) G. General GeneralTypes Typesof ofPsychological PsychologicalTests TestsAccording Accordingto toVariable VariableMeasured Measured 1.Ability Ability Tes Tests ts - Assess wha whatt a person person can do - Includes Includes Intelligence Intelligence Tests, Tests,Achievement Achievement Tests Tests and and Aptitude Aptitude Tests Tests - Best Best conditions conditions are are provided provided to to elicit elicit aa person’s person’s full full capacity capacity or or maximum maximum performance performance - There are right and wrong answers - Objective of motivation: for the examinee to do his best 2. Tests of Typical Performance - Assess wha whatt a person person usu usually ally doe doess - Includes Includes personality personality tests, tests, interest/attitude/values interest/attitude/values inventories inventories - Typical Typical performance performance can can still still manifest manifest itself itself even even inin conditions conditions not notdeemed deemed as as best best - There are no right or wrong answers - Objective Objective of of motivation: motivation: for for the the examinee examinee to to answer answer questions questions honestly honestly H. Specific Specific Types Types of of Psychological Psychological Tests Tests 1. Intelligence Test – measures measures general general potential – Assumpt Assumption: ion: fewer fewer assumptions assumptions ab about out spe specific cific prior learning experien experiences ces – Validation Validation process: process: Content Content Validity Validity and and Construct Construct Validity Validity – examples: WAIS, WISC, CFIT, RPM 2.Aptitude Aptitude Te Test st – Measures Measures an an individual’s individual’s potential potential for for learning a specific task, task, ability ability or or skill skill Assumpt Assumption: ion: No assumption assumptionss about sp specific ecific pprior rior learning learning eexperiences xperiences – has hasthree threeconstruction constructionstrategies strategiesnamely: namely:theory-guided theory-guidedinventories, inventories,factor-analytically factor-analyticallyderived derivedinventories, inventories,criterion-keye criterion-key – examples: NEOPI, 16PF, MBTI, MMPI 5. Interest Inventory – Measures Measuresan anindividual’s individual’sperformance performancefor forcertain certainactivities activitiesorortopics topicsand andthereby therebyhelp helpdetermine determineoccupational occupationalchoice choiceor or – Measure the the direction direction and and strength strength of of interest – Assumpt Assumption: ion: Interests Interests though though un unstable, stable, ha have ve a certain certain stab stability ility or else else it cannot cannot be measured measured – Stability is said to start at 17 years old – Broad Broad lines lines of of interests interests are are more more stable stable while while specific specific lines lines of of interests interests are are more more unstable, unstable, they they can can change change aa lot. lot. – Example: CII 6.Attitude Attitude Inventor Inventoryy – Direct Direct observation observation on on how how aa person person behaves behaves in in relation relation to to certain certain things things – Attitude qu questionna estionnaires ires or scales ((Bogar Bogardus dus Social Disstance tance Scale, 192 1925) 5) – Reliabilities Reliabilities are are good but but not as high high as those those of of tests of ability –Attitude measure measuress have no nott gene generally rally corre correlated lated ver veryy highly highly with ac actual tual beh behavior avior – Specific Specificbehaviors, behaviors,however, however,can canbe bepredicted predictedfrom frommeasures measuresofof attitude attitude toward towardthe the specific specificbehavior behavior 7. Values Inventory – Purports Purports to to measure measure generalized generalized and and dominant dominant interests interests – Validity is extremely difficult to determine by statistical methods – The The only only observable observable criterion criterion isis overt overt behavior behavior – Employed Employedless lessfrequently frequentlythan thaninterest interestininvocational vocationalcounseling counselingand andcareer careerdecision-making decision-making 8. Diagnostic Test – This Thistest testcan canuncover uncoverand andfocus focusattention attentionon onweaknesses weaknessesofofindividuals individualsfor forremedial remedialpurposes purposes 9. Power Test – Requires Requires an an examinee examinee to to exhibit exhibit the the extent extent or or depth depth of of his his understanding understanding or or skill skill – Test with varying level of difficulty 10. Speed Test – Requires Requires the the examinee examinee to to complete complete as as many many items items as as possible possible – Contains items of of uniform uniform and generally simple simple level of difficulty 11. Creativity Test –A test which which asse assesses sses an individual’s ability to produ produce ce new/or new/original iginal idea ideas, s, insights insights or artistic artistic creations that are are accepte or scientific value – Ca Cannassess assessthe theperson’s person’scapacity capacitytotofind findunusual unusualororunexpected unexpectedsolutions solutionsfor forvaguely vaguelydefined definedproblems problems 12. Neuropsychological Neuropsychological Test – Measures Measurescognitive, cognitive,sensory, sensory,perceptual perceptualand andmotor motorperformance performancetotodetermine determinethe theextent, extent,locus locusand andbehavioral behavioralconsequ conseq given given to to persons persons with with known knownor or suspected suspected brain brain dysfunction dysfunction – Example: Bender-Gestalt II 13. Objective Test – Standardized test –Administered Administered individu individually ally or in grou groups ps – Objectively scored – There There are limited limited number number of responses – Uses norms – There is a high level of reliability and validity – Examples: Examples: Personality Personality Inventories, Inventories, Group Group Intelligence Intelligence Test Test 14. Projective Test – Test Testwith withambiguous ambiguousstimuli stimuliwhich whichmeasures measureswishes, wishes,intrapsychic intrapsychicconflicts, conflicts,dreams dreamsand andunconscious unconsciousmotives motives – Projective Projective tests tests allow allow the the examinee examinee to to respond respond to to vague vague stimuli stimuli with with their their own own impressions impressions – Assumpt Assumption ion is that that the exa examinee minee will project his his unco unconscious nscious nneeds, eeds, m motives, otives, an andd conf conflicts licts onto the neutr neutral al stimulus stimulus –Administered Administered individu individually ally and scored su subjectively bjectively – Have Have55types/techniques: types/techniques:Completion CompletionTechnique, Technique,Expressive ExpressiveTechnique, Technique,Association AssociationTechnique, Technique,Construction ConstructionTechniqu Techniq Technique – With low levels of reliability and validity – Examples: Examples: Rorschach Rorschach Inkblot Inkblot Test, Test, TAT, TAT, HTP, HTP, SSCT, SSCT, DAP DAP 15. Norm-Referenced Test Test– –raw raw scores scores are are converted converted to to standard standard scores scores 16. Criterion-Referenced Test Test– –raw raw scores scores are referenced referenced to to specific specific cut-off cut-off scores ***Clinical ***ClinicalDifferences DifferencesBetween BetweenProjective ProjectiveTests Testsand andPsychometric Psychometric(Objective (ObjectiveTests) Tests) Point of Comparison/Difference Definiteness of Task Projective Test Allows variation in responses and recall more individualized individualized response response pattern pattern Psychom Subjects Subjects are are judged judged in in basis I. Basic Basic Principles Principles in in the the Use Use of of Psychological Psychological Tests Tests 1. Tests are are samples samples of of behavior behavior 2. Tests do not reveal traits or capacities directly 3. Psychological Psychological maladjustments maladjustments selectively selectively and and differentially differentially affect affect the the test test scores scores 4. The Thepsychometric psychometricand andprojective projectiveapproaches, approaches,although althoughindistinguishable, indistinguishable,are aremutually mutuallycomplementary complementary J. Psychological Psychological Tests Tests are are used used in in the the following following settings: 1. Educational Settings – Basis Basis for for admission admission and and placement placement to to an an academic academic institution institution – Identify Identifydevelopmental developmentalproblems problemsororexceptionalities exceptionalitiesfor forwhich whichaastudent studentmay mayneed needspecial specialassistance assistance – Assist st students udents fo forr edu educational cational od vocationa vocationall planning – Intelligence Intelligencetests testsand andachievement achievementtests testsare areused usedfrom froman anearly earlyage. age.From Fromkindergarten kindergartenon, on,tests testsare areused usedfor forplacemen placeme – Educational Educationalinstitutions institutionshave havetotomake makeadmissions admissionsand andadvancement advancementdecisions decisionsregarding regardingstudents. students.e.g, e.g,SAT, SAT,GRE, GRE,subj sub – Used Usedtotoassess assessstudents studentsfor forspecial specialeducation educationprograms. programs.Also, Also,used usedinindiagnosing diagnosinglearning learningdifficulties. difficulties. 2. Clinical Settings – Tests TestsofofPsychological PsychologicalAdjustment Adjustmentand andtests testswhich whichcan canclassify classifyand/or and/ordiagnose diagnosepatients patientsare areused usedextensively. extensively. – Psychologist Psychologist generally generallyuse useaa number numberof ofobjective objective and and projective projectivepersonality personality tests. tests. – Neuropsychological Neuropsychologicaltests testswhich whichexamine examinebasic basicmental mentalfunction functionalso alsofall fallinto intothis thiscategory. category.Perceptual Perceptualtests testsare areused useddet de brain damage. – For For diagnosis diagnosis and and treatment treatment planning 3. Counseling Settings – Counseling Counseling inin schools, schools, prisons, prisons, government government or or private private institutions institutions 4. Geriatric Settings – Assessmen Assessmentt for the aged 5. Business Business Settings Settings (Personnel (Personnel Testing) Testing) – Tests Tests are are used used to to assess: assess: training training needs, needs, worker’s worker’s performance performance inin tra training, ining, success successinin training training programs, programs,management management training, and selection. – For Forexample, example,the theMyers Myers-Briggs -Briggstype typeindicator indicatorisisused usedextensively extensivelytotoassess assessmanagerial managerialpotential. potential.Type Typetesting testingisisused usedtot person with the job they are most suited for. – Selection Selection of of employees’ employees’ classification classification of of individuals individuals to to positions positions suited suited for for them them – Basis for promotion 6. Military Settings – For proper selection of military recruits and placement in the military duties 7. Government Government and and Organizational Organizational Credentialing Credentialing – For For promotional promotional purposes, purposes, licensing, licensing, certification certification or or general general credentialing credentialing of of professionals professionals 8.Courts – Evaluate Evaluate the the mental mental health health of of people people charged charged with with aa crime crime – Investigating Investigating malingering malingering cases cases in courts courts – Making Making child child custody/annulment/divorce custody/annulment/divorce decisions decisions 9.Academic Re Research search Setting Settingss K. Uses of Psychological Test 1. Classification Classification– –assigning assigning aa person person to to one one category category rather rather than than the the other other a. Placement Placement– –refers refers to to sorting sorting ofof persons persons into into different different programs programs appropriate appropriate to to their theirneeds/skills needs/skills(example: (example: aa university university m m exam exam isis given given to to students students to todetermine determine ifif they they should shouldenroll enroll inin calculus, calculus, in in algebra algebra or or inin aa remedial remedial course) course) b. Screening Screening– –refers referstotoquick quickand andsimple simpletests/procedures tests/procedurestotoidentify identifypersons personswho whomight mighthave havespecial specialcharacteristics characteristicsororne n children children with with exceptional exceptional thinking thinking and and the the top top 10% 10% will willbe be singled singled out out for for aa more more comprehensive comprehensive testing) testing) c. Certification Certification– –determining determiningwhether whetheraaperson person has hasatat least least the the minimum minimum proficiency proficiency ininsome somediscipline/activity discipline/activity (example: (example:rir after passing the the medical medical board exam; right to drive a car) d. Selection Selection– –example: example:provision provisionofofan anopportunity opportunitytotoattend attendaauniversity; university;opportunity opportunitytotogain gainemployment employmentininaacompany companyor or 2. Aptitude Testing a. Low selection ratio b. Low success ratio 3. Diagnosis Diagnosis and and Treatment Treatment Planning Planning– –diagnosis diagnosisconveys conveysinformation informationabout aboutstrengths, strengths,weaknesses, weaknesses,etiology etiologyand andbest bestchoices choices tests tests are are absolutely absolutely essential essential in in diagnosing diagnosing intellectual intellectual disability) disability) 4. Self-Knowledge Self-Knowledge– –psychological psychologicaltests testsalso alsosupply supplyaapotent potentsource sourceofofself-knowledge self-knowledgeand andininsome somecases, cases,the thefeedback feedbackaaperso pers psychological tests is so selfself-affirming affirming that it can change the entire course of a person’s life. 5. Program Evaluation Evaluation– –another anotheruse useofofpsychological psychologicaltests testsisisthe thesystematic systematicevaluation evaluationofofeducational educationaland andsocial socialprograms programs(the (the services services which which improve improve social social conditions conditions and and community community life) life) a Diagnostic Evaluation refers refers to to evaluation conducted before instruction M. Approaches Approaches in in Psychological Psychological Assessment Assessment 1. Nomothetic Nomothetic Approach Approach -- characterized characterized by by efforts effortsto tolearn learn how howaa limited limited number number of ofpersonality personalitytraits traitscan can be beapplied applied to to all all people people 2. Idiographic Idiographic Approach Approach -- characterized characterized by by efforts efforts to to learn learn about about each each individual’s individual’s unique unique constellation constellation of of personality personality traits, traits, with with each person according to any particular set of traits N. Making MakingInferences Inferencesand andDecisions Decisionsin inPsychological PsychologicalTesting Testingand andAssessment Assessment 1. Base Base Rate Rate -- An An index, index, usually usually expressed expressed as as aa proportion, proportion, of of the the extent extent to to which whichaa particular particular trait, trait, behavior, behavior,characteristic, characteristic, or or at a population 2. Hit HitRate Rate--The The proportion proportionofofpeople peopleaatest testor orother othermeasurement measurementprocedure procedureaccurately accuratelyidentifies identifiesas aspossessing possessingor orexhibiting exhibitingaa characteristic, or attribute 3. Miss MissRate Rate--The Theproportion proportionofofpeople peopleaatest testor orother othermeasurement measurementprocedure procedurefails failstotoidentify identifyaccurately accuratelywith withrespect respecttotothe thepos po trait, trait, behavior, behavior, characteristic, characteristic, or or attribute; attribute; aa "miss" "miss" in in this this context context isis an an inaccurate inaccurate classification classification or or prediction prediction and and can can be be class class a. False False Positive Positive (Type (Type II error) error) -- an aninaccurate inaccurate prediction prediction or or classification classification indicating indicating that that aa testtaker testtaker did didpossess possess aa trait trait or or oth ot measured when in reality the testtaker did not b. False False Negative Negative(Type (Type IIII error) error) -- an an inaccurate inaccurate prediction prediction of of classification classification indicating indicating that that aa testtaker testtaker did did not notpossess possess aa trait trait measured when in reality the testtaker did O. Cross-Cultural Testing Testing 1. Parameters Parameters where cultures vary – Language – Education – Test Content – Speed (Tempo of Life) 2. Culture Free Tests – An attem attempt pt to eeliminate liminate culture so nature can be iso isolated lated – Impossible Impossible to to develop developsuch suchbecause because culture cultureisisevident evidentininits itsinfluence influence since since birth birthor oran anindividual individual – The The interaction interaction between between nature nature and and nurture nurture isis cumulative cumulative and and not not relative relative 3. Culture Fair Tests – These Thesetests testswere weredeveloped developedbecause becauseofofthe thenon-success non-successofofculture-free culture-freetests tests – Nurture is not removed but parameters are common an fair to all – Can Canbe be done done using using three three approaches approaches such such as as follows: follows: ✓Fair to all cultures ✓Fair to some cultures ✓Fair only to one culture 4. Culture Loadings – The Theextent extenttotowhich whichaatest testincorporates incorporatesthe thevocabulary, vocabulary,concepts, concepts,traditions, traditions,knowledge, knowledge,and andfeelings, feelings,associated associatedwith withpp CHAPTER III: RESEARCH REFRESHER REFRESHER A. Research Research Purposes Purposes – to to generate generate new new knowledge knowledge – to to develop develop new new gadgets, gadgets, techniques techniques – to to evaluate a program or technique – to validate theories B. Steps in Research Research 1. Identify the problem 2. Conduct literature review 3. Identify theoretical/conceptual framework 4. Formulate hypothesis 5. Operationalize variables 6. Select research design 7.Ascertain Ascertain aand nd sele select ct sample sample 8. Conduct a pilot study 9. Collect data 10.Analyze Analyze da data ta 11. Interpret results 12. Disseminate information C. Research Research Problems Problems – Research Researchproblem problemisisaasituation situationininneed needofofdescription descriptionororquantification, quantification,solution, solution,improvement improvementororalteration. alteration.You Youcan canevaluate evaluate the following criteria: criteria: ✓Significance of the problem ✓Feasibility ✓Researchability of the problem ✓Interest of the researcher – Sources of Problems Problems ✓Experiences ✓Replication s tudies ✓Review of related literature ✓Intellectual curiosity curiosity ✓Issues Issues and popular concern concern D. Hypotheses --statements statementsofofthe theanticipated anticipatedororexpected expectedrelationship relationshipbetween betweenthe theindependent independentand anddependent dependentvariables. variables. – Types ✓Null Null hypothesishypothesis- states states no no relationship relationship between between variables variables – Complexity ✓Alternative hhypothesisypothesis- gives th Research Component Qualitative Research Design Quantitative Researc Objective reality Researcher Researcher isis independent independent of of that that ww Naturalistic Social, multiple & subjective reality where researcher Research Method Time Element Research Problem & Hypotheses/Assumptions Hypotheses/Assumptions Sample Data Collection Data Analysis Outcome • • • • interacts with that being researched Phenomenology Case study Ethnography Grounded theory Cultural studies Conducted Conducted ifif time time is is not not limited limited because because of of the the extensive extensive interviewing Hypothesis Hypothesis isis informed informed guess guess or or prediction prediction Hypotheses Hypotheses are are being being generated generated Usually Usually aa small small number number of of non-representative non-representative cases. cases. Respondents Respondents selected selected to to fulfill fulfill aa given given quota. quota. Sampling depends depends on on what what needs needs to to be be learned learned Sampling More More focused geographically Control group is not required • Experimental Quasi-experimental Single subject Comparative Correlational Most suitable if time and resources a • • • • • • • • • • • Question Question isis evolving, evolving, general general and and fle fle Hypotheses Hypotheses are are being being tested tested Usually a large number of c • • • • • • population of interest. Randomly se Sampling focus isis on on probability probability and and Sampling focus More More dispersed dispersed geographically geographically Control Control group group or or comparison comparison isis nec nec impact Structured Structured techniques techniques such such as as on on standardized tests.. Statistical analysis Used to recommend a final course o • • • • • • Unstructured or semi-structured techniques e.g.: • individual individual depth depth interviews interviews or or group group discussions. discussions. Non-statistical analysis (Thematic) Exploratory Exploratory and/or investigative. investigative. Findings are are not not conclusive and cannot be used to make generalizations about the population of interest. • • • • • F. Research Methods Research Method Descriptive-Qualitative (Case Study/Ethnography) Descriptive-Quantitative Salient Features ▪ Detailed Detailed descriptions descriptions of of specific specific situation(s) situation(s)using using interviews, interviews, observations, observations, document document rev rev ▪ The reesearcher’s searcher’s task task isis to to describe describe things things as as they they are. are. ▪ Numerical Numerical descriptions descriptions (frequency, (frequency, average) average) of of specific specific situations. situations. ▪ The The researcher’s researcher’s task task isis to to measure measure things things as as they they are. are. Correlational Analysis Regression Analysis Quasi-Experimental Research Experimental Experimental Research Meta-analysis ▪ Quantitative Quantitative analyses analyses of of the the strength strength of of relationships relationships between between two two or or more more variables. variables. ▪ Quantitative Quantitative analyses analyses of of causal causal or or predictive predictive links links between between two two or or more more variables. variables. Comparing aa group group that that gets gets aa particular particular intervention intervention with with another another group group that that isis similar similar in in c ▪ Comparing receive the intervention. ▪ There There isis no no random random assignment assignment used. used. ▪ Using Usingrandom randomassignment assignmenttotoassign assignparticipants participantstotoan anexperimental experimentalor ortreatment treatmentgroup groupand an group. ▪ Synthesis Synthesis of of results results from from multiple multiple studies studies to to determine determine the the average average impact impact of of aa simila simila studies. G. Experiment Validity – Experimental Experimentalvalidity validityrefers referstotothe themanner mannerininwhich whichvariables variablesthat thatinfluence influenceboth boththe theresults resultsofofthe theresearch researchand andthe thegeneralizab generaliza large 1. Internal Validity of an Experiment – ItItrefers referstotoaastudy’s study’sability abilityto todetermine determineififaacausal causalrelationship relationship exists existsbetween betweenone oneor ormore moreindependent independentvariables variables and andoo variables – Threatened by the following: History and Testing Confounding Confounding Variables Statistical Regression Maturation Instrumentation • • • • 2. External Validity of an Experiment – It refers to a study’s generalizability to the general popul ation Demand Demand Characteristics Characteristics (subjects (subjects become become wise wise to to anticipated results) Hawthorne Effects • • • Order Effects (Carry Over Treatment Interaction Effe • • selection/history/testing) H. Sampling Techniques 1. In In non-probability non-probability sampling, sampling,not notevery every element element of ofthe the population population has has an anopportunity opportunity totobe beincluded. included. 2. Examples: Examples:accidental/convenience, accidental/convenience,quota, quota,purposive purposiveand andnetwork/snowball. network/snowball. In In probability probabilitysampling, sampling,every every member memberofof the the population population has has aaprobability probability of of being being included included inin the the sample. sample. Examples: Examples:simple simplerandom random sampling, sampling,stratified stratifiedrandom randomsampling, sampling, cluster clustersampling samplingand and systematic systematicsampling. sampling. b. Ordinal: Ordinal:aanon-parametric non-parametricscale scalewherein whereincases casesare areranked rankedor orordered; ordered;they theyrepresent representposition positionininaagroup groupwhere wherethe theorde orde Coke Pepsi Sprite ✓ ✓ ✓ Limca No. of Times Preferred ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 1 2 b. Rank RankOrder: Order:respondents respondentsare arepresented presentedwith with several severalitems itemssimultaneously simultaneouslyand andasked asked totorank rank them themininorder orderofofpriority. priority.TT describes describesthe thefavoured favouredand andunfavoured unfavouredobjects, objects,but butdoes doesnot notreveal revealthe thedistance distancebetween betweenthe theobjects. objects.The Theresultant resultantdd data. data.This Thisyields yieldsaabetter betterresult resultwhen whencomparisons comparisonsare arerequired requiredbetween betweenthe thegiven givenobjects. objects.The Themajor majordisadvantage disadvantageofo ordinal data can be generated. Example: Example:Rank Rankthe thefollowing followingbrands brandsofofcold colddrinks drinksyou youlike likemost mostand andassign assignititaanumber number1.1.Then Thenfind findthe thesecond secondmost mostp itit aa number number 2. 2. Continue Continue this this procedure procedure until until you you have have ranked ranked all all the the brands brands of of cold cold drinks drinks inin order order of of preference. preference. AA brands brands should should receive receive the the same same rank rank order. order. Brand Rank 1 3 2 4 Coke Pepsi Sprite Limca c. Constant ConstantSum: Sum:respondents respondentsare areasked askedtotoallocate allocateaaconstant constantsum sumofofunits unitssuch suchas aspoints, points,rupees rupeesororchips chipsamong amongaas respect respecttotosome somecriterion. criterion.For Forexample, example,you youmay maywish wishtotodetermine determinehow howimportant importantthe theattributes attributesofofprice, price,fragrance, fragrance,pack pac lather latherofofaadetergent detergentare aretotoconsumers. consumers.Respondents Respondentsmight mightbe beasked askedtotodivide divide aaconstant constantsum sumtotoindicate indicatethe therelative relativeim im The Theadvantage advantageofofthis thistechnique techniqueisissaving savingtime. time.However, However,the themain maindisadvantages disadvantagesofofare arethe therespondent respondentmay mayallocate allocate those thosespecified. specified.The Thesecond secondproblem problemisisrespondents respondentsmight mightbe beconfused. confused. Example: Example:Between Betweenattributes attributesofofdetergent, detergent,please pleaseallocate allocate100 100points pointsamong amongthe theattributes attributesso sothat thatyour yourallocation allocationrefle refl you attach to each attribute. The more points an attribute receives, the more more important important the the attribute attribute is. If an an attribute attribute is it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it should receive twice as many points. Attribute Attribute Number of Points 50 05 10 30 05 100 Price Fragrance Packaging Cleaning power Lather Total Points d. Q-Sort Q-SortTechnique: Technique:This This isis aacomparative comparativescale scale that thatuses usesaa rank rank order order procedure procedureto tosort sortobjects objectsbased based on on similarity similaritywith with The The important importantcharacteristic characteristicofofthis thismethodology methodologyisisthat thatititisismore moreimportant importanttotomake makecomparisons comparisonsamong amongdifferent differentrespo respo the theresponses responsesbetween betweendifferent differentrespondents. respondents.Therefore, Therefore,ititisisaacomparative comparativemethod methodofofscaling scalingrather ratherthan thanan anabsolute absoluter the therespondent respondentisisgiven givenstatements statementsininaalarge largenumber numberfor fordescribing describingthe thecharacteristics characteristicsofofaaproduct productor oraalarge largenumber numberofo Example: Example:The Thebag baggiven giventotoyou youcontain containpictures picturesofof90 90magazines. magazines.Please Pleasechoose choose10 10magazines magazinesyou youprefer prefermost, most,2 magazines magazineswhich whichyou youare areneutral neutral(neither (neitherlike likenor nordislike), dislike),20 20magazines magazinesyou youdislike dislikeand and10 10magazines magazinesyou youprefer preferlea lea Prefer Most Like Neutral Dislike 3. objects objectsby byplacing placingaamark markatat the theappropriate appropriateposition position on onaa continuo continu extreme of the criterion variable to the other. Example: Example: How How would would you you rate rate the the TV TV advertisement advertisement as as aa guide guide for for buying? buying? t rir . uu range rangefrom fromvery verypositive positivetotovery verynegative negativetowards towardsthe theattitudinal attitudinalobject. object.Respondents Respondentsgenerally generallychoose choosefrom fromfive fivealtern altern agree, agree,neither neitheragree agreenor nordisagree, disagree,disagree, disagree,strongly stronglydisagree). disagree).AAlikert likertscale scalemay mayinclude includeaanumber numberofofitems itemsor orstatemen stateme scale scaleisisthat thatitittakes takeslonger longertime timetotocomplete completethat thatother otheritemized itemizedrating ratingscales scalesbecause becauserespondents respondentshave havetotoread readeach eachsta st disadvantages, disadvantages,this thisscale scalehas hasseveral severaltotoadvantages. advantages.ItItisiseasy easytotoconstruct, construct,administer administerand anduse. use. I believe that ecological questions are the most important issues facing human beings today Example: Example:Select Selectaaplus plusnumber numberfor forwords wordsthat thatyou youthink thinkdescribe describepersonnel personnelbanking bankingofofaabank bankaccurately. accurately.The Themor mo word worddescribes describesthe thebank, bank,the thelarger largerthe theplus plusnumber numberyou youshould shouldchoose. choose.Select Selectaaminus minusnumber numberfor forwords wordsyou youthin thin accurately. accurately.The Theless lessaccurate accurateyou youthink thinkthe theword worddescribes describesthe thebank, bank,the thelarger largerthe theminus minusnumber numberyou youshould shouldchoos choo +3 +2 +1 Friendly Personnel Personnel -1 -2 -3 +3 +2 +1 Competitive Loan Rates -1 -2 -3 B. Descriptive Statistics 1. Frequency Distributions Distributions– –distribution distribution of of scores scores by by frequency frequency with with which which they they occur occur 2. Measures Measures of of Central Tendency Tendency– –a a statistic statistic that that indicates indicatesthe the average average or or midmost midmost score score between between the the extreme extreme scores scores inin aa dist dis Σ Σ(f) (for ungrouped distribution) X= (for grouped distribution) a. Mean Mean– –formula: formula: X= N N b. Median Median– –the the middle score in a distribution c. Mode Mode– –frequently frequently occurring score in a distribution ***Appropriate ***Appropriateuse useofofcentral centraltendency tendencymeasure measureaccording accordingtototype typeofofdata databeing beingused: used: Type of Data Measure Nominal Data Mode Ordinal Data Median Interval / Ratio Data (Normal) Interval / Ratio Data (Skewed) Mean Median 3. Measures of Variability Variability– –a a statistic that describe the amount of variation in a distribution a. Range Range– –the the difference difference between between the the highest highest and and the the lowest lowest scores scores b. Interquartile range range– –the the difference between Q1 and and Q3 c. Semi-Interquartile range range– –interquartile interquartile range divided by 2 d. Standard Deviation Deviation– –the the square square root rootof of the the averaged averaged squared squared deviations deviations about about the the mean mean 4. Measures of Location a. Percentiles Percentiles– –an anexpression expressionofofthe thepercentage percentageofofpeople peoplewhose whosescore scoreon on aatest testor ormeasure measurefalls fallsbelow belowaaparticular particularraw raws Formula for Percentile= Number Number of of students students beaten beaten Total Total number number of of students students x 100 b. Quartiles Quartiles– –one one of of the the three three dividing dividing points points between between the the four four quarters quarters of of aa distribution, distribution,each each typically typically labelled labelled Q1, Q1, Q2 Q2 and and c. Deciles Deciles– –divided divided to 10 parts 5. Skewness Skewness--aameasure measureof ofthe theasymmetry asymmetry of of the the probability probabilitydistribution distributionof ofaa real-valued real-valuedrandom randomvariable variable about aboutits itsmean mean a. Positive skew –relatively – relatively few scores fall at the positive end –reflects –reflects a very difficult type of test 6. Kurtosis Kurtosis -- the the sharpness sharpness of of the the peak peak of of aa frequency-distribution frequency-distribution curve. curve. C. The The Normal Normal Curve Curve and and Standard Standard Scores Scores b. Negative skew – –relatively relatively few scores scores fall fall at – –reflects reflects a very easy type of D. Inferential Statistics 1. Parametric vs. Non-Parametric Tests Parametric Test Requirements Common Statistical Tools Normal Distribution Homogenous Homogenous Variance Variance Interval or Ratio Data Pearson’s Correlation Correlation Independent Measures t-test One-way, One-way, independent-measures independent-measures ANOVA ANOVA Paired t-test One-way, One-way, repeated-measures repeated-measures ANOVA ANOVA Non-Parametric Normal Distribution is not require Homogenous Variance Variance isis not not req req Nominal or Ordinal Data Spearman’s Correlation Correlation Mann-Whitney U test Kruskal-Wallis H test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Signed-Rank test Friedman’s test test • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2. Measures of Correlation a. Pearson’s Product Product Moment Correlation Correlation–parametric –parametric test for interval data b. Spearman Rho’s Correlation Correlation–non-parametric – non-parametric test for ordinal data c. Kendall’s Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance Concordance–non-parametric –non-parametric test for ordinal data d. Phi Coefficient Coefficient– –non-parametric non-parametric test for for dichotomous dichotomous nominal nominal data data e. Lambda Lambda– –non-parametric non-parametrictest testfor for 22 groups groups(dependent (dependentand and independent independent variable) variable) of ofnominal nominal data data ***Correlation ***Correlation Ranges: 0.25 0.25– –0.49 : Weak 1.00 : Perfect relationship 0.01 0.01– –0.24 : Very w 0.75 0.75– –0.99 : Very strong relationshi relationshipp 0.00 : No re 0.50 0.50– –0.74 : Strong relationshi relationshipp 3. Measures of Prediction a. Biserial Correlation Correlation– –predictive predictive test test for for artificially artificially dichotomized dichotomized and and categorical categoricaldata data as as criterion criterion with with continuous continuous data data as as b. Point-Biserial Correlation Correlation– –predictive predictivetest testfor forgenuinely genuinelydichotomized dichotomizedand and categorical categoricaldata dataas ascriterion criterionwith withcontinuous continuousdd c. Tetrachoric Correlation Correlation– –predictive predictive test test for for dichotomous dichotomous data data with with categorical categorical data data as ascriterion criterion and and categorical categorical data data as as pp d. Simple Linear Regression Regression– –a apredictive predictivetest test which which involves involves one onecriterion criterion that that isiscontinuous continuous ininnature nature with with only only one one predi pred e. Multiple Linear Regression Regression– –a apredictive predictivetest testwhich which involves involves one onecriterion criterion that thatisiscontinuous continuous ininnature nature with with more more than thanon on f. Ordinal Regression Regression– –a a predictive predictive test test which which involves involves aa criterion criterion that that isis ordinal ordinal in in nature nature with with more more than than one one predictors predictors th th 4. Chi-Square Test a. Goodness of Fit Fit– –used usedtotomeasure measuredifferences differencesand andinvolves involvesnominal nominaldata dataand andonly onlyone onevariable variablewith with22or ormore morecategor categor b. Test of Independence Independence– –used used to to measure measure correlation correlation and and involves involves nominal nominaldata dataand and two two variables variableswith with two twoor or more morecate cate 5. Comparison of of Two Two Groups a.Paired t-test– t-test–a a parametric test for paired groups with normal distribution b. Unpaired t-test t-test– –a a parametric test for unpaired groups with normal distribution c. Wilcoxon Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Signed-Rank Test Test– –a a non-parametric test for paired groups groups with non-normal distribution d. Mann-Whitney U test test– –a a non-parametric test for unpaired groups with non-normal distribution 6. Comparison of Three or More Groups a. Repeated Repeated measures measures ANOVA ANOVA– –a a parametric test for matched groups with normal distribution b. One-way/Two-Way ANOVA ANOVA– –a a parametric test for unmatched groups with normal distribution c. Friedman F test test– –a a non-parametric test for matched groups groups with with non-normal non-normal distribution d. Kruskal-Wallis H test test– –a a non-parametric non-parametric test test for for unmatched unmatched groups groups with with non-normal non-normal distribution distribution 7. Factor Analysis CHAPTER CHAPTERV: V:PSYCHOMETRIC PSYCHOMETRICPROPERTIES PROPERTIESOF OFAAGOOD GOODTTEST EST A. Reliability Reliability–the – the stability stability or or consistency of of the the measurement measurement 1. Goals of Reliability a. Estimate Estimate errors errors in in psychological psychological measurement measurement b. Devise Devise techniques techniques to to improve improve testing testing so so errors errors are are reduced reduced 2. Sources of Measurement Error Source of Error Inter-scorer differences and Interpretation Time Sampling Error Content Sampling Error Inter-item Inconsistency Type of Test Prone to Each Error Source Tests scored with a degree of subjectivity Tests of relatively stable traits or behavior Tests for which consistency of results, as a whole, is required Tests that require inter-item consistency Appropriate Measures Us Scorer reliability reliabilit y Test-Retest Reliabil Reliability ity (rtttt), a.k.a. Alternate-form Alternate-form reliability reliability (a.k.a. (a.k.a. co or split-half reliability (a.k.a. coeff consistency) Split-hal Split-halff reliability or more string Inter-item Inconsistency and Content Heterogeneity combined combined Tests that require inter-item consistency and homogeneity measures, measures, such such as as KR-20 KR-20 or or Cro Cro Internal Internal consistency consistency measures measures aa of homogeneity
