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Business Research Methods
Sixth Edition
Emma Bell
Alan Bryman
Bill Harley
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom
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Created on: 22 April 2022 at 09:34 p.m.
Detailed contents
Acronyms and abbreviations
About the authors
About the students and supervisors
Resources for lecturers
About the book
Acknowledgements
Editorial Advisory Panel
Publisher credits
Part One The Research Process
Chapter 1 The nature and process of business research
Introduction: what is business research and why do it?
Key considerations in business research methods
Relevance to practice
The process of business research
Literature review
Concepts and theories
Research questions
Sampling
Data collection
Data analysis
Writing up
The messiness of business research
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 2 Business research strategies
Introduction: the nature of business research
Theory and research
What is theory?
Deductive and inductive logics of inquiry
Philosophical assumptions in business research
Ontological considerations
Objectivism
Constructionism
Epistemological considerations
A natural science epistemology: positivism
Interpretivism
Research paradigms
Developing a research strategy: quantitative or qualitative?
Other considerations
Values
Practicalities
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 3 Research designs
Introduction
Quality criteria in business research
Reliability
Replicability
Validity
Research designs
Experimental design
Cross-sectional design
Longitudinal design
Case study design
Comparative design
Levels of analysis
Bringing research strategy and research design together
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 4 Planning a research project and developing research questions
Introduction
Planning your research project
Getting to know what is expected of you by your university
Thinking about your research area
Using your supervisor
Managing time and resources
Developing suitable research questions
Criteria for evaluating research questions
Writing your research proposal
Checklist
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 5 Getting started: reviewing the literature
Introduction
Reviewing the literature
Reading critically
Systematic review
Narrative and integrative reviews
Searching databases
Online databases
Keywords and defining search parameters
Making progress
Referencing
Avoiding plagiarism
Checklist
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 6 Ethics in business research
Introduction
Ethical principles
Avoidance of harm
Informed consent
Privacy
Preventing deception
Stances on research ethics
Other ethical and legal considerations
Data management
Copyright
Affiliation and conflicts of interest
Visual methods and research ethics
Ethical considerations in online research
The political context of business research
Checklist
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 7 Writing up business research
Introduction
Writing academically
Writing up your research
Start early
Be persuasive
Get feedback
Use inclusive language
Structure your writing
Writing up quantitative and qualitative research
An example of quantitative research
An example of qualitative research
Reflexivity and writing differently
Checklist
Key points
Questions for review
Part Two Quantitative Research
Chapter 8 The nature of quantitative research
Introduction
The main steps in quantitative research
Concepts and their measurement
What is a concept?
Why measure?
Indicators
Dimensions of concepts
Reliability and validity of measures
Reliability of measures
Validity of measures
The connection between reliability and validity
The main preoccupations of quantitative researchers
Measurement
Causality
Generalization
Replication
The critique of quantitative research
Criticisms of quantitative research
Is it always like this?
Reverse operationism
Reliability and validity testing
Sampling
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 9 Sampling in quantitative research
Introduction
The importance of a representative sample
Sampling error
Types of probability sample
Simple random sample
Systematic sample
Stratified random sampling
Multi-stage cluster sampling
The qualities of a probability sample
Sample size
Absolute and relative sample size
Time and cost
Non-response
Heterogeneity of the population
Types of non-probability sampling
Convenience sampling
Quota sampling
Limits to generalization
Error in survey research
Sampling issues for online surveys
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 10 Structured interviewing
Introduction
The structured interview
Reducing error due to interviewer variability
Accuracy and ease of data processing
Other types of interview
Interview contexts
More than one interviewee
More than one interviewer
In person or by phone or video call?
Computer-assisted interviewing
Conducting interviews
Know the schedule
Introducing the research
Rapport
Asking questions
Recording answers
Clear instructions
Question order
Probing
Prompting
Leaving the interview
Training and supervision
Problems with structured interviewing
Characteristics of interviewers
Response sets
The problem of meaning
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 11 Self-completion questionnaires
Introduction
Different kinds of self-completion questionnaires
Evaluating the self-completion questionnaire in relation to the structured interview
Advantages of the self-completion questionnaire over the structured interview
Disadvantages of the self-completion questionnaire in comparison to the structured interview
Steps to improve response rates to postal and online questionnaires
Designing the self-completion questionnaire
Do not cramp the presentation
Clear presentation
Vertical or horizontal closed answers?
Identifying response sets in a Likert scale
Clear instructions about how to respond
Keep question and answers together
Online surveys
Comparing modes of survey administration
Diaries as a form of self-completion questionnaire
Advantages and disadvantages of the diary as a method of data collection
Experience and event sampling
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 12 Asking questions
Introduction
Open or closed questions?
Open questions
Closed questions
Types of question
Rules for designing questions
General rules of thumb
Specific rules when designing questions
Vignette questions
Piloting and pre-testing questions
Using existing questions
Checklist
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 13 Quantitative research using naturally occurring data
Introduction
Structured observation
The observation schedule
Strategies for observing behaviour
Sampling for structured observation
Sampling people
Sampling in terms of time
Further sampling considerations
Limitations of structured observation
Issues of reliability and validity
Criticisms of structured observation
Content analysis
What are the research questions?
Selecting a sample for content analysis
Sampling media
Sampling dates
What is to be counted?
Significant actors
Words
Subjects and themes
Dispositions
Images
Coding in content analysis
Coding schedule
Coding manual
Potential pitfalls in devising coding schemes
Advantages and disadvantages of content analysis
Advantages
Disadvantages
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 14 Secondary analysis and official statistics
Introduction
Using data collected by others
Advantages of secondary analysis
Limitations of secondary analysis
Accessing data archives
Big data
Archival proxies and meta-analysis
Official statistics
Reliability and validity
Official statistics as a form of unobtrusive measure
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 15 Quantitative data analysis: descriptive, univariate, and bivariate statistics
Introduction
A sample research project
Getting to know and describing your data
Common types of variables
Data cleaning and scale construction
Descriptive and univariate statistics
Frequencies and distributions
Bivariate statistics
Covariance and correlation
Contingency tables
Mean comparisons
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 16 Quantitative data analysis: hypothesis testing and inferential statistics
Introduction
Significance testing and effect sizes
Null-hypothesis significance testing
Common inferential statistics for prediction
Regression
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Key points
Questions for review
Part Three Qualitative Research
Chapter 17 The nature of qualitative research
Introduction
The main steps in qualitative research
Theory and research
Concepts in qualitative research
Reliability and validity in qualitative research
Adapting reliability and validity for qualitative research
Alternative criteria for evaluating qualitative research
Overview of the issue of criteria
The main preoccupations of qualitative researchers
Seeing through the eyes of people being studied
Description and emphasis on context
Emphasis on process
Flexibility and limited structure
Concepts and theory grounded in data
The critique of qualitative research
Too subjective
Difficult to replicate
Problems of generalization
Lack of transparency
Is it always like this?
Contrasts and similarities between quantitative and qualitative research
Contrasts
Similarities
Researcher–participant relationships
Action research
Feminist research
Decolonial and indigenous research
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 18 Sampling in qualitative research
Introduction
Levels of sampling
Purposive sampling
Theoretical sampling
Generic purposive sampling
Snowball sampling
Sample size
Not just people
Using more than one sampling approach
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 19 Ethnography and participant observation
Introduction
Organizational ethnography
Access
Overt versus covert?
Ongoing access
Key informants
Roles for ethnographers
Active or passive?
Shadowing
Field notes
Types of field notes
Bringing ethnographic fieldwork to an end
Other types of ethnographic research
Feminist ethnography
Global and multi-site ethnography
Digital ethnography
Writing ethnography
Realist tales
Other approaches
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 20 Interviewing in qualitative research
Introduction
Differences between structured interviewing and the qualitative interview
Asking questions
Preparing an interview guide
Kinds of questions
Using an interview guide: an example
Recording, transcription, and translation
Flexibility in interviewing
Non-face-to-face interviews
Telephone interviewing
Online interviews
Video interviewing
Other approaches to qualitative interviewing
Feminist interviewing
Critical incident interviewing
Life history interviews
Merits and limitations of qualitative interviewing
Advantages of qualitative interviews
Disadvantages of qualitative interviews
Checklist
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 21 Focus groups
Introduction
Uses of focus groups
Commercial use of focus groups
Conducting focus groups
Recording and transcription
How many groups?
Size of groups
Level of moderator involvement
Selecting participants
Asking questions
Beginning and finishing
Interaction in focus groups
Focus groups as an emancipatory method
Online focus groups
Limitations of focus groups
Checklist
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 22 Language in qualitative research
Introduction
Discourse analysis
Main features of discourse analysis
Detailed procedures
Critical discourse analysis
Strengths and limitations of discourse analysis
Narrative analysis
Rhetorical analysis
Conversation analysis
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 23 Documentary data
Introduction
Personal documents
Public documents
Organizational documents
Media outputs
Documents as ‘texts’
Interpreting documentary data
Qualitative content analysis
Historical analysis
Checklist
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 24 Visual qualitative research
Introduction
The visual turn in business research
The main approaches to visual research
Research generated images
Taking photographs
Video recordings
Visual arts-based methods
Already existing visual material
Found photographs and online images
Material objects
Visual ethnography
Interpreting the visual
Grounded visual pattern analysis
Semiotic and multimodal analysis
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 25 Qualitative data analysis
Introduction
Thematic analysis
Grounded theory
Tools of grounded theory
Outcomes of grounded theory
Memos
Criticisms of grounded theory
More on coding
Steps and considerations in coding
Turning data into fragments
The critique of coding
Secondary analysis of qualitative data
Using data analysis software in qualitative research
Key points
Questions for review
Part Four Mixed Methods Research
Chapter 26 Breaking down the quantitative/qualitative divide
Introduction
The natural science model and qualitative research
Quantitative research: interpretivism and constructionism
Interpretivism
Constructionism
Epistemological and ontological considerations
Problems with the quantitative/qualitative contrast
Behaviour versus meaning
Theory tested in research versus theory emergent from data
Numbers versus words
Artificial versus natural
Reciprocal analysis
Qualitative analysis of quantitative data
Quantitative analysis of qualitative data
Quantification in qualitative research
Thematic analysis
Quasi-quantification in qualitative research
Combating anecdotalism through limited quantification
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 27 Mixed methods research: combining quantitative and qualitative research
Introduction
The debates surrounding mixed methods research
The arguments against mixed methods research
Two versions of the debate about quantitative and qualitative research
The rise of mixed methods research
Classifying mixed methods research in terms of priority and sequence
Different types of mixed methods design
Approaches to mixed methods research
The logic of triangulation
Qualitative research facilitates quantitative research
Quantitative research facilitates qualitative research
Filling in the gaps
Static and processual features
Research issues and participants’ perspectives
The problem of generality
Interpreting the relationship between variables
Studying different aspects of a phenomenon
Solving a puzzle
Quality issues in mixed methods research
Key points
Questions for review
Glossary
References
Name index
Subject index
Learning features
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1.1 Key concept What is evidence-based management?
1.2 Key concept What are research questions?
1.3 Research in focus Developing hypotheses from theory in a study of environmental activism in China
1.4 Thinking deeply What is big data?
2.1 Key concept What is empiricism?
2.2 Research in focus A deductive study
2.3 Research in focus An inductive study
2.4 Key concept What is abductive reasoning?
2.5 Key concept What is the philosophy of social science?
2.6 Key concept What is objectivism?
2.7 Key concept What is constructionism?
2.8 Key concept What is postmodernism?
2.9 Research in focus Constructionism in action
2.10 Key concept What is positivism?
2.11 Key concept What is empirical realism?
2.12 Key concept What is interpretivism?
2.13 Research in focus Interpretivism in practice
2.14 Key concept What is a paradigm?
2.15 Research in focus Mixed methods research—an example
2.16 Thinking deeply Factors that influence methods choice in organizational research
2.17 Research in focus Influence of an author’s biography on research values
3.1 Key concept What is a research design?
3.2 Key concept What is a research method?
3.3 Key concept What is a variable?
3.4 Research in focus An example of a field experiment to investigate obesity discrimination in job applicant selection
3.5 Research in focus Establishing the direction of causality
3.6 Research in focus A laboratory experiment on voting on CEO pay
3.7 Research in focus The Hawthorne effect
3.8 Research in focus A quasi-experiment
3.9 Key concept What is evaluation research?
3.10 Research in focus An evaluation study of an intervention
3.11 Key concept What is a cross-sectional research design?
3.12 Key concept What is survey research?
3.13 Research in focus An example of survey research: the Study of Australian Leadership (SAL)
3.14 Thinking deeply The case study in business research
3.15 Research in focus A longitudinal case study of ICI
3.16 Research in focus A longitudinal panel study of older workers’ pay
3.17 Key concept What is cross-cultural and international research?
3.18 Research in focus A comparative analysis panel study of female employment
4.1 Thinking deeply Marx’s sources of research questions
4.2 Research in focus Developing a research question by doing research
5.1 Key concept What is an academic journal?
5.2 Thinking deeply Composing a literature review in qualitative research articles
5.3 Key concept What is a systematic review?
5.4 Research in focus A narrative review of narrative research
5.5 Thinking deeply Deciding on selection criteria in a literature review
6.1 Key concept What is research ethics?
6.2 Research in focus An example of an ethical issue in research
6.3 Thinking deeply The assumption of anonymity
6.4 Key concept Ethical stances
6.5 Research in focus A covert study of unofficial rewards
6.6 Thinking deeply The benefits and costs of covert research
6.7 Research in focus Two infamous studies of obedience to authority
6.8 Thinking deeply A funding controversy in a university business school
6.9 Research in focus Invasion of privacy in visual research
6.10 Research in focus Chatroom users’ responses to being studied
6.11 Thinking deeply Ethics and big data
7.1 Key concept What is rhetoric?
7.2 Thinking deeply How to write academically
7.3 Thinking deeply An empiricist repertoire?
7.4 Key concept What is a rhetorical strategy in quantitative research?
7.5 Thinking deeply Using verbatim quotes from interviews
8.1 Research in focus Selecting research sites and sampling respondents: the Quality of Work and Life in Changing Europe project
8.2 Key concept What is an indicator?
8.3 Research in focus Multiple-indicator measures of ethical judgement
8.4 Research in focus Specifying dimensions of a concept: the case of job characteristics
8.5 Key concept What is reliability?
8.6 Key concept What is Cronbach’s alpha?
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8.7 Key concept What is validity?
8.8 Research in focus Assessing the internal reliability and the concurrent and predictive validity of a measure of organizational climate
8.9 Research in focus Testing validity through replication: the case of burnout
8.10 Key concept What is factor analysis?
9.1 Key concept Basic terms and concepts in sampling
9.2 Research in focus A survey of Australian workplaces and employees utilizing stratified random sampling and cluster sampling
9.3 Key concept What is a response rate?
9.4 Research in focus Convenience sampling in a study of discrimination in hiring
9.4 Thinking deeply Sampling using Amazon MTurk
10.1 Key concept What is a structured interview?
10.2 Key concept Major types of interview
10.3 Research in focus A phone survey of breaches of employment standards
10.4 Research in focus A question sequence
10.5 Research in focus A study of the effects of social desirability bias
11.1 Research in focus Combining the use of structured interviews with self-completion questionnaires
11.2 Research in focus Administering a survey in China
11.3 Key concept What is a research diary?
11.4 Research in focus A diary study of managers and their jobs
11.5 Research in focus A diary study of emotional labour in a call centre
11.6 Research in focus An experience sampling study of work withdrawal by frontline workers
12.1 Research in focus Coding a very open question
12.2 Research in focus Using vignette questions in a study of perceptions of justice
12.3 Research in focus Using scales developed by other researchers in a study of high performance work systems
13.1 Key concept What is structured observation?
13.2 Research in focus Mintzberg’s categories of basic activities involved in managerial work
13.3 Research in focus Structured observation in a study of leadership and safety in construction
13.4 Key concept What is Cohen’s kappa?
13.5 Key concept What is content analysis?
13.6 Research in focus A content analysis of courage and managerial decision-making
13.7 Research in focus A computer-aided content analysis of microlending to entrepreneurs
13.8 Research in focus A content analysis of police recruitment videos
13.9 Research in focus A content analysis of Swedish job advertisements 1960–2010
14.1 Key concept What is secondary analysis?
14.2 Research in focus Exploring corporate reputation in three Scandinavian countries
14.3 Research in focus Combining primary and secondary data in a single study of the implications of marriage structure for men’s
attitudes to women in the workplace
104. 14.4 Research in focus Cross-national comparison of work orientations: an example of a secondary dataset
105. 14.5 Research in focus Workplace gender diversity and union density: an example of secondary analysis using the WERS data
106. 14.6 Research in focus Age and work-related health: methodological issues involved in secondary analysis using the Labour Force
Survey
107. 14.7 Research in focus A big data based analysis of displays of positive emotion by entrepreneurs in ‘pitch’ videos
108. 14.8 Research in focus The use of archival proxies in the field of strategic management
109. 14.9 Key concept What is meta-analysis?
110. 14.10 Research in focus A meta-analysis of research on corporate social responsibility and performance in East Asia
111. 14.11 Key concept What are unobtrusive measures?
112. 14.12 Key concept What is the ecological fallacy?
113. 15.1 Key concept What are covariance and correlation?
114. 16.1 Key concept Basic terms and concepts in null-hypothesis significance testing
115. 16.2 Key concept Regression equations
116. 16.3 Thinking deeply What assumptions underlie regression?
117. 16.4 Research in focus Supervisor evaluation of job performance when employees work early versus late
118. 17.1 Thinking deeply Research questions in qualitative research
119. 17.2 Research in focus The emergence of a concept in qualitative research: ‘emotional labour’
120. 17.3 Key concept What is respondent validation?
121. 17.4 Key concept What is triangulation?
122. 17.5 Research in focus Seeing learning from the perspective of train dispatchers
123. 17.6 Research in focus Studying process and change in the Carlsberg group
124. 17.7 Thinking deeply A quantitative review of qualitative research in management and business
125. 17.8 Thinking deeply Feminism and business research
126. 17.9 Research in focus A feminist analysis of entrepreneurship
127. 17.10 Research in focus Indigenous understandings of leadership
128. 18.1 Key concept What is purposive sampling?
129. 18.2 Key concept Some purposive sampling approaches
130. 18.3 Key concept What is theoretical sampling?
131. 18.4 Key concept What is theoretical saturation?
132. 18.5 Research in focus An example of theoretical sampling
133. 18.6 Research in focus Two examples of snowball sampling
134. 18.7 Thinking deeply Saturation and sample size
135. 19.1 Key concept What is the difference between ethnography and participant observation?
136. 19.2 Research in focus An example of an organizational ethnography lasting nine years
137. 19.3 Research in focus Finding a working role in an organization
138. 19.4 Research in focus A complete participant?
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19.5 Research in focus An example of the difficulties of covert observation: the case of field notes in the lavatory
19.6 Research in focus Three approaches to ethnographic access
19.7 Key concept What is ‘going native’?
19.8 Research in focus Using field notes as data
19.9 Research in focus Becoming an insider in gendered organizational cultures
19.10 Research in focus A multi-site ethnography of diversity management
19.11 Research in focus Netnography
19.12 Research in focus Using blogs in a study of word-of-mouth marketing
19.13 Key concept Three forms of ethnographic writing
19.14 Research in focus An example of a realist organizational ethnography
19.15 Key concept What is the linguistic turn?
19.16 Key concept What is autoethnography?
20.1 Research in focus Flexibility in interviewing
20.2 Research in focus An example of an unstructured interview
20.3 Key concept The walking interview
20.4 Thinking deeply A successful interviewer?
20.5 Thinking deeply Interviewing for the first time
20.6 Research in focus Part of the transcript of a semi-structured interview
20.7 Research in focus Getting it recorded and transcribed: an illustration of two problems
20.8 Thinking deeply Translating interview data
20.9 Research in focus An example of critical incident interviewing
20.10 Research in focus Using life history interviews in a study of elite philanthropists
21.1 Key concept What is the focus group method?
21.2 Research in focus Using focus groups to study trade union representation of disabled employees
21.3 Research in focus Moderator involvement in a focus group discussion
21.4 Research in focus Selecting focus group participants in a study of the future of work in Australia
21.5 Research in focus An example of emancipatory focus groups
21.6 Research in focus A bulletin board focus group study of young adult consumers’ perceptions of CSR
21.7 Research in focus Group conformity and the focus group method
22.1 Key concept What is discourse analysis?
22.2 Research in focus The application of mind and body discourses to older workers
22.3 Research in focus Interpretative repertoires in the identification of role models by MBA students
22.4 Research in focus A critical analysis of accountancy discourses of corruption risk
22.5 Research in focus A study of career change narratives
22.6 Key concept What are organizational narratives?
22.7 Research in focus The rhetorical construction of charismatic leadership
22.8 Key concept What is conversation analysis?
22.9 Research in focus A study of routines in sushi bars using ethnomethodology and conversation analysis
23.1 Research in focus A study of online diaries written by white-collar workers
23.2 Research in focus Using autobiographical sources to study women leaders
23.3 Research in focus Two studies using public documents to analyse a policing disaster
23.4 Research in focus A documentary analysis of the yoga market
23.5 Thinking deeply Three arguments for historical organizational research
23.6 Research in focus A genealogical analysis of a popular model of change management
24.1 Key concept What is photo-elicitation?
24.2 Research in focus Using photographs to elicit discussion about organizational aesthetics
24.3 Research in focus Using drawing methods in a study of business school identity
24.4 Research in focus Drawing methods in a participatory action research study of a Ghanaian value chain
24.5 Research in focus Analysing photographs in a study of banking brand identity
24.6 Research in focus A study of organizational loss using already existing photographs
24.7 Research in focus Place-based performance in the Swedish outdoor industry
24.8 Key concept What is visual ethnography?
24.9 Research in focus A multimodal analysis of women entrepreneurs on Instagram
25.1 Key concept What is a theme?
25.2 Research in focus A thematic analysis of workplace safety
25.3 Key concept What is grounded theory?
25.4 Key concept Coding in grounded theory
25.5 Research in focus Categories in grounded theory
25.6 Research in focus A grounded theory approach in a study of a corporate spin-off
25.7 Key concept What is the Gioia methodology?
25.8 Research in focus A memo
25.9 Key concept What is meta-ethnography?
25.10 Research in focus A meta-ethnography of research on the experiences of people with common mental disorders when they return
to work
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26.1 Research in focus A critical realist study of innovation in Australia
26.2 Research in focus The construction of meaning from numerical data
27.1 Key concept What is mixed methods research?
27.2 Research in focus Using qualitative data to inform quantitative measurement
27.3 Research in focus Using quantitative research to facilitate qualitative research
27.4 Research in focus Using quantitative data about time use to fill in the gaps in a qualitative study
27.5 Research in focus A mixed methods case study
27.6 Research in focus Combining interviews, a laboratory experiment, and a résumé audit study to explore racism in hiring
210. 27.7 Research in focus A mixed methods study of authenticity and entrepreneurship
211. 27.8 Research in focus Using mixed methods research to solve a puzzle: the case of displayed emotions in convenience stores
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AACSBAssociation to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business
ADHDattention deficit hyperactivity disorder
AMDAcademy of Management Discoveries
ANOVAAnalysis of Variance
AoIRAssociation of Internet Researchers
AOMAcademy of Management
APAAmerican Psychological Association
APIApplication Programming Interface
ASHEAnnual Survey of Hours and Earnings
AWIRSAustralian Workplace Industrial Relations Survey
BBFGbulletin board focus group
BHPSBritish Household Panel Survey
BRESBusiness Register and Employment Survey
BSABritish Social Attitudes; British Sociological Association
CABSChartered Association of Business Schools
CAPIcomputer-assisted personal interviewing
CAQDAScomputer-assisted qualitative data analysis software
CATIcomputer-assisted telephone interviewing
CCTVclosed-circuit television
CEOchief executive officer
CMDcommon mental disorder
COOchief operating officer
CSMARChina Stock Market and Accounting Research
CSRcorporate social responsibility
CVcurriculum vitae
DORASan Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment
ECAethnographic content analysis
EJQIEthical Standards of Judgement Questionnaire
ESemployment standards
ESRCEconomic and Social Research Council
EWCSEuropean Working Conditions Survey
FTSEFinancial Times Stock Exchange (London)
GDPRGeneral Data Protection Regulations (European Union)
GMIDGeneral Market Information Database
GSSGeneral Social Survey (USA)
GVPAgrounded visual pattern analysis
HISShospital information support system
HPHewlett Packard
HPWShigh performance work system
HRhuman resources
HRMhuman resource management
IATImplicit Association Test
ICIImperial Chemical Industries
ILOInternational Labour Organization
ISPinternet service provider
ISSPInternational Social Survey Programme
JDSJob Diagnostic Survey
LFSLabour Force Survey
LPCleast-preferred co-worker
MBAMaster of Business Administration
MIMImobile instant messaging interviews
MNCmultinational corporation
MTurkMechanical Turk (Amazon)
MPSMotivating Potential Score
NASANational Air and Space Administration (USA)
NGOnon-governmental organization
NHSNational Health Service
NHSTNull-hypothesis significance testing
NOSNational Organizations Survey (USA)
OCSOrganizational Culture Scale
ODorganizational development
OECDOrganisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
ONSOffice for National Statistics
POIsparticipatory organizational interventions
R&Dresearch and development
RTWreturn to work
SALStudy of Australian Leadership
SEstandard error
SECSecurities and Exchange Commission
SICStandard Industrial Classification
SMEsmall or medium-sized enterprise
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
SRASocial Research Association
SSCISocial Sciences Citation Index
TDMtotal design method
TEDTechnology, Entertainment, Design
TQMtotal quality management
TUCTrades Union Congress
UKDAUK Data Archive
WERSWorkplace Employment Relations Survey (previously Workplace Employee Relations Survey)
WOMMword-of-mouth marketing
About the authors
Emma Bell is Professor of Organisation Studies at the Open University, UK. Her research explores culture, belief, and materiality in
organizations using qualitative methods of inquiry. She completed her PhD at Manchester Metropolitan University in 2000 based on an
ethnographic study of payment systems and time in the chemical industry. Prior to this, Emma worked as a graduate trainee in the UK
National Health Service.
Emma’s research has been published in Organization Studies, Human Relations, Academy of Management Learning & Education,
Organization, Management Learning, and British Journal of Management. She has an enduring interest in methods and methodological
issues and has published other books as well as articles and chapters on this including: A Very Short, Fairly Interesting and Reasonably
Cheap Book about Management Research (Sage, 2013), co-authored with Richard Thorpe; Sage Major Works in Qualitative Research
in Business and Management (Sage, 2015), co-edited with Hugh Willmott; and Empowering Methodologies in Organisational and Social
Research (Routledge, forthcoming), co-edited with Sunita Singh Sengupta. Emma is a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences.
Alan Bryman was Professor of Organizational and Social Research at the University of Leicester from 2005 to 2017. Prior to this he was
Professor of Social Research at Loughborough University for 31 years.
His main research interests were in leadership, especially in higher education, research methods (particularly mixed methods research),
and the ‘Disneyization’ and ‘McDonaldization’ of modern society. In 2003–4 he completed a project on the issue of how quantitative and
qualitative research are combined in the social sciences, as part of the Research Methods Programme of the Economic and Social
Research Council (ESRC).
He contributed articles to a range of academic journals, including Journal of Management Studies, Human Relations, International
Journal of Social Research Methodology, Leadership Quarterly, and American Behavioral Scientist. He was a member of the ESRC’s
Research Grants Board and conducted research into effective leadership in higher education, a project funded by the Leadership
Foundation for Higher Education.
Alan published widely in the field of social research. Among his writings were Quantitative Data Analysis with SPSS 17, 18 and 19: A
Guide for Social Scientists (Routledge, 2011), with Duncan Cramer; Social Research Methods (Oxford University Press, 2008); The
SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods (Sage, 2004), with Michael Lewis-Beck and Tim Futing Liao; The
Disneyization of Society (Sage, 2004); Handbook of Data Analysis (Sage, 2004), with Melissa Hardy; Understanding Research for
Social Policy and Practice (Policy Press, 2004), with Saul Becker; and the SAGE Handbook of Organizational Research Methods, with
David Buchanan (Sage, 2009). He edited the Understanding Social Research series for the Open University Press.
Hundreds of thousands of students across six continents were fortunate enough to learn from Alan’s publications. Few contemporary UK
academics have had such a profound effect on learning. At Oxford University Press we are incredibly proud of Alan’s significant
achievements over the many years we worked with him. We thank him for everything he has done for research methods as a discipline, and
for his tireless dedication to the pursuit of shining the light of understanding into the dark corners of students’ minds. It was a real pleasure to
work with him.
Bill Harley is Professor of Management in the Department of Management and Marketing at the University of Melbourne. Bill was awarded
a PhD in political science from the University of Queensland in 1995, for a dissertation on the impact of changes in industrial relations
legislation on labour flexibility at the workplace level. Prior to undertaking his PhD, Bill was a graduate trainee with the Australian
government and subsequently worked for some years in policy roles in Canberra. He has served as a consultant to numerous national and
international organizations, including the OECD and the ILO.
Bill’s academic research has been motivated by an abiding interest in the centrality of work to human life. Informed by labour process
theory, his primary focus has been on issues of power and control in the workplace. Much of his published work has focused on the ways in
which managerial policy and practice shape employees’ experience of work. Bill has also published a number of papers on research
methodology. His work has been published in journals including the British Journal of Industrial Relations, Journal of Management
Studies, Industrial Relations, and Work Employment and Society. Bill was previously general editor of Journal of Management Studies
and at the time of writing is on the editorial board of the same journal and those of Academy of Management Learning and Education and
Human Relations.
About the students and supervisors
The Student experience feature is where undergraduate and postgraduate students share their experiences of doing business research. It
features undergraduate and postgraduate business degree students studying in the UK and in Australia who share their experiences of
doing a business research project. For those students who completed their degrees some time ago, you can read below about how their
careers have developed. As these stories demonstrate, the skills involved in doing business research are highly transferable in a range of
careers. We are grateful to all these individuals for their willingness to be interviewed and we hope that sharing what they have learned from
this process with the readers of this book will enable others to benefit from their experience. Videos of some of the student interviews are
among the online resources that accompany this book.
Amrit Bains completed a degree in Business Management with a year in industry at the University of Birmingham, UK, in 2017. Amrit’s
research question focused on understanding the causes and consequences of mental health problems at work. His dissertation project
involved reviewing existing research on this topic, in the form of a systematic literature review (as described in Chapter 5). This method did
not require him to collect original quantitative or qualitative data himself, but instead relied on his analysis of existing material. Amrit’s
dissertation project highlights the importance of understanding the methods used by researchers, so that you can evaluate the quality of the
claims that are made.
Lucie Banham completed an MA in Organization Studies in 2005 at the University of Warwick, UK, where she had previously studied
psychology as an undergraduate. Her dissertation project focused on how governments seek to foster the development of enterprising
behaviour among students and young people. Her fieldwork concentrated on the activities of a UK government-funded institute responsible
for promoting enterprise. Lucie’s qualitative research strategy combined participant observation, unstructured and semi-structured
interviews, and documentary data collection. When we spoke to Lucie again in 2017, she had become a Director of Banham Security, the
largest supplier of burglary and fire prevention systems in London.
Jordan Brown completed an honours degree in Commerce at Monash University Australia in 2017 after doing a double degree in Arts
and Business, also at Monash. Her dissertation focus in her honours year was on authentic self-expression at work. Jordan adopted a
quantitative research strategy and her data collection method involved a correlational field study survey. She is planning to begin a PhD
focusing on the aesthetics of art in organizing resistance within political conflict.
Tom Easterling first spoke to us in 2005, having just completed an MSc in Occupational Psychology at Birkbeck College, University of
London, UK. He had been studying part-time over two years, combining this with a full-time job as an NHS manager in London. Tom’s
dissertation research project focused on wellbeing in the workplace, focusing on telephone call-centre workers. His research involved a
qualitative case study of a public-sector call centre, where he interviewed people at different hierarchical levels of the organization. Tom is
currently director of the chair and chief executive’s office for NHS England and works in London.
Anna Hartman completed a Master’s of Commerce in Marketing at the University of Melbourne, Australia, in 2017. Her interest in
marketing ethics led her to focus her research project on women who become commercial egg donors and how these services are
marketed to prospective consumers. Anna’s research strategy was qualitative in nature; she conducted semi-structured interviews via
Skype with women who had been commercial egg donors. She is now enrolled at Melbourne as a doctoral student and is focusing on the
market system dynamics of commercial egg donation, using discourse analysis and phenomenology.
Ed Hyatt, before studying for a PhD, worked in a variety of industries, both public and private. His most extensive experience was as a
public procurement manager and contracts officer for several US government agencies and universities. When we spoke to him in 2017,
Ed Hyatt was completing a PhD at the University of Melbourne, Australia, in the field of human resource management, recruitment, and
selection. His focus was on organizational policies that promote a more fulfilling work experience for both individuals and organizations,
looking specifically at whether structured job interviews can enable better person–organization fit. His quantitative research strategy
involved conducting online panel experiments among hiring managers, using scales to measure their behavioural responses.
Karen Moore completed a Bachelor’s degree in Business Administration and Management at Lancaster University, UK, in 2005. Her finalyear research project came about as the result of her third-year company placement, when she worked in a human resources (HR)
department. Karen became interested in the concept of person–organizational culture fit. She carried out an audit of the organizational
culture in the company and explored whether the recruitment and selection process operated to ensure person–organization fit. Her mixed
methods research design involved a questionnaire and semi-structured interviewing. Following her degree, Karen joined the logistics
company Gist as a part of their HR graduate programme. She was promoted to HR manager before taking a career break and travelling to
Australia, where she is an HR adviser at Lizard Island Resort.
Chris Phillips did his undergraduate degree in Commerce at the University of Birmingham, UK, in 2004. His third-year dissertation
investigated the career progression of women employees in a global bank where he had done an internship in his second year. His
research questions focused on understanding how and why women employees progress hierarchically within the bank, including factors and
barriers that affect their career progression. His questions were informed by the concept of the ‘glass ceiling’ which explores why women
experience unequal treatment that hinders career progression in organizations. His research strategy was qualitative and involved semistructured interviews. Chris works in London as a marketing controller in Sky VIP, Sky’s customer loyalty programme.
Alex Pucar did a dual Bachelor of Business degree majoring in Marketing, Management, and Economics at Monash University, Australia.
As part of this, he completed an honours dissertation in 2017. He is now employed in marketing. Alex’s research focused on understanding
how and why companies that start online make the decision to open physical stores—which is referred to as the ‘clicks to bricks’ strategy in
retailing. His interest was on the impact of this strategy on the growth and progression of small and medium enterprises. Alex’s research
strategy was qualitative and involved semi-structured interviewing.
Resources for lecturers
Business Research Methods offers a complete package of information and resources to support your teaching of research methods. The text’s
crystal-clear theoretical explanations are complemented by countless real-world examples from both professional and student research, practical
tips and tools for conducting research, and numerous interactive activities that will engage and inspire your students.
Adopting lecturers can access the following online resources:
• Additional case studies
• Lecturer’s teaching guide (including suggested lecture outlines, problem-spotting, and practical teaching tips)
• PowerPoint® presentations
• Discussion questions
• A test bank containing over 400 multiple-choice questions
• Figures and tables from the text
About the book
The focus of the book
This is a book that will be of use to all students in business schools who have an interest in understanding research methods as they are applied
in management and organizational contexts. Business Research Methods gives students essential guidance on how to carry out their own
research projects and introduces readers to the core concepts, methods, and values involved in doing research. The book provides a valuable
learning resource through its comprehensive coverage of methods that are used by experienced researchers investigating the world of business,
as well as introducing some of the philosophical issues and ethical controversies that these researchers face. So, if you want to learn about
business research methods, from how to formulate research questions to the process of writing up your research, Business Research Methods
will provide a clear, easy-to-follow, and comprehensive introduction.
Business Research Methods is written for students of business and management studies. The book originally grew out of the success of Alan
Bryman’s book Social Research Methods. We write this sixth edition of Business Research Methods when, around the world, there are
profound health, economic, and social challenges due to the Covid-19 pandemic. These challenges have implications for how business research
is done, making online methods of data collection, including online questionnaires, interviewing, and discussion groups all the more important.
We continue to try to be responsive to the needs of today’s students and lecturers, who require a guide to business research methods that is
comprehensive and informed by the latest developments, but which also remains concise and focused. In so doing our goal has been to ensure
that Business Research Methods remains a streamlined, up-to-date, and readable textbook.
Because this book is written for a business school audience, it is intended to reflect a diverse range of subject areas, including organizational
behaviour, marketing, strategy, organization studies, and human resource management (HRM). In using the term ‘business research methods’,
we have in mind the kinds of research method that are employed in these fields, and so we have focused primarily on methods that are informed
by other disciplines within the social sciences such as sociology, anthropology, and psychology. Certain areas of business and management
research, such as economics and financial and accounting research, are not included within our purview. These are self-contained fields with their
own traditions and approaches that do not mesh well with the kinds of methods dealt with in this book.
In addition to providing students with practical advice on doing research, the book also explores the nature and purpose of business and
management research. For example:
• What is the aim or purpose of business research?
Is it conducted primarily in order to find ways of improving organizational performance through increasing effectiveness and efficiency?
Or is it mainly about increasing our understanding of how organizations work, and their impact on individuals and on society?
• Who are the audiences of business research?
Is business research conducted primarily for managers?
If not, for whom else in organizations is it conducted?
• Is the purpose of business research to further the academic development of the field?
• What is the politics of management research, and how does this frame the use of different methods and the kinds of research findings that
are regarded as legitimate and acceptable?
• To what extent do researchers’ personal values impact upon the research process?
• Should we worry about the feelings of people outside the research community concerning what we do to people during our investigations?
These questions are the subject of considerable ongoing debate. Being aware of them is important in understanding how to select a research
topic and the methods that can be used to address it. There are four points that can be made in relation to this.
1. 1. The researcher’s role. In order to evaluate the quality of management and business research it is necessary to know as much as
possible about the researchers’ own role in this process—including how they collected and analysed the data and the theoretical
perspective that informed their interpretation of it. This understanding relies on examination of methods used by business researchers,
which is why, throughout this book, we have used real examples of published research to illustrate how researchers deal with and justify
these methodological choices.
2. 2. Identifying research methods. Business research methods tend on the whole to be more eclectic and explained in less detail than in
some other social sciences such as sociology. Perhaps this is due to the emergent nature of the field or because it draws from such a
diverse range of disciplines. In practice, it means that novice researchers can sometimes find it difficult to identify examples of existing
research to inform their own work. One of the reasons we use so many examples in this book is to draw attention to the types of method that
business researchers use, in a way that can be understood by those who are new to this field of study.
3. 3. The range of methods available. In some instances, it is hard to identify examples of particular research methods, while in others, such
as the case study method, there are numerous studies to choose from. We believe, however, that there are opportunities for new
researchers to make use of less popular or less commonly used methods to gain insight into a research problem. In other words, we hope
that through reading this book students will possibly be encouraged to use research methods that are less common, as well as those that
are well established in the field.
4. 4. Relevance to business studies. Finally, where possible we have tried to confine our choice of research examples to the field of
business and management. This is because by getting to know how other business researchers have approached its study you will build up
an understanding of how you can apply similar methods.
Why use this book?
This book has been written with two groups of readers in mind. The first comprises undergraduates and postgraduates in business and
management schools and departments who take a module or course in the area of research methods. The second group, which overlaps with the
first, comprises undergraduates and postgraduates who do a research project as part of the requirement for their degree programmes. This can
take many forms, but one of the most common is a research project and a dissertation, thesis, or research report based on the investigation. The
chapters in Part One of the book have been written specifically for students doing research projects, especially Chapters 4 and 5, which include a
discussion of formulating research questions and reviewing the literature, reinforcing topics that we see as key to the whole process of doing
research. In Parts Two and Three the emphasis is on the practice of business research and the methods that may be used. These chapters will
help students make informed decisions about doing their research.
There are likely to be two main circumstances in which this book is in your hands at the moment. One is that you have to study one or more
modules in research methods for a degree in business and management, or there are methodological components to one of your taught modules
(e.g. a course in organizational behaviour). The other is that you have to do some research, perhaps for a dissertation or project report, and you
need some guidelines about how to approach your study. You may find yourself reading this book for either or both of these reasons during the
course of doing your degree. It may be that you are wondering why you need to study research methods and why such people as the authors of
this book do business research at all. In the rest of this section, we will try briefly to address these issues and concerns. Before that, what do we
mean by the term ‘business research’?
What do we mean by ‘business research’?
The term ‘business research’, as it is used in this book, refers to academic research on topics relating to questions that are relevant to the field of
business and management and have a social science orientation. We include in this category research in areas such as organizational
behaviour, marketing, accounting, HRM, and strategy, which draw on the social sciences for conceptual and theoretical inspiration.
In the previous paragraph, the word ‘academic’ is emphasized, and there is an important reason for this in setting out this book’s approach.
Academics carry out research to investigate research questions that arise out of the existing literature on topics (such as ‘What are the
implications of low levels of job satisfaction in a workforce?’), or that may be influenced by developments in business and management generally
(such as ‘What is the impact of the introduction of total quality management in companies?’). We discuss in some detail in Chapter 4 what
research questions are and how they arise in the research process, but for the time being the purpose of this discussion is to make it clear that,
when we use the term ‘business research’, we are referring to research conducted for the illumination of issues that arise in the context of
academic thinking in the area of business and management. The term ‘business research’ in this book does not include research conducted by
organizations for the investigation of issues of concern to them. For example, commercial organizations conduct market research to explore how
their products or services are received or when they want to launch a new product or service. This is not the kind of research that we focus on in
this book. This is not because we view such research as unimportant or irrelevant or because we view it as inferior in some way. Rather, it is
because the rationales for doing such research and the ways in which it is done are different from those associated with academic research.
Consequently, it would be difficult to incorporate both approaches to business and management research within the covers of a manageable
volume. This is the reason why almost all of our examples in this book are based on academic research. To include commercial business
research would make the book unmanageable and potentially confusing.
We do not wish to drive a wedge between academic research and that originating from business and management practitioners. Indeed, there is
a great deal of soul-searching among academics in the business and management field concerning this issue (see, in particular, the June 2006
special issue of the Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology), and in Chapter 1 we address further some of these issues in the
context of a discussion of what are known as Mode 1 and Mode 2 forms of knowledge (the first is more or less synonymous with traditional
academic research in this area; the second is research conducted by academics and practitioners to address applied organizational issues and
problems). The point of this discussion is to highlight our point of departure and our rationale for emphasizing academic research in this field. It is
also worth pointing out that there is often considerable cross-fertilization between academic and practitioner-based research in the field.
Practitioners often draw on methodological developments in academic fields, such as sampling, to refine their techniques, while a research
method such as focus groups was largely developed in the applied context of market research before making its way into academic research.
Further, the skills from one domain are invariably transferable to the other.
Why do business research?
The rationale for doing business research has been outlined in the previous subsection to a certain extent. Academics conduct such research
because, in the course of reading the literature on a topic or when reflecting on what is going on in modern organizations, questions occur to
them. They may notice a gap in the literature, or an inconsistency between the findings of different studies, or an unresolved issue in the literature.
These circumstances act as springboards for business research in academic circles. Another stimulus is when there is a development in
organizations that provides an interesting point of departure for the investigation of a research question. For example, noting the increasing use of
social media platforms by organizations, a researcher might be interested in studying whether this is accompanied by changes in the nature and
quality of interactions within an organization. In exploring this issue, the researcher is likely to draw upon the literature on technology and
organizational change to provide insights into how to approach the issue. As we say in Chapter 1, there is no single reason why people do
business research of the kind emphasized in this book, but at its core, it is done because there is an aspect of understanding what goes on in
organizations that is to some extent unresolved.
Why is it important to study methods?
Some students do not seem to see a great deal of point to studying research methods. They might take the view that, if they have to conduct an
investigation, why not adopt a ‘need to know’ approach? In other words, why not just look into how to do your research when you are on the verge
of carrying out your investigation? Quite aside from the fact that this is an extremely risky approach to take, it neglects the opportunities that
training in research methods offers. In particular, you need to bear in mind the following:
• Training in research methods sensitizes you to the choices that are available to business and management researchers. In other words, it
makes you aware of the range of research methods that can be employed to collect data and the variety of approaches to the analysis of
data. Such awareness will help you to make the most appropriate choices for your project, since you need to be aware of when it is
appropriate or inappropriate to employ particular techniques of data collection and analysis.
• Training in research methods provides you with an awareness of the dos and don’ts when employing a particular approach to collecting or
analysing data. Thus, once you have made your choice of research method (e.g. a questionnaire), it is necessary to be aware of the
practices you need to follow in order to implement that method properly. It is also important that you are aware of the many pitfalls to be
avoided.
• Training in research methods provides you with insights into the overall research process. It provides a general vantage point for
understanding how research is done. As such, it illuminates the various stages of research, so that you can plan your research and think
about such issues as how your research methods will connect with your research questions.
• Training in research methods provides you with an awareness of what constitutes good and poor research. It therefore provides a platform
for developing a critical awareness of the limits and limitations of research that you read. This can be helpful in enabling you to evaluate
critically the research that you read about for modules in fields such as organizational behaviour and HRM.
• The skills that training in research methods imparts are transferable ones. How to sample, how to design a questionnaire, how to conduct
semi-structured interviewing or focus groups, and so on, are skills that are relevant to research in other spheres (such as firms, public-sector
organizations, etc.).
We feel that training in research methods has much to offer, and we trust that readers of this book will recognize the opportunities and advantages
that it provides.
The structure of the book
Business and management research has many different traditions, one of the most fundamental of which is the distinction between quantitative
and qualitative research. This distinction lies behind the structure of the book and the way in which issues and methods are approached.
The book is divided into four parts
• Part One deals with basic ideas about the nature of business and management research and with the considerations involved in planning
and starting a student research project.
– Chapter 1 outlines the main stages involved in doing most kinds of business research. It also explores how business research is
understood in a wider context, including discussion of the political and wider societal issues that affect its current practice. This
provides the basic foundations from which you will be able to explore these issues in more detail and depth.
– Chapter 2 examines such issues as the nature of the relationship between theory and research and the degree to which a natural
science approach is appropriate for the study of business and management. It is here that the distinction between quantitative and
qualitative research is first encountered. They are presented as different research strategies with different ways of conceptualizing
how business and management should be studied. It is also shown that there is more to the distinction between them than whether or
not an investigation includes the collection of quantitative data.
– In Chapter 3, the idea of a research design is introduced. This chapter provides an introduction to the basic frameworks within
which social research is carried out, such as social survey research, case study research, and experimental research. Chapters 2 and
3 provide the basic building blocks for the rest of the book.
– Chapter 4 takes you through the main steps that are involved in planning and designing a research project and offers advice on how
to manage this process. It also includes a discussion of research questions—what they are, why they are important, and how they
come to be formulated.
– Chapter 5 is designed to help you to get started on your research project by introducing the main steps in conducting a critical
review of the literature.
– Chapter 6 considers the ways in which ethical and political issues impinge on researchers and the kinds of principles that are
involved in addressing them.
– Chapter 7 has been included to help with writing up research, an often-neglected area of the research process.
• Part Two contains nine chapters concerned with quantitative research. After a chapter introducing the subject, there are four chapters
dealing mostly with social survey research and two that discuss the use of data that is already available. The final two chapters cover the
analysis of quantitative data.
– Chapter 8 explores the nature of quantitative research and provides a context for the later chapters.
– Chapter 9 deals with sampling issues: how to select a sample and the considerations that are involved in assessing what can be
inferred from different kinds of sample.
– Chapter 10 is concerned with the kind of interviewing that takes place in survey research—that is, structured interviewing.
– Chapter 11 covers the design of questionnaires. This involves a discussion of how to devise self-completion questionnaires.
– Chapter 12 examines the issue of how to formulate questions for questionnaires and structured interviews.
– Chapter 13 covers two quantitative methods which rely on naturally occurring data. The first is structured observation, which is a
method that has been developed for the systematic observation of behaviour. The second is content analysis, a method that provides
a rigorous framework for the analysis of a wide range of documents.
– Chapter 14 deals with the analysis of data collected by other researchers and by official bodies.
– Chapter 15 provides an introduction to statistical analysis of quantitative data. The focus is on preliminary stages of analysis, in
which univariate and bivariate analysis are used to explore and get to know the characteristics of a dataset. This forms the basis for
more complex statistical analysis.
– Chapter 16 explains the use of a range of multivariate techniques which are used to make inferences about the relationships
between variables in a population, based on data from a sample.
• Part Three contains nine chapters on aspects of qualitative research.
– Chapter 17 provides an overview of the nature of qualitative research and provides the context for the other chapters in this part of
the book.
– Chapter 18 examines the main sampling strategies used in qualitative research. Just like quantitative researchers, qualitative
researchers often sample people, documents, or organizations as units of analysis. As this chapter shows, though, the sampling
principles used for qualitative research are quite different from those usually employed by quantitative researchers.
– Chapter 19 is concerned with ethnography and participant observation, which are the source of some of the best-known studies in
business and management research. The two terms are often used interchangeably and refer to the immersion of the researcher in a
social setting.
– Chapter 20 deals with the kinds of interview used by qualitative researchers, typically semi-structured interviewing or unstructured
interviewing.
– Chapter 21 explores the focus group method, whereby groups of individuals are interviewed on a specific topic.
– Chapter 22 examines several ways in which qualitative researchers analyse language: discourse analysis, narrative and rhetorical
analysis, and conversation analysis.
– Chapter 23 deals with the examination and interpretation of documents in qualitative research, including historical documents.
– Chapter 24 explores the importance of visual materials in qualitative research.
– Chapter 25 covers the main approaches to analysing of qualitative data.
It is striking that certain issues recur across Parts Two and Three: interviewing, observation, documents, and data analysis. However, as you will
see, quantitative and qualitative research constitute contrasting approaches to these activities.
• Part Four contains chapters that go beyond the quantitative/qualitative research contrast.
– Chapter 26 deals with some of the ways in which the distinction between quantitative and qualitative research is less fixed than is
sometimes supposed.
– Chapter 27 presents some ways in which quantitative and qualitative research can be combined to produce what is referred to as
‘mixed methods’ research.
How to use the book
The book can be read in different ways according to your interests and focus of study. Your lecturer may give you guidance about which chapters
to concentrate on. However, we suggest the following as a useful place to start:
• Setting the scene Chapter 1 is a scene-setting chapter which will give you an overview of the main stages and processes involved in
business research. It introduces the topics that will be covered in greater depth and detail later in the book.
• Wider philosophical issues Chapter 2 discusses philosophical issues about the nature of knowledge and how to go about obtaining it,
which guide methods choice in business research. While these issues might initially seem esoteric and difficult to understand, they are
fundamental to business research. We therefore encourage you to at least try to read this chapter!
• Developing research questions As we have already said in this Guide, we see the asking of research questions as fundamental to the
research process. Advice on what research questions are, where they come from, and how to develop them is provided in Chapter 4.
• Doing your own research project We hope that the whole of this book will be relevant to students doing dissertation research projects,
but Chapters 3, 5, and 7 are where much of the specific advice relating to this issue is located. In addition, we would alert you to the ‘Tips
and skills’ and ‘Student experience’ features and to the Checklists of points to remember.
• Responsibilities of researchers As business researchers we have a responsibility to the people and organizations that are the focus of
our research. Chapter 6 focuses on these important ethical issues, and it is vital that you are aware of them before embarking on a research
project.
Once you have covered these introductory issues, you will be in a strong position to plan your reading of the other chapters in this book. We
recommend that you read the chapter outline at the start of each chapter to give you a sense of the issues addressed in each case and to decide
how you want to engage with them.
We hope that you enjoy reading this book and find it useful as a basis for thinking about and doing business research—and we hope that you find
business research as fascinating as we do!
New to this edition
• Two new chapters on quantitative data analysis cover descriptive and inferential statistics, offering readers greater support in
understanding and applying these techniques.
• A new chapter on visual qualitative research provides extensive up-to-date analysis of this growing discipline, better enabling students to
use this knowledge in their own projects.
• Extended coverage of inclusivity and bias in research, feminist perspectives, and decolonial and indigenous research reflects the
significance of these issues to researchers today.
• The ‘Research in focus’ features have been significantly updated throughout, providing students with fascinating examples of
contemporary studies from around the world. Environmental activism in China, the US yoga market, critical incident interviewing in Korea,
and a study of the future of work in Australia are just a few of the many new examples.
• Expanded digital resources now also include new video tutorials covering the data analysis software packages SPSS, NVivo, R, and
Stata.
• Now available as an enhanced ebook providing a more engaging, seamless, learning experience.
Acknowledgements
The sixth edition of this book continues to build on the legacy of our colleague Alan Bryman, with whom Emma Bell collaborated in the writing of
this book for over 15 years. Alan’s contribution to business research and social science methodology is immense. As business researchers we
are indebted to him for this and we continue to try to sustain the intellectual curiosity about methods that Alan so effectively cultivated in others.
As in previous editions, in writing this book we have benefited from students and colleagues who have shared their ideas about, experiences of,
and problems encountered in business research. This includes through our teaching at the Open University and the University of Melbourne,
Australia, respectively. The number of colleagues who have provided advice, suggestions, and permission to share insights from their research
grows longer with each edition. It includes Alan Beardsworth, Michael Billig, Dave Buchanan, Jane Davison, Lauren McCarthy, Albert Mills, Cliff
Oswick, Jonathan Schroeder, Samantha Warren, and Tony Yue. This edition of the book has also been significantly enhanced by the contribution
of Tine Köhler at the University of Melbourne, who has authored Chapters 15 and 16, based on her considerable knowledge of using and
teaching statistical methods. We are extremely grateful to Tine for her work on the book. We also thank the students whom we interviewed about
their experiences of doing business research for the student experience feature in the book. In addition, we thank the librarians at the Open
University, Kelvin Street and Nicola Dowson, for commenting on Chapter 5. Finally, our thanks also go to the referees, readers, and book
adopters for their detailed, helpful comments, informed by substantial experience of teaching research methods to business students, on this and
previous editions of the book.
Emma Bell and Bill Harley
Editorial Advisory Panel
The authors and Oxford University Press are immensely grateful to the following reviewers, who provided invaluable feedback at multiple stages
of the writing of this edition of the book. This feedback informed the book’s development and has helped to ensure that it fulfils its aims.
1. Gunilla S. Andersson
Linköping University
2. Dr Johan Båge
Stockholm School of Economics
3. Dr Bidyut Baruah
University of York
4. Dr Yaz Djebbour
London Metropolitan University
5. Dr Sharon Dolmans
Eindhoven University
6. Dr Katherine Duffy
University of Glasgow
7. Dr Lina Fadel
Heriot-Watt University
8. Dr Tom Farrington
Heriot-Watt University
9. Professor Magda Hercheui
University College London
10. Dr Yujie Hu
University of Leeds
11. Matthew Kearney
Ulster University
12. Dr Aidan Kelly
University of East London
13. Dr Gerardus Lucas
University of Nottingham
14. Dr Osama Mansour
Lund University
15. Dr Rosane Pagano
Manchester Metropolitan University
16. Dr Manuel Alector Ribeiro
University of Surrey
17. Dr Asmund Rygh
University of Manchester
18. Dr Lorna Stevens
University of Bath
19. Dr Lynn Thurloway
University of Reading
Publisher credits
Business Research Methods was produced in collaboration with the following colleagues at Oxford University Press and its partner suppliers:
Editor in Chief: Jonathan Crowe
Senior Commissioning Editor: Nicola Hartley
Commissioning Assistant: Daisy Pemble
Text and cover design: Claire Dickinson
Production Editor: Sathiyavani Krishnamoorthy (Straive)
Copy editor: Caroline Quinnell
Proof reader: Joy Mellor
Illustrations: QBS Learning
Typeset by: Straive
Part One The Research Process
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1 The nature and process of business research
2 Business research strategies
3 Research designs
4 Planning a research project and developing research questions
5 Getting started: reviewing the literature
6 Ethics in business research
7 Writing up business research
Part Two Quantitative Research
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
8 The nature of quantitative research
9 Sampling in quantitative research
10 Structured interviewing
11 Self-completion questionnaires
12 Asking questions
13 Quantitative research using naturally occurring data
14 Secondary analysis and official statistics
15 Quantitative data analysis: descriptive, univariate, and bivariate statistics
16 Quantitative data analysis: hypothesis testing and inferential statistics
Part Three Qualitative Research
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
17 The nature of qualitative research
18 Sampling in qualitative research
19 Ethnography and participant observation
20 Interviewing in qualitative research
21 Focus groups
22 Language in qualitative research
23 Documentary data
24 Visual qualitative research
25 Qualitative data analysis
Part Four Mixed Methods Research
1. 26 Breaking down the quantitative/qualitative divide
2. 27 Mixed methods research: combining quantitative and qualitative research
Glossary
1. Abductive A type of reasoning which starts with puzzling observations in relation to phenomena and then seeks to develop explanations for
them, often by working iteratively between theory and data.
2. Action research An approach in which the action researcher and client collaborate in the diagnosis of an organizational or job-related
problem and seek to develop a solution to the problem based on this diagnosis.
3. Ad libitum sampling A sampling approach in structured observation whereby, at previously determined time intervals, whatever is
happening at the moment is recorded.
4. Adjacency pair A term used in conversation analysis referring to the tendency for certain kinds of activity in talk to be characterized by
linked phases.
5. Arithmetic mean Also known simply as the mean, this is what we know in everyday usage as the average—namely, the total of a distribution
of values divided by the number of values.
6. Asynchronous online interview or focus group Online interviews may be asynchronous or synchronous. In the case of the former, the
transactions between participants are not in real time, so that there may be long spaces of time between interviewers’ questions and
participants’ replies, and in the case of focus groups, between participants’ contributions to the discussion.
7. Attached email survey A survey in which respondents are sent a questionnaire, which is received as an email attachment. Compare with
embedded email survey.
8. Behaviour sampling A sampling approach in structured observation whereby an entire group is watched and the observer records who was
involved in a particular kind of behaviour.
9. Biographical method See life history method.
10. Bivariate statistics The examination of the relationship between two variables, as in contingency tables or correlation.
11. CAQDAS An acronym of computer-assisted (or -aided) qualitative data analysis software.
12. Case study A research design that entails the detailed and intensive analysis of a single case. The term is sometimes extended to include
the study of just two or three cases for comparative purposes.
13. Causality A causal connection between variables, rather than a mere relationship or association between them.
14. Cell The point in a table, such as a contingency table, where the rows and columns intersect.
15. Census The enumeration of an entire population. Unlike a sample, which comprises a count of some units in a population, a census relates
to all units in a population. Thus, if a questionnaire is sent to every person in a town or to all members of a profession, the research should
be characterized as a census.
16. Central tendency A descriptive statistic that captures the location of the centre of a distribution. The purpose of a central tendency score is
to identify the most representative score in the sample.
17. Closed question A question employed in an interview schedule or self-completion questionnaire that presents the respondent with a set of
possible answers to choose from. Also called fixed-choice question and pre-coded question.
18. Cluster sample A sampling procedure in which at an initial stage the researcher samples areas (i.e. clusters) and then samples units from
these clusters, usually using a probability sampling method.
19. Code, coding In quantitative research, codes are numbers that are assigned to data about people or other units of analysis when the data
are not inherently numerical. In questionnaire-based research, the answer to a question (e.g. ‘strongly agree’) is assigned a number (e.g. 5)
so that the information can be statistically processed. Thus, each person who answers ‘strongly agree’ will receive the same number (in this
case 5). When answers are textual, respondents’ answers must be grouped into categories and those categories are then coded. In
qualitative research, coding is the process whereby data are broken down into component parts, which are given names.
20. Coding frame A listing of the codes used in relation to the analysis of data. In relation to answers to a structured interview schedule or
questionnaire, the coding frame will delineate the categories used in connection with each question. It is particularly crucial in relation to the
coding of open questions. With closed questions, the coding frame is essentially incorporated into the pre-given answers, hence the
frequent use of the term pre-coded question to describe such questions.
21. Coding manual In content analysis, this is the statement of instructions to coders that outlines all the possible categories for each
dimension being coded.
22. Coding schedule In content analysis, this is the form onto which all the data relating to an item being coded will be entered.
23. Collaborative research A type of research that is related to action research and involves researchers and members of organizations or
social systems that are the focus of study working together. The purpose is to learn about how situations and outcomes are shaped using
established methods of research and the intention is to improve performance while also adding to knowledge.
24. Comparative design A research design that entails the comparison of two or more cases in order to illuminate existing theory or generate
theoretical insights as a result of contrasting findings uncovered through the comparison.
25. Concept A name given to a category that organizes observations and ideas by virtue of their possessing common features.
26. Concurrent validity One of the main approaches to establishing measurement validity. It entails relating a measure to a criterion on which
cases (e.g. people) are known to differ and that is relevant to the concept in question.
27. Constant An attribute in terms of which cases do not differ. Compare with variable.
28. Constant comparison A central tool of grounded theory that entails constantly comparing new data with existing data, concepts, and
categories. It also entails comparing categories with each other and categories with concepts.
29. Construct The same as a concept, but in much quantitative research ‘construct’ is the preferred term.
30. Constructionism, constructionist An ontological position (often also referred to as ‘constructivism’) that asserts that social phenomena and
their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors. It is antithetical to objectivism.
31. Constructivism See constructionism.
32. Content analysis An approach to the analysis of documents and texts that seeks to quantify content in terms of predetermined categories
and in a systematic and replicable manner. The term is sometimes used in connection with qualitative research as well—see qualitative
content analysis.
33. Contingency table A table, comprising rows and columns, that shows the relationship between two variables. Usually, at least one of the
variables is a nominal variable. Each cell in the table shows the frequency of occurrence of that intersection of categories of each of the two
variables and usually a percentage.
34. Continuous recording A procedure in structured observation whereby observation occurs for extended periods, so that the frequency and
duration of certain types of behaviour can be carefully recorded.
35. Convenience sample A sample that is selected because of its availability to the researcher. It is a form of non-probability sample.
36. Convergent validity An assessment of the measurement validity of a measure that compares it to another measure of the same concept
that has been generated from a different method.
37. Conversation analysis The fine-grained analysis of talk as it occurs in interaction in naturally occurring situations. The talk is recorded and
transcribed so that the detailed analyses can be carried out. The analysis is concerned with uncovering the underlying structures of talk in
interaction and as such with the achievement of order through interaction. Conversation analysis is grounded in ethnomethodology.
38. Correlation An approach to the analysis of relationships between interval/ratio variables and/or ordinal variables that seeks to assess the
strength and direction of the relationship between the variables concerned. Pearson’s r and Spearman’s rho are both methods for
assessing the level of correlation between variables.
39. Covariance A measure of association between two variables that expresses their joint variability. When variables covary, then a change in
one of the variables is associated with a certain change in the other variable.
40. Covert observation, covert research Terms frequently used in connection with ethnographic research in which the researcher does not
reveal their true identity. Such research violates the ethical principle of informed consent.
41. Critical realism A realist methodology that asserts that the study of the social world should be concerned with the identification of the
structures that generate that world. Critical realism is ‘critical’ because its practitioners aim to identify structures in order to change them, so
that inequalities and injustices may be counteracted. Unlike positivism, critical realism accepts that the structures that are identified may not
be perceptible by the senses. Thus, whereas positivism is empiricist, critical realism is not.
42. Cross-sectional design A research design that entails the collection of data on more than one case (usually quite a lot more than one) and
at a single point in time in order to collect a body of quantitative or quantifiable data in connection with two or more variables (usually many
more than two), which are then examined to detect patterns of association. The cross-sectional design is also often called ‘social survey
design’.
43. Deductive An approach to the relationship between theory and research in which the latter is conducted with reference to hypotheses and
ideas inferred from the former. Compare with inductive.
44. Dependent variable A variable that is causally influenced by another variable (i.e. an independent variable).
45. Descriptive Statistics Describe the basic characteristics of a set of data. This includes frequencies, measures of central tendency, and
variability.
46. Diary In the context of social research methods, a term that can mean different things. Three types of diary can be distinguished: diaries
written or completed at the behest of a researcher; personal diaries that can be analysed as personal documents, but that were produced
spontaneously; and diaries written by social researchers to log their activities and reflections.
47. Dimension Refers to an aspect of a concept.
48. Discourse analysis An approach to the analysis of talk and other forms of language that emphasizes the ways in which versions of reality
are accomplished through language.
49. Discriminant validity The extent to which a measure used for a concept is different in content from another measure used for the same
concept, so that there is not excessive overlap between related measures of that concept.
50. Ecological fallacy The error of assuming that inferences about individuals can be made from findings relating to aggregate data.
51. Ecological validity A concern with the question of whether or not social scientific findings are relevant and applicable to people’s everyday,
natural social settings.
52. Embedded email survey A social survey in which respondents are sent an email that contains a questionnaire in the body of the email.
Compare with attached email survey.
53. Empiricism An approach to the study of reality that suggests that only knowledge gained through experience and the senses is acceptable.
54. Epistemology, epistemological A theory of knowledge. It is particularly employed in this book to refer to a stance on what should pass as
acceptable knowledge. See positivism, realism, and interpretivism.
55. Eta (η) A test of the strength of the relationship between two variables. The independent variable must be a nominal variable and the
dependent variable must be an interval variable or ratio variable. The resulting level of correlation will always be positive.
56. Ethnographic content analysis See qualitative content analysis.
57. Ethnography, ethnographer Like participant observation, a research method in which the researcher immerses him- or herself in a social
setting for an extended period of time, observing behaviour, listening to what is said in conversations both between others and with the
fieldworker, and asking questions. However, the term has a more inclusive sense than participant observation, which seems to emphasize
the observational component. Also, the term ‘an ethnography’ is frequently used to refer to the written output of ethnographic research.
58. Ethnomethodology A sociological perspective concerned with the way in which social order is accomplished through talk and interaction. It
provides the intellectual foundations of conversation analysis.
59. Evaluation research Research that is concerned with the evaluation of real-life interventions in the social world.
60. Experience sampling Also called ‘event sampling’, experience sampling refers to various methods that seek to capture affective states
and/or behaviour at certain points in time. These ‘points in time’ are determined by the researcher and when they occur, research
participants have to record such things as what they are doing or how they are feeling.
61. Experiment A research design that strives to rule out alternative explanations of findings deriving from it (i.e. possessing internal validity)
by having at least (a) an experimental group, which is exposed to a treatment, and a control group, which is not; and (b) random
assignment to the two groups.
62. External validity A concern with the question of whether or not the results of a study can be generalized beyond the specific research context
in which it was conducted.
63. Face validity A concern with whether or not an indicator appears to reflect the content of the concept in question.
64. Facilitator See moderator.
65. Factor analysis A statistical technique used for large numbers of variables to establish whether there is a tendency for groups of them to be
inter related. It is often used with multiple-indicator measures to see if the indicators tend to bunch to form one or more groups of
indicators. These groups of indicators are called factors, and each must then be given a name.
66. Feminist research Research that focuses on gender in intersection with race, class, and other forms of social inequality. Studies are based
on a commitment to progressive change in order to enhance social justice, equality, and care for others, including non-human actors.
67. Field notes A detailed account recorded by an ethnographer of events, conversations, and behaviours in the context of study, and the
researcher’s initial reflections on them.
68. Fixed-choice question See closed question.
69. Focal sampling A sampling approach in structured observation whereby a sampled individual is observed for a set period of time. The
observer records all examples of whatever forms of behaviour are of interest.
70. Focus group A form of group interview in which there are several participants (in addition to the moderator or facilitator); there is an
emphasis in the questioning on a fairly tightly defined topic; and the emphasis is upon interaction within the group and the joint construction
of meaning.
71. Frequency table A table that displays the number and/or percentage of units (e.g. people) in different categories of a variable.
72. Generalization, generalizability A concern with the external validity of research findings.
73. Grounded theory An approach to the analysis of qualitative data that aims to generate theory out of research data by achieving a close fit
between the two.
74. Hawthorne effect See reactivity.
75. Hermeneutics A term drawn from theology that, when imported into the social sciences, is concerned with the theory and method of the
interpretation of human action. It emphasizes the need to understand from the perspective of the social actor.
76. Hypothesis An informed speculation, which is set up to be tested, about the possible relationship between two or more variables.
77. Independent variable A variable that has a causal impact on another variable (i.e. on a dependent variable).
78. Index See scale.
79. Indicator A measure that is employed to refer to a concept when no direct measure is available.
80. Indigenous research Research that seeks to overcome oppressive, colonizing biases within the social sciences and to develop alternative
paradigms by giving voice to the interests of participants and researchers in the global South, in addition to considering non-human
interests related to ecosystems.
81. Inductive An approach to the relationship between theory and research in which the former is generated out of the latter. Compare with
deductive.
82. Inferential statistics Inferential statistics involves seeking to make inferences about the, unknown, inferred, features of a population—
referred to as parameters—on the basis of, known, observed, features of a sample—referred to as statistics.
83. Informed consent A key principle in social research ethics. It implies that prospective research participants should be given as much
information as might be needed to make an informed decision about whether or not they wish to participate in a study.
84. Intercept In regression analysis the intercept is the point where the regression line crosses the Y axis. It denotes the value of Y when X is
zero.
85. Inter-coder reliability See inter-rater reliability.
86. Interdisciplinary research An approach to research which brings together data, methods, concepts and or/practices from two or more
specialized disciplinary fields in the natural and social sciences, in an attempt to understand phenomena better than they could be
understood from the perspective of a single discipline.
87. Internal reliability The degree to which the indicators that make up a scale are consistent.
88. Internal validity A concern with the question of whether or not a finding that suggests a causal relationship between two or more variables is
sound.
89. Interpretative repertoire A collection of linguistic resources that are drawn upon in order to characterize and assess actions and events.
90. Interpretivism, interpretive An epistemological position that requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective meaning of social action.
91. Inter-rater reliability The degree to which two or more individuals agree about the coding of an item. Inter-rater reliability is likely to be an
issue in content analysis, structured observation, and when coding answers to open questions in research based on questionnaires or
structured interviews.
92. Intervening variable A variable that is apparently affected by another variable and that in turn has an apparent causal impact on another
variable. Taking an intervening variable into account often facilitates the understanding of the relationship between two variables.
93. Interview guide A rather vague term for the brief list of memory prompts of areas to be covered in unstructured interviewing or to the
somewhat more structured list of issues to be addressed or questions to be asked in semi-structured interviewing.
94. Interview schedule A collection of questions designed to be asked by an interviewer. An interview schedule is always used in a structured
interview.
95. Intra-coder reliability See intra-rater reliability.
96. Intra-rater reliability The degree to which an individual differs over time in the coding of an item. Intra-rater reliability is likely to be an issue in
content analysis, structured observation, and when coding answers to open questions in research based on questionnaires or structured
interviews.
97. Iterative Describes a process in which the stages of data collection and analysis take place in parallel: analysis starts after some of the data
have been collected, and the ideas that emerge from this analysis then shape the next steps in data collection.
98. Key informant Someone who offers the researcher, usually in the context of conducting an ethnography, perceptive information about the
social setting, important events, and individuals.
99. Leptokurtic Distributions where the peak is very ‘spiky’ and scores concentrate around the mean. This represents items or variables where
respondents strongly prefer a particular value on the answer scale.
100. Life history interview Similar to the oral history interview, but the aim of this type of unstructured interview is to glean information on the
entire biography of each respondent.
101. Life history method Also often referred to as the ‘biographical method’, this method emphasizes the inner experience of individuals and its
connections with changing events and phases throughout the life course. The method usually entails life history interviews and the use of
personal documents as data.
102. Likert scale A widely used format developed by Rensis Likert for asking attitude questions. Respondents are typically asked their degree of
agreement (e.g. from 1 ‘strongly disagree’ to 5 ‘strongly agree’) with a series of statements that together form a multiple-indicator (also
called multiple-item) measure. The scale is deemed then to measure the intensity with which respondents feel about an issue.
103. Literature review The process of searching for, reading, and evaluating published materials that are relevant to research that you are
planning, and documenting your evaluation. See narrative review, rapid review, and systematic review.
104. Longitudinal research A research design in which data are collected on a sample (of people, documents, etc.) on at least two occasions.
105. Mail questionnaire Traditionally, this term has been synonymous with the postal questionnaire, but, with the arrival of email-based
questionnaires (see embedded email survey and attached email survey), many writers prefer to refer to ‘postal’ rather than ‘mail’
questionnaires.
106. Manipulation check A survey item or task that tests whether participants have been successfully primed with the experimental manipulation
given to them. If participants answer the item incorrectly, the experimental manipulation may have been ineffective, and the data obtained
may be inappropriate to answer the research question.
107. Mean See arithmetic mean.
108. Measure of central tendency A statistic, such as the arithmetic mean, median, or mode, that summarizes a distribution of values.
109. Measurement validity The degree to which a measure of a concept truly reflects that concept. See also face validity and concurrent validity.
110. Median The mid-point in a distribution of values.
111. Member validation See respondent validation.
112. Meta-analysis A form of systematic review that involves summarizing the results of a large number of quantitative studies and conducting
various analytical tests to show whether or not a particular variable has an apparent effect across the studies.
113. Meta-ethnography A form of systematic review that is used to achieve interpretative synthesis of qualitative research and other secondary
sources, thus providing a counterpart to meta-analysis in quantitative research. It can be used to synthesize and analyse information about
a phenomenon that has been extensively studied.
114. Missing data Data relating to a case that are not available, for example, when a respondent in survey research does not answer a question.
These are referred to as ‘missing values’ in SPSS.
115. Mixed methods research A term that is increasingly employed to describe research that combines the use of both quantitative research
and qualitative research.
116. Mode The value that occurs most frequently in a distribution of values.
117. Moderator The person who guides the questioning of a focus group. Also called a ‘facilitator’.
118. Multimodal analysis An analytical approach that is related to semiotic analysis which focuses on the various interconnected modes—
sound, music, image, objects, speech, and writing—through which meanings are produced and communicated.
119. Multiple-indicator measure A measure that employs more than one indicator to measure a concept.
120. Multi-strategy research A term used to describe research that combines quantitative and qualitative research; see also mixed methods
research.
121. Multivariate analysis The examination of relationships between three or more variables.
122. Narrative analysis An approach to the elicitation and analysis of data that is sensitive to the sense of temporal sequence that people, as
tellers of stories about their lives or events around them, detect in their lives and surrounding episodes and inject into their accounts.
However, the approach is not exclusive to a focus on life histories.
123. Narrative review A method of conducting a literature review that is often contrasted with a systematic review. It tends to be less focused
than a systematic review and seeks to arrive at a critical interpretation of the literature that it covers.
124. Naturalism A philosophical position and a style of research that seeks to minimize the intrusion of artificial methods of data collection. It
implies that the social world should be as undisturbed as possible by the processes of research, in order to remain true to the phenomenon
that is being investigated.
125. Negative relationship A relationship between two variables whereby as one increases the other decreases.
126. Non-manipulable variable A variable that cannot readily be manipulated either for practical or for ethical reasons and that therefore cannot
be employed as an independent variable in an experiment.
127. Non-probability sample A sample that has not been selected using a random sampling method. Essentially, this implies that some units in
the population are more likely to be selected than others.
128. Non-response A source of non-sampling error that occurs whenever some members of a sample refuse to cooperate, cannot be
contacted, or for some reason cannot supply the required data.
129. Non-sampling error Differences between the population and the sample that arise either from deficiencies in the sampling approach, such
as an inadequate sampling frame or non-response, or from such problems as poor question wording, poor interviewing, or flawed
processing of data.
130. Normal distribution A symmetrical distribution that fulfils the condition that if a vertical line was drawn through the middle, the two sides
would be exactly equivalent. Normal distributions are also called bell curves.
131. Null hypothesis A hypothesis of no relationship between two variables.
132. Object interviewing A method of interviewing which involves the use of physical objects, either selected by the researcher or by participants,
that form the basis for verbal exchanges in the interview.
133. Objectivism An ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is independent of social
actors. Compare with constructionism.
134. Observation schedule A device used in structured observation that specifies the categories of behaviour that are to be observed and how
behaviour should be allocated to those categories.
135. Official statistics Statistics compiled by or on behalf of government agencies in the course of conducting their business.
136. Online survey A very general term used to include any survey conducted online. As such, it includes the website-based survey, the attached
email survey, and the embedded email survey.
137. Ontology, ontological A theory of the nature of reality. See objectivism and inductivism.
138. Open question, open-ended question A question employed in an interview schedule or self-completion questionnaire that does not
present the respondent with a set of possible answers to choose from. Compare with closed question.
139. Operational definition The definition of a concept in terms of the operations to be carried out when measuring it.
140. Operationism, operationalism A doctrine, mainly associated with physics, that emphasizes the search for operational definitions of
concepts.
141. Oral history interview A largely unstructured interview in which the respondent is asked to recall events from their past and to reflect on
them.
142. Outlier An extreme value in a distribution of values. If a variable has an extreme value—either very high or very low—the arithmetic mean or
the range will be distorted by that value.
143. Paradigm(s) A term deriving from the history of science, where it was used to describe a cluster of beliefs and dictates that, for scientists in
a particular discipline, influence what should be studied, how research should be done, and how results should be interpreted.
144. Parameter(s) Quantitative expressions, such as the mean, variance, or covariance, that exist in the population (population parameters)
from which our sample is drawn.
145. Participant observation Research in which the researcher immerses him- or herself in a social setting for an extended period of time,
observing behaviour, listening to what is said in conversations both between others and with the fieldworker, and asking questions.
Participant observation usually includes interviewing key informants and studying documents, and as such is difficult to distinguish from
ethnography. In this book, ‘participant observation’ is employed to refer to the specifically observational aspect of ethnography.
146. Participatory research Research that focuses on working with and helping disempowered groups by addressing problems related to their
welfare and wellbeing. Includes participatory action research.
147. Pearson’s r A measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two interval or ratio variables.
148. Personal documents Documents such as diaries, letters, and autobiographies that are not written for an official purpose. They provide firstperson accounts of the writer’s life and events within it.
149. Phenomenology A philosophy that is concerned with the question of how individuals make sense of the world around them and how in
particular the philosopher should bracket out preconceptions concerning their grasp of that world.
150. Photo-elicitation A visual research method that typically entails getting interviewees to discuss one or more photographs in the course of an
interview. The photograph(s) may be extant or may have been taken by the interviewee for the purpose of the research.
151. Platykurtic Distributions where the peak is very flat. This represents response behaviours where there is either no clear answer to a
question or when there is a lot of diversity in the sample with regard to preferred response choices.
152. Population The universe of units from which a sample is to be selected.
153. Positive relationship A relationship between two variables whereby as one increases the other increases as well.
154. Positivism, positivist An epistemological position that advocates the application of the methods of the natural sciences to the study of
social reality and beyond.
155. Postal questionnaire A form of self-completion questionnaire that is sent to respondents, and usually returned by them, by non-electronic
mail.
156. Postmodernism A philosophical position that displays a distaste for master-narratives and for a realist orientation. In the context of research
methodology, postmodernists display a preference for qualitative methods and a concern with the modes of representation of research
findings.
157. Power. The likelihood to correctly reject the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is true in the population.
158. Pre-coded question Another name for a closed question. The term ‘pre-coded’ is often preferred, because it describes an approach that
removes the need for the application of a coding frame to the question after it has been answered. This is because the range of answers
has been predetermined and a numerical code will have been pre-assigned to each possible answer. The term is particularly appropriate
when the codes appear on the questionnaire or interview schedule.
159. Predictive validity An assessment of the measurement validity of a measure of a concept that uses a future benchmark as a criterion.
160. Probability sample A sample that has been selected using random sampling and in which each unit in the population has a known
probability of being selected.
161. Purposive sampling, sample A form of non-probability sample in which the researcher aims to sample cases/participants in a strategic
way, so that those sampled are relevant to the research questions that are being posed.
162. Qualitative content analysis An approach to documents that emphasizes the role of the investigator in the construction of the meaning of and
in texts. There is an emphasis on allowing categories to emerge out of data and on recognizing the significance for understanding the
meaning of the context in which an item being analysed (and the categories derived from it) appeared.
163. Qualitative research Research that typically emphasizes words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data. As a
research strategy it is inductivist, constructionist, and interpretivist, but qualitative researchers do not always subscribe to all three of these
features. Compare with quantitative research.
164. Quantitative research Research that emphasizes quantification in the collection and analysis of data. As a research strategy it is typically
deductivist and objectivist and incorporates a natural science model of the research process (in particular, one influenced by positivism),
but quantitative researchers do not always subscribe to all of these features. Compare with qualitative research.
165. Quasi-experiment A research design that is close to being an experiment but that does not meet the requirements fully and therefore does
not exhibit complete internal validity.
166. Questionnaire A collection of questions administered to respondents. When used on its own, the term usually denotes a self-completion
questionnaire.
167. Quota sample A sample that non-randomly samples a population in terms of the relative proportions of people in different categories. It is a
type of non-probability sample.
168. Random assignment A term used in connection with experiments to refer to the random allocation of research participants to the
experimental group and the control group.
169. Random sampling Sampling whereby the inclusion of a unit of a population occurs entirely by chance.
170. Range The difference between the maximum and the minimum value in a distribution of values associated with an interval or ratio variable.
171. Reactivity, reactive effect A term used to describe the response of research participants to the fact that they know they are being studied,
also sometimes referred to as the Hawthorne effect. Reactivity is deemed to result in untypical behaviour.
172. Realism, realist An epistemological position that acknowledges a reality that is independent of the senses and that is accessible to the
researcher’s tools and theoretical speculations. It implies that the categories created by scientists refer to real objects in the natural or
social worlds. See also critical realism.
173. Reflexivity This term is used in a variety of ways, but in research methods it typically refers to an awareness on the part of researchers of
their ontological and epistemological assumptions and of the ways in which their actions in conducting research shape the knowledge they
produce.
174. Reliability The degree to which a measure of a concept is stable and consistent. See also internal reliability; inter-rater reliability; stability.
175. Replicability The degree to which the results of a study can be reproduced by another researcher following the same procedures. See also
internal reliability.
176. Replication The carrying out of a study using the same procedures as a previous study, with the aim of seeing whether the results resemble
those of the previous study (i.e. replicate it) or are different.
177. Representative sample A sample that reflects the population accurately, so that it is a microcosm of the population.
178. Research design This term is employed in this book to refer to a framework or structure within which the collection and analysis of data
takes place. A choice of research design reflects decisions about the priority being given to a range of dimensions of the research process
(such as causality and generalization) and is influenced by the kind of research question that is posed.
179. Research question An explicit statement in the form of a question of what it is that a researcher intends to find out about. A research
question influences not only the scope of an investigation but also how the research will be conducted (the research design).
180. Research strategy A term used in this book to refer to a general orientation to the conduct of social research (see quantitative research and
qualitative research).
181. Respondent validation Sometimes called ‘member validation’, this is a process whereby a researcher provides the people on whom they
have conducted research with an account of their findings and requests feedback on that account.
182. Response set The tendency among some respondents to multiple-indicator measures to reply in the same way to each constituent item.
183. Rhetoric A concern with the ways in which appeals to convince or persuade are devised.
184. Rhetorical analysis An approach to analysing language that focuses on the importance of rhetorical devices as a means of communication
and persuasion, including analysis of classic rhetorical devices such as argumentation, as well as literary devices such as metaphor,
synecdoche, metonymy, and irony.
185. Sample, sampling The segment of the population that is selected for research. It is a subset of the population. The method of selection may
be based on probability sampling or non-probability sampling.
186. Sampling error Differences between a random sample and the population from which it is selected.
187. Sampling frame The listing of all units in the population from which a sample is selected.
188. Scale A term that is usually used interchangeably with ‘index’ to refer to a multiple-indicator measure in which the score a person gives for
each component indicator is used to provide a composite score for that person.
189. Scan sampling A sampling approach in structured observation whereby an entire group of individuals is scanned at regular intervals and
the behaviour of all of them is recorded on each occasion.
190. Secondary analysis The analysis of data by researchers who will probably not have been involved in the collection of those data, for
purposes that may not have been envisaged by those responsible for the data collection. Secondary analysis may be performed on either
quantitative data or qualitative data.
191. Self-administered questionnaire See self-completion questionnaire.
192. Self-completion questionnaire A questionnaire that the respondent answers without the aid of an interviewer. Sometimes called a ‘selfadministered questionnaire’.
193. Semi-structured interview A term that covers a wide range of types. It typically refers to a context in which the interviewer has a series of
questions that are in the general form of an interview guide but is able to vary the sequence of questions. The questions are frequently
somewhat more general in their frame of reference from that typically found in a structured interview schedule. Also, the interviewer usually
has some latitude to ask further questions in response to what are seen as significant replies.
194. Semiotic analysis The analysis of symbolic systems of meaning that rely upon visual images or material objects in specific contexts. The
focus of the analysis is on signs which represent or symbolise something else. Semiotic analysis can also be applied to language. This
involves interpretation of what particular words, or linguistic signs, represent.
195. Semiotics The study/science of signs; an approach to the analysis of documents and other phenomena that emphasizes the importance of
seeking out the deeper meaning of those phenomena. A semiotic approach is concerned to uncover the processes of meaning production
and how signs are designed to have an effect upon actual and prospective consumers of those signs.
196. Sensitizing concept A term devised by Blumer to refer to a preference for treating a concept as a guide in an investigation, so that it points
in a general way to what is relevant or important. This position contrasts with the idea of an operational definition, in which the meaning of a
concept is fixed in advance of carrying out an investigation.
197. Shape The shape of a distribution denotes the degree to which the distribution is symmetrical versus skewed as well as to the extent (or
‘spikiness’) of its peak or peaks.
198. Sign A term employed in semiotic analysis. A sign is made up of a signifier (the manifestation of a sign) and the signified (that idea or
deeper meaning to which the signifier refers).
199. Significance testing Statistical significance tests are used to estimate how confident it is possible to be that sample statistics accurately
represent population parameters. This allows the analyst to estimate how confident they can be that the results deriving from a study based
on a randomly selected sample are generalizable to the population from which the sample was drawn. It consists of a standardized
comparison of a sample statistic to the standard error of the sample statistic to determine whether the sample statistic deviates more or
less than can be expected from chance alone.
200. Simple observation The passive and unobtrusive observation of behaviour.
201. Simple random sample A sample in which each unit has been selected entirely by chance. Each unit of the population has a known and
equal probability of inclusion in the sample.
202. Snowball sampling A non-probability sample technique in which the researcher makes initial contact with a small group of people who are
relevant to the research topic and then uses these to establish contacts with others.
203. Social desirability bias A distortion of response that is caused by respondents’ attempts to construct an account that conforms to a socially
acceptable model of belief or behaviour.
204. Social survey See cross-sectional design.
205. SPSS Originally short for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, SPSS is a widely used computer program that allows quantitative
data to be managed and analysed.
206. Stability The extent to which a measure is stable over time, so that a researcher can be confident that the results relating to that measure for
a sample of respondents do not fluctuate if that measure is administered and later readministered.
207. Standard deviation A measure of dispersion around the mean.
208. Standard error of the mean An estimate of the amount that a sample mean is likely to differ from the population mean.
209. Statistic(s) A sample statistic is a quantitative expression, like the mean, variance, or covariance, obtained from the sample. The analytical
process of obtaining said statistic is called statistics.
210. Statistical inference See statistical significance (test of).
211. Stratified random sample A sample in which units are randomly sampled from a population that has been divided into categories (strata).
212. Structured interview A research interview in which all respondents are asked exactly the same questions in the same order with the aid of a
formal interview schedule.
213. Structured observation Often also called ‘systematic observation’, structured observation is a technique in which the researcher employs
explicitly formulated rules for the observation and recording of behaviour. The rules inform observers about what they should look for and
how they should record behaviour.
214. Survey research A cross-sectional design in relation to which data are collected predominantly by self-completion questionnaire or by
structured interview on more than one case (usually quite a lot more than one) in order to collect a body of quantitative or quantifiable data in
connection with two or more variables (usually many more than two) which are then examined to detect patterns of relationship.
215. Symbolic interactionism A theoretical perspective in sociology and social psychology that views social interaction as taking place in terms
of the meanings actors attach to action and things.
216. Synchronous online interview or focus group Online interviews or focus groups may be asynchronous or synchronous. In the case of the
latter, the transactions between participants are in real time, so that there will be only brief time lapses between interviewers’ questions and
participants’ replies, and, in the case of focus groups, between participants’ contributions to the discussion.
217. Systematic observation See structured observation.
218. Systematic review A method of conducting a literature review that uses explicit procedures and exhaustive searches; the aim is to conduct
a comprehensive and unbiased literature review and to leave a transparent record of the process used.
219. Systematic sample A probability sampling method in which units are selected from a sampling frame according to fixed intervals, such as
every fifth unit.
220. Text A term that is used either in the conventional sense of a written work or in more recent years to refer to a wide range of phenomena
including e.g. images or speech. For example, in arriving at a thick description, Geertz refers to treating culture as a text.
221. Thematic analysis A term used in connection with the analysis of qualitative data to refer to the extraction of key themes in one’s data. It is a
rather diffuse approach and there are few generally agreed principles for defining core themes in data.
222. Theoretical sampling A term used mainly in relation to grounded theory to refer to sampling carried out so that emerging theoretical
considerations guide the selection of cases and/or research participants. Theoretical sampling is supposed to continue until a point of
theoretical saturation is reached.
223. Theoretical saturation In grounded theory, the point when emerging concepts have been fully explored and no new theoretical insights are
being generated. See also theoretical sampling.
224. Thick description A term devised by Geertz to refer to detailed accounts of a social setting that can form the basis for the creation of
general statements about a culture and its significance in people’s social lives.
225. Transcription, transcript, transcribe A transcript is the written translation of an audio-recorded interview or focus group session; transcribing
is the act of making such a transcript.
226. Triangulation The use of more than one method or source of data in the study of a social phenomenon so that findings may be crosschecked.
227. Trustworthiness A set of criteria advocated by some writers for assessing the quality of qualitative research.
228. Turn-taking The notion from conversation analysis that order in everyday conversation is achieved through orderly taking of turns in
conversations.
229. Type I error Committing the mistake to reject the null hypothesis based on our sample data when the null hypothesis is in fact true in the
population.
230. Type II error Failing to reject the null hypothesis based on our sample data when the alternative hypothesis is in fact true in the population.
231. Univariate statistics The analysis of a single variable at a time.
232. Unobtrusive methods Research methods that do not entail the awareness among research participants that they are being studied and that
are therefore not subject to reactivity.
233. Unstructured interview An interview in which the interviewer typically has only a list of topics or issues, often called an interview guide, that
they expect to cover. The style of questioning is usually very informal. The phrasing and sequencing of questions will vary from interview to
interview.
234. Validity A concern with the integrity of the conclusions that are generated from a piece of research. There are different aspects of validity.
See, in particular, measurement validity, internal validity, external validity, and ecological validity. When used on its own, validity is
usually taken to refer to measurement validity.
235. Variable An attribute in terms of which cases vary. See also dependent variable and independent variable. Compare with constant.
236. Variance Denotes the spread of scores in a distribution along the range of possible scores. It is the average squared deviation of all scores
from the mean of the distribution.
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Name Index
Note: Tables and figures are indicated respectively by an italic t and f following the page number
A
Abdelnour, S. 420
Abendroth, J. 168
Abildgaard, J. 37, 570, 578
Adler, N. 70
Adler, P. 156
Adler, P. A. 156
Adriaenssens, C. 466–8
Agerström, J. 49, 51–2, 54
Aguinis, H. 206, 326
Aiken, L. S. 331, 350
Ainsworth, S. 474–6, 490
Akemu, O. 420, 440
Alcadipani, R. 404, 411
Alderson, P. 115
Aldrich, H. E. 54–5
Algina, J. 318
Alise, M. A. 568
Allison, T. H. 280
Altheide, D. L. 277, 416, 498
Altschuld, J. W. 231
Alvesson, M. 25, 28–9, 41–2, 82, 158, 407, 473, 480–1
Andersen, M. 445
Andersen, M. F. 546–7
Anderson, C. 504
Ansari, S. 496
Anseel, F. 199
Ariño, A. 505
Aristotle 65, 483
Aronson, E. 57
Asch, S. E. 469
Ashforth, B. E. 366
Atkinson, P. 25, 82, 399, 404, 439, 450, 481, 497, 537, 544, 548, 559–60
B
Banamah, A. 203
Banks, M. 503
Barad, K. 518
Barley, S. 279
Barnes, C. M. 350, 354
Barnes, S. 130–1
Barnett, R. 106
Baron, R. M. 351
Bartunek, J. M. 47, 380
Baruch, Y. 199
Bateson, P. 272–3
Bauman, Z. 33
Bazeley, P. 567
Bazerman, C. 153
Beardsworth, A. 287
Bechhofer, F. 214
Becker, H. S. 29–30, 146
Bedi, A. 107–8
Beijer, S. 264
Bell, C. 15, 406
Bell, E. 4–5, 20, 42, 80, 114, 121, 133, 142, 214, 319, 381–2, 417, 434, 495, 503–6, 514, 516, 518, 523, 528, 543–4, 592
Berens, G. 184, 336
Bernard, H. R. 530
Bernstein, E. S. 124
Berry, W. D. 353
Bettis, R. 179
Beynon, H. 39, 404, 407, 421
Bhaskar, R. 31, 554–5
Biernacki, P. 394
Billig, M. 159, 474
Bird, Y. 5, 11–12, 14–15, 14t, 17, 138, 149–53, 157–9, 161
Birks, D. 13
Blackburn, R. 73t, 459, 461
Blair, E. 241t
Blair, J. 456
Blasius, J. 205
Blauner, R. 576
Bluhm, D. J. 377, 568
Blumer, H. 33, 182, 367, 375, 594
Boddy, C. 454
Boden, D. 473, 486
Bogdan, R. 33
Boje, D. 481
Bolton, A. 129
Born, G. 63
Boselie, P. 264
Bosnjak, M. 205
Bott, G. 446
Bottomore, T. B. 257
Bourdieu, P. 107
Bowden, M. 240
Bowen, G. A. 397
Boyd, B. K. 172, 184, 304
Bradburn, N. A. 235
Bradburn, N. M. 219, 257
Brady, K. 492
Brandt, M. 205
Braun, V. 529–31
Brayfield, A. 237
Brewis, J. 41
Bridgman, P. W. 166
Bridgman, T. 491, 499
Briggs, C. L. 225
Briner, R. B. 7, 97
Britt, V. G. 548
Brønn, P. S. 293
Broussine, M. 278
Brown, A. D. 99, 483
Brown, D. 496
Brown, J. 103, 122, 166, 203, 273, 490, 572
Brown, K. G. 491, 499
Bruce, C. S. 108
Bruckman, A. S. 130–1
Bryman, A. 15, 19, 35, 40, 67, 86, 98, 108, 129, 142, 149, 152–3, 180, 183–4, 277, 362, 376, 378–80, 449, 528, 532, 541, 548, 562, 568,
577–8, 583
Buchanan, D. A. 40, 67, 406, 416, 506
Bulmer, M. 122–3, 169, 536
Burawoy, M. 48, 69, 404, 418
Burger, J. M. 125
Burgess, A. 428
Burgess, J. 15
Burgess, R. G. 362, 376, 528, 548, 562
Burke, K. 483
Burkitt, I. 443
Burns, D. 380–1
Burrell, G. 35–6, 44, 82, 557
Butcher, B. 203
C
Cadman, L. 466–8
Calder, B. J. 455, 457
Callahan, J. 107
Cameron, R. 569–70, 570t
Campbell, D. T. 53–4, 57
Campbell, R. 234, 240
Cañibano, A. 396
Carini, R. M. 240
Carlsmith, J. M. 57
Carroll, J. 107
Carter, P. 278
Casey, C. 394, 407, 562
Cassell, C. 363
Cassell, J. 121
Cavendish, R. 115, 416
Chai, D. 446
Challenger, R. 36
Chalmers, A. 179
Chan, I. Y. S. 457, 460
Charmaz, K. 391–2, 532–3, 537, 556
Chatterjee, A. 307, 504
Chelli, M. 132–3
Chen, C. C. 557
Chen, C.-P. 419–20
Chen, G. 313t
Chidlow, A. 232
Cicourel, A. V. 49, 62, 182, 225, 287
Clair, R. 480
Clapper, D. L. 468
Clark, C. 127
Clarke, C. 543–4
Clarke, V. 133
Clifford, J. 422
Clinton, H. 492
Cobanoglu, C. 243
Coffey, A. 415, 481, 497, 537, 544, 548
Coghlan, D. 39, 407
Cohen, J. 331, 346, 350, 352, 353
Cohen, L. 462, 464
Cohen, P. 331, 346, 350, 353
Coleman, J. S. 306, 395
Collins, G. 71, 73t
Collins, K. M. T. 397
Collins, M. 219
Collins, R. 33
Collinson, D. L. 399, 417, 450
Colquitt, J. 107
Colville, I. 493, 498
Combe, I. A. 514, 523
Conger, J. A. 183
Conklin, J. 7
Connell, R. 383
Converse, J. 224
Converse, J. M. 261
Cook, T. D. 53–4, 57
Cooper, H. M. 93
Corbett, A. 133, 158, 554
Corbin, J. M. 390–1, 393, 532–3, 535, 537, 556
Corden, A. 157
Corley, K. G. 534, 538–9, 539f
Cornelissen, J. P. 34, 372, 493, 498, 544–5
Corti, L. 245, 292
Cortina, J. M. 132
Couper, M. P. 205, 207, 216
Coupland, C. 494–5
Cowton, C. J. 458, 460, 469
Cramer, D. 175, 184, 331–2
Crandall, R. 113–14, 126
Crawford, S. D. 206
Creswell, J. 570–1
Crevani, L. 518–20
Crocker, L. 318
Croll, P. 275
Cross, C. 107
Crowther, D. E. 523
Cryer, P. 147
Cummings, S. 491, 499
Cunliffe, A. 132–3, 411
Curasi, C. F. 466, 468
Czaja, R. 241t
Czarniawska, B. 138, 140, 414
D
Daft, R. L. 138–9
Daigneault, P.-M. 98
Dale, A. 292
Dalton, M. 117, 123–4, 135, 377, 408, 412, 428, 495
Dane, E. 41
Davies, C. A. 416
Davies, R. 298
Davis, G. 303
Davis, J. A. 558
Davison, J. 503–5, 514–16
Deacon, D. 371
Deakin, H. 443
Decker, S. 500
Delamont, S. 275
Delanty, G. 27, 30, 36, 40
Delbridge, R. 83, 399
DeLorme, D. E. 132
Demetry, D. 580–1
Den Dulk, L. 168
den Hoonaard, W. C. 120
Denscombe, M. 10, 243
Denyer, D. 95, 97
Denzin, N. K. 123, 307, 362, 371, 422
de Rond, M. 373, 403, 413–14
Derous, E. 201, 514
Dewasiri, N. 568
Dhanesh, G. S. 172
Diana, Princess of Wales 523
Dickson, W. J. 22, 56, 73, 409–10, 412
Diehl, M.-R. 12
Diener, E. 113–14, 126
Dillman, D. 229, 233, 235, 239, 241t, 243
Dingwall, R. 120, 123
Ditton, J. 41, 410, 414
Doloriert, C. 114
Doty, D. H. 100t
Dougherty, D. 277
Douglas, J. D. 123
Downs, Y. 458, 460, 469
Driscoll, C. 416
Durkheim, E. 38
Dyer, W. G. 71
E
Easton, G. 555
Eden, C. 313t, 380–1
Edwards, P. 71, 555
Eisenhardt, K. M. 63, 65, 67, 71
Elliott, H. 243–4
Ellis, C. 423
Elsesser, K. M. 31
Erikson, K. T. 123
Evans, J. 431
Evans, M. 466
F
Fabregues, S. 583
Fairclough, N. 478, 480
Fairhurst, G. 480–1
Faraday, A. 447
Featherstone, L. 455–6
Fehr, R. 350, 354
Fenton, N. 19
Ferraro, F. 7
Fidell, L. S. 316, 318, 353
Fiedler, F. E. 20, 255
Fielding, N. 548
Filmer, P. 225
Finch, J. 262
Fine, G. A. 413
Flanagan, J. C. 446
Fleetwood, S. 555
Fleming, C. 240
Fletcher, D. 408, 417
Fletcher, J. 123
Flint, A. 107
Flyvbjerg, B. 65–7, 376
Foddy, W. 221, 251
Fong, E. A. 134
Fontanarosa, P. B. 133
Forster, N. 495
Foster, I. 14, 302
Foucault, M. 478, 499
Fowler, F. J. 198, 211, 219, 224
Franzosi, R. 281
Frey, J. H. 215
Fricker, R. 205, 243
Fulton, B. 199
Fulton, J. 240
G
Gabriel, A. 246–7
Gabriel, Y. 158, 562, 577
Galea, N. 405
Galileo 65
Gallear, D. 22
Gandini, A. 389, 394–6
Gans, H. J. 123
Garcia, C. M. 431
Garcia-Arroyo, J. 302, 431
Gardner, W. L. 276, 568
Garfinkel, H. 287, 484
Geertz, C. 98, 369, 373, 595
George, G. 7–8, 301–3
Gephart, R. P. 493, 560
Gerson, K. 397
Ghobadian, A. 20, 22
Gibbert, M. 50
Gibbons, M. 7
Gibson, C. 568, 572
Gilbert, G. N. 15, 95, 138, 152, 474, 532
Gill, R. 414, 475
Gillard, J. 492
Gioia, D. A. 15, 154–5, 538–40, 539f, 534, 545
Glaser, B. G. 24, 154, 390–2, 532–3, 536–7, 539, 556
Glaser, S. R. 572, 575–6
Gleibs, I. 206
Glick, W. H. 100t
Glock, C. Y. 263
Glueck, W. F. 276
Godard, J. 21
Goffman, E. 410
Gold, R. L. 412
Golden-Biddle, K. 95
Goldthorpe, J.H. 545, 556
Gomm, R. 379
Goode, E. 123
Gorard, S. 114
Gorski, P. 31, 554
Graebner, M. E. 63
Grant, A. M. 57, 59
Grant, D. 473, 479
Greene, J. C. 58
Greenland, P. 133
Gregg, M. 416
Greguletz, E. 12–15, 14–15t, 17, 138, 152–7, 159, 161, 400, 540
Grele, R. J. 447
Grey, C. 133
Grill, M. 273–4
Grimmer, M. 568
Grint, K. 496
Grinyer, A. 117
Grinyer, P. 181
Gronn, P. 67
Guba, E. G. 35, 50, 369–71, 385, 567
Guest, G. 396–7
Gully, S. M. 313t
Gummesson, E. 6
Gusfield, J. 153
H
Hackman, J. 173, 180
Hafermalz, E. 440–1
Haggerty, K. D. 120
Haile, G. A. 297
Halfpenny, P. 378
Halkier, B. 463
Hall, E. 429
Hall, S. 504
Hambrick, D. C. 307, 504
Hamilton, D. 275
Hammersley, M. 33, 50, 82, 378–9, 399, 439
Hammond, P. 15
Hand, M. 14
Haney, C. 114–15, 122, 125
Hanna, P. 443
Hansen, S. E. 216
Hanson, D. 568
Hantrais, L. 69
Hardy, C. 159, 474–6, 478, 554
Hardy, M. 379–80
Hare, R. D. 98, 546
Harley, B. 34, 82, 133, 159, 478, 480, 554–5, 573
Harper, D. 507
Harris, H. 73t, 170, 278–9, 282–5, 283f, 284f, 285f
Harris, L. 234
Harrison, R. L. 570t
Harvey, C. 448, 484
Haslam, C. 19
Hatch, M. J. 373–4, 405, 407
Hayes, A. F. 351
Healey, M. J. 429
Heap, J. L. 33
Heath, R. L. 483–4
Heizmann, H. 514, 524
Heracleous, L. 483–4
Heritage, J. 436, 485–6, 517
Herzberg, F. 203–4, 278, 338, 446
Hesse-Biber, S. 548
Hewson, C. 130, 205, 441, 468
Highhouse, S. 50
Hilton, G. 54–5
Hinings, C. R. 181
Hiramoto, T. 486–7
Hochschild, A. R. 37–8, 367–8, 554, 575, 582
Hodson, R. 547, 561, 564
Hofstede, G. 34, 70, 73t, 114, 180, 204
Holbrook, A. 108, 216
Holdaway, E. A. 181
Holliday, R. 112–13, 122, 413, 415, 503
Holman Jones, S. 423
Holtom, B. 199
Homan, R. 118
Honig, B. 107–8
Hood, J. C. 390, 393
Hooghe, M. 200
Horowitz, R. 397
Hou, M. 305
Howard-Grenville, J. 7
Hoy, M. G. 238, 243
Hsu, C. H. C. 465
Huang, J. 465
Huberman, A. M. 542
Hudson, J. M. 130–1
Hughes, E. C. 366, 567
Hughes, J. A. 33
Hummerinta-Peltomäki, L. 568–9
Humphreys, M. 411
Hunter, W. C. 281
Huxham, C. 380–1
Huxley, P. 243–4
Hyatt, E. 50, 140, 278, 561, 566
I
Ibarra, H. 154
Ibarra-Colado, E. 383
Ihlen, O. 483–4
Insch, G. 498
Isaacs, E. 405–6, 520
J
Jack, G. 383
Jack, L. 67
Jackall, R. 395
Jackson, B. 70, 483
Jackson, N. 278
Jackson, P. 556
Jackson, S. 180
Jackson, T. 225
Jacques, R. S. 499
Janis, I. L. 469
Jankowski, N. W. 240
Jarzabkowski, P. 404, 422
Jensen, T. 423
Jiang, L. 303
Jobs, S. 4, 483-4, 515, 518, 523
Joecks, J. 154
John, I. D. 477, 561
Johns, G. 180
Johnson, J. W. 347
Johnson, P. 371–2
Jones, P. 431
Joo, H. 326
Joshi, A. 154
K
Kalton, G. 202
Kam, J. 133
Kandola, B. 459–60, 462
Kang, S. 578–9
Kanter, R. M. 65, 371, 411, 576–7
Kanungo, R. N. 183
Kapasi, I. 492
Kärreman, D. 25, 473, 480–1
Kaufman, K. 438, 441–3
Kazmi, A. 292
Keat, R. 554
Keenoy, T. 479
Kelan, E. K. 474, 476–7
Kelly, L. 444–5
Kenny, D. A. 351
Kent, R. 243
Keppel, G. 352, 356
Ketchen, D. J. 304
Ketokivi, M. 25
Kholief, A. 67
Kiely, T. 461
Kieser, A. 500
King, E. B. 51, 55, 132
King, M. L. 224
Kirk, J. 50, 368
Kitchin, R. 14, 301–2
Kitzinger, J. 462–3
Klaering, L. A. 483–4
Knights, D. 64, 503–4, 506
Kolb, D. 56, 406
Koller, V. 478
Koslicki, W. 286
Kostova, T. 23
Kothiyal, N. 121, 133, 543–4
Kovalainen, A. 499
Kozinets, R. V. 418–20
Kramer, A. D. I. 117
Krause, R. 55–6, 73t
Kress, G. 523
Kreutzer, K. 12
Kroon, B. 264
Krosnick, J. A. 261
Krueger, R. A. 458, 469
Kuhn, T. S. 35, 567
Kunda, G. 277, 405, 414, 422
Kvale, S. 431–4
Kwan, K.-M. 555
L
Lancaster, G. 13
LaPiere, R. T. 182
Laurent, D. 205, 441, 468
Lauritsen, B. D. 465
Lawlor, M. A. 114
Lawrence, P. R. 20
Lawrence, T. B. 156–7, 157t, 366
Layder, D. 36
Lazarsfeld, P. 170
Learmonth, M. 6
LeBaron, C. 509
LeBreton, J. M. 347
LeCompte, M. D. 50, 368–9
Lee, B. 64–7
Lee, M. 243
Lee, R. M. 115, 306, 548
Lee, T. W. 64
Leech, N. L. 397–8
Legge, K. 479
Leidner, R. 368, 406, 428
Leitch, C. M. 34
Lembrechts, L. 573–4
Leonard, P. 114, 434, 495
Lester, J. N. 548
Lewander, F. 519
Lilley, S. 92
Lincoln, Y. S. 50, 362, 369–71, 385
Linstead, S. 29, 64
Little, L. M. 176
Liu, H. 514, 524
Lo, L. 574
Locke, K. D. 95, 539
Locke, R. 532
Lofland, I. 82, 213, 372–3, 415, 430, 436, 542
Lofland, J. 82, 213, 372–3, 415, 430, 436, 542
Lo Iacono, V. 443–4
Lok, J. 373, 403, 413–4
Lomax, R. G. 351
Lonkila, M. 540
Lorsch, J. W. 20
Love, E. 171–2
Lowe, K. B. 568
Lower, M. A. 231
Lozar Manfreda, K. 205
Lucas, J. 181
Lucas, R. 204
M
Macdonald, S. 133
Madge, C. 467–8
Madriz, M. 469
Mah, A. 474, 476–7
Maitlis, S. 156–7, 157t, 366
Malhotra, N. 13
Malinowski, B. 244
Mangione, T. W. 211, 219
Mann, C. 465–6, 468
Manning, J. 384
Mantere, S. 25
Marcus, C. 418
Marescaux, E. 262
Marquis, C. 5, 9, 11–15, 14t, 17, 138, 149–54, 157–9, 161
Marsden, R. 21
Marsh, C. 62, 203
Marshall, J. 71, 73t, 366, 370, 400, 544
Martin, J. 63
Martin, P. 272–3
Martin, P. Y. 534
Martinko, M. J. 276
Marx, G. T. 82–4
Marx, K. 257
Maslach, C. 179–81
Mason, J. 213, 368
Mason, M. 397
Massey, A. P. 468
Masterman, M. 35
Mayes, B. T. 233
Maynard, M. 381
Mays, N. 96
McBride, J. 394, 432
McCabe, D. 64
McCall, M. J. 274–5
McCarthy, L. 506, 511–3
McCartney, J. L. 561
McCloskey, D. N. 153
McCurdy, D. 428
McDonald, G. 69
McDonald, S. 414
McKeever, L. 107
McPhail, C. 33
Meade, A. W. 246
Medway, R. L. 240
Mees-Buss, J. 540
Meijman, T. F. 265
Meindl, J. R. 557
Mellahi, K. 234
Meltzer, B. N. 33
Merton, R. K. 20–1, 24, 26, 213, 454
Merunka, D. 200
Metcalfe, B. 518
Meyer, A. D. 503, 505
Meyer, R. E. 505
Michel, A. 372, 376, 404, 478
Michels, R. 66
Mies, M. 39, 381
Miles, M. B. 112, 528, 542, 559
Milgram, S. 55, 114, 122, 125, 135
Milkman, R. 407–8, 429, 438, 458, 576, 583
Millen, D. 445
Miller, A. G. 125
Miller, D. 440, 518
Miller, M. L. 50, 368
Miller, R. L. 555
Miner-Rubino, K. 381
Mintzberg, H. 142, 271–3, 276, 473
Mirchandani, K. 383, 578
Mishler, E. G. 225, 481
Mitchell, J. C. 67, 376, 397
Moideenkutty, U. 264
Molina-Azorín, J. F. 568–70, 570t
Molina-Azorín, S. 583–4
Morgan, D. L. 458, 461, 465, 567
Morgan, G. 35–6, 44, 82, 557
Morrell, K. 6
Morrison, D. E. 463
Morse, J. M. 397
Moser, C. A. 202
Moynihan, J. 306
Mulkay, M. 15, 138, 152, 474
Mumby, D. 480
Munir, K. 496, 498
Murray, J. 495
Musson, G. 447–8
Muthuri, J. N. 505, 511–13
N
Newby, H. 15
Newman, D. A. 317
Nielsen, C. 205–6
Nielsen, K. 54, 57
Nilsson, J. 456
Nishii, L. 239, 252, 265
Noack, A. 215
Noblit, G. W. 98, 546
Noy, C. 395
Nummela, N. 568–9
Nyberg, D. 495
O
O’Cathain, A. 583
O’Connor, H. 441, 467–8
Oakley, A. 445
Ogbolu, M. N. 226
Oishi, S. M. 215
Okely, J. 528
Oldham, G. 173, 180
Omar, N. A. 229
O’Neill, M. 148, 431
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. 397–8
Oppenheim, A. N. 211
O’Reilly, M. 392, 536
Orser, B. 383
Orton, J. D. 493
Osca, A. 302–3
Oswald, D. 531
Oswick, C. 483
P
Palys, T. 389
Pàmies, M. 107
Panayiotou, A. 504
Parboteeah, K. P. 23, 49, 73
Park, P. 381
Parker, I. 478
Parker, M. 114, 407–8, 410, 439, 559
Parker, N. 392
Parmentier, G. 465–6
Partington, D. 537
Pasmore, W. A. 381
Patterson, M. G. 177–8
Patton, M. 389
Paulus, T. M. 548
Pavesi, A. 510, 512
Pedersen, M. 205–6
Pedhazur, E. J. 347
Peil, C. 438, 441–3
Peñaloza, L. 520
Peräkylä, A. 50
Perks, K. J. 465
Perlow, L. A. 73t, 410, 571, 580
Peterson, R. 200
Petticrew, M. 7
Pettigrew, A. 63, 65–6, 73t, 115, 374, 494
Phillips, D. L. 225
Phillips, N. 478
Piekkari, R. 65
Pierce, C. 25
Pink, S. 128–9, 502–4, 509, 520–1
Pittman, M. 206
Plano Clark, V. L. 570–1
Plate, L. 94
Platt, J. 555
Plummer, K. 158, 447
Poland, B. D. 438
Pollert, A. 64, 417
Popper, K. 26
Potter, J. 30, 474–8, 482
Poutanen, S. 499
Pouthier, V. 24
Powell, T. C. 198
Prasad, A. 418
Prasad, P. 382, 418, 428, 436, 534
Pratt, M. 133, 372
Presser, S. 219, 224, 261
Pringle, R. 389–90, 390t
Prothero, A. 114
Pugh, D. S. 54–5
Punch, M. 123
Purkayastha, S. 98
Putnam, L. 480–1
Q
Quinlan, E. 414
R
Rafaeli, A. 392, 437, 582
Raffaeli, R. 455, 490, 498
Ram, M. 409, 413, 517
Ramirez, I. 380
Raver, J. 239
Rawlinson, M. B. 429
Reay, T. 6–7
Reed, M. I. 480
Reichl, C. 181
Reid, D. J. 464
Reid, F. J. M. 464
Reilly, T. M. 570t
Reimer, K. 441
Reinharz, S. 416–17, 445
Rettie, R. 548
Reuber, A. R. 108
Rexroat, C. 33
Rhodes, C. 99
Riach, K. 158, 491
Rich, M. 229, 454
Richards, J. 456–8, 462
Richards, L. 540
Richards, T. 540
Richardson, L. 153
Riessman, C. K. 121
Ritzer, G. 35
Roberts, B. 431
Roberts, H. 7
Roethlisberger, F. J. 22, 56, 73, 409–10, 412
Rolland, S. E. 465–6
Rooth, D. 49, 51–2, 54
Rorty, R. 423
Rose, G. 503
Rosen, M. 403
Rosén, M. E. 287
Rosenthal, R. 56
Rosnow, R. L. 56
Roth, P. A. 33
Rothe, H. 237
Roulet, T. J. 124
Roulston, K. 434
Rousseau, D. 6, 72
Rowlinson, M. 499
Roy, A. 70
Roy, D. 48, 69, 404, 408–9
Rubel, M. 257
Rubin, H. J. 213
Rubin, I. S. 213
Ruigrok, W. 50
Ruppert, E. 14
Russell, M. T. 148
Ryan, G. W. 530
S
Sacks, H. 484–5
Sainsbury, R. 157
Sambrook, S. 114
Samuel, R. 447
Sandberg, J. 82, 158, 492
Sandberg, S. 492
Sang, K. 456–7, 462
Sanjek, R. 415
Sarsby, J. 403
Saunders, M. 205
Savage, M. 545
Sayers, J. 504
Scandura, T. A. 50
Scarbrough, E. 203
Schaeffer, D. R. 243
Schegloff, E. A. 486
Scherbaum, C. A. 246
Schifeling, T. 580–1
Schlesinger, P. 458
Schoneboom, A. 491
Schonlau, M. 243
Schoonhoven, C. B. 20
Schumacker, R. E. 351
Schuman, H. 219, 224
Schutte, N. 175, 179–81
Schutz, A. 32, 182, 372, 407
Schwartzman, H. B. 22
Schwartz-Shea, P. 25
Scott, J. 244, 275, 287, 490, 492, 495
Seitz, S. 443
Shapiro, M. 153
Sharpe, D. 408
Sheehan, K. 205–6, 238, 243
Shenoy, S. 181
Shepherd, C. 36
Shepherd, D. A. 25–6, 558
Shortt, H. L. 522
Shrivasta, P. 19
Shuy, R. W. 215–16
Sidani, S. 15
Silverman, D. 362–3, 367, 450, 548, 559, 576–7
Sin, C. H. 120–1
Singh, G. 133
Singh, R. P. 226
Sivarajah, U. 303
Skov, A. 407
Skovgaard-Smith, I. 85–6
Slager, R. 479–80
Slutskaya, N. 520–1
Smeaton, D. 68
Smidt, M. 456, 460, 529
Smith, A. 394, 432
Smith, C. B. 205
Smith, G. 515
Snyder, N. 276
Sonenshein, S. 176
Sontag, S. 504
Spencer, S. 503
Spiller, C. 384
Spradley, J. P. 213, 428
Sprouse, M. 41
Sreedhari, D. D. 296
Stake, R. E. 63–4, 133, 381
Starkey, K. 6–7
Steenkamp, J.-B.E.M. 225
Stefani, L. 107
Stentz, J. E. 570t
Steudel, H. J. 573
Stewart, F. 465–6, 468
Stewart, K. 131, 466
Stewart, R. 243, 245, 576, 580
Stiles, P. 510–11, 572–3, 582
Stockdale, A. 440
Stokes, D. 73t, 459, 461
Storgaard, M. 363–5, 372–3, 376, 427, 494
Strauss, A. 24, 28, 30, 154, 390–3, 532–3, 535–7, 541, 556
Streiner, D. L. 15
Strydom, P. 27, 30, 36, 40
Suddaby, R. 25–6, 558
Sudman, S. 219, 235, 257, 456
Sutton, R. I. 582
Sweet, C. 468
Symon, G. 133
T
Tabachnick, B. G. 316, 318, 353
Tadajewski, M. 455, 463, 469
Tashakkori, A. 568
Taylor, S. 4–5, 523
Taylor, S. J. 33
Teddlie, C. 390, 568
Thanem, T. 503–4, 506
Thomas, R. 29
Thompson, P. 28, 478, 480, 555
Thorne, B. 120
Thorpe, R. 15
Tight, M. 67, 537
Tihanyi, A. 7
Tonelli, M. J. 404
Tonge, J. 506
Tonidandel, S. 132, 347
Torraco, R. J. 93, 100–1, 100t
Tourish, D. 446
Townsend, K. 15
Tranfield, D. 6–7, 94–7
Trau, R. N. C. 240
Treviño, L. K. 392–3, 399, 433
Tripp, T. M. 573
Truss, C. 578
Tsang, E. 555
Tse, A. C. B. 205, 243, 468
Tuhiwai Smith, L. 383–4
Turner, B. A. 493, 498, 534
Tyler, M. 462–4
U
Urban, A.-M. 414
Urry, J. 554
Usunier, J. C. 69
Uy, M. A. 245, 247
Uzunka, B. 438
V
Vaara, E. 481–3
Vachhani, S. 506
van der Lippe, T. 168
Van de Ven, A. H. 374
van de Voorde, K. 264
VandeWalle, D. 313t
Van Dijk, T. A. 479
van Leeuwen, T. 523
Van Maanen, J. 56, 123, 406, 410, 413, 420–1, 560
van Quaquebeke, N. 301–2
Van Selm, M. 240
van Veldhoven, M. 265
Vaughan, D. 19, 64, 497
Vidaver-Cohen, D. 293
Vince, R. 278
W
Wagner, D. T. 247
Wakefield, K. 443
Walby, S. 382
Waldorf, D. 394
Wall, T. D. 57, 59
Walsh, D. 30
Walter, S. 206
Warhol, A. 515
Warren, C. A. B. 397
Warren, S. K. 128–9, 507–9, 522
Wasko, J. 70
Watson, T. 84–5, 85f, 406, 408, 411, 417, 422, 479
Weaver, A. 548
Webb, E. J. 225, 306–7, 371, 572
Weber, M. 23, 32–3, 183, 372
Weick, K. E. 481
Weinholtz, D. 581
Weinmann, T. 443
Wenzel, R. 301–2
West, S. G. 331, 350
Westwood, R. 383
Westwood, S. 416
Wetherell, M. 474, 476–7
White, H. 499
White, M. 68
White, P. 10
Whittington, R. 21, 67
Whittle, A. 484–5
Whyte, W. F. 430
Wickham, J. 71, 73t
Widdicombe, S. 475
Wieder, D. L. 244
Wike, H. 519
Wilhite, A. W. 134
Wilkins, A. L. 71
Wilkinson, S. 458, 462–4
Willems, T. 373, 404, 415
Williams, E. A. 50
Williams, M. 129, 131, 397, 466
Willman, P. 428
Willmott, H. 142, 543–4
Wilson, F. 54, 382
Winch, P. 33
Wittgenstein, L. 33
Wolcott, H. F. 95, 147, 405
Wolfe, E. W. 240
Woodward, S. 54, 505, 518
Woolgar, S. 153, 423, 496
Wray Bliss, E. 121
Wright, A. L. 7
X
Xian, H. 439
Y
Yam, K. C. 350, 354
Yamauchi, Y. 486–7
Yang, K. 203
Yanow, D. 25
Yasai-Ardekani, M. 181
Yauch, C. A. 573
Yin, R. K. 64–7, 71
Yu, F. 390
Yue, Y. 246–7
Z
Zamanou, S. 572, 575–6
Zawadzki, M. 423
Zellmer-Bruhn, M. 51
Zhang, Z. 406
Zimbardo, P. 55, 114–15, 125, 135
Zimmerman, D. H. 244
Zundel, M. 509–10
Zwitter, A. 132
Subject Index
Note: Tables and figures are indicated respectively by an italic t and f following the page number
A
abductive reasoning 24–5, 364, 528–9, 544, 558, 587
definition 587
ABI/INFORM database 100
absenteeism, employee 94, 176, 326
academic journals 96, 100–2, 133, 140, 181, 398
definition 92
academic libraries 102
academic writing 137–40, 158–9, 161
approaches to 139–40
rhetoric, definition 138
Academy of Management (AOM) Code of Ethics (2005) 113–14, 133
Academy of Management Journal 304, 366
access and ethnography 406–11
approaches to 411
complete participants 409
covert observation, difficulties of 410
key informants 411
ongoing access 409–11
overt versus covert 407–9
working roles in organizations 408 see also ethnography and participant observation
accountancy 101, 479
accountants 58, 203, 479–80, 482
accounting 4, 11, 15, 150, 284, 296, 477, 503, 575
accreditation systems 133
acknowledgements in dissertation 145, 151
acquiescence 225, 237
action research 380–1
definition 587
activism
civic 149–51
environmental 11, 14
ad libitum sampling 273
definition 587
ADHD 457
adjacency pairs 486
definition 587
admiration repertoire 476–7
advertisement 125, 391
advertisements 47, 103, 114, 201, 287, 368, 455, 494, 496, 579–80
advertising 38, 114, 131, 287, 368, 391, 455, 514, 523
Advisory Group project 432
aesthetics, organizational 129, 505–7
affiliation and conflicts of interest 127–8
Affluent Worker research 545, 556
African-American community 145, 224, 226, 455, 579–80
African cultures 382
agriculture 61
aide-mémoire 213, 244, 428, 506
Airbnb 438
airline industry 38, 368, 432
alcohol 216
Altmetric 134
Amadeus 103
Amazon Mechanical Turk 14, 206
American Psychological Association (APA) 143–5
amnesiacs 144
analytic induction 555
anecdotalism 548, 553, 562, 576
Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (ASHE) 296
anonymity 114–18, 124, 128–32, 148, 243, 398, 440, 443–4, 448, 509
ANOVA 332, 335, 352, 355–8
answers, fixed-choice 182, 219, 253, 257, 263
antenarratives 481
anthropology 4, 244, 364, 374, 404, 416
anti-bribery 480
anti-capitalism 496
anti-corruption 479–80
anti-discrimination 52, 356
anti-obesity bias 49, 52
anti-positivism 32
anti-realism 474, 478, 480, 487–8
anxiety 42, 78, 96, 114, 221, 415, 438, 543
‘anything goes’ approach 123, 379, 530
appendices 146–8, 160, 193, 422
Apple Inc. 4, 483–4, 515, 518, 523
appraisals 191–2, 578
apps 301, 440, 442
Arabic 438
archaeological approach 499, 505
archival analysis/data 66, 68, 413, 415, 490–1, 498–9, 572
archival proxies and meta-analysis 291, 304
arithmetic mean 196, 322–3, 591–2
definition 587
artefacts 498, 503, 505, 516, 523, 572
artisanal production 581
artwork 464, 521
ascendant paradigm 35
Asia 145, 305
asking questions 249–68
checklist 266–7
common mistakes 260
existing questions, using 263–4
help in designing questions 265
open versus closed 250–3
piloting questions 263
pre-testing questions 263
qualitative interviewing 428–40
digital audio-recording 440
first-time interviews 434
flexibility in interviewing 428, 439
interview guide
preparing an 430–3
using an 434–6
kinds of question 433–4
learning how to interview 435
location, interview 432
recording 436–9
semi-structured interviews, transcript of 435
speech-recognition software 440
successful interviewer 432
transcription 436–9
translation 436–9
unstructured interviews 430
walking interview 431
questionnaires designed by other researchers 265
scales developed by other researchers 264–5
types of question 253–4 see also closed questions; designing questions, rules for; open questions; vignette questions
questions
Asperger’s syndrome 457
Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) 133
Association of Internet Researchers (AoIR) 130
Aston studies 54–5, 73, 181
asynchronous mode 441–2, 465–8, 471, 595
offline interview/focus group, definition 587
attached email surveys 238
definition 587
attitude scales 558, 567 see also Likert, scales
attractiveness, physical 49, 51
audio-recording 431, 439–40
audio-visual production 396, 470, 509
audit trail 96, 548, 578–9
auditing approach 371, 413
Australian Data Archive 264, 299, 545
Australian Research Council/National Health and Medical Research Council/Universities Australia (ARC, NHMRC, and UA) Code for the
Responsible Conduct of Research (2018) 113
Relations Survey (AWIRS) 292, 575
authenticity 287, 369, 371, 422, 490, 492, 494–5, 500, 581
authoritarianism 11, 14, 149, 151
author’s biography 41
authorship 133, 135, 495–6
autobiographies 244, 447, 489–90, 492, 592
autoethnography 423
autonomy 57–8, 135, 173, 178, 181, 184, 404
‘average leadership style’ approach 72
B
babysitters 575
bakeries 64, 410, 450
Bangladesh 145
bankers 103, 372, 374, 376, 404–5, 449
banking 103, 404, 515
bankruptcy 112
banks 34, 103, 130, 222, 264, 404, 406, 503, 515
bar diagrams 320
barcodes 301
baristas 419
BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) 63
behaviour sampling 273
definition 587
Belgium 71, 201, 262, 574
bell-shaped curves 196
best-fitting lines 343–5, 357
bias 31, 39, 49, 52, 56, 74, 96, 143–4, 179, 190–1, 193–4, 202–3, 206–7, 210, 215, 223–6, 230–2, 253, 277, 298, 304, 311, 316, 320, 333,
353–4, 377, 379, 382, 396, 447, 467, 594
bibliographies 94, 100, 106–7
big data 14, 131–2, 291, 298–303, 307–8, 397
‘pitch’ videos 303
Big Four consultancy firms 479
bimodal distribution 319–22, 353
biographical approach/method 19, 41, 64, 213, 226, 438, 447, 450, 492, 590 see also life history
biological sciences 94
biomedical sciences 120
bipolar numerical response format 255
bitumen bubble 560
bivariate analysis/statistics 163, 310–11, 326–32, 334, 342
contingency tables 332t
correlation 326–32, 330f
calculation of 329
definition 327
correlation coefficient
distributions, effect of 330f
types 332t
covariance 326–32
calculation of 329
definition 327
data ellipse 328f
definition 587
means comparisons 332
scatterplots 327–8f
blogmeets 491
blogs 129–30, 277, 279, 419–20, 491
blue-collar workers 180–1
boat races 373, 403, 413–14
body language 115, 414, 433, 441, 468
boilerplate 158
bonuses, financial 262, 281
book-length ethnographic studies 561
Boolean searches 299
Bradford & Bingley 514–16
brands 5, 103, 419, 469, 496, 523
brand-loyal consumers 5, 518, 523
brand positioning 523
breweries 581
bribery 479–80
British Household Panel Survey (BHPS) 295–6
British Social Attitudes (BSA) survey 295, 299
British Sociological Association (BSA) 113, 119
broadband internet 467
brochures 113, 281, 415, 418, 494, 514
Brookings Institution 102
budgeting, student 204
budgets, research 203, 234, 297, 560
Bulgaria 168
bulletin board focus group (BBFG) 465–6
bullying 24, 51, 216, 423
bureaucracy 8, 395
bureaucratic procedure 120, 150, 243
bureaucratization 97
burnout, employee 58, 96, 175, 179–81, 405
business information 455
Business Register and Employment Survey (BRES) 295
business research
definition 4
influences on 38f
key considerations 5
relevance to practice 6–7
Business Source Premier/Complete database 100–1
buyout scheme 429, 576
Buzzablog 420
bystander phenomenon 423
C
Cadbury 492
call
-backs 224
-centre workers 115, 263
camcorders 487
cameras 129, 307, 506, 420
capitalism 22–3, 172, 417
CAQDAS (computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software), definition 587
car dealerships 477
Carlsberg group 373–4, 405, 407
carpentry 513
cartoons 514
case study
definition 587
design 63–9
business research 65
case, definition of 64
intensive analysis 67
longitudinal case study of ICI 66
longitudinal research and 68–9
more than one case 68
reliability 65–6
replicability 65–6
types of case 66–7
validity 65–6
case-to-case transfer 397
catalogues 299–300
cataloguing 507
cattle trade 520
Caucasian participants 145, 201
causal explanation 32
causality 48–9, 53–4, 59–60, 165–6, 177–8, 185, 326, 593
definition 587
CCTV 14, 301, 493
CD-ROM 299
celebrities 496
friendships 524
cell, definition 587
censorship, media 12, 151, 370
census 179, 190, 201, 264, 295, 299, 301, 305
definition 587
central tendency
definition 587
measures of 310, 322–3, 589 see also median
charismatic leadership 59, 169, 183, 483–4
Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS) 113
chatrooms 129–31, 466
child employment 129
childcare 466, 513
children 80, 114, 129, 144, 203, 214, 332, 464, 575
Chilean mining 438
China 9, 11, 13, 15, 70, 118, 124, 145, 149–51, 181, 233, 279, 406, 439, 457, 460, 523
China Stock Market and Accounting Research (CSMAR) 11, 15, 150
chocolate market 259
chronology record 272
churches 55, 181
cigarettes 520
citation 93, 101, 103–4, 106, 133, 135, 377, 584 see also referencing work
citizenship 11, 28, 168, 172, 225
civic activism 11, 14, 149–51
civil service 297
claimant count (unemployment levels) 306
clearance procedures 126, 298, 303, 406
clerical jobs 173, 390
clickstream data 301
closed-ended answers 233, 235
closed questions 242
advantages 251–3
balance question and answers 259
definition 587
disadvantages 253
matching question and answers 258
processing 252
symmetry between question and answers 259
clothing 174, 409, 413, 512, 518
cloud (data) 327–8
cluster sampling 195
definition 587
CNCB interviews 483
coach meetings 403, 413
cocoa industry 505–6, 511–13
code-and-retrieve process 548
codes
of conduct 127
of ethics 113–14, 118
codification of procedures 377, 475, 498, 528
coding 542–5
content analysis 282–6
critique 544–5
data fragmentation 543–4
definition 587
frame 146–7, 212, 251, 593
definition 587
Globalisation of Methods project 543
manual 282–4, 283f
definition 588
pitfalls 285–6
schedule 282–3, 283f, 285f
definition 588
steps and considerations 542–3
coefficients 175, 275, 318, 326–8, 330–2, 334, 337, 341, 346, 351
coercion 11, 117, 134
coercive authorship 133
coffee consumption 407, 419, 491
cognitive reasoning 23, 25, 200, 295, 523
Cohen’s kappa 275, 463
coherence, intertextual 95
cohort study 46, 63, 74
collaboration 295, 381, 525, 539, 548
collaborative enquiry/research 7, 370, 381, 431, 482, 504, 520–1
definition 588
collages 505, 507, 510, 512, 522, 525
collectivism 417, 496
colonialism 363, 382
comic stories 562
commercial publishers 92
commodification 496
common mental disorders (CMD) 546–7
comparative design 69–71
comparative analysis panel studies 71
definition 588
comparison, logic of 59, 69
compensation, financial 257, 262, 307, 391
competitive context 48
computational reasoning 14, 25
computer
-aided content analysis 280–1
-assisted interviewing 209, 215–17, 241, 377
-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) 189, 216, 241
-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) 377
-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) 189, 215–16, 230, 241
computerization 428, 534
concept(s), definition 588
concurrent validity 176, 178, 275, 591
definition 588
confectionary companies 259
conferencing software 465
confessional tales 15, 421–2, 559
confidence interval 197, 208, 337, 342
confidentiality 111, 114–16, 118–19, 126, 128, 130–2, 134–5, 148, 218, 232, 243, 444, 448, 461–2
confirmability 50, 369, 371
conflicts of interest and affiliation 119, 127–8, 407
connectivity issues 242, 441, 443
conscientiousness 313, 319, 330, 354
conscious partiality 39
consent 12, 111, 113–15, 117–22, 124, 126, 128, 130–2, 134–5, 409, 414, 449, 462, 487, 509, 521, 588, 590
consequences, magnitude of 48
consequentialism 171–2
consistency 48, 170–1, 174–5, 177, 181, 275, 286, 369
Consortium for European Social Science Data Archives 299, 545
constant 49
comparison 480, 498, 533, 535–6, 544
definition 588
definition 588
construct, definition 588
constructionism 18–19, 26–30, 43–4, 183, 361–2, 382, 384, 473–4, 485, 487–8, 496, 502, 504, 537, 553–4, 556–7, 563, 592
definition 588
constructivism 28, 537, 556, 588
constructs 22, 176
consultancy 15, 287, 435, 479, 494 see also Big Four consultancy firms
consultants 6, 66, 86, 396, 418, 460, 494
contact record 272
contact summary sheet 559
content analysis 276–7
advantages 286–7
coding in 282–6
coding schedule 282–3, 283f, 285f
manual 282–4, 283f
pitfalls 285–6
computer-aided 280
definition 277, 588
disadvantages 287
efficiency of 281
police recruitment videos 286
sample selection 278–9
sampling dates 279
sampling media 278–9
Swedish job advertisements 287
units of analysis 280–2
dispositions 281
images 281–2
significant actors 280
subjects 281
themes 281
words 280–1
contextualist research design 63
contingency
table 310, 326, 332
definition 588
theory 20, 82
contingent repertoire 152, 247, 390, 393
continuous recording 272
definition 588
control group 52–3, 57–9, 73t, 117, 342, 352, 354–6, 579, 589, 593
convenience sample 199–201, 234, 296, 388, 394, 464
definition 588
convergent parallel design 570–1
convergent validity 176, 305
definition 588
conversation analysis 484–7
definition 485, 588
ethnomethodology and 487
copyright 111, 126, 128–30, 507–8, 512–13, 515–7
corporate social responsibility (CSR) 172, 305, 465, 494–5
correlations 310, 326–8, 332, 338, 342, 352, 558
definition 588
corruption 479–80
cosmetics industry 43, 455
cosmopolitanism 524
countercultural movement 491, 496
counterfeiting 490
counter-terrorism 493
country institutional profile 23
courtroom trials 486
covariance (cov) 221, 327, 329
definition 588
covering letters/emails 218, 232, 240, 242
covert observation/research 117, 119–20, 122–4, 132, 402, 407–12, 424, 555
definition 588
Covid-19 pandemic 441, 465, 514
craft-based organizations 581
crafting objects 506
crafting research 84–5
Cramér’s V 331–2
Creative Club 103
Creative Commons licences 126
creative design 435
credibility 50, 287, 365, 369, 500
criminal activity 117, 125, 450
criterion 176
critical case 66, 389
critical discourse analysis (CDA) 472–3, 475, 478–80, 487, 529
accountancy discourses 479–80 see also discourse analysis
critical incident technique 34, 446–7
examples 446
uses of 447
critical reading skills 94
critical realism 31, 480, 555, 593
definition 588
Cronbach’s alpha 175, 178, 181, 275
cross-boundary teams 24
cross-cultural research 69–70, 73–4, 279, 294, 305
cross-national research 69, 293, 295, 297
cross-sectional design 46–7, 50, 59–64, 68–71, 73–4, 166, 178–9, 271, 295, 299, 582, 595
data rectangle 62f
definition 59, 588
non-manipulable variables 62
reliability 60–2
replicability 60–2
research strategy and 62–3
structure of 62
validity 60–2
crowdfunding 302–3
curriculum vitae (CV) 51–2, 201
customer
-provider interactions 486–7
-service representatives 245
customs 28, 69, 499
Czech Republic 531
D
Dagens Nyheter 287
dance 510
data
archival 66, 68, 150, 304, 413, 415, 490, 491, 498, 499, 572
analysis see qualitative data analysis
analysis software 547–8
-driven approach 25, 529
extraction 547
fragmentation 549
-gathering 421, 569
-generating triangle 509
management 118, 126, 294, 302
processing 117, 210–12, 251, 397
error 203f, 204
-protection issues 126
rectangle 62f
reduction 13, 379
saturation 392–3, 397
sources 132, 150, 281, 294, 301–2, 423, 436, 473, 490, 493, 496–7, 504, 530, 556, 582
databases 100–4
keywords 103
importance of identifying 104
news media 102–3
online 100–3
online searching 103
search parameters, defining 103
selection criteria 101 see also literature review
datasets, hierarchical 298
Datastream 103
daycare worker 575
deception, preventing 111, 113, 122–4, 135, 409, 411
decision
-analysis 285
-making processes 7, 19–20, 94, 123, 157, 170, 200, 225, 279, 282, 509
decolonial research 361, 380, 382
decolonization of business research 383, 385–6
decontextualizing data 548–9
Dedoose 531
deduction, process of 21–4, 529
deductive approach / deductivism 8, 18, 21–5, 31, 34, 36–7, 43–4, 64, 98, 139, 166, 169, 183, 185, 465, 528–9, 538, 590, 593
definition 588
process of 21f
definitive concepts 367, 375
Deloitte 479
Delta Airlines 38, 368
delta R square 347, 368
democracies 149
demographics 314, 529
demurrals 406
Denmark 57, 71, 273–4, 293, 364, 374
Danish firms 58, 274, 364–5, 373, 376
dependability 50, 369–71, 430
dependent variable (DV) 326, 347, 350–1
definition 588
depersonalization 180
depression, workplace 96, 125, 546
deregulation 541
describing data 314–18
data cleaning 316–18
scale construction 316–18
variable types 314–16, 315t
description and emphasis on context 373–4
descriptive statistics 318–26
central tendency, measures of 323–4, 323t
definition 589
deviation from the mean 325f
frequencies and distributions 318–26
frequency tables 319f
peaked distributions 321f
skewed distributions 320f
spread of a distribution 322f
standard deviation 325
symmetrical (normal) distribution 319f
variance, calculation of 325
designerism 174–5
designing questions, rules for 254–61
ambiguity, avoidance of 256–7
balance in closed question/answers 259
‘don’t know’ 259–61
double-barrelled questions, avoidance of 257
establishing what you want to know 256
general questions, avoidance of 257
general rules 254–6
leading questions, avoidance of 257
long questions, avoidance of 257
memory problems 259
negatives, avoidance of 259
obscure terms, avoidance of 259
position of the respondent 256
requisite knowledge of the respondent 259
research questions, prioritization of 254–6
response formats for scales 255
specific rules 256–61
symmetry between closed question and answers 259
technical terms, avoidance of 259
two questions, avoid asking 258 see also asking questions
deskilling 169
desk
research 77, 91
work 271–2, 414
determinism 554, 557, 563, 567
Devil’s advocate 284
diagrams 150, 320, 499, 505, 514, 535
dialogical struggle 25, 441, 479, 510
diaries 59, 228–9, 243–6, 248, 271, 307, 377, 447, 489–92, 498, 501, 509–10, 589, 592
definition 589
diary-interview 244
researcher-driven 243–4, 248
as a form of self-completion questionnaire 243–7
advantages and disadvantages 246
diary study of emotional labour 245
diary study of managers 244
experience and event sampling 246–7
research diary, definition 244 see also self, -completion questionnaires
self-directed video 509–10
time-use 580
DICTION
6.0 program 280
software 280
dictionaries 103, 279–80, 282
digital recording 440
dimension, definition 589
direct quotation 106–7, 140, 437
disability 143–5, 239, 282, 456–7
disciplinary action/standards 119, 368, 478, 491
discourse analysis (DA) 473–81
critical discourse analysis 479–80
definition 474, 589
detailed procedures 476–8
existing material, using 477
main features 474–5
mind and body discourses 475–6
role models, identification of 476
strengths and limitations 480–1 see also critical discourse analysis (CDA)
discriminant validity 176
definition 589
discrimination 51–2, 54, 155, 201, 282, 285, 287, 356, 445, 579–80
discriminatory employers 54, 579
gender 297
discursive practices 475, 479–80, 482
discussion groups 130
online 79, 129, 132, 419
dishonesty 123, 579
Disney 19, 70, 82, 129, 214
Disneyland 123
disordinal patterns 349
dispersion, measures of 595
dispositions 269, 278, 281
Ditto Corporation 410
diversification 98–9
diversity 6, 47, 102, 297, 320, 392, 398, 403, 418, 483, 579, 581, 592
divorcees 575
documentary data 489–501
checklist 500
documents as ‘texts’ 496–7
interpreting 497–500
genealogical analysis
historical analysis 498–500
historical organizational research 499
qualitative content analysis 498
media outputs 495–6
organizational documents 494–5
personal documents 491–2
autobiographical sources 492
online diaries 491
public documents 492–4
policing disaster 493
yoga market 496
doorknob question 433
DORA (San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment) 101
double-barrelled questions 257–8, 266
downsizing 29
dress, workplace 218, 392, 437, 524
‘drop-off and collect’ approach 229
drug use 51, 144, 216
dumb questions 313, 320
dummy variables 11, 353
DVDs 364, 494
dwelling holistically 384
dyscalculia 457
dyslexia 457
dyspraxia 457
E
earnings 68, 296, 576
easy-to-follow designs 230
e-books 107
EBS Business School (Germany) 15
EBSCO 99–101
ECA 498
ecological fallacy 308
ecological validity 46, 49–50, 55–8, 62, 65, 74, 176, 182, 247, 596
definition 589
e-commerce 43
Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) 113, 117, 127–8
economies 99, 556
Economist, The 102
ecosystems 383, 590
eDelphi 465
egg donors 391, 398, 444
Egypt 181, 438
e-journals 107
elderly care centres 57
electrical engineering companies 181
electricians 56
electric-shock experiments 55, 114, 122, 125
electronics companies 112
elite
female entrepreneurs 523–4
philanthropists 448
business 456
email surveys see attached email surveys; embedded email surveys
emails 132, 230, 232, 406, 413, 443, 466, 494
embedded design 571
embedded email surveys 587, 591, 592
definition 589
embedded methods argument 565–7, 584
emergent-spontaneous approach 41–2
emerging hypotheses testing 536
emoticons 466, 523
emotion work theory (Hochschild) 37, 368
emotional labour 37–8, 245, 247, 367–8
emotions 117, 245–6, 367, 428, 483, 507, 510, 582
empiricism 21–2, 152, 555, 588
definition 589
employability 546
employer-issued PDAs 246
employment tribunals 282, 286
EndNote 104, 106
engineering 181, 284, 408, 509
engineers, software 73, 203, 394, 410, 418, 580
English
-language questionnaires 233
-speaking research 32, 103, 181, 233
Enquête Ouvrière (Marx) 257
entrepreneurship 226, 382–3, 580–1
environmental activism 11–12, 14t, 150
environmental issues 4, 11–14, 20, 72, 125, 149–51, 176, 305, 434–5, 578
Ephemera 92
epistemology / epistemological approach 18–19, 25–7, 30–8, 41, 98–9, 372, 381–3, 456, 474, 490, 504, 554, 557, 563, 567, 589
definition 589
interpretivism 31–5
positivism 30–1
equality issue 54, 511, 589
Ernst & Young (EY) 479
eroticism 515
error see sampling, error
espionage 113
eta (η)
definition 589
means comparison, and 332
ethical issues see ethics in business research; ethical and legal considerations
ethical and legal considerations 126–8
affiliation 127
conflicts of interest 127
copyright 126
data management 126
ESRC Framework for Research Ethics 127–8
funding controversies 127
Ethical Standards of Judgement Questionnaire (EJQI) 171
ethics in business research 111–36
checklist of ethical issues 134
ethical issues in research 112–13
ethical principles 113–22
anonymity, assumption of 117
confidentiality agreements 116
deception, preventing 122
harm, avoidance of 113–15
informed consent 117–21
privacy 121–2
safety in research 115
student research projects 115–16
study consent form (sample) 121
study information sheet (sample) 120
university ethics
committees 118
form (sample) 119
ethics committees 118–19, 120, 125, 128
ethnic groups 20, 145, 201, 226, 363, 576, 579, 581
online research 129–32
big data 132
chatroom users 131
internet venues and ethical questions 130t
political context 132–4
research ethics, definition 112
stances 122–5
covert research, benefits and costs of 124
ethical stances 123
obedience to authority, studies of 125
unofficial rewards, covert study of 124
unethical behaviour 51, 112, 122, 133, 135, 172, 469
visual methods 128–9
copyright 129
photographs 129
privacy invasion in visual research 128–9
ethnicity 54, 62, 143, 201, 214, 224, 226, 230, 238, 241, 262, 282, 287, 295, 297, 315, 381, 394, 443, 467, 520
ethnocentrism 363–5, 373
ethnographic content analysis see qualitative content analysis
ethnography and participant observation 402–25
compared 403
definition 589
ethnographic fieldwork, concluding 416
‘insider’ status in organizational culture 417
organizational ethnography 403–6
examples 404
participant observation in student research projects 405
rapid ethnography 405
types of ethnographic research 416–20
blogs and word-of-mouth marketing 420
digital ethnography 418–20
diversity management 418
feminist ethnography 416–17
global ethnography 417–18
multi-site ethnography 417–18
netnography 419
writing ethnography 420–3
autoethnography, definition 423
alternative approaches 422
linguistic turn, definition 423
realist tales 420–2 see also access and ethnography; field, notes; realist tales; roles for ethnographers
ethnomethodology 158, 484–5, 487, 588–9
definition 589
ethnostatistics 560
Eurobarometer 295
European Community Studies 295t
European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) 295
evaluation research 457
definition 58, 589
event sampling 246–7
definition 589
evidence-based management 6–7, 40, 94, 97
definition 7
evidential factors and methods 40
experience sampling 246–7
definition 589
experiential authority 421
experiment, definition 589
experimental design 52–3
ecological validity 55
external validity 54–5
internal validity 53
replicability of experiments 55
schema 53f
experimental group 51–3, 59–60, 117, 166, 355, 589, 593
explanatory sequential design 570–1
exploratory sequential design 570–1
external validity 46, 49–50, 54–5, 273, 368–9, 395, 572, 579, 590, 596
definition 589
ExxonMobil 495
F
face validity 175–6, 188f, 275, 304, 591
definition 589
Facebook 14, 117, 130, 206, 301–2, 391, 465–6, 491–2
FaceTime 427, 442, 444
facial expressions 51, 303, 466, 486, 506, 524
facilitators 454, 458, 589, 591
factor analysis 34, 177, 180, 183
definition 184, 589
factories 406, 418, 506
Fahrenheit scale 315
Fairtrade products 259
familiarization (data) 298, 531
family-owned businesses 409, 413
fans/fandom, studies of 419
farmers 511
fashion industry 418
fatigue (respondent/worker) 22, 129, 230, 232, 275, 438
F-distribution 351–2
feasibility 183
feedback 143
loop 169
femaleness 408
femininity 524
feminism/feminist research 39, 94, 361–2, 380–6, 402, 416–17, 425–7, 444–6, 451–2, 463, 468, 583
definition 589
fertilizing industry 512–13
fertility treatment 391
field
experiment 50–2, 55
notes 128, 384, 414–15, 506
as data 415
definition 589
types 415 see also ethnography and participant observation
file drawer problem 304
film 127–8, 435, 470, 482, 495, 515, 520–1
filmmakers 521
Financial Times 102, 133, 194, 382
Finland 168, 180–1
firearms 493
first-order analysis 155–7, 524, 534, 538–40, 543–4, 547
fishing 61, 429
fixed-choice questions/answers 182, 213, 219, 222, 250, 253, 257, 263, 267
definition 589
Fjällräven (outdoor brand) 518–20
flags 518
flash cards 222
flexibility 374–5
flipcharts 460
focal sampling 273
definition 589
focus groups 453–71
checklist 470
conducting 456–62
asking questions 461–2
concluding sessions 462
group size 458
introducing sessions 462
moderator involvement, level of 458–60
number of groups 456–8
recording 456
selecting participants 460–1
topic agenda 461f
transcription 456
definition 589
dropouts, risk of 465
group conformity 469
interaction in 462–4
emancipatory method/focus groups 463–4
limitations of 468–9
method 454
online 464–8
advantages 467
bulletin board focus group studies 465
disadvantages 467–8
face-to-face focus groups compared 467–8
trade union representation, studies of 457
uses 455–6
commercial use 455–6
food vendors 581
football 477, 492
Forbes 524
forecasting practices 560
forecasts, market 103, 560
forestry 61
formalism 171–2
for-profit organizations 264
forums 130, 419, 465, 515
fragmentation of data 544, 548–9
framing tools 484
FranTech 413
fraud, academic 107
freelance professionals 389, 394, 396, 521
frequency tables 318–19, 323–4, 332, 379
definition 590
F
-statistic 351, 356
-test 351–2, 356
FTSE (Financial Time Stock Exchange) 194
functionalism 35, 557
funding and sponsorship sources 92, 119–20, 127–8, 168–9, 218
future criterion 176
G
Gantt chart 81, 90
gap spotting 82
gatherings 419, 577
GDP (Gross Domestic Product) 151
gender 8, 12, 14, 31, 41, 51, 54, 62, 68, 70, 132, 143–4, 154, 191, 194, 201, 203, 213, 224, 230, 241, 253, 282–5, 287, 295–7, 305, 312, 314,
318–19, 373, 376, 381–3, 394, 396, 409, 431, 443, 457, 460, 462–4, 467, 492, 511–12, 520, 575, 577, 589
bigender people 144
cisgender 144
discrimination 297
female entrepreneurs, studies of 524
gay, identification as 144, 370
-based conflict 297
-expansive people 144
-fluid people 144
-neutral language 144, 287
gendered-as-female 41
gendered-as-male 41
genderism 143
genderqueer people 144
male-dominated workplace 450
marginalization of women 511
nonbinary 144
same-sex focus groups 511
transgender 144 see also sex
genealogical approach 499
General Data Protection Regulations (GDPR) 126
General Market Information Database (GMID) 103
General Motors 407–8, 429, 438, 458, 495, 576, 583
General Social Survey (GSS) 296
generalizability/generalization 31, 52, 54–5, 65, 70, 74, 179–80, 200, 204–5, 207, 272, 276, 287–8, 336, 365, 368, 376, 388, 447, 456, 570,
577
definition 590
generational differences of researchers 548
genres of writing 138, 152, 159, 281, 422
geographical location 40, 64, 190, 199, 242, 273, 279, 293, 295, 441, 443–4, 491
Germany 12, 15, 71, 155, 168, 181, 400
Ghana 506, 511–12
cocoa farmers 505, 511
glamour 524
Global Disney Audiences Project 70
globalization 68, 294, 383, 418, 478, 529, 543–4
‘going native’ (over-identification) 373, 408, 412–13
definition 413
goods, consumer 103, 124, 174, 302, 399, 419, 513
Google 14, 102–3, 130, 134, 391, 444
Google AdWords 206
Google Hangouts 438
gourmet food trucks 581
graffiti 307
grand challenges 7–8, 16
grand/middle-range theory distinction 20–1, 44
grassroots organizations 66
grounded theory 532–41
categories 534
corporate spin-off 538
criticisms 536–7
definition 532, 590
Gioia methodology 540
memos 536, 541
‘organizational turmoil’ 534f
outcomes of 533–6, 535f
processes 535f
theoretical constructs 539f
tools of 532–3
grounded visual pattern analysis (GVPA) 522
guidebooks 281
gurus, management 278, 483
H
habits, social 191, 204, 217
hairdressers 512, 522
Haiti 280
hand-written ‘post-it’ notes 523
harassment 41, 51
hardware 80, 302, 307, 437
harm avoidance 111, 113–15, 135, 443
Harvard method of referencing 105–6, 148
Hawthorne
effect 55–6 see also reactivity/reactive effect
studies (Western Electric Company) 22, 33, 49, 73, 382, 409, 412, 490, 590, 593
health 42, 78–9, 82, 84, 96, 103, 113–14, 132, 216, 243, 254, 295, 298, 302, 380, 404, 414, 439, 441, 469, 524, 546
hegemony 479, 482
hermeneutic approach 25, 540
definition 590
hermeneutic-phenomenological tradition 32–3
HERMES Corporation 34, 114
hesitation, personal 153–5
heterogeneity, of the population 187, 199, 574
heteronormativity 524
heterosexuality 41, 296, 384
Highland communities 384
high performance work systems (HPWS) 264–5
high-technology companies 63, 405
hiking 518–20
Hinduism 496
histograms 353
historical analysis (historiography) 489, 491, 498–501
history and treatment, interaction of 54
holidays 80, 143, 409, 506
homemaker, occupation as 144
homeworking 514
homophily 13–14, 155
Homosocial reproduction processes 154
honorary authorship 133
hospital information support system (HISS) 483
hospitals 67, 120, 128, 168
hotels 233, 438, 524
hotlines, calls to 302
housewives 144
housing 114, 215, 295, 413, 512
Huffington Post 524
human
relations approach 56
resource management (HRM) 4, 83, 103, 264, 278, 299, 479, 495, 578
resources (HR) 71–2, 144t, 155, 193, 201, 264–5, 418, 460, 573–4, 578
Human Relations 15t, 149, 153, 177
humanism, radical 35
humanitarian values 121
humanity 144
humour 64, 417, 554
Hungary 168
Hurricane Katrina 404
hypothesis 150, 536
definition 590
testing 558 see also Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)
I
IBM 69–70, 114, 179, 483
ICI 63, 65–6, 73, 115, 449, 494
iconography 505, 515
ICQ Chat 131
idealization repertoire 476–7
i-deals 262
identity
and ethnographic writing 421
-first language 145
ideology 487
idiographic approach 64
idioms 439
illness 96–7, 145, 170, 176, 239, 298, 326, 546
Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) 66
imperialism 382–3
impersonal writing style 153, 156, 242, 253
Implicit Association Test (IAT) 52
impressionistic tales 375, 421
incivility 246–7
inclusivity 143
income 170–1, 203, 213, 215, 222, 253, 295, 297, 305, 315, 512–13
incommensurable paradigm 35, 567
inconsiderateness 122
independent variable, definition 590
indexicality 485
India 145, 181, 496, 543–4
indicators, definition 590
indigenous methodologies 361, 380, 382–4, 386, 500, 511, 530
definition 590
individualism 35, 204, 383, 577
Indsco Supply Corporation 65, 411, 576–7
inductive analysis 529
inductivism 31, 34, 540, 592, 593
definition 590
inequality, social 8, 580, 589
inference-based techniques 342
inferential statistics 342–56
ANOVA 352–6
best-fitting line 345f
complex mediation model 351f
conceptual full mediation model 350f
conceptual model of interaction effect 348f
conceptual partial mediation model 351f
definition 590
different interaction patterns 349f
F-distribution in large samples 352f
job performance, supervisor evaluation of 354
plotted interaction effect 348f
prediction mode of sales performance 346f
regression 342–52
equations 344–5
underlying assumptions 353
scatterplot with regression line 343f
simple regression 343f
t-distribution in large samples 352f
variance partitioning in sequential regression 347f
Venn diagram 343f
inflation 175
information sheet (sample study) 118, 120–1, 396, 462
informed consent 111, 113–14, 117–22, 124, 126, 128, 130–5, 409, 414, 449, 521, 588
definition 590
INGENTA 102
injustices 112, 121, 262, 478, 562, 588
innovativeness 177–8, 304
in-person questionnaires 229, 234, 316
insider research 127, 384, 405, 407–9, 416–17, 422, 493
organizational culture 417
Instagram 514, 523–4
interactionism 28, 32–3, 372, 455, 595
intercept, definition 590
inter-coder reliability 286, 590 see also inter-rater reliability
interconnectedness of method 497, 567
intercultural approaches 69
interdependency 57
interdisciplinary research 4, 8, 11, 16, 38
definition 590
internal reliability 174–5, 177–8, 369, 593
definition 590
internal validity 46, 48–51, 53, 55, 57, 59–60, 62, 65, 74, 176, 178–9, 369, 589, 593, 596
definition 590
International Labour Organization (ILO) 102
international research 70, 568
International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) 294–5, 297
internet service provider (ISP) 205
internships 579
inter-observer consistency 275, 369
interpersonal 24, 40, 176, 430, 441
interpretative repertoire 474, 476–7, 488
definition 590
interpretivism/interpretative approach 18, 31–2, 34, 38, 43–4, 98, 183, 225, 362, 372–3, 553–4, 556–8, 563, 567, 589, 593
definition 590
inter-rater reliability 174–5, 283, 286
definition 590
inter-realism 589
intersubjectivity 486
intertextuality 95, 479, 488, 497
interval/ratio variables 353, 588
intervening variable 577
definition 590
interview
guide, definition 590
schedule, definition 590
interviewers: ethnicity, gender, and social background 62, 224, 230
interviewing in qualitative research see qualitative interviewing
intimacy 377, 416–17
intonation, speaker 485
intra-coder reliability 286, 590 see also intra-rater reliability
intra-interviewer variability 211
intra-observer consistency 275
intra-rater reliability 283, 286
definition 590
intra-rater variability 212
Investext 103
Investors in People 82, 214
in vivo coding 538, 541, 549
Iowa school 33
iPads 234, 523
IPCC Stockwell One Report 493
iPhones 523
iPods 247
Ireland 71, 397
irony 483, 594
ISPs 205
issue framing 48
Italy 71
iterative approach 24, 26, 365, 380, 391–3, 464, 528–9, 532, 534–5
definition 590
i-value 341
J
Jaguar cars 42, 516
Jaguar Heritage 517
Japan 145, 181, 299, 408, 487
Japanization in British industry 82–3
jargon 39, 159–60, 259, 432, 450, 487
Jeep Cherokees 520
Job Characteristic Model 180
Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) 173, 180
job-hopping 418
joking behaviours 24, 399
Journal of Mixed Methods Research 568
Journal of Organizational Behavior 570t
journalism 284, 559
journalists 276, 278, 281, 433
journals, academic 96, 100–2, 133, 140, 181, 398
definition 92
K
kappa statistic 275
key informants 117, 178, 402, 411, 424, 592
definition 590
keyboard skills 468
keywords 91, 97, 99–100, 103–5, 109, 281, 299, 479, 495, 542, 546–7
Kickstarter funding 303
kinship, team 24
Kiva.org 280
Korea 145, 446
KPMG 479
Kungsleden trail 518
kurtosis 320
L
laboratory experiments 51, 55, 125, 304, 469, 579
Labour Force Survey (LFS) 294–5, 298–300
language
-based approaches to analysis 363, 482
in qualitative research 472–88 see also conversation analysis; critical discourse analysis (CDA); discourse analysis; linguistics; narrative
analysis; rhetorical analysis/strategy; semiotic analysis
languages 23, 232, 286, 431, 494
Laos 145
laptops 216, 506
launching new products 343
lavatory, field notes 410
layout (self-completion questionnaires) 233, 235, 248
leadership
average leadership style approach 72
charismatic 59, 169, 183, 483
distributed 67
studies 72
Leadership Quarterly 568, 570t,
least-preferred co-worker (LPC) scale 255
legal considerations see ethical and legal considerations
legitimacy 11, 149, 226, 370, 408, 475, 560–1
leptokurtic distributions 320–1
definition 590
letters 12, 147, 160, 230, 242, 271, 279, 282, 347, 370, 447, 491–2, 498, 516, 569, 592
liberalism 478
librarians 101, 103
libraries 100–5, 128, 432
licences 106, 126
life history 418
approach/life stories 64, 72, 545
elite philanthropy, studies of 448
interviews 213, 556, 427, 444, 447–8, 451–2, 556
definition 590
method/studies 374, 447, 492, 556
definition 591
research 481
lifestyle reports, consumer 103
Likert
scales 171, 177, 184, 201, 207–8, 222, 225–6, 228, 235–9, 245, 254–5, 259, 262, 264–5, 267, 293, 296, 314, 558, 574
definition 591
-style items 258
linguistics 377, 423, 425, 439, 523, 530, 590, 594
linguistic turn 423, 425 see also language, in qualitative research
LinkedIn 130
listening 393, 403, 407, 430, 433, 435, 440, 503, 531, 589, 592
listservs 129, 419
listwise deletion 317
literature review 91–110
academic journals, defining 92
approaches, variety of 93
checklist 108
critical reading 93–4
definition 591
integrative reviews 98–100
forms of synthesis 100t
methods for searching the literature 105f
narrative reviews 98–100
of narrative research 99
progress, making 104
reasons for writing 99
selection criteria 101
systematic review 94–8
key considerations 98
reasons for doing 96 see also databases; plagiarism; referencing work
loans, financial 204, 259, 512
lobby groups 475
logico-scientific writing 138, 152
logistic regression 353
logos 27, 30, 36, 129, 483, 516
loneliness 42, 78, 421
longitudinal research 46–7, 50, 63, 66, 68–9, 71–4, 179, 286, 294, 326, 365, 372, 374, 404, 449, 495, 498, 576, 578
definition 591
lottery as survey incentive 233–4
loyalty cards 229
‘lurking’ 132, 419, 475, 491
M
machinists 409
macrostructures 139
magazines 199, 262, 279, 364, 494–6, 498, 557
mail
questionnaire 240
definition 591
record 272
mailings 232–3
Malaysia 229, 523
managerial employees 61, 230, 446
managerialism 6, 63
manipulation (experimental design) 53
check, definition 591
Māori research 384
market capitalization 194–5
Market Research Society (MRS) 199
marketing 4, 84, 103, 114, 194, 282, 287, 343, 391, 419–20, 461, 463, 499, 503, 515, 518, 520, 555, 568, 570
Marlboro 520
marriage structure 296
masculine perspectives 255, 381–2, 408, 417, 515
masculinity 30, 35, 204, 399
Maslach Burnout Inventory 179–81
mass-media content 10, 170, 288
master-narratives 593
maturation (experimental design) 53
MBA (Master’s in Business Administration) 55, 80–1, 127, 200–1, 474, 476, 573
McDonald’s restaurants 368, 406, 429
‘McDonaldization’ 8
mean see arithmetic mean
meaning 558
means and eta comparison 332
measure of central tendency
definition 591
measurement validity 46, 48–9, 60, 65, 74, 166, 175–6, 185, 254, 275, 588, 593, 596
definition 591
media outputs 489, 495–6, 501
median 234, 322, 324, 334, 397
definition 591
mediation model 350–1, 354
medicine 7, 94, 284, 512
member validation see respondent (member) validation
memorabilia 419
memoranda 577
memories 253, 259, 436
memos 415, 527, 531, 533–4, 536, 540–1, 549
meritocratic principles 579
messiness of business research 3, 14–17
meta-analysis 96, 100, 181, 205, 234, 240, 291, 304–5, 546
corporate social responsibility 305
definition 304, 591
meta-ethnography 96, 545–7
definition 591
metaphor 24, 72, 82, 104, 138, 152–3, 371, 421, 483–4, 530, 546, 560, 594
metonymy 483, 594
micro-ethnography 405
microlending 280
microphones 431–2, 438, 443
Microsoft
Excel 193, 311
Word 238
microstoria 481
middle management 29, 390
middle-range theory 20–1, 26, 44
migrant workers 431, 531
migration 8
militarization 286
MIMI (mobile instant messaging interviews) 441, 442f
mimicry 543–4
mindfulness 354, 488
Mintel 103
misconduct 122
misinformation 410
missing data 240, 242, 263, 303, 311, 316–19, 322, 326, 333, 530
dealing with 317
definition 591
risk of 232, 237
mixed methods research 37, 565–85
approaches 572–82
authenticity 581
case study 577
combing interviews 579–80
different aspects of a phenomenon 578–81
entrepreneurship 581
gap-filling 574
generality, problem of 576–7
laboratory experiments 579–80
participants’ perspectives 576
processual features 575–6
puzzle-solving 581–2
qualitative research facilitates quantitative research 573
quantitative measurement 574
quantitative research 574
facilitates qualitative research 573–5
research issues 576
résumé audit study 579–80
static features 575–6
triangulation, logic of 572–3
variables, relationship between 577–8
arguments against 566–7
classification in terms of priority and sequence 569–70, 569f, 570t
debates 566–8
definition 566, 591
embedded methods argument 566–7
paradigm argument 567
philosophical version of debate 567
quality issues 583–4
rise of 568
technical/practical version of debate 567–8
types of design 570–2, 571f
mobile phones/devices 14, 214, 216, 243, 302, 348, 420, 441–2
mode, definition 591
mode 1 and mode 2 research 7, 16
moderated mediation/relationship 350, 354, 574
moderated regression 347, 349, 357
moderators 458, 460–4, 466–8
definition 591
moderatum generalizations 397–8
modernism 555
monetary incentives 233
morality 154, 395
morningness 354
motherhood 144, 445
Motivating Potential Score (MPS) 173
multi-item indicators 170, 233
multimedia 441
multi-method research 566, 572
multimodal analysis 322, 353, 502, 504–5, 521–5
definition 591
female entrepreneurs, studies of 524
multinational corporations (MNCs) 363–5, 372–4, 427
multinationality 364, 376
multiple-authored publications 133
multiple-case studies 67–8, 70–1
multiple-choice questions 17, 45, 75, 90, 110, 136, 161, 186, 208, 227, 248, 268, 290, 309, 334, 358, 386, 401, 425, 452, 471, 488, 501, 526,
550, 564, 585
multiple-indicator measure 170–3, 175, 177, 184–5, 225, 589, 594
definition 591
multi-strategy research 566
definition 591
multivariate analysis 299, 351
definition 591
music 510, 523, 591
musicians 157
N
narcissism 307
narrative analysis 99, 447, 472–3, 481–3, 488, 529, 545, 549
career change narratives 482
definition 591
organizational narratives, concept of 482
narrative flow 537, 548
narrative review 98–9, 104, 109
definition 591
of narrative research 99
narrative turn 423
NASA (National Air and Space Administration) 19, 64
nationality 69, 295, 363
National Organizations Survey (NOS) 296
National Society for Quality through Teamwork 71
natural experiment 57
naturalism 50, 270, 362, 374, 449, 463, 485, 559
definition 591
natural sciences 30–2, 35, 101, 166, 178–9, 182, 372, 518, 554–5, 563, 592
critical realist studies 556
model 554–6
naturally occurring data see quantitative research, using naturally occurring data
nature of business research 6, 19–20
naysaying effect 225
negative relationship
definition 591
neo-classical entrepreneurship theory 383
neocolonialism 363–5, 383
neoliberalism 423
neo-positivism 556
Nepal 145
Netherlands 168, 180, 382, 438
Dutch employees 181, 264, 373, 404, 415, 438
netiquette 129, 205, 233
netnography 418–20
Neurodiversity Champions 457
neurological impairments 457–8
newsgroups 130, 205, 419
newsletters 64, 415, 494, 496
newspapers 10, 78, 202, 222, 278–9, 281, 287, 496
Nexis 102
NGOs (non-governmental organizations) 200, 307, 511
NHS (National Health Service) 67
nomothetic approach 64
non-academic institutions 102, 159, 521
non-directive interviewing 430
non-face-to-face interviews 426–7, 440–4, 451–2
MIMI chat 442f
online interviews 441–2
telephone interviewing 441
video interviewing 442–4
non-human interests 383, 589–90
non-judgemental approach 152, 410
non-managerial employees 61, 230, 446
non-manipulable variables 62
definition 591
non-observational methods 423
non-participant observation 404, 450, 538
non-probability sampling 184, 187, 190–2, 199, 207–8, 388, 588, 593–4
convenience sampling 200–1
definition 591
error, sources in social survey research 203
quota sampling 201–3
types of 199–203 see also sampling, in quantitative research 187
non-profit organizations 155, 302, 460
non-random methods 53, 62, 168, 191, 202
non-reactive methods 307, 490
non-respondents 146, 198, 215, 231–3, 293
non-response 146, 187, 190–1, 198–9, 204–5, 207–8, 233, 240–1, 293
definition 591–2
non-sampling error 190, 204, 207–8, 304, 591
definition 592
non-sequential approaches 390
non-threatening environment 408, 467
non-traditional career paths 481–2
non-verbal communication 443, 466, 468, 509
non-visual communication 504
non-Western otherness 69, 382
non-White labelling 145
normal distribution 196, 319–22, 336, 339, 341, 352
definition 592
Norway 293
no-shows 458
note-taking 146, 414–15
not-for-profit sector 42, 264, 407
not-in-employment 219
nouns, use of 144
null hypothesis 335, 337–9, 352
definition 592
Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST) 338–9, 341
nursing 568
NVivo 80, 155, 243, 498, 511, 547–8, 550
O
obedience to authority studies 114, 125
obesity discrimination 48–9, 51–2
object interviewing 592
objectivism/objectivist approach 18–19, 26–7, 30, 35, 38, 43–4, 120, 183, 480, 504, 537, 554–7, 588, 592–3
definition 592
objectivity 40, 50, 179, 277, 369, 371, 378
observation schedule 146–7, 170, 176, 269–72, 275, 288
definition 592
observer-as-participant 412–13, 417
Office for National Statistics (ONS) 299
official statistics 305–8
definition 592
ecological fallacy, concept of 308
reliability 306
unobtrusive measures
concept of 307
as a form of 306
validity 306
off-task breaks 247
oligarchy 66
Omnibus Survey 299
on-the-job training 219, 433
online databases 91, 96, 99–102, 546
online diaries (‘workblogs’) 491
online interviews 418, 420, 426, 438, 441–2
asynchronous, definition 587
synchronous, definition 595
online surveys 237–9
advantages and disadvantages 242–3
definition 592
respectful work relations 238f, 239f see also self, -completion questionnaires
ontology / ontological considerations 19, 25–31, 38, 41, 43, 183, 381–2, 384, 474, 496, 504, 554–5, 557, 563, 567
constructivism 28–30
definition 592
objectivism 27–8
open questions / open-ended questions 207, 212–13, 219, 222, 230–1, 233, 239, 241t, 242, 244, 247, 249–53, 263, 266, 587, 590
advantages 250, 267
coding 251, 587, 590
definition 592
disadvantages 250–1, 267
excessive use of 260
flexibility and 439
operational definition (concept measurement) 170
definition 592
operationalism 183, 592
operationalization 139, 166, 170, 479
operationism 165, 183, 592
opportunism 41
oppression 381, 383
oral history interviews 213, 427, 429, 447, 475, 590
definition 592
orchestras 156–7, 366
Organisation for Cooperation and Development (OECD) 556
Organizational Culture Inventory 573
Organizational Culture Scale (OCS) 575
organizational developments (OD) 66, 84, 169, 494
organizational documents 489–90, 494–5, 501
organizational narratives 481–3
definition 482
organizational politics 39
organizational post-mortem research 493
organizational problems 19, 84, 380
orientalism 382
outliers 321–2, 326, 334
definition 592
over-identification 412
owner-managers 73, 112, 459, 461
P
pamphlets 494
Pan American Airways 368
pandemic (Covid-19) 465, 514
panel
conditioning effect 63
study 46, 63, 73t
comparative analysis 71
longitudinal 68
paper-based research 121, 266
paradigm(s) 6, 35–6, 82, 120, 178, 383, 555, 565–7, 584, 590
definition 35, 592
four-paradigm framework 557
parameter(s), definition 592
parenthood 396
parenting 144
participant
-as-observer 412
-observation 377, 410, 402–25, 577
definition 592
student research projects 405 see also ethnography and participant observation
-produced drawings 510–1, 525
participatory organizational interventions (POIs) 37, 578
participatory organizational research 381, 386
participatory research 381
definition 592
partnerships 102, 389
passport GMID 103
passwords (computer) 120, 206, 443
pathos 483–4
patriarchy 382, 445
patterns of association 20, 59–60, 588
PDAs 246
Pearson’s r 326–8, 331–2, 588
definition 592
peer-reviewed journals 77, 92, 94, 102, 279
penalty reports 11, 150
pension schemes 459
people-management 214
perceived social consensus 48
performativity 482
periodicals 100
personal documents 447, 489–92, 500–1, 589–92
autobiographical sources 492
definition 592
online diaries 491
personal factors and methods choice 40
personal interest/experience 82
personal values 38, 42, 44, 283–5t, 371, 379
petrochemical industry 494
petroleum industry 418
pharmaceutical companies 65
phenomenalism 31, 169
phenomenology/phenomenological approach 32–3, 182, 225, 372–3, 554
definition 592
phi coefficient 27, 32, 331–2
philanthropy 448
Philippines 280
philosophy of social science 30, 39
assumptions in business research 26–7
definition 26
photo-elicitation 504–7, 509, 518, 521–2, 525
definition 592
photographs 120, 514–17, 519
photovoice methods 507
physical traces (observation) 307
physics 166, 183, 518, 592
pictorial methods 511
piloting 215, 249–50, 263, 267–8, 272, 285–6
Pinochet Centre for the study of human rights 127
Pixabay 512
plagiarism 91, 106–9, 133, 160
avoiding 107–8
planned-systematic approach 41
planning research projects 76–90
checklist 89
early planning, importance of 78
expectations 77
Gantt charts 81f
rationale for research projects 78
research area, thinking about 77
resources management 80
supervisor, help from 77–9
supervisors, working relationships with 79–80
time
allocation to conduct research 80–1
management 80
planning a social survey 188f
platykurtic distribution 320–2
definition 592
pluralism 23
point biserial
correlation 331
r 331–2
Poland 438, 531
policing 286, 493
political context of business research 132–4
politicization of research 132–3
politics 39, 99, 111, 404, 408, 483, 492, 544
polling, opinion 187, 201, 208, 216
pollution 151
polysemy 504
population, definition 592
Population Census (UK) 295t
pornographic images 417
Portugal 168, 531
positionality 514
positive relationship 23, 308, 327, 338, 348, 582
definition 592
positivism/positivistic approach 18, 21, 30–4, 36–7, 40, 43–4, 64, 166, 169, 398, 499, 554–5, 567, 588–9, 592–3
definition 592
postage costs 232, 242
postal questionnaires 205–6, 228–9, 231–3, 240–3, 240–1t, 378, 554, 577, 591–2
definition 592
post-bureaucratic organizations 28
post-coding 251
postcolonial research 69, 364, 382–3, 544
post-deregulation era 541
postgraduate studies 127–8, 218, 223, 293, 398, 434, 537
postmodernism 28–9, 152, 158, 422–3, 439, 555
definition 593
poverty 8, 144, 394
power
definition 593
-knowledge relations 480
PowerPoint presentations 494
practical considerations 16, 38, 40–3, 85, 311, 554
practice
-based learning 373, 415
breakdowns 413
pragmatist perspective 25
precision 197–8
pre-coding/pre-coded questions 235, 251
definition 593
predictive validity 176–8
definition 593
pre-deregulation era 541
pre-testing 53–4, 56, 166, 249–50, 263, 265, 267–8
pre-understanding 39, 365
of the setting 25, 529
primary data 13, 293, 304, 493–4, 560
primitivism, discourses of 382
principled relativism 123
prisoners 125
prison studies 55, 114–15, 125
privacy 111, 113, 119, 121–2, 128, 130, 132, 134–5, 409, 443, 462, 522
private-sector 200, 479
privatization 221
probability sampling
definition 593
generalizing from random sample to population 196–7
multi-stage cluster sampling 194–5
qualities of 195–7
simple random sample 193
stratified random sampling 194–5
systematic sample 193–4
types of 193–5 see also sampling, in quantitative research
probing 209, 214, 222, 224, 227, 231, 310, 373, 433–4, 441, 446, 450, 468, 514
problematization 82
problem-solving 24, 35
process of business research 8–15
concepts and theories 8–9
data
analysis 12–13
collection 10–12
literature review 8
research questions 9
sampling 9–10
writing up 13–15
procrastination strategies 141
Proctor & Gamble 461
pro-diversity 579–80
productivity 22, 56, 124, 169, 253
professional associations 92, 113, 118, 201, 280, 292, 460
professionalism 515
professionalization 287
promotional campaigns 455
prompting 209, 222, 227, 232, 247, 573, 583
proofreading 148
properties (in categories) 535
property rights 126, 128
protests 11–2, 150–1
pseudonym 114, 409, 438, 462
pseudonymously 491
pseudonyms 117, 448, 462, 467
psychologists 124, 499
psychology 4, 55, 125, 530, 568, 595
psycho-social support 56, 58, 295, 413
public documents 489–90, 492–3, 501, 577
policing disaster 493
publicity 118
Public-Private partnerships 102
public-sector organizations 473
publishers 92, 101–2
punctuation 148, 485
Punjabi 409
purposive sampling 390–6
approaches 389
definition 388, 593
generic 393–4
snowball sampling 394–6
examples 396
stratified sampling 395
student’s research project 391
theoretical sampling 390–3
definition 391
examples 393
process of 392f
theoretical saturation, definition 393
purposiveness 400
puzzles 21, 25, 82–3, 85, 108
puzzle-oriented approach 158
p-values 341, 352
PWC 479
Q
Qualibank 545
qualitative content analysis 73t, 277, 420, 489, 496, 498, 500–1, 522, 529, 557, 588, 589
definition 593
qualitative data analysis 527–50 see also coding; data, analysis software; grounded theory; inductive analysis; secondary analysis of qualitative
data; thematic analysis; unstructured data
Qualitative Data Repository (QDR) 545
qualitative interviewing 426–52
alternative approaches 444–8
critical incident interviewing 446–7
feminist interviewing 444–6
life history interviews 447–8
asking questions 428–40
digital audio-recording 440
first-time interviews 434
flexibility in interviewing 428, 439
interview guide
preparing an 430–3
using an 434–6
kinds of question 433–4
learning how to interview 435
location, interview 432
recording 436–9
semi-structured interviews, transcript of 435
speech-recognition software 440
successful interviewer 432
transcription 436–9
translation 436–9
unstructured interviews 430
walking interview 431
checklist 450–1
merits and limitations 448–50
advantages 448–9
disadvantages 449–50
non-face-to-face interviews 440–4
structured interviewing, compared 427–8
qualitative research 361–86
alternative criteria 369
concepts 367–8
confirmability 371
credibility 369
critique of 375–7
generalization, problems of 376
quantitative review 377
replicate, difficult to 375–6
subjectivity 375
transparency, lack of 376–7
criteria, issue of 371–2
definition 593
dependability 370–1
emotional labour 367–8
main steps 363–6, 365f
prospects 377
qualitative researchers 372–5
concepts and theory grounded in data 375
context, emphasis on 373–4
descriptive detail 373–4
flexibility 374–5
limited structure 374–5
perspective of people being studied 372–3
process, emphasis on 374
quantitative research compared 378–80
contrasting features 378–9, 378t
similarities 379–80
reliability and validity 368–72
adaptation of 368–9
research questions 366
researcher−participant relationships 380–5
respondent validation 370
theory and research 366–7
transferability 369–70 see also researcher, −participant relationships
qualitative and quantitative research combined see mixed methods research
qualitative strategies 36–8
quality
criteria in business research 48–50
reliability 48
replicability 48
validity 48–50
issues 583–4
Quality of Work and Life in Changing Europe project 168
quantification rhetoric 477
quantitative and qualitative research combined see mixed methods research
quantitative data analysis 310–58
missing data, dealing with 317
sample research project 312–13
variables 312–13t see also bivariate analysis/statistics; describing data; descriptive statistics; inferential statistics; significance testing;
univariate analysis/statistics
quantitative/qualitative divide 553–64
constructionism 556–7
epistemological considerations 557
interpretivism 556–7
natural science model 554–6
critical realist studies 556
ontological considerations 557
problems with 558–9
artificial versus natural 559
behaviour versus meaning 558
numbers versus words 558–9
theory tested in research versus emergent from data 558
quantification in qualitative research 561–2
anecdotalism and limited quantification 562
quasi-quantification in qualitative research 562
thematic analysis 562 see also reciprocal analysis
quantitative research 165–86
concepts:
definition of 169–70
dimensions of 170–3
indicators 170–1
measurement of 169–73
multiple-indicator measures of ethical judgement 171–2
rationale for measurement 170
critique of 182–3
criticisms 182–3
definition 593
factor analysis 184
job characteristics 173
process 167f
quantitative researchers 177–81
burnout 180–1
causality 178–9
generalization 179
internal reliability 177
measurement 177
replication 179–80
validity, concurrent and predictive 177–81
reliability and validity of measures 174–7
Cronbach’s alpha 175
reliability
definition 174
and validity, connection between 176–7
testing 184
validity
definition 176
of measures 175–6
reverse operationism 183–4
sampling 184
respondents 168
selecting research sites 168
using naturally occurring data 269–90
research questions 278 see also content analysis; structured observation
quantitative strategies 36–8
quasi-experimental research 73
definition 593
quasi-quantification 553, 559
in qualitative research 562
question banks 264
questionnaires, definition 593
questions in qualitative interviewing see qualitative interviewing
quota sampling 187, 201–2, 376
definition 593
quotations 107, 140, 155–7, 498, 538, 541, 548
R
R software package 311, 334
R&D (research and development) 304
race 54, 143, 145, 226, 315, 394, 463, 589
racial-ethnic comparisons 145
racial minority groups 144–5, 579–80
racism 143, 578–9
radical humanist paradigm 35
radical structuralist humanist paradigm 35
railways 373, 404
random assignment 51–3, 57, 589, 593
definition 593
random sampling 67, 191, 193–5, 202, 273, 388, 451, 591
definition 593
stratified 194–5
random selection 179, 187, 190, 193–4, 274
range (measures of dispersion), definition 593
ranking systems 101, 133
rapport 41, 209, 218, 227, 253, 421, 430, 433, 440, 443, 445, 468
rationalistic approaches 450
reactivity/reactive effect 52, 55–6, 123–4, 275, 288–9, 305–7, 407, 412, 449, 475, 490, 559, 590, 596
definition 593
realism/realist approach 21, 25, 30–2, 44, 57, 115, 369, 381, 402, 421–2, 425, 456, 463, 474, 478, 480, 490, 496, 500, 504, 521, 523, 525,
554–6, 588, 593
definition 593
realist tales 420–2, 425
experiential authority 421
forms of ethnographic writing 421
interpretative omnipotence 422
native’s point of view 421–2
typical forms 421 see also ethnography and participant observation
recession, global (2007–8) 68
reciprocal analysis 560–1, 564
meaning, construction of (numerical data) 560
qualitative analysis
of quantitative data 560–1
of qualitative data 561
reciprocal translation analysis 547
reciprocity 14, 126, 154, 417, 445, 521
recontextualization 479
recording 436–9
continuous 272
definition 588
problems 437
rationale for 436
recursive approach 447, 498, 532
reductionism 384
redundancies 578
refereed journals 88, 92
referees 139, 152
referencing work 91, 104–6, 109, 532
methods 105f
reference management software 106 see also literature review; plagiarism
reflexivity/reflexive approach 25, 29, 39, 137, 140, 158, 161, 384, 408, 421, 439, 447, 485, 498, 504, 521
definition 593
refreezing 499
refutational translations 546
regression 357
analysis 303, 335, 337, 342–53, 355–8, 581, 590
-based techniques 342
regulatory risks/assumptions 11, 14, 35, 150–1
relationality 14
relativism, principled 123
relaxation techniques 265, 496
relevance of business research 6–8
reliability
case study design 65–6
cross-sectional design 60–2
definition 174
inter-coder 286, 590
internal 174–5, 177–8, 369, 590, 593
intra-coder 286, 590
official statistics 306
quality criteria 48
validity and 174–7, 368–72
religion 23, 297, 384
religious pluralism/values 23, 40, 49, 70, 73, 315, 448, 496
repetition (thematic analysis) 515, 530
rephrasing questions 214
replicability 46, 48, 55, 60, 63, 65, 70, 73, 181, 376–7, 381, 593
definition 593
replication 48, 83, 125, 165, 177, 179–81, 185, 369, 376, 593
definition 593
representative sample 9, 49, 50, 61, 179, 187, 194–5, 204, 207–8, 272, 294, 295t, 297, 308, 399
definition 593
importance of 189–91
reputation 111, 114, 122, 133, 219, 293, 409–10, 465, 572
Reputation Institute RepTrak® survey 293
research
designs 46–7, 50–75
definition of 47, 593
experimental design 50–1
laboratory experiments 55–7
levels of analysis 72
logic of comparison 59
longitudinal design 63, 68–9
manipulation 51–2
quasi-experiments 57–9
research strategy and 72–3, 73t
significance of experimental design 59 see also case study, design; comparative design; cross-sectional design; experimental design; quality,
criteria in business research
issues and participants’ perspectives 127, 188, 379, 479, 565, 576
literature 82, 102, 108, 141, 149, 379, 543 see also literature review
method 36, 73–4, 89, 159, 183, 209, 286, 419, 427, 441, 445–6, 452, 536, 547, 554, 567, 572, 581, 589, 592
definition 47
paradigms 35–6
definition of paradigm 35 see also paradigm(s)
questions
criteria for evaluating 86
definition 593
developing questions by doing research 85–6
development of 82–7
finding a research area 85
Marx’s sources of 83–4
planning, importance of 87
steps in selection of 83f
supervisor, collaboration with 87
‘what, why, and how’ framework 85f
strategy, definition 594
researcher
-driven diaries 243–4, 248
−participant relationships 361, 380–6
action research 380–1
decolonial and indigenous research 382–5
entrepreneurship 383
feminist research 381–3
indigenous understandings of leadership 384
-subject relationships 140
Resource Super Profits Tax (RSPT) 495
Respect project 126
respectability 67
respondent (member) validation 370
definition 594
response
bias 225, 311, 320
formats for Likert scales 255
rates 232–4
sets 224–5
definition 594
restaurants 226, 229, 368, 413, 429–30, 487, 581
restudy 376
results 13
résumés 578–80
retail sector 51, 64, 71, 103, 168, 175, 301, 495, 506, 582
retroduction 556
retrospective covert observation 123
retrospective interviewing 66, 68
return to work (RTW) 546–7
Reuters Business Insight 103
revelatory case 66
revenge 573
reverse operationism 165, 183
rhetoric 83, 138, 152, 161, 280, 411, 477, 479, 481, 483–4, 560, 563, 578, 594
definition 594
rhetorical analysis/strategy 138, 152–3, 158, 160–1, 448, 472–3, 478, 482–4, 488, 560–1, 578, 594
charismatic leadership, studies of 483
definition 594
rituals, workplace 24, 450
role duality 39
roles for ethnographers 412–14
active versus passive 413
‘going native’, definition of 413
Gold’s classification of participant observer roles 412f
shadowing 414
working roles in organizational ethnography 413t see also ethnography and participant observation
Romania 531
rubbish 307
S
sabotage 41, 410
safeguards 115, 130
safety 19, 114–15, 216, 254, 274, 441, 443, 457, 531
Sage 92, 100–1, 363, 484
salaries 171, 194, 264, 268, 298, 332, 408
salesmanship 144
salience 170, 233, 250, 365, 368
sample
size 197–8, 396–9
absolute and relative 197–8
heterogeneity of the population 199
non-response 198–9
probability sampling and 198
time and cost 198
sampling
definition 594
error 191–2
definition 594
little sampling error 192f
lots of sampling error 192f
no sampling error 192f
performance appraisals 192f
some sampling error 192f
frame 188f, 190–1, 193–4, 201, 204–5, 207, 273–4, 295t, 388, 394–5, 592, 595
definition 594
in qualitative research 387–401
levels of sampling 389
multiple approaches 399–400
non-people 399
quantity of interviews 398
sample size 396–9
saturation and sample size 399 see also purposive sampling
in quantitative research 187–208
basic terms and concepts 190
context 188
error in survey research 204
generalization, limits to 203–4
modes of administration of a survey 189f
online surveys, issues for 204–7
Amazon MTurk 206
planning social surveys, steps in 188f
representative sample, importance of 189–91 see also non-probability sampling; probability sampling; sample, size; sampling, error
satire 491, 495
scale 273
definition 594 see also Likert, scales
scan sampling 273
definition 594
Scandinavia 293
scatter diagrams 327–8
scatterplots 326–8, 343, 353
schizophrenia 144
schoolteachers 180, 575
scientific-realist approach 521
Scott coefficient of agreement 275
search
engines 103, 132 see also Google
parameters 91, 103
second-order analysis 26, 534, 536, 538–40, 543–4, 547
secondary analysis 291–309
accessing data archives 299–300
advantages of 293–8
age and work-related health 298
archival proxies and strategic management 304
big data 300–3
‘pitch’ videos 303
corporate reputation 293
cross-national comparison of work orientations 297
data collected by others 292–305
definition 292
limitations of 298–9
primary and secondary data, combining 296
search results 301
UK Data Service ‘Discover’ Catalogue 300
UK and European datasets 295–6t
workplace
discrimination 296
gender diversity 297 see also meta-analysis; official statistics
secondary analysis of qualitative data 545–7
definition 594
meta-ethnography 546–7
secondary data 11–13, 68, 70, 91, 150, 293, 296–8, 300, 302, 342, 556
secrecy 120
secretarial work 389, 429
secretaries, companies 572, 577, 582
security
data 114, 117, 126, 444
job 297
national 497
social 413
self
-administered questionnaires 229, 250, 267, 594 see also self, -completion questionnaires
-advancement, economic 577
-branding 396, 524
-care 524
-completion questionnaires 228–48
definition 594
design 235–7
clear instructions 237
closed answers, vertical versus horizontal formats 235–6
keep question and answers together 237
Likert scales 236–7
presentation 235
modes of survey administration 240–3
email and web-based surveys, strengths of 240–1t
online and postal surveys compared 242–3
structured interviews, comparison with 229–34
additional data, inability to collect 232
administration costs 230
administrative timing 230
advantages of self-completion questionnaire 230–1
appropriateness 232
combined approach 230
convenience for respondents 231
disadvantages of self-completion questionnaire 231–2
do not know who answers 231
interviewer
effects, absence of 230–1
variability 231
lots of questions, inability to ask 232
low response rates 232
missing data, risk of 232
other types of question, difficulty in asking 231
postal and online questionnaires, response rates to 232–4
prompt/probe, inability to 231
reading questionnaire as a ‘whole’ 231
salient questions, inability to ask 231
types 228 see also diaries, as a form of self-completion questionnaire; online surveys
-consciousness 414–5, 436, 444
-directed video diaries 509–10
-disclosures 114
-efficacy 313, 320, 329
-employment 284, 297
-esteem 113
-ethnography 407
-evaluations 176
-expression 200
-identity 476
-made, being 477
-observation 423, 449
-plagiarism see plagiarism
-presentation 580
-prompts 428
-quantification data 302
-reflection 423
-regulation 276
-reliance 577
-reporting methods 176, 213, 298
-research 263
-selection 206, 396, 457
selfies 515, 524
semiotic analysis 277, 502, 521–3, 525, 591
definition 594
semiotics, definition 594
signifier/signified distinction 522–3, 523t, 594
semi-structured interviewing 12, 63–4, 84, 155, 217, 224, 391, 426, 429, 435, 444, 452, 489, 494, 502, 538, 566, 580
definition 594
sensegiving 156, 366, 482, 538
sensemaking 99, 366, 439, 476, 481–2, 493
sensitizing concept 367, 375, 385
definition 594
sensors 301–2
Servemploi 71
setting and treatment, interaction of 54–5
sex 41, 143–4, 312, 314, 445 see also gender
sexism 41, 143, 445
shadowing 402, 406, 414, 424, 431, 520
Shanghai and Shenzen Stock Exchanges 9, 15
shape of distribution, definition 594
shareholders 55, 494
sharing data 126
shipbuilding 203
shopfloor 72, 82, 181, 399, 408–9, 417, 554
shoppers, retail 582
shopping malls 128
short-term on/off-task withdrawal 247, 411
show card 222–3
sick leave 546
sign, definition 594
signatures 121, 130–1, 449
significance testing 336–42
alpha and power, interplay between 340f
basic terms and concepts 337
definition 594
effect sizes 336–42
null hypothesis 337–42
Type I and Type II error 339f
signifier/signified distinction see semiotic analysis
Silicon Valley, USA 405
simple observation 307
definition 594
simple random sample 187, 193–4, 197, 208
definition 594
Singapore 245, 404, 422
single-site organizations 61, 195, 418
single-strategy articles 584
situation ethics 123
situationist approach 123
Sky-Access 438
Skype 79, 130, 214, 391, 398, 427, 434, 440, 442–4, 452
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) 20, 22
SmartCompany 524
smartphones 238, 414, 438, 440, 444
smiling 218, 433, 514, 582
smoking 469
SMS messaging 205
snowball sampling 15, 104, 154, 387–9, 394–6, 399–401, 460, 491
definition 594
soccer, table 155
Social and Community Planning Research 219
social desirability bias 52, 74, 206, 225–6, 231, 316
definition 594–5
social entities 28
social phenomena 5, 20, 27–8, 30, 47, 69, 82, 123, 165, 170, 306, 371, 418, 555, 588, 592
social practice dimension 479
Social Research Association (SRA) Ethical Guidelines (2003) 113
Social Science Japan Data Archive 299
Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) 101
social surveys 41, 46–7, 59, 63, 69, 73t, 74, 166, 178, 187–8, 193, 195, 199, 203f, 204, 207, 210, 226, 228, 294–7, 295t, 558, 588, 589, 595
see also cross-sectional design
Social Research Association (SRA) 113, 121–2
Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) 101
social-scientific approach 413
socialism 257
socialization 450, 535
socio-cultural factors 69, 439, 478, 487, 522, 524
sociodemographic factors 266, 393, 457–8, 462
socio-economic issues 200–1, 224, 295, 473, 545
socio-historical issues 439, 473
sociologists 123–4
sociology 4, 11, 21, 32–3, 149, 367, 377, 568
Spain 71, 531
spamming 131
Spearman’s rho 332
speech
-recognition software 440
-to-text software 440
speeches 477, 494, 557
spellings 103
‘spikiness’ of graph readings 319–20, 590, 594
spin-off, corporate 538
spirituality 496
sponsorship 127, 232
sportswear 506
spreadsheets 126, 242, 251
SPSS software 80, 193, 282–3, 311, 334, 341, 591, 595
definition 595
stability, definition 595
staff shortages 243
stakeholders 8, 40, 58, 97, 132, 366, 456–7, 460, 481, 511, 516, 572
stamped addressed envelopes 218, 232
standard deviation 325–6, 339, 345
definition 595
standard error of the mean 196–7, 202, 208, 336–7
definition 595
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) system 184, 195
standardization 209–12, 216, 377, 427
standardized interviewing see structured interviewing
Starbucks 419
Star Trek fandom 419
start-ups, business 34
Stata 311, 334
static and processual features 575–6
statistical inference see statistical significance
statistical significance 336–7, 342–3, 594, 595
statistics, definition 595 see also official statistics; statistical significance
steelmaking 203
stereotypes 51–2, 143, 354, 382, 492
storage, data 119, 216
storefronts 523
storytelling method 26, 95, 114, 138, 140, 384, 434, 472, 481, 495
Strategic Management Journal 172, 184, 304, 568–9, 570t, 584
strategies in business research 18–45
stratification 194–5, 197, 203
stratified random sample 595
stress, workplace 29, 42, 58, 78, 96–7, 113–14, 117, 243, 254, 265, 411, 422, 457, 496, 546
structuralism, radical 35
structure, limited 374–5
structured interviewing 209–27
conducting interviews 217–24
asking questions 218–19
clear instructions 219
filter questions 220
introducing research 217–18
introductory statements, topics and issues for 218
leaving interviews 223
probing 222
prompting 222–3
question order 219–21
question sequences 221
rapport 218
recording answers 219
schedule 217
show cards 223
supervision 223–4
training 223–4
contexts for interview 214–17
computer-assisted interviewing 216–17
in person interviews 214–16
more than one interviewee 214
more than one interviewer 214
phone interviews 214–16
video call interviews 214–16
data processing, accuracy and ease of 211–12
definition 210, 595
error
reduction, due to interviewer variability 211
in survey research, sources of 211
interview, types of 212–13
problems with 224–6
acquiescence 225
characteristics of interviewers 224
meaning 225
response sets 224–5
social desirability bias 225–6
qualitative interviewing, compared 427–8
self-completion questionnaires, comparison with 229–34
additional data, inability to collect 232
administration costs 230
administrative timing 230
advantages of self-completion questionnaire 230–1
appropriateness 232
combined approach 230
convenience for respondents 231
disadvantages of self-completion questionnaire 231–2
do not know who answers 231
interviewer effects, absence of 230–1
interviewer variability 231
lots of questions, inability to ask 232
low response rates 232
missing data, risk of 232
other types of question, difficulty in asking 231
postal and online questionnaires, response rates to 232–4
prompt/probe, inability to 231
reading questionnaire as a ‘whole’ 231
salient questions, inability to ask 231
structured observation 270–6
construction safety, studies of 274
definition 271, 595
leadership, studies of 274
limitations of 274–6
Cohen’s kappa 275
criticisms 276
reliability 274–6
validity 274–6
managerial work 271
observation schedule 272
sampling for 273
considerations 273
sampling people 273
time 273
strategies for observing behaviour 272
Study of Australian Leadership (SAL) 61, 195, 207, 230
subcultures 28, 169, 279
subgroup analysis 201, 294
subjectivism 35
subjectivity 35, 38, 421, 478
subscriptions 92, 102
subset analysis 190, 294, 300, 347, 568, 574, 594
supermarkets 394, 456, 465
supervisor-employee dyads 354
surname, author 105–6
surveillance, employer 491
survey
-based studies 288, 558
research 203–4, 211
definition 595
Survey Monkey 239
sushi bars 418, 486–7
sustainability, environmental 4
Svenska Dagbladet 287
sweatshop workers 206
Sweden 51, 54, 71, 168, 180–1, 273–4, 287, 293, 456, 506, 518, 520
Swissness Project 490
Swiss Watch industry 490, 498
Switzerland 490
Sydsvenska Dagbladet 287
symbolic interactionism 28, 32–3, 372–3, 455
definition 595
symbolism 428
symmetry of method 259, 573
synchronous mode 441–2, 465, 468, 471
online interviews/focus groups 595
synecdoche 594
synonyms 103, 174, 363, 496
synthesis method 96–8, 100, 546–7, 591
systematic observation see structured observation
systematic review 7, 94–100, 109, 568, 591, 595
definition 96, 595
key considerations 98
reasons for 96
systematic sample 187, 193–4, 208, 279
definition 595
T
t
-distribution 352
-statistic 352
-test 352, 356
tablets 238, 243
Taiwanese online community 419
taken-for-granted assumptions 158, 461, 499
tape-recording 128
taxi driving 438, 513
taxonomy 100
teamwork 48, 57, 574, 576
technological implications approach 561
telecommunications 84, 168, 418
teleconferencing 442
telenurses 441
telephone interviewing 215–16, 241t, 441, 452
landlines 214–15
telephones 215
teleworking 574
temps 395
terrorism 202, 404, 493
test
-retest METHOD 174
room method 22, 73t
text
definition 595
dimension 479
textual approach 13, 275, 289, 422, 492, 496, 523–4, 527–8, 560, 587
Thailand 145
theatre 510
theft 107–8, 408
thematic analysis 13, 15, 281, 498, 522, 527–31, 549, 553, 562
definition 595
qualitative data 531
theme, definition of 530
workplace safety 531
theology 590
theoretical sampling 388–93, 395, 400–1, 532, 535–7, 542, 549, 535f
definition 391, 595
examples 393
theoretical saturation 387, 391–3, 396–7, 399–401, 416, 457, 532, 536
definition 393, 595
theory
building 25, 67, 71
-driven analysis 529
and research 20–6
deductive and inductive logic 21–6
definition of theory 20–1
qualitative research 366–7
-testing 25, 555–6, 558
therapy 94, 413
thick descriptions 369–70, 373, 545
definition 595
think tanks 102
third-order interpretation 547
three-dimensional framework 181, 479, 502–3
tick-box approach 120–1, 245, 316
time
and context 399
management 76, 78
-use diary 580
timetable (research) 80, 87–9, 104, 406
TimeZone 490
timing 81, 170, 273–4
title page of dissertation 145
tobacco industry 64, 127, 417, 469
total design method (TDM) 233
total quality management (TQM) 20, 22, 64, 71, 169
tourism research 281–2, 510
toxic materials 9
trade unions 55, 71, 278, 297, 389, 457, 475, 511, 541
tragic stories 562
training and supervision 223–4
transcription 12, 80, 126, 155, 251, 422, 426, 434, 436–40, 443, 453, 456, 458, 467–8, 471, 485, 531, 542, 555
conventions 437–8
definition 595
direct quotes, use of 437–8
problems 437
pros and cons of 440
rationale for 436
trans-disciplinarity 7
transferability 50, 369–70
transformational leadership 37, 57, 274
transient affective states 246, 589
translation 32, 69–70, 169, 174, 233, 426, 438–9, 546–7, 595
translators 439, 511
transparency 97, 361, 375–7, 379, 392, 417, 450, 540, 544, 548
transport 114, 277, 302, 306, 457–8, 512, 520
trauma 116, 562
treatment
group 52, 57, 354–6, 579
and selection, interaction of 54, 56
treble-barrelled questions 258
triangulation 307, 369, 371, 385, 455, 465, 544, 565, 570, 572–3, 581–4
definition 595
tropes 476, 481, 483, 560
trucks see gourmet food trucks 581
trustworthiness 46, 50–2, 140, 154–5, 369, 455
definition 595
TUC 259
tuition fees 204
turn-taking, conversational 465, 486
definition 595
Twitter 132, 302, 466, 491
two-tailed hypothesis 338, 341, 356–7
Type I error
definition 595
Type II error
definition 595
U
Uber 277, 438
UK Census 295t, 299
UK Data Archive (UKDA) 126, 264, 293, 299
UK Data Service 295–6t, 300–1, 545
UK National Centre for Research Methods 128
UK National Statistics 296t
underpayment 206
Understanding Society UK 68, 295t, 299
underwriters 404, 422
unemployment 70, 103, 305–6, 308, 394, 475
unique case 66
United Kingdom (UK) 438
univariate analysis/statistics 163, 310–11, 318, 326, 331, 333
definition 595
descriptive statistics see descriptive statistics
universalism 69, 122–3
unobtrusive measures 302, 304, 306–8, 371, 490
definition 596
unsolicited accounts 439
unstructured data 528
unstructured interviewing 63–4, 213, 374, 428–9, 559, 590
definition 596
V
validation 369–71, 385, 455, 506, 521, 556, 572, 591, 594
validity
case study design 65–6
cross-sectional design 60–2
definition 176, 596
discriminant 176, 589
measures, of 175–6
official statistics 306
quality criteria 48–50
reliability and 174–7, 368–72
structured observation 274–6 see also concurrent validity; ecological validity; external validity; face validity; internal validity; measurement validity;
predictive validity
values 38–40
variability 211–12, 231
variable-oriented approaches 65
variable(s)
definition 596
types 314–16, 315t
variance
calculation of 325
definition 596
velocity 14, 166, 301–2
vending machines 507, 509
Venn diagrams 342–3, 347
verbatim quotations, use of from interviews 155–7
Verstehen approach 32–3, 372–3
vertical dyadic linkage model 72
veto, right of 370
video
-based groups 465
-calling 214–16, 226, 230
diaries 491, 509–10
-recordings 487, 511, 520
videos 114, 278, 282, 286, 302–3, 418, 434, 441, 504, 509, 520, 531
videotapes 487
Vietnam 145
vignette questions 249, 261–2, 267–8, 316
perceptions of justice, study of 262
violence 115, 284, 423
virtual ethnography 131
virtual worlds 130–1, 204, 402, 418–9, 466
viruses 238, 441 see also Covid-19 pandemic
visual arts-based methods 502, 510–13, 525
visual ethnography 402, 502, 509, 520–1, 525
definition 521
visual qualitative research 502–26
ethical issues 128–9
copyright 129
photographs 129
privacy invasion in visual research 128–9
existing visual material 514–20
brand identity 515
found photographs 514–15
material objects 518
logos 516
online images 514–15
organizational loss 516–17
photographs 515–17, 519
place-based performance 518–20
interpretation 521–4
grounded visual pattern analysis 522
multimodal analysis 522–4
semiotic analysis 522–3
research generated images 506–13
aestheticized meeting rooms 508
drawing methods 511–13
office spaces 508
organizational aesthetics 507
photo-elicitation 507
photographs 506–9
video recordings 509–10
visual arts-based methods 510–13
visual turn in business research 503–5
approaches to visual research 505 see also multimodal analysis; semiotic analysis
vocabulary 148, 474
voluntary participation 119, 121, 134, 218, 464
volunteering 125, 417, 579
voting 55, 132, 297
vouchers 233, 394
vulnerable persons/groups 114, 286, 370, 381, 467
W
wages 68, 257, 541
waitresses 144, 429
Wal-Mart 301
wānanga practice (Maori) 384
warehouses 409
watchmakers 455
watchmaking industry 455, 490, 498
water 315, 403, 512–3
wealth 295, 448, 477, 524
weapons 286, 518, 534
Web of Science 96, 101, 106
webcams 444
Webex 442
website-based surveys 235, 239–40, 242–3
WeChat 441
WhatsApp 441–2
white-collar workers 181, 491
wicked problems 7
word-of-mouth marketing (WOMM) 420
workblogs 491
work
-family conflict 13
-life balance 168, 295, 482
workforce 144, 297, 404
working-class men 521
Workplace Employee Relations Survey (WERS) 72, 292–4, 296–8
workspaces 431, 443, 464
World Bank 102, 300, 479
World Values Survey 23
Wrangler jeans 520
writing
research proposals 87–8
decision-making 88
supervisor, advice from 88
structure 145–8
abstract 145–6
acknowledgements 145
appendices 147
conclusion 147
contents list 145
discussion 147
final considerations 148
introduction 146
length, challenges and constraints of 148
literature review 146
proofreading using Word/Grammarly 148
references 147
research methods 146
results 146–7
title page 145
writing up business research 137–61
checklist for 159–60
empiricism 152
quantitative and qualitative research 149–58
reflexivity 158–9 see also academic writing
writing up qualitative research 152–5
conclusion 155
discussion 155
findings 155
introduction 154
lessons 157–8
methods 154–5
theoretical background 154
title and abstract 153
verbatim quotations from interviews 156, 156–7t
writing up quantitative research 149–52
conclusion 151
data and methods 150
discussion 151
introduction 149–50
lessons 151–2
rhetorical strategies 153
theory and hypotheses 150
title and abstract 149
writing up research 140–8
argument construction, approaches to 142f
bias
in research writing, reducing 143–4
-free language 144–5t
dissertation supervisors 141
direct quotations, use of 140
early preparation 141
early writing up, benefits of 143
feedback 141–3
inclusive language, use of 143
persuasiveness 141–2
structure 145–8
Y
Yahoo 130
yeasaying 225
yoga 495–6, 498
YouTube 130, 440, 495, 504, 510, 514
Z
Zetoc 104
Zoom 214, 427, 440, 442, 465
Zotero 106
z-scores 341
ZTC Ryland 84, 406, 417