ACCRA TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
COLUMN STUDY OF ACCRA TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY (ATU)
HOSTEL BOREHOLE WATER TREATED WITH HYDRATED LIME
(Ca(OH)2)
By
OMARI CHARLES ASEIDU
(01201691B)
OPOKU ACHEAMPONG GIDEON
(01201618B)
RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT/ THESIS Submitted to the
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING,
in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the
AWARD OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (BTECH) DEGREE
In
PROGRAMME TITLE
SEPTEMBER, 2022
DECLARATION
This project is submitted as part of fulfilment for the award of a BTech in Medical Laboratory
Science: The work is a result of our investigation. All section of the text and results which have
been obtained from other works/ sources are fully referenced. I understand that cheating and
plagiarism constitute a breach of Accra Technical University and will be dealt with accordingly.
NAME
SIGNATURE
DATE
OMARI CHARLES ASEIDU
………………
………………
………………
………………
(CANDIDATE)
OPOKU ACHEAMPONG GIDEON
(CANDIDATE)
DECLARATION BY SUPERVISOR
I hereby confirm that the above student is a B.Tech. Students in the Department of Civil
Engineering under my academic and research supervision in accordance to the requirements in
Accra Technical University. The student is currently in the final year of study and is expected to
complete in 2022.
NAME
SIGNATURE
Ing. Dr. Mrs. Sarah F.H. Duncan
………………
DATE
………………
DEDICATION
I dedicate this book to the Most High God, my lovely parents, my siblings, my friends and all my
lecturers for their support assistance throughout my training.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I will take this opportunity to show my gratitude to everyone who made this project a success.
However, it will not have been possible without the kind support and help of my classroom
colleagues. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them. I am highly indebted to my
Supervisor, HOD, Lecturer One, Lecturer Two etc. for their guidance and constant supervision
providing necessary information regarding the project and also their support in completion. I will
like to express my gratitude towards my mom for her kind cooperation and encouragement
which helped in the completion of this project.
ABSTRACT
Ground water is among the few of the natural that might be unpolluted. Increase in municipal,
agricultural, industrial, and other extreme land use, has been found recently as the activities that
contaminate groundwater. The process of assisting in modification, condition, or removal of
unwanted materials from water to make it acceptable and safe for drinking is known as Ground
Water treatment.
This Project seeks to investigate into the borehole`s quality at the Hostels and Clinics of ATU
the borehole water will be treated with hydrated lime using column test. Samples of borehole
water were taken at the Hostels and Clinics which serves as sampling locations.
After the pH adjustment, there was an improvement in water quality which resulted in Chloride
and pH levels that meets the standard of WHO and GBS drinking water standard.
Table of Contents
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ 2
DECLARATION BY SUPERVISOR ............................................................................................ 2
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ 4
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 9
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 9
1.1
Background of Study........................................................................................................ 9
1.2
Problem Statement ......................................................................................................... 10
1.3
Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 11
1.4
Significance of the Study ............................................................................................... 11
1.5
Scope of Study ............................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 12
2.0
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 12
2.1 BOREHOLES .................................................................................................................. 12
2.1 Groundwater ........................................................................................................................ 13
2.1.1 Springs .......................................................................................................................... 14
2.1.2 Hand-dug Wells ............................................................................................................ 14
2.1.3 Infiltration Galleries ..................................................................................................... 15
2.2 OCCURANCE OF GROUNDWATER .............................................................................. 16
2.3 GROUNDWATER QUALITY ........................................................................................... 17
2.3.1 PHYSICAL WATER QUALITY ................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 CHEMICAL WATER QUALITY ............................................................................... 20
2.4 GROUNDWATER USE ..................................................................................................... 24
2.5 TREATMENT OF BOREHOLE ........................................................................................ 25
2.5.1 Reverse Osmosis........................................................................................................... 25
2.5.2 Ultra filtration in Groundwater Treatment ................................................................... 27
2.6 Column Study...................................................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 30
3.0
3.1
METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 30
PREPARATION OF 0.1M HYDROCHLORIC ACID SOLUTION ............................ 30
3.2
PREPARATION OF 0.1M SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION .............................. 31
3.3 PREPARATION OF DISTILLED WATER ...................................................................... 32
3.4 PREPARATION OF HYDRATED LIME SOLUTION .................................................... 32
3.5 PREPARATION OF FILTER MEDIA (Acid-Base wash) ................................................. 33
3.6 SETUP AND PROCEDU ................................................................................................... 35
3.6.1 SETUP .......................................................................................................................... 35
3.6.2 PROCEDURE .............................................................................................................. 35
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 37
4.0
RESULTS AND DISCUSIONS ........................................................................................ 37
REFERENCE ................................................................................................................................ 39
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER ONE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
Groundwater contamination is one of the most prevalent and challenging environmental issues.
Groundwater contamination from dangerous compounds including heavy metals, oil, chemicals,
and other contaminants has significantly increased the amount of organic matter and colour in
the water, necessitating costly and time-consuming treatment before it can be used for human
consumption.
Boreholes make water more freely available and help to promote the use of high-quality water
for health. Boreholes continuously give fresh water that is clean for drinking, washing dishes,
and other household chores. When water is temporarily unavailable, having a good groundwater
source like a borehole ensures the health and happiness of all living things.Borehole water,
which has not been treated or tempered in any manner, has a lot of naturally occurring minerals.
Boreholes provide a continuous supply of water when the municipal pipeline is momentarily
stopped by issues like main breaks, pipeline maintenance, or a lack of municipal water
output.Borehole water is suitable for consumption by people, companies, and institutions.
Borehole water helps to increase the pressure on municipal water supply. Even in situations
where the municipal water supply is under danger, borehole water keeps our homes cool.
Water has always been treated to eliminate undesirable and hazardous compounds, diseasecausing elements, odours, and flavours. Whether it is utilised for drinking, residential,
recreational, or agricultural purposes, safe and easily accessible water is crucial for maintaining
public health. Because particles are naturally filtered out of groundwater, it seems pure and
pristine. Groundwater is contaminated by both natural and man-made substances. As
groundwater percolates through the earth, metals like iron and manganese are dissolved, and
significant concentrations of these metals can subsequently be found in the water.Industrial
discharges, urban activities, agriculture, groundwater pumping, and waste disposal can all have
an impact on groundwater quality. Water treatment reduces concentrations while removing
pollutants and undesired elements, making it safe to drink. Water quality is improved by
groundwater treatment, making it safe to drink.Groundwater treatment aims to reduce the
concentration and eliminate impurities and unwanted components, making it safe to drink.
Groundwater can be made safer to drink by being treated.
1.2 Problem Statement
A study entitled "Treatment of Accra Technical University Hostel Groundwater Using Hydrated
Lime (Ca(OH)2)" by Daniel Owiredu, a 2021 BTech graduate from Accra Technical University,
found that the water includes a lot of chlorides, resulting in low pH values, rendering the
borehole samples acidic.
Daniel Owiredu ran the water using a batch test approach, however this had a drawback because
the water being treated in a batch test is static, making it simple for lime to treat the water.
However, the water is constantly running in real life situations or on the treatment field.
We are starting this project to treat the running water using a different method called a "column
test" to check if the results will be the same as those from a batch test.
1.3 Research Questions
i. What is the quality of the borehole water?
ii. What would be the effect of using hydrated lime on the borehole water in a column test?
iii. Would column study be effective in treating the water?
1.4 Significance of the Study
The analysis and treatment of the borehole water with Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) will help
to balance the pH to the WHO and GSB recommended value for drinking water, hence reducing
chloride levels.
1.5 Scope of Study
The research is based on sampling of water, laboratory testing, andATU boreholes treatment
utilizing a Column Experiment for existing borehole.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 BOREHOLES
Small diameter holes called boreholes are often drilled into the earth vertically. Boreholes are
sometimes known as wells or tube wells. In comparison to hand-dug wells, they may be drilled
faster and deeper, enabling the extraction of deeper and frequently more sustainable
groundwater. In addition, they may be bored through solid rocks and are simpler to maintain than
hand-dug wells. There are many different types of borehole drilling techniques, some of which
are better suited to specific hydrogeological circumstances. Motorized drilling rigs are frequently
used by professional drillers.Groundwater is water that is present underground in cavities and
cracks in rock, sand, and soil. It can be drained into lakes or streams, naturally blown up by
springs, or both from layers of porous rock and/or sediment known as aquifers that can store
water. Despite being underground, groundwater helps to restore and maintain surface water
levels as it rises to the surface or flows into the rivers, lakes, and streams that we are all familiar
with. Groundwater makes our rivers more untamed. Although groundwater is used for drinking
by around 80% of Ghanaians, it is primarily used for agricultural production and crop irrigation.
2.1 Groundwater
Because recharge water is thoroughly filtered through the soil layers, groundwater is a natural
resource that cannot be polluted. However, an increase in some activities—both natural and manmade contamination—such as nitrogen, bleach, salts, pesticides, industrialisation, agriculture, or
extreme land use activities—has contributed to groundwater pollution. The symptoms of
contaminated groundwater include an unpleasant odour, a salty taste, haziness, an unattractive
flavour, and hardness, which necessitates specific treatment to make it drinkable.
One of the biggest challenges of protecting groundwater is that it naturally occurs underground.
Since groundwater levels cannot be seen with the naked eye, supplies may be mistakenly
contaminated or even overdrawn, which would mean that more water would be taken out of the
ground than could be sustainably replenished. Groundwater pollution can be caused by a variety
of things, including excessive fertilizer and pesticide use, septic tanks, leaky underground gas
tanks, and landfills. There are, however, methods for recharging and replenishing
groundwater.Inadvertently, it can occur when people build canals, basins, or ponds to redirect
water so that it will be absorbed into the ground, or it can happen naturally when rain and
snowmelt soak down into the cracks and fissures beneath the surface of the soil. Groundwater
reserves will be more important to preserving our access to clean, drinkable water as climate
change progresses. Growing reliance on groundwater is a result of both the effects of climate
change on water availability and demand as well as the increased need for water for human
requirements like food, energy, and other purposes. The quality of the water is compromised in
many regions where groundwater is being used up more fast than it is being restored by nature. If
humans and other natural systems ultimately depend on water, "mining" groundwater might not
be a good idea.While groundwater from deeper and saltier aquifers is being examined for
addressing future drinking water needs, aquifers are also being considered as storage areas for
waste streams from energy and desalination processes, as well as sites for carbon sequestration.
The most prevalent types of groundwater sources include drilled boreholes, hand-dug wells, and
wells fed by springs.
2.1.1Springs
Springs are naturally occurring groundwater flows that originate in the sediment or rock under
the surface. Springs' nature and production are incredibly variable and rely on the properties of
the underlying rocks. They frequently occur in particular hydrogeological settings. Springs are
susceptible to contamination because their source is open. No machinery is required to create a
spring, but springs can be enhanced and made less susceptible to contamination and drought
through a number of innovations, such as building a tank to collect spring water and covering the
spring head.
2.1.2Hand-dug Wells
Groundwater has been accessed for thousands of years using hand-dug wells. Only soft
materials, such as unconsolidated silt like sand and gravel, worn foundation, or limestone, can be
used for their excavation. They are only suitable in areas with shallow groundwater levels (water
tables). They can be wider and considerably deeper, although they are typically less than 20 m
deep and 1-2 m in diameter. Building a well requires little to no specialized equipment—just a
tool for digging and a means of disposing of the waste. Wells frequently need to be lined with
materials like brick, stones, concrete rings, or even truck tyres in order to keep them open.Open
wells should have a concrete apron installed around the top to protect them from surface
contamination. Wells normally only draw shallow groundwater, thus they are more susceptible to
drought because of their enormous storage capacity, but longer or drier droughts can lead them to
dry up.
2.1.3 Infiltration Galleries
An infiltration gallery, which is a horizontal trench or drain excavated below the water table to
extract shallow groundwater, typically from unconsolidated alluvium, including sand rivers, or
windblown deposits. The trench empties into a sump, where water is collected. To keep it open,
the gallery may need to be lined. It gathers water from underground sources. A perforated pipe or
an open jointed pipe can be used to create the horizontal drain. You can transport the gathered
water to a sump, a storage container, or a collection well. The infiltration galleries function best
when they are surrounded by soil that is sufficiently porous to allow the gallery to conveniently
collect water.One such permeable soil component that easily allows water to travel to the
infiltration gallery is gravel. Gravel also aids in the capture of big particles that may obstruct
holes. To fulfill the rising demand for water, infiltration galleries are built in conjunction with
other water delivery systems. The demand of a large population cannot be met by the gallery
alone. Typically, one or more galleries are built, and they all connect to a central feature, such as
a hand-dug well or a spring box. Thus, collector wells are the name given to these center point
water gathering devices. Infiltration galleries are built in such a way that contamination cannot
occur.
The standard safe distance between latrines and any hazardous places is 30 meters. The sage
distance varies depending on the environment and is site-specific. Unfiltered surface water
cannot enter infiltration galleries because of the way they are built. Depending on where the
collector well is located, the infiltration galleries might range in length from a few meters to
several kilometers.
2.2OCCURANCE OF GROUNDWATER
Practically everywhere has groundwater present. The water table can vary in depth and height
depending on a number of different factors. The water table may rise as a result of heavy rains or
may decline as a result of intensive groundwater pumping. Rain replenishes or recharges
groundwater supplies by permeating the land's surface fissures and crevices. Due to the
groundwater depletion outpacing its natural restoration, there are significant water shortages in
various parts of the world. In many different areas, groundwater has been contaminated by
human activity.
There is groundwater in a wide range of geological formations. Regardless of their type, age, or
place of origin, nearly all rocks in the upper part of the Earth's crust include pores or voids.
Voids are the spaces between the grains in granular, unconsolidated materials; they can be
reduced through compaction and cementation. The only spaces in consolidated rocks may be
small cracks or fissures, which can grow larger with solution. The porosity of the rock a measure
of how many of these openings or pores there are in a given volume of the rock determines how
much water is present there. Greater pore spaces result in higher porosity and more water being
stored.
In fully saturated pores, just a small percentage of the water may be removed and used. Part of
the water drains from the pores when the water level drops owing to gravity, while the remaining
water is held in place by surface tension and molecular processes. The specific yield of a
material is generally expressed as a percentage and is defined as the ratio of the volume of water
that would drain under gravity from an initially saturated rock mass to the total volume of that
rock (including the confined water).
In most cases, groundwater does not remain still but rather moves through the rock. The ease
with which water can pass through a rock mass depends on the size of the pores and how closely
they are related. This phrase alludes to the rock's permeability. Water can easily pass through
permeable materials, whereas it can only pass through impermeable materials very slowly or not
at all. A layer of rock known as an aquifer is porous enough to store water and permeable enough
to allow water to flow through it in quantities suitable for commercial use. For instance, in a
jointed sandstone or limestone, groundwater may flow through cracks, voids between the grains,
or a combination of the two.
It is necessary to establish whether inter-granular or fissure flow predominates in order to
comprehend the hydrogeology and construct monitoring systems for any aquifer, particularly for
point source pollution episodes.
2.3 GROUNDWATERQUALITY
It is impossible to overstate the significance of water quality for human health. A healthy society
must have social, economic, agricultural, and other forms of development. Every other industry
would be negatively impacted if society is unhealthy. A household borehole's quality must be
determined, especially if it will be used for drinking (Khan et al., 2003). Investigation of the
biological, physical, and chemical characteristics of the borehole water is the key to determining
the quality of household borehole water.
The physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of groundwater make up its quality. The
list of physical water quality parameters includes temperature, turbidity, color, taste, and odor.
Since most ground water lacks any discernible flavor, odor, or color, we normally focus on its
chemical and biological characteristics. Although items made from spring water or groundwater
is sometimes marketed as "pure," their water quality is not the same as that of pure water.
Mineral ions are present in groundwater naturally. When water flows over mineral surfaces in
the pores or cracks of the unsaturated zone and the aquifer, these ions slowly dissolve from soil
particles, sediments, and rocks. These substances are known as dissolved solids. Some of the
dissolved solids may have come from the river or precipitation water that recharges the aquifer.
The depth of the soils and subsurface geological formations that ground water is in contact with
affects the natural chemical composition of ground water. The majority of the country's
groundwater is generally of acceptable quality and appropriate for drinking, farming, or
industrial uses. The majority of the ground water in shallow aquifers is of the mixed and calcium
bicarbonate types and is generally appropriate for use for a variety of applications. But there are
other kinds of water too, such water with sodium chloride. Deeper aquifers' quality varies from
location to location and is typically considered acceptable for everyday uses. The coastal tracts
are plagued by salinity issues.
Most of the country's groundwater is potable. However, scattered areas around the nation have
reported having some water quality problems. Arsenic, fluoride, iron, and salinity levels in
ground water are higher than average due to natural geological occurrences. These geogenic
pollutants can be detected in groundwater. Heavy metal and nitrate contamination is the result of
human-made activities including mining, the disposal of industrial waste, and untreated home
trash.
2.3.1PHYSICAL WATER QUALITY
The physical and chemical characteristics of water are combined to form its physico-chemical
characteristics. All of the characteristics of water that can be felt, tasted, seen, and smelled by
humans are considered to be physical characteristics. Color, taste, odor, temperature, suspended
solids, and other factors are among these criteria. All substances that dissolve or are soluble in
water have a chemical quality.They are difficult to detect except through laboratory testing. They
may also make it difficult to use the water as planned. Dissolved cations and anions, poisonous
metals, organic and inorganic chemicals, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen
demand (COD), and others are examples of these characteristics. Some of these substances are
found in concentrations that are harmful to human health (Huat et al., 2011).
i. Temperature
Water temperature is a crucial factor in determining whether or not it is suitable for human use,
industrial use, and aquatic ecosystem function (Subramani et al., 2012). Although it is not
directly utilized to assess potable water, it greatly influences the types of biological organisms
that are present and their rates of activity (Al-Layla et al., 1978). Additionally, it affects how
easily gases dissolve in water and the majority of chemical processes that take place in natural
water systems. Depending on the aquifer's depth and other factors, groundwater has a range of
temperatures.
ii. pH
Consumers are not directly impacted by ph. It is one of the most crucial operational water quality
parameters that decide whether water is suitable for a variety of uses, with an ideal pH range of 7
to 8.5. It establishes whether water is acidic or alkaline (Ramesh and Elango, 2006). Water with
a pH below 6.5 is typically acidic, soft, and corrosive.
iii. Electrical Conductivity (EC)
Electrical conductivity, which is directly connected to the quantity of ionized chemicals in water,
is the ability of electrical current to flow through water (Singh et al., 2011). EC is a good
indicator of salinity risk to crops and is used to measure the salt concentration in water (Ishaku et
al., 2011). If there is too much of it, plants' osmotic activity is reduced, which interferes with
their ability to absorb water and nutrients from the soil.
iv. Total Dissolved Solid (TDS)
The weights of residue remaining after a water sample has been evaporated to dryness are used
to indicate TDS in water, which provides information about the general quality of groundwater
and the level of contamination (Ramesh and Elango, 2006). They are soluble in water complexes
of organic and inorganic materials. TDS concentrations in water vary significantly across
geological regions due to variations in the solubility of minerals (ketata-Rokbani et al., 2011).
Natural water typically has a dissolved solids concentration of less than 500 mg/l, which is
suitable for both residential usage and numerous industrial processes like the production of
plastics, pulp paper, and textile dyes (Karthikeyan et al., 2013).
v. Turbidity
The amount of light dispersed or absorbed by suspended material in water is referred to as
turbidity. Since it is cloudy, visibility is limited (Agunwamba, 2000). It is caused by plant fibres
and the erosion of several colloidal substances, including clay, silt, rock pieces, etc. Turbidityrelated colloidal materials offer adsorption sites for potentially dangerous substances and living
things that produce unpleasant tastes and odours (Wilkes Environmental Center, 2008).
2.3.2 CHEMICAL WATER QUALITY
i. Total Hardness
Calcium and magnesium, as well as anions like carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, and sulphate,
are the main contributors to total hardness in water. It is described as the total of their
concentration in milligrams per liter. Scale formation in the distribution system, boilers, and
irrigation pipelines is possible when water hardness is more than 200 mg/l (Ishaku et al.,2011).
Groundwater that exceeds the 300 mg/l threshold is regarded as being extremely hard and may
result in heart disease and kidney issues (WHO, 2008). The usage of water in home, industrial,
and agricultural processes is restricted by its hardness. To make foam or lather with hard water, a
lot of soap is needed.
ii. Alkalinity
Water's alkalinity may result from the presence of one or more ions, including hydroxides,
carbonates, and bicarbonates. It describes how effectively water can neutralise acid. In humans,
excessive alkalinity can irritate their eyes, and in plants, it can lead to chlorosis (Sisodia and
Moundiotiya, 2006). To assess how corrosive water is, alkalinity and pH measurements must be
made (Nicholas, 2007).
iii. Chloride
Chloride in drinking water includes naturally occurring element that is common in most natural
waters and is most as a component of salt (sodium chloride) or in combination of with calcium or
potassium in some cases. Sources such as salt-bearing geological formation, soil weathering,
deposition of salt spray, salt used for road de-icing, intrusion of sea water into borehole water
source, etc. contribute to the presence of chloride in borehole water. In PEI, borehole water has
relatively low level of chloride but can rise in surroundings near the cost. High chloride content
in drinking water associated with elevated sodium levels are the most concerns however,
chloride in drinking water is not harmful. (Prince Edward Island, 2018)
iv. Total Iron
Iron is a potentially harmful chemical in water sources. Iron is one of the planet's most abundant
resources and accounts for at least 5% of the crust. Iron is dissolved by rainwater infiltration into
the soil and underlying geological formations, causing it to flow into aquifers that provide
groundwater for wells. Despite the fact that iron is a component of drinking water, it is rarely
found in amounts more than 10 mg/L, or 10 ppm. However, even 0.3 mg/l can cause water to
turn a reddish brown tint. (Illinois Department of Public Health, Dec 2010)
v. Fluoride
Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral that is emitted into the land, water, and air from
rocks. Fluoride is an element found in all water. Normal water fluoridation levels are
insufficient to stop tooth decay, although some groundwater and natural spri ngs may
contain naturally high fluoride concentrations. It has been demonstrated that fluoride
guards against tooth decay. When a person consumes sweet foods, oral bacteria in the
mouth release acid. By removing minerals from the tooth's surface, this acid weakens the
tooth and raises the risk of cavities. The tooth's enamel surface is strengthened and rebuilt
with the aid of fluoride. Fluoridation of water prevents tooth decay by exposing people to
little amounts of fluoride on a regular basis. (Griffin SO, Regnier E, Griffin PM, Huntley VN
2007)
vi. Nitrate
Nitrate as a compound occurs naturally and has also many artificial sources. In Minnesota,
Nitrate can be found in some rivers, lakes, and groundwater. in water nitrate cannot be seen,taste
or smell. Too much consumption of nitrate can be harmful for babies especially. Land use and
hydro geological activities affect the levels of nitrate in water. (Water Contamination Fact Sheet-
Nitrate, 2019)
2.3.3BIOLOGICAL WATERQUAÏTY
i. Total Coliform
The term "biological quality" denotes the presence of bacteriological pollution, or diseasecausing organisms. These organisms are often tiny in size. They are tiny living things found in
water that, when swallowed, do great harm to the consumer. Estimating total and fecal coliform
as part of a bacterial examination helps determine if water is fit for consumption and helps
prevent water-borne illnesses. The amount of coliforms that can be counted in a litre of water
indicates the water's quality. Therefore, it is important to emphasize the need for high-quality
drinking water, particularly in developing nations like Ghana.
ii. E. Coli
E. coli belongs to the faecal coliform group and is the only member that is specific to the
intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. E. coli is the most reliable indicator of enteric diseases
and is therefore the indicator of choice to identify recent faecal contamination in drinking water
systems. When a water sample is tested for the presence of E. coli, results refer to mainly nonpathogenic strains of bacteria. (Sophie Verhille. National Collaborating Center for environmental
Health, Jan 2013).
iii. Viable Plate Count
A count of viable or live cells is known as the viable plate count, often known as the plate count.
It is predicated on the idea that when viable cells are cultured under conditions appropriate for
the material, they will reproduce and form visible colonies. 2018 (OpenStax CNX). A liquid
culture is inoculated onto a plate in a precise quantity. The plate is incubated, and the resulting
colonies are tallied. Because more than one cell may have landed on the same place to create a
single colony, the results are typically presented as colony-forming units per mililitre (CFU/mL)
rather than cells per mililitre. Furthermore, it is challenging to distribute bacteria samples that
form chains or clusters, and a single colony may be made up of numerous initial cells.
Although they cannot grow in culture and cannot form colonies on solid media, certain cells are
described as viable. The viable plate count is regarded as a modest estimate of the actual number
of living cells for all of these reasons. The approach, which provides estimates of live bacterial
populations, is nevertheless valuable despite these drawbacks. 2018 (OpenStax CNX) The pour
plate and spread plate techniques are the two most often used methods for inoculating plates for
viable counts. Both of these procedures begin with a serial dilution of the culture, even if the
final inoculation process varies. 2018 (OpenStax CNX).
The number of cells in even a slightly turbid culture is too high to result in discrete colonies that
can be counted on a plate, necessitating serial dilution.
2.4GROUNDWATER USE
The majority of fresh groundwater was used to irrigate crops, including the delectable eggplants,
squash, and rutabagas that kids love to eat for dinner. Fresh groundwater was used for a variety
of significant uses. Local city and county water departments take a lot of groundwater out of the
ground for public uses like delivering it to homes, businesses, and industries as well as for
community uses like firefighting, water services at public buildings, and keeping neighborhood
swimming pools full of water to keep residents happy. Groundwater was also extensively utilised
by businesses and mining operations. Groundwater sources provided the majority of the water
used for household (homeowners who provide their own water, typically by a well) and animal
reasons.
2.5TREATMENT OF BOREHOLE
The treatment's objectives are to rid the water of undesirable elements and to make it suitable for
industrial or medical purposes or safe to drink. The removal of contaminants like fine particles,
microorganisms, certain dissolved inorganic and organic compounds, or environmental persistent
pharmaceutical pollutants is possible using a wide range of approaches. The choice of approach
will be influenced by the nature of the water that needs to be treated, the cost of the treatment
procedure, and the quality requirements for the treated water.
2.5.1 Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis was one of the first membrane applications for the use of membrane
technology, turning seawater into drinkable water (RO). An RO system uses a semipermeable
membrane to separate dissolved solutes (including single charged ions like Na+ and Cl-) from
water. The membrane allows water to flow through but not the solute. Diffusion can be thought
of as a diffusion-controlled process in which the mass transfer of ions via RO membranes is
regulated. An RO membrane may not have any physical holes, setting it apart from other
filtration systems. Water will easily permeate into and out of the polymer structure of the RO
membrane since it is highly hydrophilic.According to Taylor and Jacobs (1996), a RO membrane
can reject pollutants as tiny as 0.001 m.
For RO membrane, four different module types are used: spiral wound, hollow fibre, plate and
frame, and tubular. The spiral-wound element, however, is by far the most used for the
generation of drinking water. Systems with one stage, two stages, and two passes are examples
of RO configurations. The required quality of the product water determines the configuration to
choose. The pass method produces a product with the highest level of purity, making it ideal for
making makeup boiler water. The single stage system is the most straightforward design and is
frequently used in a variety of desalination applications. For brackish water use, when it is
important to raise the total recovery ratio, the two-stage method is typical (Fawzi & Al-Enezi,
2002).
Nowadays, RO systems are a common water treatment method in industries that need to separate
dissolved solutes from their solvent (water), including desalination, as well as in homes to
enhance water quality and get rid of potentially harmful impurities. By enabling the use of
brackish waters for the supply of potable water, RO has improved the water supply. In many dry
places, especially rural areas where fresh water is scarce, desalination utilizing RO has emerged
as a key source of fresh water production. Recent developments, particularly in the pre-treatment
and enhancement of the membrane materials, have made RO desalination economically viable
even at seawater concentrations (Buckley & Hurt, 1996).By today's standards, plants with a
capacity greater than 19,000 m3/d are not unusual (Buckley & Hurt, 1996).
The simplicity and economy of RO technology's operation have been the main factors in its
development. From the initial cellulose acetate membrane, which required 28 bar, to
contemporary polyamide thin-film membranes, which only require 7 bar net driving pressure,
RO membrane technology has rapidly advanced to new membranes working at lower pressure
and increasing salt rejection. Salt rejection of RO membranes increased from 97 to 99.5%, with
some unique membrane types displaying even higher separation efficiency (Nicolaisen, 20020.
Bryne (1995) also remarked that newer membranes have higher energy efficiency due to their
capacity to reject more salts and pass more water at a given pressure.
One of the most appealing aspects of the RO system is its simplicity in comparison to the largescale thermal desalination procedure. The production capacity can be easily increased because to
its modular architecture. RO has a modest specific electricity requirement of only 5 kWh/m3.
The pumping power for the two main thermal desalination processes, MSF and ME, is roughly
the same as this amount (Fawzi & Al-Enezi, 2002).
However, the majority of RO membranes now on the market are not strong enough to function
directly on seawater fed from the surface (Ebrahim et al., 2001). In comparison to thermal
desalination methods, RO membranes are more vulnerable to fouling, scaling, chemical, and
biological attack. One serious flaw of RO membrane is its sensitivity to fouling. Because of the
demands of pre-treatment, RO has evolved into an energy-efficient substitute for thermal
processes, but it still faces competition.
2.5.2Ultra filtration in Groundwater Treatment
Different chemicals can dissolve in and be contained by water. For industrial or domestic
purposes, fresh water from surface water or groundwater is used, either for potable or nonpotable consumption. A water treatment facility is required to meet the demands for treated
water because of the intended uses. According to Kurita (1985), a standard water treatment plant
typically consists of chemical treatment (pH adjustment, coagulation-flocculation process,
oxidation-reduction process, and adsorption process) as well as physical treatment (screening,
sedimentation, flotation, and filtration). The quality of the raw water source and the demand for
treated water both influence how sophisticated the treatment plant is. Water is utilized in a
variety of applications that call for various water quality in industrial processing.Cooling water,
water for chemical manufacture and rinsing, boiler feed water, filtered water, injection water, etc.
are some examples of varied uses. Population expansion, rising treatment and distribution costs,
contamination of fresh water sources, and end-user sophistication all contribute to the need for
better water treatment technologies (Anselme & Jacobs, 1996). Comparing ultrafiltration (UF) to
traditional treatments, it has been demonstrated to be competitive. Chemical precipitation,
adsorption, sedimentation, and filtration are frequently needed in order to produce clear,
sparkling water that is safe from disease (Anselme & Jacobs, 1996).To ensure the whole process
performs at its best, each step of the process must be managed, creating a complicated control
system (Clever, et al. 2000). UF, which is described as a clarification and disinfection membrane
operation, is now utilized to replace the clarification step in conventional water treatment plants,
which includes coagulation, sedimentation, and filtering. Although UF membranes are
permeable, all particle pollutants, including macromolecules and viruses and bacteria, are
rejected.
The primary benefits of low-pressure UF membrane processes over traditional clarification
(direct filtration, settling/rapid sand filtration, or coagulation/sedimentation/filtration) and
disinfection (post chlorination) processes include the lack of chemical requirements, sizeexclusion filtration as opposed to media depth filtration, good and consistent quality of treated
water in terms of particle and microbial removal regardless of raw feed water quality, process
and plant compatibility, and cost savings.Performance of UF membranes is directly impacted by
source water quality. Therefore, in actuality, UF can be run as a single operation, in combination
with other processes (coagulation, adsorption, etc.), or as a hybrid membrane system (UF/MF),
depending on the quality of input water. UF can be used in water applications as the primary
process or as a pre-treatment, such as in a RO system. The discussion in this section will only
focus on UF as the primary process, with a brief discussion of UF as pre-treatment in the
following section. Today, low-pressure membranes, such as microfiltration (MF) and
ultrafiltration, are used to produce more than 2 million m3/d (750 mgd) of drinking water
globally. Worldwide, there are more than 50 UF plants producing drinking water from surface
water (Delgrange-Vincent, et al., 2000)
2.6Column Study
Column experiments investigate the transport behavior, sorption, and degradation of a specific
compound or group of substances. The boundary conditions and experimental setup can be
varied to best address particular research questions or compounds.
The fundamental idea behind column experiments is the regulated solution flow via a column
made of a specific porous material. Usually, different-sized columns are used for steady-state
flow up-and-down studies.Scientists are increasingly using column experiments to investigate
the transport of organic micropollutants, but little is known about how these experiments should
be carried out - or how they should be set up if they are not already being used in this way. Water
column experiments are carried out to investigate the transport and attenuation of a specific
compound within a specific sediment or substrate. The transport of (organic) solutes in
groundwater is influenced by the chemical and physical properties of the compounds, the
solvent, and the substrate. In organic chemistry, column experiments are very different from
batch experiments where all processes are observed until equilibrium is reached in the substratesolution system. Time (or flow velocity) is an important factor, and variations in boundary
conditions can have a marked influence on the transport and degradation of micropollutants.
(Stefan Banzhaf, Klaus H HebigSep 2016)
CHAPTER THREE
3.0METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the experimental setups that were used towards the achievement of the
said objectives.
The following strategies were utilized in order to fulfil the project's goal:
i.
Preparation of 0.1M Hydrochloric Acid Solution
ii.
Preparation of 0.1M Sodium Hydroxide Solution.
iii.
Preparation 0.1M Hydrated Lime Solution.
iv.
Preparation of Distilled Water
v.
Preparation of Sand, Gravel media (Filter)
vi.
Column Study Setup
3.1 PREPARATION OF 0.1M HYDROCHLORIC ACID SOLUTION
Procedure for preparing 0.1MHCl Solution
i.
According to the market availability of 37% HCl, the following molarity estimations
have been made:
ii.
Dilute 370 ml of HCl (37% solution) with 1000 ml of distilled water.
iii.
1.19 g/l is the density of HCl.
iv.
HCL has an average molecular weight of 36.5 370 x 1.19 = 440.3g/l.
v.
As a result, the HCl's molarity is 440.3 / 36.5, which equals 12.0630 M or 12 M.
vi.
Calculate the amount of HCl needed to make the 0.1M HCl solution using the formula
M1 V1 = M2 V2 0.1 x 1000 = 12 x V2 V2 = 0.1 x 1000 / 12 = 8.3333ml.
vii.
Therefore, to make 0.1M HCL solution, you need 8.3ml of 37% HCl in 1000ml of water.
3.2 PREPARATION OF 0.1M SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION
There are two ways to prepare 0.1M Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution
i.
Preparation of 0.1M Solution by using sodium hydroxide pellets
ii.
Dilute the solution from 1.0 M solution
Procedure for Preparation of 0.1M Solution by using sodium hydroxide pellets
i.
Take a 1000 ml volumetric flask that has been thoroughly cleaned and dried.
ii.
Add pellets of sodium hydroxide weighing 4 grammes or 4.2 grammes to the mixture.
iii.
The sodium hydroxide pellets will dissolve in the flask after 100ml of distilled water is
added and the flask is shaken.
iv.
Allow the solution to cool to room temperature (solution will be hot after the addition of
water)
v.
Fill the volume with distilled water to a maximum of 1000 ml, then thoroughly mix the
mixture.
vi.
The solution should be left to cool at room temperature for an hour.
3.3 PREPARATION OF DISTILLED WATER
Both at home and in a lab, distilled water can be made. This distilled water was created in the lab
due to the enormous quantity needed.
Procedure
At 1000 C, raw water was heated. The steam then rises and passes through a glass tube to enter
the condensation chamber. The steam subsequently cools and becomes clear distilled water.
Gallon containers were used to collect the pure distilled water. Through a capillary tube, the
extra steam will be let out.
3.4 PREPARATION OF HYDRATED LIME SOLUTION
Using distilled water and slake lime, hydrated lime solution was chemically created in the lab.
Procedure:
Distilled water and a specified amount of slake lime (10g) were combined. To create the
hydrated lime solution, the lime was thoroughly combined with the distilled water.
Hydrated lime preparation
3.5 PREPARATION OF FILTER MEDIA (Acid-Base wash)
The preparation of sand and stone gravel media used in pilot columns is intended to be inert.
However, in their natural condition, they are frequently bound to ions and organic substances,
which might hinder the adsorption process or have an impact on the water's quality. These ions
and organic compounds are removed from the media by washing it with acid and base, which
also reduces the effect on the overall water quality.
Procedure
The coarser aggregate was placed at the bottom of the medium, followed by the less coarse
aggregate, and lastly the fine aggregate was placed on top.
The media's particle sizes range from coarse sand (2mm-500um), gravel (2mm-10mm), to fine
sand (45-75um). The medium rinsed in 1m HCL and dried for roughly 12 hours before being
used. It was then cleaned with distilled water. After that, the media wad was submerged in 1M
NaOH for 12 hours. After that, the media rinsed in distilled water until the pH reached 7.2. After
that, the media was overnight dried.
Filtration media preparation
3.6 SETUP AND PROCEDU
3.6.1 SETUP
The setup for the running of raw water and lime
3.6.2 PROCEDURE
Raw water from the ATU borehole was collected, and a pH metre was used to measure the pH to
5.5. A plastic container with a stopcock was positioned 170 cm above ground level with the raw
water inside. A little tube was attached to the container's stopcock and guided toward the mixing
chamber by gravity. The raw water was flowing at a rate of 0.5 ml per minute. The stopcockequipped plastic container containing the hydrated lime was filled with the solution, which was
then gravity-fed into the mixing chamber. The hydrated lime flowed at a rate of 0.25 ml per
minute. Both the raw water and the hydrated lime drain into a beaker that is suspended in the
mixing area.
The beaker uses a hydraulic jump mechanism to stir the lime and raw water together by creating
turbulence. The mixture is expelled from the beaker through a tube and onto a turbine. The
mixture is whirled and rotated by the turbine, which also facilitates additional mixing in the
mixing chamber. The mixing chamber was positioned 143 cm above the ground.
The water exits the mixing chamber through a tap onto a second turbine on the filter media,
which rotates and whirls the water for more mixing. The turbine also aids in distributing water
uniformly across the media surface.
The precipitate of iron and lime is trapped by the media, which also aids in water filtration. The
water then drains through the different media sections before passing via a tap and flowing into a
collection chamber. The pH of the water was measured after it was collected at intervals of 0:00,
5:00, 10:00, 20:00, 30:00, 45:00, 60:00, 120:00, 180:00, 240:00, 300:00, and 360:00 minutes into
labelled plastic bottles.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSIONS
This chapter covers the analysis and discussions of data obtained from the experiment in the
laboratory. The study was undertaken to ascertain the possibility of adjusting the pH level from
5.5 which is acidic to meet standardization by the regulatory body (WHO), which is between 6.5
and 8.5.
Table of pH values against time
Tine in Minutes
pH
0
0
5
8.5
10
8.4
20
8.4
30
8.4
45
8.5
60
8.5
120
8.5
180
7.6
240
8.5
300
8.5
360
7.5
The table above indicates the pH at certain intervals which were recorded during the running of
the water.
At various time interval the pH results were taken and recorded and sample of the water during
the pH reading were taken and labeled to be taken to the Ghana Water Company for further test
to be carried out. Parameters such as iron, magnesium, copper, zink, potassium, etc would be
tested at the lab at Ghana water company.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUTION AND RECOMMENDATION
Conclusion



The lime water was able to treat the water to make more basic.
At various time intervals, the lime was able to correct the pH of the borehole water.
Column test was seen to be most effective for treating the bore water.
Recommendation



There was difficulties in financing the project work there making us unable to undertake
the test of the parameters at the lab.
There were challenges in getting the sodium distilled water to be used to prepare
solutions.
The lime settled at the bottom of the mixing chamber due to the fact that we were not
able to get a propeller to help mix the solution properly.
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APPENDIX