Biology
for
CSEC®
Biology
for
CSEC®
Richard
Fosbery
Charmaine
Allison
Foster
Peart
3
Great
Clarendon
Oxford
It
University
furthers
and
Oxford
©
CXC
®
Council
The
rights
in
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Acknowledgements
Cover
photograph:
Mark
Lyndersay,
Lyndersay
Digital,
Trinidad
www.lyndersaydigital.com
Illustrations
Services
Page
and
make-up:
Thanks
are
due
development
Although
we
copyright
cases.
the
and
the
this
If
of
to
have
by
Barking
Dog
Art,
GreenGate Publishing
Foster
Services
and
Allison
Peart
for
their
contributions
book.
made
every
before
the
effort
publication
publisher
will
to
trace
this
has
rectify
and
not
any
contact
been
errors
all
possible
or
in
omissions
opportunity.
third
party
information
materials
work.
drawn
Publishing
Charmaine
this
notied,
to
for
artwork
GreenGate
holders
earliest
Links
include
Wearset
websites
only.
contained
are
Oxford
in
any
provided
by
disclaims
third
party
Oxford
any
in
good
faith
responsibility
website
referenced
for
in
all
at
in
the
Contents
Introduction
Section
5
5.8
Respiration
How
to
learn
1
6
5.9
Gas
How
to
learn
2
8
5.10
Breathing
78
5.11
Smoking
80
A:
Living
Organisms
in
74
exchange
surfaces
76
the
Practice
exam
questions
82
Environment
Unit
Unit
1
1.1
1.2
The
world
Ecology
1.4
Food
1.6
2
Food
you
The
6.1
Transport
6.2
Transport
6.3
The
6.4
Blood
6.5
Immunity
6.6
Xylem
6.7
Investigating
6.8
Phloem
and
energy
flow
exam
impact
The
2.3
Pollution
90
questions
of
humans
management
impact
on
and
Practice
of
and
human
recycling
What
will
of
Life
climate
the
future
activities
change
bring?
questions
Processes
3.2
Microbes
Cells
and
animal
7
Excretion
7.1
Excretion
7.2
The
7.3
Kidney
7.4
Movement
7.5
Joints,
human
urinary
system
104
functions
106
108
muscles
and
and
movement
110
exam
questions
112
36
8
Irritability
Disease
cells
8.1
Coordination
8.2
Plant
8.3
Invertebrate
8.4
Nerves
8.5
The
8.6
Eye
8.7
Drugs
8.8
The
and
survival
114
responses
Transport
bodies
across
exam
and
cell
membranes
questions
nutrition
4.3
Leaf
52
4.4
Investigating
4.5
Plant
Unit
photosynthesis
exam
Digestion
nutrition
questions
and
food
defects
Teeth
5.3
Enzymes
and
5.4
Factors
5.5
Absorption
5.6
Balanced
and
the
pupil
reflex
124
126
human
skin
exam
128
questions
130
Growth
guts
and
9.1
Growth
9.2
Sexual
9.3
The
9.4
Reproduction
9.5
Flowers
9.6
Pollination
reproduction
132
54
and
asexual
reproduction
134
56
menstrual
cycle
136
58
breathing
substances
9
and
birth
control
138
140
to
seed
dispersal
142
60
Practice
5.2
122
48
structure
mineral
120
eye
46
50
Testing
118
brain
44
Photosynthesis
Practice
responses
the
42
Nutrition
of
116
38
Types
exam
questions
144
62
64
Unit
5.7
102
34
4.2
5.1
movement
30
4.1
5
and
26
Practice
Unit
100
40
make
Practice
4
98
questions
Cells
Plant
Unit
storage
exam
32
exam
3.1
3.4
96
24
Unit
3.3
94
transpiration
22
Practice
3
transpiration
28
effects
Practice
Unit
92
and
20
Conservation
B:
88
environment
2.2
Section
86
heart
16
Unit
2.6
humans
18
together
Waste
2.5
in
14
2.1
The
84
10
webs
Living
the
2.4
Transport
12
chains
Practice
Unit
around
Sampling
1.3
1.5
6
Biodiversity
that
affect
and
diet
Malnutrition
enzymes
assimilation
10
Disease
10.1
Diseases
10.2
Mosquitoes
10.3
Sexually
66
146
68
148
70
transmitted
infections
(STIs)
150
72
Practice
exam
questions
152
3
Contents
Section
Unit
11
C:
Continuity
Genes
and
and
Variation
Unit
inheritance
11.1
DNA
154
11.2
Mitosis
156
11.3
Meiosis
–
the
11.4
Meiosis
and
process
158
variation
160
11.5
Genetics
162
11.6
Inheritance
164
11.7
Sex
Practice
exam
and
sex
questions
linkage
Variation
and
selection
12.1
Variation
170
12.2
Natural
selection
172
12.3
Species
and
12.4
Artificial
12.5
Genetic
technology
178
Practice
exam
180
Unit
determination
12
13
How
their
formation
selection
to
take
176
questions
the
exam
166
13.1
Paper
1
13.2
Paper
2
13.3
Paper
182
168
Structured
data
analysis
questions
4
174
2
Section
184
B
–
essay
questions
186
Index
188
Acknowledgements
192
Introduction
This
Study
Guide
has
been
developed
exclusively
We
have
included
lots
of
hints,
explanations
and
®
with
be
the
used
both
in
Caribbean
as
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and
Examinations
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(CXC
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to
suggestions
candidates,
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help
Caribbean
in
sections
you
to
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use
the
of
the
sections.
beginning
this
book
to
that
best
There
are
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advantage
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Secondary
Education
Certificate
(CSEC
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programme.
revise
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prepared
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team
with
expertise
at
the
and
back
effectively.
that
give
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advice
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on
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answer
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examination.
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The
contents
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Biology
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headed
tables
1
cannot
plenty
you
and
should
for
®
of
a
to
other.
Use
your
topics
with
specialised
You
notes
the
made
they
information
You
brief
on
structures
processes
lonely
are
difficult.
can
always
should
notes.
concentrate
compare
Revision
should
detailed
way.
•
Revise
more
and
you
sort.
and
could
that
all
and
from
to
•
summarise
put
made
tables
be
There
are
have
written
down
are
in
computer.
the
glossary
on
the
CD.
7
How
to
You
LEARNING
cannot
completion
should
•
use
know
the
of
how
features
this
topic
you
of
your
If
textbook
this
study
This
section
book
there
diagrams,
make
some
organisers
use
help
your
Graphic
to
between
in
help
the
your
syllabus
Spider
They
FOCUS
sure
you
for
is
to
are
are
to
use
you
paper
as
unlikely
to
your
learning
help
you
summary
tables,
do
and
prepare
and
to
as
in
your
well
write
those
questions
graphs
and
make
flow
chart
and
flow
is
you
have
plenty
an
example
diagrams
make
need
like
good
to
of
a
lot
of
that
teacher
effort
as
lots
if
of
you
you
take
resources
resources.
ask
and
to
reading
more
for
yourself.
Throughout
make
this
drawings,
charts.
and
you
to
see
how
diagrams
it
easy
are
two
chart
graph
work
your
a
this
aids
ideas
fit
together.
Spider
examples.
diagrams
spider
for
to
diagram
from
each
of
the
revision
as
they
topics
topics
link
in
Unit
throughout
together
all
3.
You
the
the
can
book.
points
remember.
of
Mitosis
writing
putting
listening
learning.
make
Make
without
on
different
Biology
Here
STUDY
exams
simply
organisers
diagrams
links
topics
in
rely
graphic
to
learning
•
well
you
responsibility
to:
guide
•
do
2
OUTCOMES
yourself.
On
learn
Meiosis
paper
way
Division
of
Diffusion
Movement
cells
Osmosis
in
Active
through
the
It
a
book
and
the
and
CD.
out
of
cells
transport
is
also
good
idea
to
have
Cells
Nucleus
a
copy
of
the
syllabus
to
use
Cell
Types
during
your
Figure
Flow
TIP
as
a
Spide
r
good
diag
rams
way
answ
ers
structures
cells
Mitochondria
course.
Animal
EXAM
of
to
to
ques
tions
plan
the
in
are
a
your
a
0.2.1
chart
practical
digestion.
Plant
A
cells
spider
diagrams
sequence
controlled
Chloroplasts
cells
or
as
diagram
are
a
You
the
a
often
see
showing
way
to
them
in
Textbook
2.
Class
notes
Leaflets,
OWN
Learning
FOCUS
this
work
study
many
chart
your
guide
spider
way
the
that
and
occur
follow
body
in
are
such
as
arrows.
try
Websites
Study
guide
NOTES
into
notes
into
through
making
diagrams
and
Revision
flow
notes
diagrams.
Figure
8
of
to
processes,
boxes
newspapers
Condense
you
processes
aspects
with
cells
essay
Paper
Condense
As
of
procedure
complex
drawn
YOUR
STUDY
aspects
show
the
how
involved
membrane
different
showing
showing
stages
Cell
wall
good
cycle;
investigation;
and
Cell
0.2.2
A
flow
chart
diagram
about
revision.
See
Summary
question
2.
You
can
mix
graphic
organisers
with
diagrams,
sequences
and
links.
LINK
For
example
body
here
supports
muscle
is
a
diagram
respiration
–
a
drawn
key
by
a
process
student
that
to
show
provides
the
how
the
energy
for
Y
ou
could
into
contraction.
a
convert
poster
information
Atmosphere
Breathing
Food
(5.10)
Eating
Stomach
Lungs
Glucose,
Gaseous
(5.6,
exchange
amino
in
(5.2)
and
fatty
the
book
between
on
to
this
put
it.
Use
make
different
diagram
much
the
more
links
connections
topics.
intestine
acids,
(5.9)
Blood
KEY
acids
POINTS
(6.4)
Absorption
Carbon
5.7)
and
(5.5)
dioxide
•
Spider
diagrams
are
good
for
Oxygen
organising
Respiration
(5.8)
Muscle
cell
(7.5)
and
showing
between
Lactic
your
knowledge
the
links
topics.
acid
Tissue
Water
fluid
•
Flow
way
chart
to
diagrams
summarise
are
a
good
information
Liver
about
sequences
and
cycles.
Kidney
•
Excess
water
is
excreted
in
the
urine
(7.2,
More
complex
include
Figure
0.2.3
The
numbers
refer
to
sections
in
this
diagrams,
•
thinking
involved
in
making
graphic
organisers
is
good
Diagrams
The
final
product
is
always
worth
keeping
even
if
it
made
very
good.
It
will
help
you
remember
how
you
made
(notes).
and
drawings
using
sharp
should
lines;
doesn’t
they
look
and
for
be
revision.
can
labels
book.
annotations
The
diagrams
7.3)
should
be
labelled
using
it.
straight
lines
made
with
a
ruler
.
Diagrams
SUMMARY
A
diagram
to
indicate
is
a
simplified
direction
of
view
of
a
structure,
movement.
As
you
often
may
be
with
asked
to
draw
1
diagrams
Follow
in
the
these
exam,
simple
so
it
is
a
good
idea
to
practise
making
Draw
a
show
what
use
plenty
•
draw
•
do
of
clearly
how
bold,
sharp
•
use
shade
colour
only
•
use
In
a
a
this
ruler
guide
note
that
to
if
gives
are
lines
asked
further
to
e.g.
to
show
oxygenated
on
your
annotate
information
diagram;
the
about
write
diagrams.
and
an
aspect
labels.
An
of
a
are
some
examples
of
3
annotation
your
diagrams
you
should
flow
or
vertical
sections
of
the
heart
Make
an
generalised
plant
(6.3)
and
a
villus
and
animal
cells
and
some
human
practise:
lungs,
drawing
body
of
heart,
and
the
of
show
following
brain,
stomach,
liver.
eye,
kidneys,
Annotate
your
(5.5)
specialised
cells
with
one
function
of
(3.1
organ.
chains
Make
a
simple
Presenting
flowering
and
analysing
practice
exam-style
at
analysing,
structured
important
plant.
Label
of
structures:
the
roots,
data
stem,
need
diagram
(1.4)
following
these
as
an
cake.
outline
positions
a
the
a
such
frying
3.3)
food
You
e-mail,
the
diagram
simple,
diagram.
4
•
chart
the
each
and
know
and
is
diagram
•
Biology
together.
making
pancreas,
•
link
an
organs:
Here
in
something
egg
label
they
writing
blood
put
you
necessary,
topics
Make
for
deoxygenated
to
already
lines
2
not
diagram
you
rules:
space
with
spider
them.
about
•
QUESTIONS
arrows
presenting
questions
in
this
and
interpreting
book
to
help
data.
you
Use
develop
leaves,
Annotate
one
flowers
your
function
and
diagram
of
each
fruits.
with
structure.
skills.
9
1
Biodiversity
1.1
The
A
LEARNING
group
the
end
should
be
group
based
of
this
able
topic
you
found
to:
organisms
on
students
their
1.1.1).
notebooks.
and
shows
•
of
went
on
around
a
visit
to
a
botanical
you
garden
OUTCOMES
(Figure
At
world
They
They
made
some
of
were
took
lists
their
equipped
photographs
of
the
with
of
features
cameras,
some
they
of
rulers
the
could
and
plants
see.
that
Figure
they
1.1.2
results.
together
shared
features
•
classify
organisms
groups
based
into
Species A:
on
the
physical
Flowers are red and yellow and hang downwards;
similarities
and
differences
leaves green with smoo th edges; leaves up to 1 m
between
them.
long and 40 cm wide; leaves arranged alternately
on the stem.
Species B:
Flowers are pink, leaves green with smoo th edges;
leaves up to 9 cm long and up to 3.5 cm wide; leaves
are arranged opposite each o ther on the stem.
Species C:
Flowers small, white and yellow, separate male
and female flowers; leaves variegated (green,
yellow, red) with smoo th edges; up to 3 0 cm long
and up to 8 cm wide; leaves arranged alternately
on the stem.
Species D:
Yellow flowers. Leaves green with smoo th edges;
up to 7 cm in length and up to 1 .9 cm wide. Leaves
Figure
1.1.1
The
Andromeda
Botanical
arranged alternately on the stem.
Gardens
in
Barbados
Species E:
Red flowers. Leaves green with serrated edges,
STUDY
FOCUS
up to 18 cm long and 11 cm wide; leaves arranged
alternately on the stem.
Y
ou
by
should
looking
Y
ou
do
vacant
at
not
botanical
plant
different
have
to
gardens
plot
diversity
study
for
will
go
to
have
you
to
diversity
species.
to
do
this;
any
enough
study.
Figure
1.1.2
Another
DID
YOU
key
for
that
each
has
only
question
is
two
answers
called
that
looked
key.
T
ry
if
students’
students
notebook
collected
some
small
invertebrate
animals
you
can
make
for
features
that
between
the
animals
had
in
common
and
features
them.
the
information
that
they
collected
the
students
devised
a
flow
2
key
that
one.
(Figure
10
the
a
question
chart
see
of
distinguished
Using
dichotomous
to
group
of
KNOW?
and
A
Part
1.1.3).
other
students
could
use
to
identify
the
organisms
STUDY
Search
for
your
a
species
species
groups,
birds,
the
animal
than
six
environment
animal
list;
species.
classify
here
the
Has
local
different
Make
Start
FOCUS
that
e.g.
you
find
insects,
mammals,
into
reptiles,
etc.
more
legs?
LINK
Has
it
got
a
Does
it
have
hardened
Biologists
large
claw?
front
wings
that
are
used
organisms
a
to
classify
like
using
external
and
shell?
internal
could
features
see.
Now
information
molecules,
Has
it
got
two
DNA.
You
that
they
gained
such
can
as
they
also
by
use
studying
proteins
read
more
and
about
Beetle
pairs
of
wings?
this
in
11.1.
SUMMARY
1
Make
a
table
features
Figure
1.1.3
A
flow
chart
key
to
identify
some
invertebrate
plants
animals
QUESTIONS
of
to
the
compare
five
described
the
different
by
the
students.
2
Biologists
animals
zoo
classify
and
where
down
the
organisms
microorganisms
they
saw
features
into
(microbes).
examples
that
they
groups,
of
The
different
could
see.
for
example
students
animal
They
next
groups
made
this
a
plants,
table
a
the
wrote
and
flow
the
features
given
key
to
from
in
your
of
Make
a
similar
key
to
differences.
identify
T
able
T
able
chart
plants
table.
b
similarities
a
identify
visited
and
Make
1.1.1
one
the
Name of animal
the
less
Wings
Feathers /
Scales
3
Make
of
in
need
question
number
a
plants
fur
collection
and
write
summarising
✓
✓
(6)
(4)
✗
than
organisms.
of
a
the
local
table
similarities
✓
and
(insect)
You
Features
Legs
Owl butterfly
animals
1.1.1.
differences
between
(minute)
them.
Angelfish
✗
✗
✗
✓
✓
✗
✗
✗
KEY
Tree frog
(amphibian)
Iguana
(reptile)
Blue and yellow
macaw
(4)
1
(mammal)
Organisms
using
✓
✗
✗
can
be
observable
grouped
similarities
✓
and
differences.
(4)
✓
✓
✓
✓
(2)
(2)
(feathers)
(on legs)
2
Biologists
into
(bird)
Red howler monkey
POINTS
classify
groups,
plants,
such
animals
organisms
as
and
microorganisms.
✓
(4)
✗
✓
(fur)
✗
3
Keys
are
used
to
identify
organisms.
11
1.2
Sampling
A
LEARNING
pond
The
At
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
define
birds
to:
the
choose
example
term
of
and
for
animals
fish.
is
all
a
habitat
to
One
of
make
a
the
–
a
live
the
resources
place
in
more
fi rst
species
than
things
list.
that
where
one
you
This
an
organisms
organism
habitat,
might
gives
needs
live.
e.g.
migratory
do
when
an
idea
you
to
studying
of
which
habitat
appropriate
techniques
provides
Some
habitat
plants
•
an
habitat
survive.
you
a
•
is
OUTCOMES
sampling
they
different
and
live
need
animals
within
some
are
the
present,
habitat
apparatus
to
or
but
how
help
you
gives
you
many
take
no
there
idea
are.
samples
about
To
do
within
where
this
the
you
habitat.
habitats
•
use
a
quadrat
to
sample
Quadrats
a
habitat
A
•
carry
out
analysis
a
of
sampling
simple
results
a
quadrat
is
a
frame
made
of
wire
2
numerical
known
from
area,
vegetation
habitat.
samples
can
be
T
able
to
such
and
are
used
1.2.1
as
sometimes
taken
to
at
make
shows
calculate
the
or 1 m
the
various
species
.
wood
It
animal
places
estimates
some
or
that
encloses
a
2
0.25 m
results
density
of
life
the
the
a
total
by
it
easy
within
within
taken
–
makes
a
numbers
number
then
area.
the
(Figure
students
of
sample
known
habitat,
some
to
to
the
If
results
1.2.1).
show
organisms
of
how
each
2
species
T
able
within
1 m
1.2.1
2
Species
Number
in
each
1 m
quadrat
(Q)
Mean
density/
2
number
Q
Heart
seed
1
Q
5
2
Q
6
3
Q
4
4
3
Q
in
1 m
5
7
25
=
5
=
7
=
10
=
4
=
17
5
Mexican
Figure
1.2.1
These
students
are
using
poppy
11
8
6
8
2
35
a
5
quadrat
to
estimate
species
density.
Wild
STUDY
habitat
you
in
are
10
13
7
50
the
cause
field
the
dolly
4
disruption;
for
3
6
5
2
20
studying
5
you
minimum
Grass
of
9
5
Wild
should
11
FOCUS
Whenever
a
cress
example,
15
25
17
18
10
85
if
5
you
turn
animals,
the
over
you
stones
stones
should
back
to
find
always
exactly
as
put
you
Transects
found
them.
Quadrats
numbers
placed
of
randomly
individuals
over
and
an
their
area
are
density.
good
for
However,
estimating
in
some
the
habitats
LINK
You
can
see
Question
9
a
line
on
transect
page
23.
in
species
are
species
change
this
simply
intervals.
12
not
by
This
distributed
as
you
putting
is
a
line
randomly.
move
down
away
a
tape
transect.
For
from
and
example,
the
sea.
at
You
recording
a
beach,
can
the
the
record
vegetation
at
A
line
each
transect
organisms
density
can
the
be
of
each
plotted
transect
animals.
Beating
ground
shaken
from
•
is
Some
Pooter
dislodge
beating
–
by
to
to
can
the
tray
sucking
a
on
the
put
is
how
a
the
down
belt
are
present
abundance
at
intervals
transect.
species
are
at
of
and
The
the
results
distributed
along
are.
quadrats
large
to
white
and
animals.
a
out
gain
results
about
are:
struts
with
organisms
find
are
they
use
be
by
To
This
show
techniques
this
many
line.
quadrats
impossible
–
how
abundant
supported
to
the
how
us
the
recorded.
graphs
other
tray
or
line,
species
as
tell
along
the
and
it
not
point
along
Sometimes
•
does
sampling
held
Very
small
tube
sheet
placed
below
small
a
on
tree.
animals
the
The
can
tree
be
is
collected
paintbrush.
small
animals
are
drawn
into
the
Figure
glass
or
plastic
tube
(Figure
1.2.2
This
scientist
pooter
from
•
Sweep
nets
–
these
large
nets
are
used
to
catch
flying
Pond
from
nets
–
vegetation
•
Sieves
–
them
or
out
insects
animals
are
–
the
that
nets
for
jars
provide
rain;
are
of
or
that
drains
can
lift
through
can
be
of
water
buried
are
emptied
removing
shelter
these
often
nets
water
containers
cans
to
volumes
the
net
improve
can
our
the
method
animals
are
collected
epiphyte
of
to
in
substance
and
in
of
known
from
such
then
animals
unmarked
are
in
and
useful
the
for
the
for
into
white
animals
and
ground,
with
collecting
filled
a
lid
trays
for
putting
identification
covered
population
as
a
a
and
study.
with
paper
or
ground
stone
to
dwelling
sizes
of
animal
species
mark–release–recapture.
habitat,
way
released
collected
individuals
1.2.3
Adaptations
we
on
water:
air-filled
Some
marked
carefully
with
a
that
back
they
to
are
their
not
obvious
habitat.
to
Some
again
are
and
counted.
the
This
numbers
formula
of
is
to
estimate
total
of
numbers
the
in
total
the
population
population
number
in
the
leaves;
lettuce
study
the
captured
organisms
of
the
habitat
and
to
survive
there
Explain
how
sample
the
a
a
and
marked
×
that
number
b
an
were
small
c
the
following
habitats:
pond
a
habitat,
make
in
which
plants
sure
and
area
Figure
1.2.3
for
an
of
grassland
branches
of
trees.
marked
you
Some
students
caught
36
record
animals
marked
them
and
are
them.
T
wo
days
later
example).
6
caught
were
45
crabs
marked.
of
which
Calculate
the
POINTS
numbers
sampled
1
A
2
Apparatus
habitat
is
a
place
where
an
organism
and
techniques
for
sampling
habitats
depend
nature
of
the
habitat
and
the
List
the
quadrat
is
a
frame
made
of
organisms
wire
or
in
the
area
students.
that
live
assumptions
be
made
wood
that
a
that
when
there.
sampling
A
crabs
the
on
must
the
of
by
lives.
3
3
would
recaptured
they
KEY
you
habitat.
recaptured
in
ways
(see
QUESTIONS
calculate
released
adapted
non-
leaves.
later,
crabs,
features
has
have
smaller
and
2
you
lilies
the
=
number
When
floating
their
time
marked
used
for
water
non-
1
an
a
water
SUMMARY
the
in
Argentina.
wettable
predators
insects
high
leave
water
toxic
a
nocturnal.
estimates
use
tiny
insects.
Figure
To
using
collect
behind.
useful
smaller
traps
stronger
the
contents
cardboard
keep
are
rivers;
sieves
into
Pitfall
or
and
the
sorting;
•
these
ponds
to
an
forest
•
is
1.2.2).
encloses
a
and
b
with
when
a
quadrat,
using
the
mark–
2
known
area,
e.g.
1 m
.
It
is
used
to
estimate
species
density.
release–recapture
technique.
13
1.3
Ecology
LEARNING
At
the
end
should
be
A
habitat
is
a
of
this
able
topic
you
group
offspring.
define
the
ecology,
abiotic,
terms
environment,
ecosystem,
niche,
community
of
Within
biotic,
population,
and
the
community.
factors
by
species
is
list
some
biotic
•
major
abiotic
factors
different
the
on
that
can
species
habitat
breed
of
organisms.
there
together
are
to
A
species
produce
populations
of
fertile
each
species.
a
that
of
An
of
in
ecosystem
an
it
organisms
organisms
influence
species
Many
impact
The
the
with
their
live
in
comprises
organisms.
ecosystem
has
and
that
A
including
other
species
a
surroundings
particular
the
community
niche
its
is
the
trophic
(see
or
place
and
role
level
form
all
a
the
fulfilled
and
the
1.6).
and
factors
discuss
the
study
environment.
relationships
•
many
organisms
to:
Ecology
•
supports
OUTCOMES
abiotic
these
aspects
biotic
organisms.
of
the
influences
T
able
factors
surroundings
into
(see
two
groups
T
able
influence
of
organisms.
factors:
abiotic
We
can
factors
divide
and
1.3.1).
1.3.1
Abiotic
factors
Biotic
factors
Bulb
All
Sample
soil
or
of
the
non-living
ecosystem
that
organisms
in
features
influence
the
of
an
All
the
the
influences
organisms
community
have
on
in
the
each
that
community
other
leaf
Sieve
Latitude,
altitude,
climate,
Food,
water,
disease,
litter
temperature,
water,
oxygen
concentration,
carbon
concentration,
light
light
duration
predation,
dioxide
food,
intensity,
(hours
of
with
daylight),
competition
water
and
members
species
and
living
of
with
the
for
space
same
other
species
Funnel
rainfall,
water
Soil
The
Figure
1.3.1
A
T
ullgren
as
a
out
for
soil
provides
very
if
a
to
way
mass
cons
tant
have
to
of
mass’
phrase
to
ion
soil
content
a
habitat
and
samples
This
in
the
for
leaf
many
trays
method
Another
litter
organisms.
or
on
from
You
to
surface
newspaper
depends
way
the
can
on
and
eyesight
sample
soil
for
of
sift
as
the
collect
soil.
through
many
animals
of
is
Spread
looking
the
to
animals
set
like
The
to
or
prefer
fall
shown
damp,
through
in
Figure
dark
the
1.3.1.
conditions
sieve
in
the
The
so
light
they
funnel
and
dries
move
are
out
away
the
up
soil;
a
from
collected
for
soil
the
study.
physical
features
of
soil
can
be
analysed
easily
in
the
laboratory:
describ
e
de ter
mine
soil
lamp,
that
use
dry
•
Water
Every
plan
t
materi
al .
content
day
difference
water
•
14
pH,
TIP
useful
you
soil
small.
animals
a
of
your
funnel
‘Dry
soil
mineral
habitat
animals.
are
is
depth,
funnel
samples
EXAM
soil
content,
T
ake
the
between
a
sample
soil
the
of
sample
original
soil,
until
mass
weigh
the
it
mass
and
the
and
leave
stays
dried
the
it
to
same.
mass
gives
dry.
The
the
content.
Water
holding
it
a
into
–
weigh
flower
capacity
pot
or
–
T
ake
fi lter
a
known
funnel
with
mass
fi lter
of
dry
paper
soil
at
and
the
place
bottom.
Pour
the
a
known
soil.
volume
•
of
water
and
it
crucible
into
a
mass
remains
Air
is
content
volume
into
the
from
soil
is
the
a
pH
from
–
by
T
ake
a
T
ake
crucible
open
so
top
known
that
of
a
measuring
through
is
the
to
a
cool
the
matter;
cylinder
and
mass
Bunsen
and
the
holding
of
dry
mineral
the
Place
Stir
weigh.
stays
The
capacity.
soil.
burner.
then
mass
onto
measure.
water
known
with
until
air
to
expected
fills
of
the
of
an
up
Tip
and
the
Keep
same.
matter
stir
volume
and
+
in
can
dig
soil
air
the
some
of
is
The
what
known
up.
a
in
up
the
beaker
of
Scrape
large
break
of
volume
add
it
into
to
volume
(water
soil
tin
then
the
and
The
new
empty
out
water
leave.
volume
sample
of
can.
volume
the
small
end
it
the
subtracting
the
–
a
soil
strongly
organic
the
soil
the
allow
soil)
the
the
weighing
the
Push
pieces
calculated
in
from
drains
1.3.2).
containing
and
heat
and
lost
–
that
matter
and
Allow
(Figure
water
remaining
cooling
that
of
water
mineral
frequently.
heating,
•
the
Organic
soil
•
volume
Collect
tin
water.
off
beaker
the
soil
sample
(water
is
+
can).
Shake
or
Figure
stir.
T
ake
a
small
sample
of
the
water
and
put
it
on
a
tile.
Add
a
1.3.2
As
dry
soil
organic
indicator
such
as
universal
Salinity
–
This
is
heated
matter
is
the
burnt
off
indicator.
leaving
•
is
pH
measured
with
a
conductivity
meter.
T
ake
20 g
to
of
be
the
mineral
matter
weighed.
3
dry
soil
the
water.
higher
and
add
Put
the
distilled
100 cm
the
probe
reading
the
into
more
water.
the
salt
water
there
Shake
and
is
in
well
take
the
a
and
pour
reading.
off
The
SUMMARY
1
Important
components
of
the
air
in
the
soil
and
in
the
atmosphere
Explain
the
•
Oxygen
–
See
for
5.8
Carbon
there
required
details
dioxide
are
regions
–
for
of
the
required
soil
of
plant
roots
and
all
organisms.
of
the
following
pairs
terms:
respiration.
microscopic
of
respiration
differences
are:
between
•
QUESTIONS
soil.
as
plants
where
a
raw
and
light
material
algae
reaches
that
for
live
them.
a
abiotic
and
b
habitat
c
population
biotic
photosynthesis;
in
See
the
4.2
and
niche
upper
for
details
and
of
community
photosynthesis.
•
Nitrogen
the
–
an
nitrogen
inert
to
gas,
make
but
into
some
microorganisms
organic
forms,
such
as
are
able
amino
to
d
species
a
Discuss
acids
2
abiotic
T
wo
other
important
abiotic
factors
that
influence
the
distribution
of
organisms
are
as
of
energy
green
a
source
organisms,
the
rate
There
at
are
such
which
many
distribution
and
light
as
and
for
algae
and
chemical
aspects
of
and
and
plants
some
of
of
temperature.
and
other
bacteria.
reactions
both
behaviour
wavelength,
light
occur
these
maximum
in
for
and
is
the
bodies
that
b
minimum
light
the
c
duration
for
of
animals
in
the
soil.
temperatures.
live
Write
a
these
the
the
abiotic
influence
in
factors
plants
that
soil.
factors
plants
that
ponds.
set
of
practical
POINTS
instructions
soil
1
Ecology
2
Biotic
is
and
the
Abiotic
biotic
each
study
abiotic
abundance
3
importance
how
in
Discuss
that
3
KEY
Explain
grow
organisms.
influence
example
live
influence
influences
of
the
factors
needed
photosynthetic
T
emperature
factors
organisms,
Light
population
and
that
abundance
and
use
of
factors
factors
other.
of
living
factors
organisms
are
are
all
all
the
the
organisms
affect
in
the
in
their
distribution
for
the
for
an
analysis
following
of
features:
environment.
a
water
b
air
c
organic
content
d
water
and
ecosystems.
non-living
influences
features
that
of
an
organisms
holding
capacity.
ecosystem;
have
on
You
could
diagrams
use
(see
flow
page
chart
8).
15
1.4
Food
chains
energy
Food
LEARNING
the
end
chains
of
this
topic
food
chain
be
able
define
the
terms
the
the
feeding
relationships
between
some
of
the
ecosystem.
food
chain
food
and
in
Figure
energy
1.4.1,
flows.
the
arrows
Arrows
show
always
the
point
direction
away
from
in
the
omnivore,
food
food
an
herbivore,
which
carnivore,
in
to:
In
•
shows
you
organisms
should
flow
OUTCOMES
A
At
and
chain,
producer
and
towards
the
organism
doing
the
feeding.
In
this
food
chain
and
the
grasshopper
is
a
herbivore
and
the
lizard
and
the
broad-winged
consumer
hawk
•
draw
a
plant,
and
•
food
chain
herbivore,
with
are
carnivores.
a
carnivore
omnivore
draw
pyramids
of
numbers,
Grass
biomass
and
Long-horned
Lizard
Broad-winged
energy.
grasshopper
Figure
Many
1
Tertiary
Primary
different
are
at
pyramid
of
two,
fruits
and
at
are
seeds)
four
trophic
levels
omnivores
and
as
they
feed
on
animals.
feeding
levels
in
a
animals
food
are
chain
are
called
consumers.
trophic
Herbivores
levels.
are
or
and
more,
carnivores
trophic
are
levels.
secondary
If
you
eat
consumers.
primary
fish,
then
it
is
Omnivores
likely
that
feed
you
are
numbers
eating
hawk,
YOU
mockingbirds,
the
producers,
consumers
DID
organisms
Producers
1 500 000
A
as
with
consumers
Plants
1.4.2
such
(especially
chain
consumers
The
Figure
food
consumers
Secondary
200 000
A
birds,
plants
90 000
1.4.1
hawk
animals
that
that
feeds
at
are
carnivores.
the
top
of
a
An
food
animal,
chain
is
such
a
as
the
tertiary
broad-winged
consumer
KNOW?
Pyramids
In
some
communities
most
of
After
the
plants
which
but
are
large
pyramid
small
are
trees
small
in
of
in
bulk.
and
estimating
the
data
can
This
numbers
gives
a
The
actual
of
organisms
at
each
trophic
level,
very
many
be
used
to
draw
pyramids
of
numbers
(Figure
1.4.2).
with
a
shape
of
communities
a
pyramid
there
are
of
numbers
many
depends
producers
with
on
far
the
community
.
fewer
In
consumers.
base.
are
Organisms
•
Habitats
left
to
samples
habitat
Algae
growing
seaweeds
and
on
the
levels.
A
pyramid
of
biomass.
per
are
metre
in
g m
(grams
squared).
higher
cannot
up
support
is
the
and
The
trophic
support
a
food
large
multiplying
data
is
the
levels
large
chain
tend
to
be
numbers
of
large
it
is
lost,
so
larger.
there
organisms.
is
not
As
much
energy
carnivores.
quantity
estimates
this:
of
biological
up
by
biomass
presented
in
the
of
a
material.
estimated
the
Weighing
numbers
organisms
pyramid
of
at
representative
present
different
biomass
in
a
trophic
(Figure
1.4.3).
of
the
biomass
in
trees
and
animals
is
not
available
to
the
next
The
–2
figures
at
for
rocks
Much
1.4.3
reasons
flows
Biomass
3987
two
•
energy
16
populations
number
There
Figure
the
shrubs
trophic
one
level.
trophic
As
a
level
result,
to
the
biologists
next
and
estimate
this
is
the
shown
energy
in
a
that
flows
pyramid
of
from
energy
At
the
top
of
the
pyramid
there
is
too
little
energy
to
support
another
KEY
trophic
level
(Figure
POINTS
1.4.4).
1
Herbivores
carnivores
eat
eat
omnivores
plant
matter;
animals;
eat
plants
and
animals.
67
2
Predatory
fish
Tertiary
consumers
Food
chains
feeding
organisms.
Producers
are
consumers
Tadpoles
14 000
Primary
consumers
that
the
relationships
between
1600
show
feed
as
carnivores
green
are
plants;
animals
herbivores,
or
omnivores.
Water
87 000
Producers
weeds
3
The
arrows
show
–2
Figure
1.4.4
A
pyramid
of
energy.
The
figures
are
in
kJ m
the
per
(kilojoules
per
of
energy
to
Pyramids
by
plants
through
is
a
habitat
shows
that
much
of
the
of
numbers,
lost
as
a
result
of
respiration
and
heat
environment
(Figure
1.4.5).
Much
is
also
lost
in
dead
loss
leaves
waste
(faeces
and
urine)
to
about
give
the
trophic
to
in
an
ecosystem.
and
5
animal
energy
energy
levels
the
from
consumers.
and
information
absorbed
chain
energy
year).
biomass
flow
food
of
metre
4
The
a
–1
y
producers
squared
in
flow
Energy
is
lost
from
each
decomposers.
trophic
level
of
as
heat
in
a
movement
the
result
and
form
of
respiration,
Released
or
in
in
food
material
that
respiration
is
egested
and
metabolic
Tertiary
wastes
that
are
excreted.
consumers
Dead
remains,
Released
faeces,
in
etc.
6
respiration
About
10%
entering
Secondary
the
energy
consumer
trophic
Production
level
Dead
Released
remains,
faeces,
etc.
respiration
Primary
sresopmoceD
consumers
in
a
of
of
is
available
for
the
next
heat
trophic
level.
SUMMARY
QUESTIONS
consumers
Dead
remains,
faeces,
etc.
1
Released
in
respiration
Draw
a
food
following
beetles
Producers
chain
using
information:
feed
on
bananaquits
small
orange
eat
small
the
leaves;
beetles.
Dead
remains,
2
Use
the
food
chain
you
etc.
Energy
have
input
drawn
following:
primary
to
identify
producer,
consumer,
the
herbivore,
carnivore,
Sun
secondary
3
Figure
1.4.5
Energy
trophic
flow
level
in
is
a
habitat;
available
about
for
the
10%
next.
of
the
energy
that
enters
consumer.
Bananaquits
also
feed
a
on
oranges.
food
extra
chain
Redraw
to
show
information.
bananaquits
your
this
Why
described
are
as
omnivores?
17
1.5
Food
A
LEARNING
terrestrial
the
end
of
this
topic
be
able
1.5.1
that
define
the
•
construct
term
a
shows
there
a
are
food
many
web
more
for
a
terrestrial
feeding
food
•
Food
than
webs
shown
in
food
food
chains.
web
web
from
Barn
given
habitat.
relationships
to:
simple
•
web
you
show
should
food
OUTCOMES
Figure
At
webs
owl
information
describe
predator–prey
Antilles
racer
(snake)
relationships
•
explain
the
numbers
changes
of
in
predators
and
Mangrove
cuckoo
prey
Dominican
•
outline
the
use
of
the
role
anole
(lizard)
biological
control
Caterpillars
•
explain
of
Common
decomposers.
Grass
Figure
1.5.1
This
food
web
organisms
If
Figure
1.5.2
Anolis
lizards
important
webs
in
are
part
the
of
an
you
are
given
area,
then
plant
may
most
habitats,
many
on,
so
prey
each
species
predator
to
their
numbers
do
eaten
have
animal
a
about
food
of
the
feeding
relationships
between
Dominica.
the
web.
feeding
relationships
Remember
that
each
in
an
type
of
by
different
more
than
species
one
of
herbivore,
predator
and
each
species
omnivores
eat
of
both
species.
Relationships
food
and
fall
in
such
a
•
web
on
Quantity
as
YOU
between
predators
and
their
prey
shows
at
least
that
two
the
success
biotic
of
a
herbivore
in
its
habitat
factors:
regular
plants
of
plant
decrease
there
is
not
food
then
the
enough
available
herbivore
food
and
–
If
the
number
population
some
animals
will
and
biomass
probably
may
die
of
of
decrease
starvation.
KNOW?
•
Number
–
mongoose
is
thought
to
If
for
the
there
extinction
Caribbean
birds
effect
night
the
Antiguan
owl.
many
and
the
predators
and
prey
they
species
have
that
few
prey
they
feed
species
on
then
of
the
greater
predators
than
if
there
on
any
were
one
few
species
predators
of
herbivore
with
many
will
be
different
including
prey
Jamaican
predators
of
much
the
of
are
be
the
responsible
hawk
species
for
them
to
eat.
and
The
has
18
draw
in
trees
not
pattern.
several
be
may
and
depends
The
information
can
some
forest
Forest
feed
The
DID
shows
a
Fruits,
FOCUS
has
rise
you
in
Leaves,
Caribbean.
plant
In
bat
food
herbivore
STUDY
fruit
Bush-crickets
relationship
been
between
studied
in
the
different
numbers
habitats.
of
predators
Figure
1.5.3
and
prey
shows
species
the
changes
that
in
numbers
predator
only
of
a
prey
feeds
on
species
one
prey
that
has
only
one
predator
and
species.
Prey
As
the
the
predator
offspring
they
lack
eat
of
food
reproduce,
The
for
number
to
of
as
prey
so
species
its
the
prey
do
As
species
predators
predators
gain
the
so
means
not
increases,
numbers
reproduce.
many
of
the
species
survive
more
of
also
numbers
that
decreases
increase
number
fewer
enough
and
there
of
of
is
prey
the
and
cycle
food
because
predators
more
increases,
decrease.
offspring
food
more
survive
starve
starts
to
srebmuN
for
population
The
to
death.
Predator
again.
Time
Figure
Biological
1.5.3
A
predator–prey
control
relationship
Predators
control.
to
the
the
from
sugar
introduced
such
used
the
India
cane
to
Caribbean.
leaves
cause
are
disease
species
the
larvae
Alternative
in
(Figure
of
pest
Indian
to
They
the
so
pests
of
of
methods
was
of
armyworms
rats
that
fed
of
as
on
and
control
wasps
they
eat
that
to
lay
were
with
in
many
too.
the
large
quantities
beans
and
maize.
resistant
release
their
to
much
species
become
are
as
crops
soya
harmful
introduced
prey
moths
onions,
caterpillars
pest
that
other
biological
be
eating
However,
vegetable
the
may
were
successful
callaloo,
ineffective
called
mongoose
many
(caterpillars)
is
that
Caribbean.
mongoose
this
pesticides
control
were
of
crops
species,
chemical
small
1872
serious
often
control
parts
destroying
Pesticides
them.
The
The
crop.
other
are
to
use
in
introductions,
Armyworms
of
be
avoids
environment.
Jamaica
of
can
It
to
viruses
eggs
that
inside
pest
1.5.3).
Figure
1.5.4
A
highly
control
Decomposers
its
Decomposers
matter.
are
Bacteria
microorganisms
and
fungi
are
that
feed
decomposers
on
dead
that
and
secrete
decaying
enzymes
eggs
dead
material
material
releasing
therefore
playing
and
digest
much
an
of
it
it.
They
into
important
the
role
break
down
atmosphere
in
the
huge
as
recycling
quantities
carbon
of
the
eat
hatch
the
caterpillar
inside
out.
carbon.
POINTS
QUESTIONS
A
food
web
between
Define
the
eggs
the
lays
caterpillars.
dioxide,
1
1
inside
larvae
biological
wasp
of
KEY
SUMMARY
this
When
from
onto
effective
–
the
terms
food
web,
biological
control
and
shows
food
the
chains
links
in
a
decomposer
community.
2
Use
this
information
The
algae
to
draw
a
food
web
for
a
pond.
2
weeds
that
are
eaten
overhanging
Dead
and
leaves
water
primary
grow
by
trees
and
lice.
in
water
small
are
and
decomposers
Small
the
crustaceans;
decomposed
Dragonfly
consumers.
on
are
larvae
fish
by
dead
feed
by
diving
on
of
water
leaves
bacteria
eaten
and
leaves
water
on
fungi.
a
boatmen
beetles
algae,
prey
from
and
small
feed
on
water
boatmen.
Herons
feed
on
fish
and
each
a
Sketch
prey
b
a
graph
over
Explain
to
show
the
fluctuations
increase
Predators
you
have
drawn
in
predator
part
and
means
Explain
agent
why
is
careful
released
to
research
control
is
a
needed
pest
before
species.
a
An
increase
often
leads
numbers
of
in
to
its
and
parasites
of
are
used
of
biological
than
using
as
a
control
pesticides.
a
4
4
in
species
rather
changes
other.
species
and
dependent
larvae.
time.
the
are
crustaceans
dragonfly
of
predator
predator.
pest
3
of
species
prey
an
the
3
and
Numbers
new
biological
Decomposers
and
fungi
and
decaying
are
that
bacteria
feed
on
dead
matter.
19
1.6
Living
Eat
LEARNING
and
the
end
of
this
topic
chains
and
be
able
define
the
symbiosis,
following
give
examples
species.
closeness
terms:
and
of
mutualism
each
are
show
not
the
the
feeding
only
relationships
relationships
that
within
exist
and
Many
with
species
different
‘live
together’
degrees
of
harm
with
or
different
benefit
to
degrees
each
of
other
.
Symbiosis
of
The
these
webs
these
parasitism,
commensalism
•
But
to:
between
•
food
you
communities.
should
eaten
OUTCOMES
Food
At
be
together
term
symbiosis
means
any
form
of
close
relationship
between
relationships.
two
that
are
species.
there
is
covered
plants,
In
many
little
in
such
not
as
harm
light
plants,
known
These
the
forests
reaching
bromeliads
photosynthesis.
do
tropical
trees;
as
and
plants
they
the
just
canopy
forest
floor.
epiphytes
air
do
the
plants,
not
use
take
of
Many
(Figure
gain
as
of
a
is
from
place
to
so
the
1.6.1).
sufficient
anything
them
leaves
dense
trees
These
light
the
for
their
trees
and
grow.
Commensalism
Commensalism
from
the
Egrets
feed
are
on
move
is
a
form
relationship
white
the
birds
insects
about
but
that
that
(Figure
of
the
symbiosis
other,
have
are
a
in
which
usually
close
disturbed
the
one
relationship
from
species
larger,
the
is
with
ground
benefits
unaffected.
cattle.
as
the
They
cattle
1.6.2).
Parasitism
Parasitism
Figure
1.6.1
This
coconut
covered
in
tree
is
gains
at
Animals
gain
by
herbivores,
a
good
living
such
is
chances
nutrition
the
and
in
that
stems
absorb
species
internal
inside
dodder
other,
where
the
one
host.
organism,
Lice
and
the
ticks
is
mammal
parasites,
gut
and
reproduction
the
a
and
water
,
the
of
larvae
plant
uses
from
that
some
ions,
to
as
(Figure
external
of
them
other
and
1.6.3).
tapeworms.
food.
millions
penetrate
sugars
bird
digested
produce
parasitises
suckers
mineral
such
absorb
to
and
of
will
plants.
the
other
These
Much
eggs
invade
to
Dodder
host’s
of
hosts.
twines
transport
molecules
the
maximise
new
tissues
(Figure
1.6.4).
large
1.6.3
A
human
body
louse
Figure
1.6.4
Yellow
dodder,
hippos.
parasitic
20
parasite,
are
cattle,
Figure
buffalo
of
of
source
with
as
have
used
to
food
also
energy
around
of
form
many
live
Y
ellow
Egrets
of
parasites
the
1.6.2
a
expense
epiphytes.
parasites
Figure
is
the
plant
a
Mutualism
Not
all
many
which
have
relationships
examples
both
This
sexually.
reward
that
ensures
The
the
many
monkeys
and
the
more
trees
about
Legumes
fruits.
The
are
roots
with
tropical
this
is
participants.
in
such
pollinated
is
a
edible
disperse
as
can
competition.
that
See
plants
are
and
9.5
and
reproduce
(Figure
seeds
are
in
birds
solution,
food
fruits
Many
insects,
sugary
the
There
relationships
and
energy-rich
produce
avoid
the
mutualism.
which
of
animals
to
called
nectar,
trees
of
existing
animals,
are
supply
These
one
by
plants
a
spread
to
species
to
1.6.5).
eaten
this
and
by
ensures
9.6
for
this.
Many
bacteria.
the
produce
birds.
are
more
pollinated
that
plants
harmful
or
benefit;
are
animals
Similarly,
that
are
two
partners
flowers
bats.
of
flowering
of
of
the
legumes
These
plants
tree
with
species
have
bacteria
distinctive
that
live
swellings,
convert
in
fl owers
the
known
as
atmospheric
and
Caribbean
nodules
nitrogen
pod-like
are
that
(N
)
legumes.
contain
into
2
organic
use
a
to
forms
make
supply
within
of
the
of
nitrogen,
their
protein.
nitrogen
nodules,
in
such
This
organic
and
a
as
is
amino
acids,
mutualism,
form
supply
of
and
the
energy
that
the
because
bacteria
in
the
host
the
gain
form
plants
plant
of
gains
protection
Figure
1.6.5
This
bat
sugar
Pallas’s
is
long-tongued
pollinating
a
banana
flower.
(produced
Figure
by
the
1.6.6
a
plant)
The
swellings
root
are
(Figure
of
this
root
on
1.6.6).
the
b
legume
These
root
vertically
nodules.
where
nodules
to
show
have
the
nitrogen-fixing
been
pink
sectioned
areas
bacteria
inside
are
most
c
This
electron
inside
root
micrograph
nodules
are
shows
full
of
that
cells
bacteria
(× 300).
active.
SUMMARY
1
KEY
1
a
Define
POINTS
Any
form
of
close
relationship
between
two
or
more
species
QUESTIONS
the
following:
symbiosis,
commensalism,
parasitism
and
mutualism.
is
b
Give
an
example
of
each
symbiosis.
of
2
In
of
commensalism
the
species
species
(usually
live
the
together
to
the
benefit
of
one
these
explaining
smaller).
or
harm
species
3
A
parasite
from
the
lives
host
in
or
and
on
a
host
causing
it
species,
obtaining
its
In
mutualism
both
species
benefit
from
2
the
to
the
benefit
each
of
the
involved.
food
harm.
Make
the
4
relationships,
learning
different
notes
on
relationships
relationship.
described
to
help
here.
See
page
6
you.
21
Unit
SECTION
1
The
1
1:
most
Practice
Multiple-choice
common
reptile
exam
questions
questions
in
a
mangrove
4
A
student
used
a
quadrat
to
find
the
density
2
community
feeds
on
is
a
species
insects
of
Anolis
including
moth
lizard.
It
of
caterpillars
a
plant
quadrats
species.
were:
The
14,
6,
results
12,
8,
for
10.
five
The
1 m
mean
2
and
of
is
prey
bird.
mangrove
Which
of
trophic
food
to
the
Moth
pearly-eyed
caterpillars
thrasher,
feed
on
the
a
type
leaves
density
m
of
the
species
was:
A
8
B
10
C
12
D
15
trees.
the
level
following
of
these
correctly
four
identifies
organisms
in
the
this
chain?
5
Producer
A
per
of
Primary
Secondary
T
ertiary
consumer
consumer
consumer
Anolis
pearly-
mangrove
moth
lizard
eyed
tree
caterpillar
Using
to
predators
reduce
the
and
parasites
damage
to
of
crop
pest
plants
species
is
known
as
A
biological
control
B
community
C
ecological
D
population
control
thrasher
B
pearly-
Anolis
moth
mangrove
eyed
lizard
caterpillar
tree
6
thrasher
Fungi
and
carbon
C
mangrove
moth
Anolis
pearly-
tree
caterpillar
lizard
eyed
they
thrasher
D
moth
mangrove
pearly-
Anolis
caterpillar
tree
eyed
lizard
control
control
bacteria
and
are
nitrogen
important
in
in
ecosystems
recycling
because
are:
A
decomposers
B
herbivores
C
parasites
D
producers
thrasher
7
2
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria
live
inside
the
Some
students
collected
a
soil
sample
in
a
tin
root
3
can
nodules
of
legumes.
This
is
an
example
with
a
volume
of
400 cm
.
They
added
of
3
the
A
soil
to
300 cm
of
water
in
a
beaker
and
commensalism
stirred
B
decomposition
C
mutualism
found
to
remove
that
the
all
the
volume
air
of
from
water
the
and
soil.
the
They
solid
3
soil
particles
volume
D
3
of
was
air
in
500 cm
the
soil
one
of
the
following
is
not
an
A
25%
B
40%
C
50%
D
71%
abiotic
factor?
22
A
oxygen
B
mineral
C
salinity
D
the
concentration
content
of
the
numbers
of
soil
of
of
the
in
a
river
water
soil
wetland
bacteria
in
a
ecosystem
soil
sample
8
Herbivores
are
A
primary
B
producers
C
secondary
D
tertiary
consumers
consumers
consumers
The
percentage
sample
parasitism
Which
.
was:
by
SECTION
9
Some
by
2:
Short
students
drawing
water
,
trees
a
began
line
across
50 m
answer
the
from
a
study
transect
beach
the
questions
of
from
to
a
beach
a
coastal
the
group
as
area
which
shallow
of
shown
acacia
in
are
urchins
Figure
are
1.
grazed
are
eaten
predators
and
eat
of
turtles,
i
Define
ii
Draw
the
a
Identify
B
Figure
C
D
1
iv
Describe
the
procedure
to
follow
Use
data
for
a
line
and
groupers.’
given
(1)
showing
in
the
trophic
The
students
regions,
i
A
State
the
ii
to
of
given
the
in
plants
used
in
of
pitfall
C
traps
why
D
of
were
The
to
in
the
information
to
explain
provided
the
the
B.
(2)
the
Some
meaning
a
students
Explain
investigated
living
what
(4)
Figure
2
is
in
leaf
the
litter
small
in
a
is
meant
by
the
term
(3)
a
diagram
of
a
pooter
mark–release–
the
study
traps
number
area.
are
numbers
caught
beetles
later
suitable
of
ground
and
marked
33
on
the
first
day.
how
students
they
caught
16
were
beetles
two
given
in
1.2
total
your
number
of
marine
other
of
to
working.
ecologist
the
seagrass
One
of
the
students
in
about
communities
that
Many
of
the
also
grass
the
in
noted
were
provides
turtles.
Many
how
the
grass
which
the
students
the
the
animals.
(4)
in
the
found
in
the
leaf
soil.
the
for
soil
provides
small
a
suitable
invertebrates.
(5)
Total
Caribbean.
15
marks
feeding
mentioned:
food
for
sea
organisms
including
these
ecology
practice
questions
urchins
live
on
photosynthetic
examples
can
be
found
the
on
sea
(3)
area
and
and
in
invertebrates
live
Further
‘Sea
to
(3)
working
students
relationships
ways
collect
environment
talked
pooter
beetles.
Explain
A
a
to
litter
all
use
invertebrates
of
b
the
small
marked.
formula
calculate
would
T
wo
could
d
2
Describe:
ii
7
Show
forest
found
collect
the
marks
ecosystem.
i
ground
Use
25
(2)
students
which
the
(3)
Figure
days
of
ecosystem.
a
The
this
community
invertebrates
smaller
beetles.
ii
in
students
estimate
the
10
influence
area.
and
D.
1.
determine
beetles
pitfall
sampling
that
the
food
four
Figure
and
four
the
(4)
into
region
would
and
beetles
in
shrubs
region
method
Explain
for
trees,
ground
ground
i
of
in
factors
live
you
regions
recapture
shown
that
how
in
Nocturnal
as
area
(2)
when
transect.
the
abiotic
plants
Explain
living
D
two
density
c
divided
four
passage.
levels
have
the
between
Total
b
catch
(4)
the
term
collecting
Groupers
Humans
ecology.
chain
you
Sea
fish.
chain.
question
a
term
the
organisms
A
parrotfish
relationships
organisms
iii
parrotfish.
puffer
parrotfish.
food
feeding
by
by
the
accompanying
CD.
algae,
23
2
The
impact
the
of
Waste
and
Have
LEARNING
you
end
of
this
topic
•
be
able
distinguish
between
biodegradable
and
biodegradable
waste
discuss
the
recycling
of
so
body
broken
down
cannot
break
materials
indefinitely.
importance
and
data
management
the
In
difficulties
places
and
are
on
STUDY
FOCUS
Landfill
sites
in
the
you
produce
each
year?
(urine,
are
faeces
and
carbon
biodegradable
dioxide
wastes.
They
in
breath)
can
by
decomposers
down
many
Both
and
of
and
manufactured
wastes
types
(bacteria
remain
waste
can
in
be
fungi).
be
products
the
Decomposers
and
these
environment
hazardous
to
the
often
health
of
us.
with
good
treated
in
sanitation,
sewage
human
body
wastes
enter
sewers
works.
household
areas
These
their
are
managed
to
and
dumped
the
monitored
the
world
often
close
the
have
to
do
no
human
and
not
aquatic
regularly
dumps
have
for
good
habitats,
by
garbage
proper
disposal.
sanitation
drinking
organised
rubbish
habitation.
water
and
and
collection
Household
non-biodegradable
for
day
biodegradable
garbage
leaking
the
of
to
soil.
reduce
oxygen,
human
some
and
garbage
foods.
garbage
is
a
mix
rubbish
not
a
When
full,
material
is
not
sorted
and
removed
from
the
produced
is
warmth
total
and
volume.
damp
Decomposers
conditions.
need
Warmth
a
good
and
problem
in
the
Caribbean.
However,
garbage
is
water
usually
is
so
much
that
there
is
not
enough
air
for
fungi
and
any
bacteria
to
respire
efficiently,
so
biodegradation
is
rarely
complete.
vented
Few
places
have
the
facilities
for
composting
wastes
(see
2.6).
burnt.
Plastic
forms
waste.
this
is
is
one
used
into
Plastic
T
urtles
eat
of
for
problem
goes
space.
•
It
a
waste
the
largest
packaging
when
we
rubbish
waste
want
dumps
causes
plastic
components
because
to
or
special
containers
it
dispose
landfill
of
plastic
non-biodegradable
not
decay
plastics.
sites
problems
and
of
does
in
where
the
bags
it
sea
easily.
Most
takes
up
(Figure
mistaking
However
,
plastic
a
lot
2.1.1):
them
for
jellyfish.
•
Marine
wire
•
Figure
2.1.1
Non-biodegradable
collected
from
a
quantities
mammals
and
Plastic
netting
may
animals
waste
of
this
wildlife.
up
many
fish
get
trapped
in
discarded
that
ingested
plastic
suffocate.
into
build-up
in
tiny
food
pieces
are
by
small
chains.
Plastics
absorb
endanger
toxic
substances,
such
as
PCBs
(polychlorinated
rubbish
biphenyls)
like
break
and
and
and
beach.
•
Huge
24
of
waste.
liquid
compressed
methane
collected
surroundings
are
in
is
designated
materials
supply
Each
in
biodegradable
the
covered
to
environmental
Impermeable
them
rubbish
taken
contaminate
places
Often
impact.
and
Caribbean.
is
and
waste
waste
wastes
waste.
much
of
Many
are
food
environment
collectors
line
how
doing
interpret
reduce
wastes
discarded
Similarly,
•
wondered
non-biodegradable
non-
manufactured
materials
ever
to:
the
•
recycling
you
and
should
management
OUTCOMES
Human
the
on
environment
2.1
At
humans
and
DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane);
marine
chemicals
persist
and
build
up
in
food
chains.
these
of
Difficulties
The
30
quantity
years.
and
not
of
to
solid
time
these
harm
dumped
In
problems
Toxic
The
partial
Methane
in
the
wastes
properly
managed
poor
waste
from
the
landfill
greenhouse
of
waste
to
legal
sites
that
tonnes
problems
over
the
past
non-biodegradable
of
is
generated
disposal
take
precautions
waste
(Figure
each
sites.
is
illegally
2.1.2).
There
disposal:
sites
the
taken
300 000
doubled
more
tonnes
are
environmental
ultimately
a
million
Almost
has
become
tonnes
into
surrounding
land,
water
sea.
decomposition
is
Caribbean
have
1.2
area.
severe
leak
and
management
828 000
local
with
liquids
waste
the
Jamaica,
are
the
causing
courses
•
waste
Approximately
None
•
of
Over
hazardous.
year
.
are
in
of
gas
organic
(see
matter
produces
methane.
2.4).
Figure
2.1.2
Illegal
dumping
unsorted
•
Diseases
spread
from
waste
dumps.
Houseflies
transmit
diarrhoeal
diseases
like
sorts
of
environmental
typhoid.
problems,
in
Waste
management
Integrated
waste
comprises
island
and
Deglos
clay
management
the
industrial
provided
eleven
landfill
piping
site
sanitary
upgraded
sanitary
lining,
from
an
one
and
and
both
collection
providing
a
system
two
and
kerb
site
ponds
tyre
and
zones,
garbage
a
site
at
at
in
St
that
the
are
to
run
100%
Waste
bins,
by
of
in
toxic
north
the
private
of
south.
The
The
site
are
leaching
also
has
services
organised
contractors,
Explain
YOU
Studies
with
an
are
levels
at
KNOW?
showed
in
the
autopsy
second
twice
livers
were
only
as
that
to
high
of
the
as
much
and
levels
in
nearly
the
UK.
thereby
POINTS
difference
between
biodegradable
waste
and
Decomposers
(bacteria
nonfungi)
break
the
over
volume
the
down
waste.
biodegradable
has
high,
Japan
QUESTIONS
biodegradable
Why
Jamaicans
very
island.
and
2
cadmium
into
1
1
here
the
facility
substances
collection
and
the
the
KEY
SUMMARY
shown
Belize.
Lucia
engineered
groundwater
.
shredder
.
which
in
Fort
purpose
prevent
communal
collection
Deglos
Vieux
nine-hectare
contaminating
autoclave
for
landfill
disposal
is
as
solutions
DID
This
of
causes
diseases,
all
e.g.
waste
past
of
30
waste
in
the
Caribbean
increased
into
so
carbon
ammonia
years?
waste
dioxide,
and
other
simple
compounds.
3
The
in
table
St
shows
the
quantities
of
waste
taken
to
the
two
sites
2
Lucia.
Non-biodegradable
cannot
Year
Waste
quantity
be
sanitary
landfill
Veux
Fort
disposal
waste
T
otal
3
23 130
73 015
2005–6
59 426
22 191
81 617
2006–7
58 663
20 173
78 836
The
and
to
19 836
increase
rarely
reduce
bury
it
the
in
percentage
St
Lucia
increase
between
in
the
2004–5
quantity
of
waste
2007–8.
4
St
Outline
the
environmental
problems
of
the
in
seen
solid
the
wastes
facilities
quantity
in
a
and
sanitary
illegal
dumping
sites.
Lucia
waste
which
4
this
has
84 527
total
and
has
safely
landfill
collected
and
environment
Caribbean
huge
Calculate
the
indefinitely.
49 885
64 691
in
facility
2004–5
2007–8
waste
down
(tonnes)
persists
Deglos
broken
has
an
integrated
management
is
a
model
system
that
other
of
countries
could
follow.
rubbish.
25
2.2
The
impact
of
human
activities
Population
LEARNING
The
At
the
end
of
this
topic
be
able
world’s
19th
century.
discuss
global
population
and
rate
regional
fell
high
growth
on
distinguish
renewable
until
20th
significantly
century,
since
the
populations
middle
of
in
the
Caribbean
the
from
by
1–2%
the
1960s.
After
increased
per
1930s
this
even
year
.
This
onwards
the
birth
though
was
while
because
the
death
rate
large
the
too
birth
rate
started
numbers
of
to
remained
decrease.
people
migrated
to
Panama,
of
increase
North
America
and
Europe
during
the
20th
century.
Rates
non-
now
vary
throughout
the
region
with
some
countries
having
resources
rates
•
increased
the
between
and
renewable
average
steeply
Populations
•
has
During
to:
increased
•
population
you
the
should
growth
OUTCOMES
describe
the
activities
on
impact
the
of
as
low
as
or
lower
than
countries
in
Europe
(Figure
2.2.1).
human
following
Resources
natural
resources:
minerals,
forests,
energy,
As
fish
the
are
•
discuss
the
effect
of
population
being
used
fish
stocks
in
outline
•
the
world
increases,
materials
fall
more
into
two
raw
materials
main
categories:
resources
and
non-renewable
resources
the
Caribbean
•
the
Raw
humans
renewable
on
of
up.
effects
Renewable
Examples
of
molluscs
deforestation.
The
•
are
and
term
solar
resources
timber
for
wind
Non-renewable
is
be
replaced
building
crustaceans
‘renewable’
power,
can
and
harvested
also
energy,
by
making
from
applied
to
include
sea
forms
of
and
energy
and
paper,
the
hydroelectricity
resources
plants
animals.
and
and
fish,
from
energy,
lakes.
such
ethanol-based
sources,
such
as
as
fuels.
the
8.0
fossil
fuels,
and
minerals,
such
as
copper,
nickel,
zinc
and
lead.
7.0
When
we
have
used
these
resources,
they
are
gone
forever.
elpoep
6.0
5.0
fo
Fossil
fuels
4.0
snoilliB
3.0
Most
of
our
energy
comes
from
the
combustion
of
fossil
fuels,
which
2.0
will
1.0
run
out
eventually.
Caribbean
countries
import
most
of
their
1950
energy
as
oil
and
natural
gas.
Only
Trinidad
and
Cuba
have
reserves
0.4
since
2
human
increased
0
The
Oil
from
a
population
has
about
Catches
1850.
by
LINK
are
with
in
2.6;
the
exam
questions
some
data
on
tankers
run
aground
or
there
is
a
leak
in
the
Gulf
marine
of
Mexico
in
2010.
They
have
environment.
and
taken
Japan,
stocks
to
of
of
help
Venezuela
fish.
catch
storms.
foreign
of
late
have
the
dominated
1980s,
habitat
reefs
Reefs
Much
the
and
Coral
fish.
fleets
and
until
overfishing
coastal
other
by
increased
have
also
been
those
since
destruction.
been
region’s
by
but
blown
damaged
deep
sea
from
South
fish
T
aiwan.
Minerals
practice
the
CD
have
populations
major
industry
is
bauxite
extraction,
which
is
concentrated
in
in
Guyana
and
Suriname.
In
Jamaica
the
industry
has
had
severe
Caribbean.
effects
26
as
the
because
habitat
dynamite
are
Jamaica,
the
oil
population
The
about
on
coastal
declined
the
hurricanes
Korea,
growth
platform,
effects
from
have
stocks
about
when
Fisheries
up
more
occur
exponentially
Reefs
is
drilling
devastating
AD
then
There
spills
0
2.2.1
oil.
9
Figure
0
0
9
1
0
0
7
1
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
Years
of
on
the
environment,
such
as
the
red
lake
at
Mount
Rosser
which
is
heavily
Dominican
in
a
Cuba,
huge
coastal
largely
where
area
of
have
land
Asia
years.
welfare
cleared
for
temperate
East
has
Deposits
companies
of
the
is
led
extracted
to
entered
have
carry
local
in
Cuba
environmental
the
Cabañas
destroyed
out
most
275
River
in
the
and
hectares
mining.
environment
and
degradation
the
They
of
have
past.
resources
Humans
provide
the
Nickel
has
waste
water
.
Large
alkali.
mining
mining
coastal
ignored
with
Nickel
toxic
vegetation.
Forest
in
polluted
Republic.
regions
and
Many
Latin
of
forests
settlements
have
been
America
these
are
for
over
and
10 000
provide
affected.
have
been
years
to
transport
Tropical
cut
down
grow
links.
forests
over
food,
Most
in
the
forests
South-
past
100
rainforests.
Figure
There
has
been
large-scale
deforestation
to
provide
the
2.2.2
Deforestation
question
•
timber
•
paper
•
land
for
for
building
newsprint
cane
farms,
and
•
land
for
•
firewood
soya
and
other
forms
of
paper
and
and
cattle
ranches
and
plantations
of
oil
palms,
It
towns
and
charcoal
has
as
is
to
factories
Layers
of
soils
caused
vegetation
formation
degraded
is
in
very
term
s
fuels.
environmental
tropical
removed
of
gullies
after
all
impo
rtant
the
corre
ct
when
problems
(Figure
answ
ering
2.2.2):
rainforests
the
and
the
soil
loss
trees
is
of
are
are
very
washed
plant
cut
thin.
away,
When
causing
nutrients.
The
the
soil
land
is
term
good
erosion,
contex
ts.
rapidly
see
how
Flooding
The
is
water
more
is
not
atmosphere.
the
rate
of
reaches
by
soil.
and
absorbed
Forests
act
evaporation
the
affected
frequent
Diego
flooding
as
by
from
Martin
because
as
plants
the
in
of
water
and
of
soil
runs
off
transpired
water,
and
their
the
Trinidad
is
into
leaves
rate
an
the
Many
habitats
are
destroyed
forests
are
•
even
When
been
studied
vegetation
atmosphere.
is
There
and
burnt,
is
at
which
example
in
as
roots,
that
some
Many
of
down
a
place
KEY
species
face
extinction
POINTS
The
human
species
in
rainforests
is
not
absorbed
carbon
releases
by
have
has
exponentially
since
not
the
1850s.
Caribbean
dioxide
is
added
decomposition
of
to
populations
increased
significantly
in
the
plant
more
carbon
dioxide.
plants
as
they
have
been
the
20th
material,
This
cut
often
by
1–2%
a
year
.
carbon
Increasing
population
puts
down.
pressure
SUMMARY
population
when
2
dioxide
it
book.
classified.
increased
also
this
water
century
such
revise
,
times
the
slow
about
yet
a
severa
l
deforestation.
and
destroyed.
is
in
you
man
y
increased
tropical
As
use
land.
1
•
to
down.
rapid
‘stores’
ques
tions
.
resou
rces
word
appear
s
•
(see
37)
TIP
know
T
he
•
Belize
page
sugar
exam
ination
Deforestation
on
cardboard
beans
roads,
10
materials
EXAM
for
in
following:
energy,
QUESTIONS
on
resources
minerals,
–
forests
and
fisheries.
1
Outline
the
human
population
growth
over
the
past
500
years.
3
2
Describe
the
the
effects
on
the
environment
of
energy
provision
Fish
are
in
stocks
under
the
threat
overfishing
Caribbean.
in
and
Caribbean
from
habitat
destruction.
3
Explain
the
the
effects
of
overfishing
on
marine
environments
in
4
Caribbean.
Deforestation
has
environmental
4
Describe
the
impact
of
population
growth
in
the
Caribbean
such
the
region’s
consequences,
on
as
flooding.
forests.
27
2.3
Pollution
Anything
LEARNING
that
At
the
should
end
be
released
of
this
able
topic
has
the
pollutants
you
carbon
to:
define
the
•
describe
term
and
products
•
discuss
the
by
practices
of
as
and
describe
aquatic
•
discuss
garbage
the
the
or
sources
from
Pollution
of
best
impact
much
or
of
to
type
if
to
drain
crops
of
it
are
such
material,
power
also
as
such
stations
pollutants.
activities
the
to
land
increase
to
use
Problems
fertiliser
are
causes
the
is
that
into
their
for
can
added
can
reef
mainly
short,
of
human
We
activity
think
fertilisers,
as
and
of
oil
human
noise
Pollution
are
harmful
rivers
yield.
their
occur
before
and
grows
reef,
faster
Do
we
pollute
have
this
the
right
egret’s
to
fairly
and
not
body
from
most
and
wastes.
industrial
is
to
the
the
release
of
environment.
and
lakes.
Fertilisers
are
if
a
Farmers
particular
a
farmer
period
of
need
soil
uses
to
and
too
heavy
know
crop
the
and
much
how
fertiliser
rain.
•
lead
from
•
mercury,
•
cadmium,
•
PCBs,
car
60%
and
not
coast
of
St
one
Kitts
of
keen
ecosystem
this
purple
to
see
with
tube
provide
pollution
ends
up
to
eat
the
them
plant
the
Caribbean,
in
the
sea
polyps
The
polyps.
so
with
In
Coral
symbionts.
energy
can
enriched
ions.
seaweeds.
as
causes
are
phosphate
as
microalgae
they
where
build
microalgae
The
seaweed
overshadow
photosynthesising,
so
the
reef
the
dies.
industry
produce
like
is
next
is
hot
build
used
is
large
water.
up
from
in
quantities
Others
food
and
gullies.
to
gold
of
are
waste.
taken
chains.
up
Some
by
Examples
of
these
organisms
are:
in
mining
industrial
products
such
improper
properly,
waste
in
used
making
rubbish
and
the
in
managed
other
not
The
mangroves
correctly
it
wastes
Riverton
in
and
has
electrical
such
as
anywhere
disposal
Jamaica.
the
a
as
garbage
thrown
produced
paints
It
building
site
Duhaney
huge
disposal
such
is
insulation.
as
near
119
rubble
into
Kingston
hectares
River.
As
environmental
the
should
rivers,
in
site
impact
receives
area
is
on
the
off
area
and
to
the
health
of
local
people
(Figure
2.3.1).
A
attract
wide
divers
this
such
microalgae
so
which
used
surrounding
the
and
This
waters
batteries
which
disposed
streams
this
pollution.
that
habitat?
be
like
from
processes
Household
reefs
of
herbivores
the
harmless,
Pollution
Coral
ions
algae,
and
excreted,
water
means
much
of
than
Pollution
are
nitrate
contain
preventing
Industrial
cause
which
so
growth
photosynthesise
28
result
ecotourism.
rivers
2.3.2
a
pollutant.
agriculture
fertiliser
fertiliser
nutrients,
Figure
from
from
eutrophication,
2.3.1
as
a
substances,
biological
human
from
add.
the
Excess
Figure
as
released
is
disposal
pollution
on
chemical
harm
of
environments
pollution
environment
cause
the
industrialisation
effects
domestic
substances
applied
•
being
heat
Fertilisers
improper
the
to
pollution
pollution
agricultural
potential
monoxide
However
,
•
into
OUTCOMES
the
riches
range
of
air
pollutants
are
produced
when
the
dump
burns;
diverse
like
sponge.
amongst
these
hydrogen
are
cyanide,
particulates,
nitrogen
such
oxides
as
dust,
(NO X),
carbon
sulfur
monoxide,
dioxide
and
dioxins.
The
public
health
•
water
pollution
•
pollution
•
heavy
•
pesticides
of
risks
into
Hunts
metal
from
the
Riverton
Duhaney
Bay,
which
contamination
for
use
in
are:
River
(used
scientists
from
eliminating
for
call
‘The
cadmium,
disease
drinking
Dead
and
Zone’
manganese
vectors
and
bathing)
and
plant
lead
KEY
POINTS
pests.
1
Pollution
is
the
substances
Pollution
and
the
marine
environment
are
three
important
marine
ecosystems
in
the
coastal
ecosystems
•
ecosystems
dominated
by
mangrove
shallow
water
where
sea
their
to
the
human
presence
in
environment.
trees
2
in
or
from
of
Caribbean:
the
•
harmful
environment
activities
There
release
grasses
are
the
Agriculture
and
industry
dominant
release
wastes
that
pollute
vegetation
the
•
coral
reefs.
3
Mangrove
tropics;
trees
shrimp
building
protect
fishing,
development
coastlines
pollution,
have
and
estuaries
throughout
deforestation,
damaged
them.
storms
Sea-grass
the
and
in
shallow
waters
throughout
the
region
are
The
improper
garbage
coastal
breeding
sites
for
many
species.
They
too
are
important
at
from
pollution
and
Aquatic
with
reefs
over
are
a
one
of
million
consumption,
the
high
risk
protection
biodiverse
species;
for
they
coastlines
places
in
provide
and
are
a
the
fish
World
for
been
2.3.2).
In
the
tourist
reefs
have
Caribbean
been
it
is
estimated
that
over
destroyed
and
many
are
Some
scientists
have
predicted
that
coral
23%
considered
reefs
will
the
reef
end
off
from
of
the
land
the
coast
21st
of
run-off,
agricultural
century.
Tobago,
poorly
run-off,
Reefs,
have
treated
fertilisers,
such
been
as
the
severely
sewage,
herbicides,
at
Ecotourism
famous
domestic
by
have
had
removing
devastating
too
many
effects.
Overfishing
herbivorous
fish,
such
has
so
that
seaweeds
have
grown
as
and
grey
of
income
from
in
corals
of
sunlight.
Disease
has
also
also
out
graze
algae
on
coral
and
oil
QUESTIONS
and
the
Make
a
table
sea
to
reefs
is
of
show
land,
air
and
urchins,
In
your
table
state
the
reefs.
the
threat
to
symbiotic
sources
Another
at
contributed,
water.
which
is
water,
parrotfi sh
wiped
many
It
pollution.
pollutants
algae
for
countries.
Pollution
chemicals
starved
important
Buccoo
1
surgeonfish,
an
high
SUMMARY
spills
is
disappear
degraded.
pesticides,
climate
of
risk
by
and
change.
Caribbean
risk.
by
development,
attraction
source
coral
Caribbean
damaged
overfishing
human
5
(Figure
the
of
development.
most
different
hazards.
ecosystems
pollution,
Coral
of
and
feeding
have
destruction
health
environmental
throughout
and
disposal
poses
ecosystems
4
found
environment.
sea
water
becoming
more
acidic.
The
of
each
effects
pollutant
that
it
has
on
and
the
pH
environment.
of
sea
such
water
as
has
clams,
decreased
to
make
making
shells
of
it
more
calcium
difficult
carbonate.
for
organisms,
The
same
applies
2
to
coral
polyps
that
secrete
the
calcium
carbonate
that
makes
State
some
pollutants,
the
skeleton
of
the
coral.
With
global
carbon
dioxide
this
is
likely
to
get
and
countries
conserving
in
areas
the
like
Caribbean
these
for
have
the
realised
aesthetic
the
and
benefits
economic
bring.
Ecotourism
has
describe
the
effects
their
that
become
important
as
visitors
have
on
on
the
environment
humans.
of
benefits
3
they
and
worse.
they
Many
and
concentrations
sources
increasing,
industrial
up
from
a
Explain
the
term
abroad
ecotourism
wish
to
see
the
spectacular
wildlife
associated
with
coral
reefs
and
b
tropical
forests.
Pollution
has
a
negative
effect
on
such
areas
and
Outline
is
cause
countries
like
Belize,
Dominica
and
Costa
Rica,
which
rely
why
ecotourism
can
important
in
the
on
Caribbean.
ecotourism,
to
lose
some
important
sources
of
revenue
and
income.
c
Explain
form
of
the
threats
to
this
tourism.
29
2.4
The
effects
climate
Life
LEARNING
the
end
of
this
topic
be
atmosphere
able
explain
the
following
greenhouse
gases,
greenhouse
effect
terms:
keep
radiated
explain
greenhouse
what
climate
is
outline
of
the
climate
heat
a
blanket
gases
inside
space.
which
gases
meant
by
warm
in
surrounding
the
atmosphere
the
act
Earth
like
a
keeping
it
greenhouse.
the
atmosphere
These
are
are
carbon
greenhouse
that
otherwise
dioxide,
water
would
be
vapour
and
gases.
allow
it.
solar
Some
of
energy
this
to
pass
energy
through
enters
food
to
the
chains
Earth’s
and
is
surface
eventually
the
to
the
atmosphere
as
heat.
This
radiates
away
from
the
Earth’s
change
surface.
•
like
effect
lost
term
is
the
the
and
•
of
into
methane,
the
and
These
enhanced
Some
to:
They
•
greenhouse
you
warm.
should
the
change
OUTCOMES
The
At
in
of
likely
effects
change
on
the
and
Some
emitted
gases
keep
of
this
energy
towards
our
the
escapes
Earth
atmosphere
at
as
into
space,
infra-red
the
but
radiation
temperatures
much
is
(heat).
that
allow
absorbed
Greenhouse
life
to
exist.
environment.
The
greenhouse
average
over
the
gases
DID
YOU
effect
temperature
last
from
100
on
years,
human
is
a
the
natural
Earth
there
processes
has
been
(Figure
greenhouse
gases
and
CFCs
the
oxides
CFCs
which
from
fertilisers
(chlorofluorocarbons),
were
also
a
and
without
about
build-up
it
–17 °C.
of
the
However,
greenhouse
2.4.1).
Ear th
used
in
destroy
upper
radiates
are
heat
nitrous
be
KNOW?
The
Other
process
would
Radiation
the
Sun
the
Ear th
back
into
space
from
war ms
aerosols.
ozone
atmosphere,
Some
in
is
Space
which
H
absorbed
radiated
into
radiation
space
O
2
protects
us
from
the
harmful
CH
4
effects
of
ultraviolet
light.
H
CO
O
2
2
CO
2
H
O
2
Greenhouse
gases
CO
2
CH
4
absorb
some
radiation
Atmosphere
CO
2
H
O
Most
2
is
Figure
EXAM
Do
no t
effec
ts
CFCs
ozon
e
confus
e
of
Power
fossil
carbon
and
towards
Ear th
effect
stations,
me th
ane
acid
due
to
and
transport
use
fuels
and
release
As
we
huge
have
amounts
seen,
of
carbon
deforestation
dioxide
has
into
resulted
in
the
large
of
forest
farming,
being
removed.
releasing
carbon
In
Latin
dioxide
America
into
the
the
trees
are
atmosphere
cleared
when
they
rain
sulfu
r
po llu
tion
atmos
phere
).
heating
by
are
is
domestic
with
areas
and
factories,
dioxid
e,
destru
ction
dioxid
e
greenhouse
these
atmosphere.
(whi
ch
of
burnt.
tree
parts,
Microbes
in
producing
the
even
soil
decompose
more
carbon
roots
and
other
remaining
dioxide.
the
There
has
also
greenhouse
rearing.
the
anaerobic
extraction
been
gas)
Cattle
wetlands.
30
The
radiation
back
TIP
for
CFCs
,
2.4.1
absorbed
radiated
significant
to
excrete
the
oil
found
material
and
in
natural
increase
expansion
methane
conditions
Rotting
of
a
due
and
in
in
are
methane
rice
bacteria
flooded
landfill
gas
of
sites
other
also
rice
and
(another
cultivation
release
fi elds
and
rubbish
sources
of
and
it
cattle
in
natural
tips
and
methane.
the
Of
all
the
dioxide,
greenhouse
which
molecules
of
greenhouse
The
air
effect
warm
energy
other
a
than
Climate
Human
activities
the
between
If
the
the
are
by
flooding
such
increase
last
a
30
much
carbon
in
the
dioxide
back
out
as
has
been
years.
greater
water
space.
of
methane,
question
on
on
causes
vapour
Human
carbon
which
9
carbon
impact
atmosphere
into
in
However,
the
dioxide.
and
atmosphere
(see
the
average
by
2039,
2070
ice
of
causing
so
0.7 °C
and
temperature
polar
of
gases
the
dioxide
enhanced
that
0.5–1.0 °C
in
gases,
gases
warmed
suggest
have
carbon
straight
increase
the
a
heat
activity
dioxide
has
the
the
the
is
and
greater
CD).
change
greenhouse
causing
largest
in
CFCs
greenhouse
carbon
the
10%
molecules
Without
pass
large
by
and
than
greenhouse
impact
has
of
up.
would
causing
gases,
risen
methane
presence
to
has
many
increase
is
greenhouse
over
the
past
temperatures
0.8–2.5 °C
in
the
effect.
century.
in
from
concentration
getting
the
warmer.
The
surface
Global
to
of
climate
Caribbean
2040
This
2069,
will
the
Earth
models
rise
and
of
is
by
0.94–4.8 °C
2099.
of
would
an
atmosphere
the
start
Arctic
to
and
melt.
low-lying
Antarctic
This
areas.
would
These
were
to
cause
would
a
rise
rise
include
above
in
sea
most
0 °C,
level
of
the
and
capital
Figure
cities
of
the
Caribbean
and
much
of
the
region’s
farmland
(Figure
2.4.2
If
2.4.2).
sea
areas
of
There
could
also
be
a
change
in
wind
patterns
and
the
the
rainfall,
world
are
leading
agricultural
climate
Asia
areas,
could
and
to
expected
a
extreme
become
such
mean
North
more
to
as
parts
massive
America.
very
The
of
weather.
dry.
the
USA
reduction
pattern
Some
Some
of
in
of
and
the
the
parts
these
Asia.
grain
world’s
of
are
be
affected
with
economic
and
political
the
Warming
crops
food
St
of
of
to
reduce
the
effects
of
global
emissions.
and
Strategies
using
to
do
and
power
renewable
this
warming
of
and
ethanol-based
involve
Caribbean
is
at
high
risk
of
in
be
in
lost.
Carbon
using
energy
energy
such
dioxide,
methane
reducing
CFCs
as
are
greenhouse
more
solar,
that
absorb
infra-red
wind
from
the
Earth
and
fuels.
emit
The
could
here
POINTS
radiation
wave
Lucia,
as
consequences.
include
sources
Caribbean,
Central
gases
efficiently
most
facilities
distribution
and
carbon
tourism
the
1
Measures
low-lying
important
KEY
could
rise,
provide
distribution
the
of
levels
that
storm
damage.
The
severity
of
it
back
to
heat
up
the
tropical
atmosphere.
storms
has
been
increasing,
with
eight
Category
5
hurricanes
between
2
the
years
2001
and
2010,
compared
with
a
total
of
23
between
The
greenhouse
maintains
and
2000.
Storms
are
also
reaching
high
intensity
more
quickly.
storms
will
increase
damage
to
the
mangroves.
If
the
provided
by
mangroves
is
lost,
erosion
happens
the
more
a
Define
b
Name
term
greenhouse
greenhouse
Explain
what
3
Describe
is
meant
by
gases.
the
the
in
result
the
greenhouse
Global
climate
involves
sea
2
steps
that
can
be
enhanced
greenhouse
taken
to
reduce
carbon
specific
examples
to
outline
of
an
gases.
the
likely
effects
of
change
temperatures
air
and
and
more
weather,
such
emissions.
more
and
Use
exist.
effect
as
4
can
concentration
increased
unpredictable
the
life
greenhouse
gas
3
two
is
increase
QUESTIONS
the
so
quickly.
of
1
Earth
enhanced
effect
SUMMARY
temperature
coastal
The
protection
the
More
of
severe
effect
1928
frequent
storms
and
hurricanes
rises
in
sea
global
level.
climate
change
on
island
states.
31
2.5
Conservation
Reducing
LEARNING
Farmers
At
the
end
of
this
topic
be
able
can
describe
impact
in
which
agriculture
environment
can
be
not
the
on
the
reduced
use
outline
methods
use
of
agriculture
the
use
effect
of
that
fertilisers
chemicals,
such
have
as
on
the
fertilisers,
environment
pesticides
and
the
They
should
as
agriculture,
natural
to
soil
to
of
apply
‘just
which
methods
the
only
insurance
in
does
not
fertilising
decay
the
chemicals
case’.
use
crops.
naturally.
Some
when
farmers
chemicals.
Animal
Farmers
plant
also
and
turning
Organic
and
can
necessary
are
to
farmers
wastes
reduce
the
are
use
for
of
conserving
the
them
organic
added
•
impact
to:
ways
of
reduce
controlling
herbicides.
•
environmental
you
by
should
the
OUTCOMES
pesticides
by
using
biological
control
(see
1.5).
natural
environment
•
outline
methods
degraded
land
for
and
restoring
Conservation
As
aquatic
(marine
we
have
seen
Our
producing
that
we
benefit
the
very
world
existence
of
future
of
But
genetic
it
should
provides
many
of
our
renewable
depends
on
the
Other
We
No
like
this
large
set
ocelot
areas
aside
of
and
of
for
have
a
species
activity
of
wastes.
It
organisms
have
a
benefit
duty
area,
a
different
of
as
well
care
species.
country
habitats
or
in
is
to
fully
to
habitats
services,
and
giving
substances
maintain
•
Protecting
a
wide
the
have
role
by
as
in
by
as
and
such
us
such
species
as
Biodiversity
the
area
for
treating
areas
as
balance
keeping
for
is
a
whole
and
the
the
waste,
recreation.
They
medicines.
of
life
–
large
wardens.
of
so
Here
tracts
Parks
vital
pests
to
the
we
are
of
organisms
are
right
guardians
isolation,
of
but
much
habitats.
Parks
variety
understand,
example
and
National
on
the
planet,
e.g.
and
live
have
a
some
also
this
duty
to
in
aside
be
interact
in
in
life
ways
on
this
check.
planet
(Figure
ways
set
that
continuing
diseases
on
planet
land
may
for
as
we
do.
2.5.1).
conserve
which
for
this
wildlife
occupied
by
is
done:
and
people.
species
areas
of
the
sea
from
damage
from
fishing
and
pollution
requires
land
to
by
be
establishing
marine
parks.
protected
deforestation
Rescuing
endangered
animals,
breeding
them
in
captivity
and
returning
them
to
the
wild.
development.
•
Growing
endangered
establishing
32
the
maintain
even
an
important
as
species.
with
fuels
useful
help
lives
•
•
from
us
and
with
species
patrolled
conservation
an
the
each
our
endangered
in
ecosystems,
provide
support
not
ecosystems
The
includes
for
our
cycles.
Habitats
planet,
•
We
protect
species
within
food
us
nutrient
do
environment
and
the
conserve
Ecosystems
we
decomposing
generations.
also
Ecosystems
provide
•
the
and
reasons:
providing
•
all
diversity
following
•
food
biodiversity
world.
We
our
conserve
catalogue
2.5.1
natural
environments.
in
Figure
the
and
resources.
freshwater)
methods
damaged
them
in
plants
the
in
wild.
botanical
gardens
and
re-
and
then
•
•
Reducing
habitat
forests
preventing
or
Encouraging
allowing
but
•
not
seeds
store
seeds
wild.
Their
or
produce
Removing
bottle
from
habitats
Rica,
•
T
ree
•
Restoring
•
Restoring
the
logging
in
useful
the
when
in
species
they
crop
such
at
hope
forests,
are
very
to
removed
become
low
collect
extinct
improvement
as
dodder
In
trees
areas.
world
case
for
as
ecosystems.
large
valuable
products,
following
day
lake
may
in
the
land
been
in
and
in
the
the
future
drugs.
(see
are
1.6),
lionfish
and
take
Jamaica
severe
at
Mount
land
forest
up
to
and
effects
by
is
or
destroyed
an
by
important
part
of
examples:
where
dry
degraded
degraded
catastrophes
ecosystems
which
reduce
soda
have
natural
establishing
planting
to
that
and
The
example
land
or
around
such
of
replanting
clearing
species
be
species,
Re-establishing
Costa
for
methods
activities
conservation.
for
may
licences
brush.
Restoring
•
many
valuable
Restoration
human
banks
or
by
endangered
genes
issuing
management
habitats
Seed
alien
e.g.
altogether.
replacement
of
temperatures.
•
it
sustainable
natural
destroying
Storing
to
destruction,
in
300
of
in
become
years
schemes
heavy
mining
Rosser
has
Guanacaste
in
to
to
reforest
(Figure
waste
Park
in
achieve!
Haiti
rain
and
degraded,
National
degraded
2.5.2).
disposal,
for
example
Jamaica.
Figure
mangrove
to
protect
coasts
that
are
at
risk
of
storm
2.5.2
No-one
to
damage.
is
plant
mango,
Education
of
and
public
conservation
awareness
work.
Much
campaigns
can
be
are
achieved
an
by
important
people
in
part
their
fruit
in
legislate
habitat
to
restoration
protect
habitats
and
at
conservation.
risk
from
Governments
development
and
can
using
need
energy
to
be
conserved
efficiently
may
as
well.
conserve
We
fossil
have
fuels.
already
aluminium,
glass
and
paper
reduces
energy
discussed
Recycling
environment
(by
creating
less
waste)
and
materials,
consumption,
saves
raw
are
globally
becoming
has
increased
exhausted
or
considerably
polluted.
and
Water
materials.
many
must
not
must
be
used
sensibly
so
that
everyone
may
have
to
erosion.
T
aking
steps
use
of
reduce
fertilisers
and
Water
sources
be
to
to
by
integrating
of
use
with
biological
wasted
control
and
other
help
such
damage
their
water
will
POINTS
pesticides
consumption
provide
for
how
the
the
soil
and
this
also
1
as
will
destruction.
KEY
Resources
like
habitats
organisms
own
young
tree
which
and
reduce
locality
too
a
can
reduce
the
some.
impact
of
agriculture
on
the
environment.
SUMMARY
QUESTIONS
2
Conservation
protection
1
Outline
how
the
effects
of
agriculture
on
the
environment
ecosystems
Suggest
how
resources
3
Explain
individuals
and
how
can
promote
conservation
depletion
of
damaged
environments
can
be
3
restored.
Tree
Discuss
the
benefits
of
Suggest
ways
restoration
in
can
which
be
control
and
planting
tree
soil
prevent
the
helps
erosion,
to
provides
planting.
habitats
5
maintain
extinction.
energy.
reduce
4
to
reduced.
biodiversity,
2
the
management
can
of
be
is
and
success
monitored.
of
conservation
and
habitat
and
for
other
restores
organisms
degraded
habitats.
33
2.6
What
will
the
future
bring?
Population
LEARNING
Populations
At
the
end
of
this
topic
be
able
of
outline
the
influence
including
animals,
resources
plants
and
space
and
microbes
available.
increase
However,
if
there
there
are
are
certain
to:
factors
•
of
you
plenty
should
growth
OUTCOMES
factors
that
limit
the
maximum
numbers
in
a
population.
These
are:
that
population
reference
•
availability
of
•
competition
food
and
water
growth
to
for
space,
food,
water
and
mating
sites
(e.g.
nesting
invasive
sites
for
birds)
species
•
•
outline
the
factors
that
disease
rapidly
human
population
explain
the
projections
human
globally
discuss
challenges
environmental
and
do
that
on
of
solutions.
a
species
competitors,
species
much
of
natural
Since
the
the
living
The
has
Department
encouraging
lionfish
people
than
more
on
on
larger
populations
than
environment,
no
disease.
the
in
and
new
small
1.5.
feeds
have
Indian
The
from
or
in
other
environment
may
are
be
invaded,
(Figure
the
a
and
has
examples
new
in
the
2.6.1)
USA.
species
no
many
mongoose
lionfish
aquaria
on
there
There
of
It
comes
has
fish.
It
increased
from
colonised
has
in
no
numbers.
human
on
populations
our
numbers
and
Many
are
infectious
predators.
to
there
More
began
have
shows
better
diseases
people
overconsumption
pandemic
us
to
of
that
grow
been
exponentially
reduced.
facilities
have
demand
Food
for
been
storage
and
controlled.
higher
standards
We
of
resources.
population
there
and
may
other
increase.
come
a
time
diseases
With
we
are
not
when
that
are
antibiotic
completely
resistance
free
antibiotics
currently
are
curable
no
on
the
longer
become
There
flesh
as
one
controlling
more
about
this
in
12.2.
are
also
concerned
identical.
This
that
makes
our
it
main
highly
crop
likely
plants
that
are
too
diseases
of
crops
approach
wheat,
maize
and
rice,
will
wipe
out
all
the
different
varieties
numbers.
of
exist,
seeds
as
plants
LINK
2.2
to
population
remind
yourself
growth.
An
wild
They
of
banana
are
varieties
of
to
what
plants
reproduction,
varieties
may
resistance
example
new
those
from
important.
to
is
to
that
34
spread
in
like
back
diseases
populations
KNOW?
Fisheries
about
effect
introduced,
of
increased
lead
to
genetically
Go
its
foods.
HIV/AIDS
checks
Scientists
to
in
any
which
incurable.
eat
greater
and
escaped
checks
have
effective
is
and
1850s,
the
increase,
Jamaica
large
lionfish
of
The
a
new
been
effects
Caribbean
transporting
YOU
number,
populations
production
not
a
described
predator
because
do
have
The
Asia
Human
DID
have
predators
were
South-East
The
in
on
populations.
invades
no
that
Caribbean
2.6.1
also
smaller
environment.
Figure
effect
ones
predators
When
future
increase
greater
and
regionally
•
a
population
they
growth
populations
have
for
•
future
as
and
growth
small
•
–
affect
all
our
genes
crops
that
very
and
we
can
similar.
from
use
The
local
to
collection
varieties
give
our
is
crop
diseases.
might
by
the
have
genetically
happen
taking
plants
stem
are
is
the
banana.
cuttings.
genetically
As
Farmers
this
identical.
is
a
propagate
form
The
of
asexual
Cavendish
variety
to
of
two
the
fungi
cannot
by
banana
diseases:
that
be
cause
like
the
Projections
global
increasing
birth
in
rate
the
has
for
any
global
dropped
in
will
people
other
Michel
rate,
but
be
an
in
way,
variety
and
has
not
ageing
the
land
resistant
in
the
reached
the
to
is
susceptible
2.6.2).
fungicides
will
20th
7
In
be
If
and
wiped
out
century.
billion.
some
past
countries
population
it
populations
everywhere.
over
and
(Figure
Cavendish
was
just
of
sigatoka
local
Caribbean
the
areas
black
become
remarkably
some
than
huge
and
diseases
population
fast
rate
there
elderly
a
in
across
disease
these
Gros
human
at
birth
future
grown
controlled
disease,
The
is
Panama
few
means
with
a
It
is
still
countries
decades.
that
higher
in
the
The
the
fall
near
proportion
of
past.
Figure
2.6.2
A
banana
with
Challenges
If
our
species
growth
and
standard
of
resources
cane
is
We
in
are
should
waste
to
living.
and
which
a
in
We
is
to
of
to
to
make
of
to
our
use
of
waste
make
a
valuable
resource
for
agriculture
and
be
the
to
collect,
biodegradable
cannot
energy
threats
be
composted
or,
to
as
a
the
separate
waste
last
or
and
(Figure
2.6.3).
to
Sugar
make
Nuclear
totally
by
caused
power
pollution.
by
composted
This
recycled
resort,
buried
environment
are
could
in
household
into
compost.
be
is
We
Figure
2.6.3
Fossil
improper
to
fuels
landfill
of
energy
solar
every
solution
brings
its
to
that
KEY
produce
where
the
1
Factors
that
they
burn
and
in
some
places
there
is
no
market
toxic
for
is
in
a
form
many
of
hunting.
parts
of
the
Fish
farming,
world,
notably
or
aquaculture,
in
South-East
countries
have
invested
in
aquaculture,
is
some
farms
that
rear
the
fast
growing
tilapia
although
fish.
we
started
to
farm
fish
as
we
did
cattle,
sheep
Human
it
water
,
predation.
populations
by
same
goats
these
are
not
factors
extent.
The
to
HIV/
pandemic
is
an
example
many
a
factor
that
is
limiting
ago.
human
SUMMARY
3
QUESTIONS
population
Human
Explain
why
a
population
of
organisms
does
not
this
increase
the
indefinitely.
growth.
populations
growing
1
and
resources,
is
of
millennia
for
there
Perhaps
and
food
are:
Few
AIDS
time
houses
practised
Asia.
the
are
to
buildings.
influence
of
and
affected
Caribbean
these
compost.
2
widely
use
fitting
gases
disease
Fishing
like
commercial
growth
competition
when
by
POINTS
population
Plastics
last
make
provide
minimised.
problems.
can
while
waste
availability
But
not
We
provide
waste,
sites
will
forever.
needs
The
incinerated
sanitary
that
sigatoka.
France.
horticulture.
store
decomposes
black
population
and
organisation
infected
reasonable
panels
a
plant
fungus
non-renewable
gasohol.
like
problems
can
reduce
with
fermentation
environment
the
of
to
energy
for
countries
solve
Biodegradable
to
way
everyone
better
sugar
petrol
ruining
some
sources
provide
with
find
support
industrialised
technology
disposal.
must
renewable
mixed
danger
apply
need
Brazil
number
we
resources
develop
in
causes
solutions
survive,
provide
grown
ethanol,
used
is
and
the
at
a
presents
high
are
rate
problems
environment
and
and
for
human
health.
2
Outline
billion
the
problems
facing
a
world
population
in
excess
of
7
4
people.
Population
slowing
3
Summarise
the
environmental
problems
facing
your
Suggest
ways
problems
you
in
which
have
new
technology
identified
in
may
question
3.
solve
many
is
countries
country.
in
4
in
growth
some
of
the
if
the
this
Caribbean;
will
be
proportion
an
of
the
impact
increasing
elderly
people.
35
Unit
SECTION
1
The
1:
Practice
Multiple-choice
concentration
Earth’s
2
2
Which
of
of
increase?
this
the
A
increase
B
less
C
more
D
melting
Which
of
carbon
has
following
in
sea
dioxide
increased
is
the
in
the
5
significantly.
most
likely
cause
levels
combustion
of
the
human
ice
of
in
causes
the
toxic
fossil
fuels
caps
activity
waters
drainage
of
questions
questions
photosynthesis
coastal
A
of
atmosphere
exam
eutrophication
6
Species
that
successfully
habitat
are
known
species
are
more
in
new
their
competitors
B
limited
C
no
D
parasites
colonise
invasive
likely
habitat
A
Tree
as
if
to
a
become
they
new
species.
These
established
have
resources
predators
planting
is
an
example
of
Caribbean?
compounds
from
A
conservation
B
environmental
C
organic
C
recycling
rubbish
monitoring
tips
B
overuse
of
fertilisers
in
C
overuse
of
pesticides
D
pollution
adjacent
7
3
Different
to
see
fish.
50%
the
pest
how
The
of
by
control
chemicals
poisonous
the
fish
dose
In
1900
the
population
of
Guyana
was
oil
they
concentration
lethal
farming
farmland
within
50
of
were
were
to
pesticide
four
(LD50).
days
The
is
tested
287 000.
By
769 000.
The
freshwater
population
that
2010
kills
known
table
2010
this
had
percentage
of
Guyana
increased
increase
between
in
to
the
1900
and
was:
as
shows
A
32%
B
37%
C
63%
D
168%
the
results.
Pest
control
LD50/parts
chemical
per
million
8
A
DDT
B
dieldrin
C
malathion
D
parathion
Which
most
0.01
chemical,
serious
to
of
the
following
influence
the
growth
12.20
2.11
A,
effect
B,
on
C
or
D,
will
freshwater
contaminate
a
have
fish
A
competition
B
diseases
The
quantity
Caribbean
C
light
of
solid
countries
not
directly
A
burying
it
all
B
composting
in
be
sanitary
the
C
incinerating
D
introducing
the
collected
reduced
landfill
biodegradable
D
predators
for
food
if
Which
an
is
the
island
best
definition
of
the
biodiversity
in
A
all
the
B
the
C
all
species
living
within
the
country
genetic
diversity
of
all
the
species
sites
the
different
ecosystems
wastes
and
offshore
wastes
D
schemes
state?
by:
non-biodegradable
recycling
animal
river?
wastes
can
an
intensity
island
36
does
the
of
4
of
population?
9
allowed
Which
0.03
all
of
the
above
within
the
SECTION
10
a
2:
Short
‘Tropical
Explain
answer
forests
this
have
questions
great
biodiversity.’
statement.
f
(3)
Fish
are
two
ways
an
conserved
Scientists
have
to
the
used
satellite
imaging
important
in
which
for
the
resource.
fish
stocks
Suggest
can
(2)
techniques
Total
follow
b
List
four
loss
of
forests
reasons
countries
in
the
for
all
over
the
Belize
1
and
2
deforestation
in
11
Caribbean.
show
between
the
1980
loss
and
marks
a
i
Define
the
term
ii
Distinguish
pollutant.
(1)
(4)
of
forest
cover
between
biodegradable
non-biodegradable
waste.
(2)
in
2010.
b
Make
and
T
able
25
world.
and
T
ables
be
future.
a
table
effects
to
of
show
three
the
sources
named
pollutants
1
that
have
significant
effects
on
the
2
Year
Forest
1980
cover/km
environment
in
the
The
of
solid
region.
(3)
16 834
c
1989
16 443
1994
15 452
2000
14 652
quantity
Caribbean
over
14 153
2010
13 900
d
years.
of
Outline
the
reasons
for
the
waste
increased
such
in
the
considerably
Suggest
governments
quantity
2004
has
recent
regional
T
able
Caribbean
ways
can
in
reduce
which
the
waste.
(4)
environmental
conserving
and
natural
economic
habitats
in
region.
(5)
2
Total
Years
Area
deforested
15
marks
Percentage
12
Coral
reefs
are
polluted
by
water
draining
2
each
year/km
loss
per
year
from
1980–89
12
–0.3
1989–94
207
–1.4
71
–0.9
2000–04
291
–0.9
2004–10
61
–0.3
farmland.
fertiliser
a
1994–2000
Describe
coral
b
and
As
a
result
they
often
receive
sewage.
the
effect
of
this
pollution
on
reefs.
Describe
(5)
two
other
threats
to
coral
reefs.
(4)
c
Data
adapted
Belize
from
SERVIR:
Forest
Cover
and
Deforestation
i
in
State
three
become
reasons
why
organisms
extinct.
(3)
1980–2010
ii
Scientists
have
suggested
that
some
2
c
The
total
land
mass
of
Belize
is
22 167 km
animals
Use
i
the
the
of
data
Belize
that
showing
the
the
percentage
and
ii
in
that
mean
of
was
which
your
tables
calculate
total
forested
was
land
in
forested
recent
mass
2010,
area
between
of
(4)
Belize
1980
and
that
was
DNA
have
be
become
‘brought
techniques
from
cloning.
One
back’
including
museum
such
extinct
is
the
Discuss
d
the
Outline
mean
the
continued
percentage
environmental
deforestation
in
loss
per
year.
consequences
the
rights
and
wrongs
Explain,
using
between
examples,
renewable
resources.
and
such
(3)
15
marks
of
Belize.
the
of
(2)
(6)
Further
e
and
Cuban
programme.
Total
iii
using
isolation
specimens
animal
in
macaw.
a
2010
times
modern
of
1980
in
working.
annual
deforested
the
to
that
distinction
and
non-renewable
on
practice
examples
the
questions
can
be
found
accompanying
CD.
(4)
37
3
Cells
3.1
Plant
LEARNING
At
the
end
Cell
structure
Cells
are
be
of
this
topic
able
describe
the
generalised
cells
and
between
of
sometimes
cells.
structure
animal
state
the
and
significant
animals,
of
plant
differences
between
membrane
is
quite
and
identify
cell
organelles
of
see
and
and
and
contain
Even
that
them.
of
in
life’,
as
all
common,
organisms
although
are
there
Figure
with
are
not
between
bacteria
the
are
cytoplasm,
3.1.1
very
shows
and
but
the
light
we
types.
surrounded
plant
powerful
visible
different
all
rest
cells
of
seen
the
an
a
from
cell
cell
structure
through
microscopes
need
Cells
by
electron
there
a
light
are
cell
microscope
Figures
taken
3.1.2
with
and
3.1.3
electron
have
been
microscopes
drawn
that
from
allow
us
to
see
in
structures,
called
organelles,
found
within
cells.
diagrams
cells
Animal
•
‘units
features
walls
these
photographs
fungi
different.
photographs
•
the
share
cell
to
membranes
called
cells
differences
plants,
microscope.
them
distinguish
All
to:
structures
•
cells
you
are
•
animal
OUTCOMES
made
should
and
distinguish
and
plant
cell
structure
between
chloroplasts
and
mitochondria
Cell
Microvilli
•
relate
the
structure
Endoplasmic
organelles
to
their
wall
of
functions.
with
reticulum
ribosomes
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
Cell
membrane
Mitochondrion
Large
vacuole
Nucleus
Small
vacuole
Ribosomes
Figure
Figure
3.1.1
Cells
have
they
cell
are
from
a
are
pond
shape
weed
of
STUDY
by
These
leaf
cells
green
organelles
Make
large
38
cell
can
drawings
3.1.2
and
annotate
Figure
3.1.3
of
unspecialised
3.1.3),
the
and
use
drawings
by
plant
them
for
adding
and
your
1000).
A
plant
cell
of
each
structure
you
have
animal
labelled.
cells
revision
information
chloroplasts
functions
(×
animal
FOCUS
(Figures
You
called
An
because
surrounded
walls.
full
a
fixed
3.1.2
notes.
about
the
Functions
T
able
of
cell
3.1.1
Cell
structures
structures
and
Cell
structure
Functions
Cell
wall
•
(plants
only)
their
made
from
when
they
•
gives
•
allows
pass
membrane
cellulose;
are
fixed
and
through
•
forms
a
•
keeps
•
allows
full
–
to
barrier
cells
from
bursting
water
cells
dissolved
freely
see
stops
of
shapes
water
permeable
Cell
functions
(often
substances
described
to
as
freely
3.4)
between
cells
and
their
surroundings
cells,
•
contents
simple
e.g.
controls
out
of
of
cells
oxygen,
e.g.
to
carbon
movement
cells,
inside
substances
of
enter
dioxide
other
glucose
and
and
leave
water
substances
and
into
and
Figure
3.1.4
A
chloroplast,
organelle
ions
that
the
carries
photosynthesis
•
often
(see
Nucleus
described
•
holds
•
controls
all
•
controls
how
•
place
e.g.
the
chromosomes,
in
the
cells
carries
Chloroplast
•
carries
(plants
•
stores
which
of
carry
•
plants
DNA
inside
(see
11.3)
cells
chemical
and
reactions
making
out
aerobic
out
photosynthesis
proteins
respiration
take
for
(Figure
(Figure
place,
cells
3.1.5)
3.1.4)
starch
Figure
3.1.5
A
mitochondrion,
–
large
and
full
of
water
to
where
and
‘firmness’
of
within
–
small
and
stores
enzymes
for
digestion
State
are
Remember
to
include
a
column
headed
‘Features’
when
four
found
your
Similarly,
table
comparing
remember
question
this
if
plant
you
and
decide
animals
tables
cells
are
a
in
question
good
structures
in
both
that
plant
and
you
animal
answer
QUESTIONS
FOCUS
1
make
40 000)
cells
SUMMARY
STUDY
occurs
cells
(×
animals
the
aerobic
maintain
respiration
shape
•
out
10 000)
genetic
organelle
Vacuole
(×
permeable
develop
many
respiration
•
form
activities
where
Mitochondrion
only)
differentially
3.4)
information
Cytoplasm
as
way
cells.
2.
to
2
3.
Make
a
table
structure
of
to
compare
plant
and
the
animal
cells.
3
KEY
Distinguish
each
1
Some
cell
details
only
structures
of
be
these
seen
can
be
structures
with
an
seen
and
electron
with
some
the
very
light
small
microscope;
structures
can
microscope.
Animal
and
plant
cells
have
cell
membranes,
nuclei,
of
pairs:
and
cell
chromosome
membrane;
nucleus.
You
wall
could
and
use
cytoplasm
for
this
question
and
mitochondria.
add
3
following
chloroplast
cell
tables
and
the
mitochondrion;
and
2
between
POINTS
Plant
cells
vacuoles.
have
cell
Animal
walls,
cells
do
chloroplasts
not
have
and
these.
large,
central
more
these
information
structures
through
the
rest
as
of
about
you
this
work
unit.
39
3.2
Microbes
Microbes
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
Bacteria,
At
the
end
of
this
topic
fungi,
viruses
microorganisms
should
be
able
state
that
viruses
bacteria,
and
do
fungi,
protists
not
do
not
of
these
the
just
protists
are
microbes
structure
groups
of
of
is
similar
to
chloroplasts.
than
have
animal
describe
that
have
smaller
are
microbes
•
or
often
for
known
short.
as
Fungi
have
a
cell
to:
structure
•
and
you
plant
cells
and
at
the
structure
Bacteria
animal
all.
do
cells.
Protists
of
not
plant
have
Viruses
have
more
are
in
cells
except
nuclei
quite
and
that
are
different
common
with
they
much
as
they
plant
and
cells.
each
microbes
Bacteria
•
state
the
similarities
differences
different
and
between
groups
of
Each
the
microbes.
You
there
and
no
bacterium
can
see
are
only
plant
are
a
cells.
nucleus;
there
is
that
the
no
made
the
of
cell
few
of
Their
the
a
cell
cell
cell
genetic
cytoplasm
other
one
has
and
wall
structures
material
contains
structures
is
described
and
is
a
cell
you
in
can
the
ribosomes
(Figure
as
unicellular.
membrane,
see
in
the
cytoplasm
to
make
as
but
animal
there
proteins
is
but
3.2.1).
Cytoplasm
Stored
Cell
wall
food
Fungi
Cell
reserve
membrane
Ribosomes
Yeast
is
yeast
cell
ways
a
fungus
has
yeasts
a
that
is
also
nucleus,
are
like
unicellular,
mitochondria
plant
cells
except
but
and
that
a
unlike
large
they
bacteria
vacuole.
have
no
each
In
many
chloroplasts.
Flagellum
A
loop
of
Plasmid
Figure
3.2.2
shows
a
mould
fungus.
Many
of
these
do
not
have
DNA
separate
Figure
3.2.1
A
bacterial
cell.
are
are
small
loops
cells
at
all
but
long
thin
threads,
known
as
hyphae
which
Plasmids
of
not
sub-divided
into
cells
but
contain
all
the
structures
in
one
DNA.
long
‘tube’.
Genetic
Nucleus
Mitochondrion
Endoplasmic
Protein
Surface
coat
proteins
reticulum
Ribosomes
Figure
3.2.3
Viruses
have
Vacuole
Cell
genetic
membrane
material
protein
40
enclosed
capsule.
in
a
Figure
3.2.2
The
cell
structure
of
a
mould
fungus
Cell
wall
Viruses
All
viruses
are
parasites
of
cells
of
organisms.
They
are
thought
to
EXAM
have
developed
composed
of
from
genetic
cells,
but
material
now
all
they
have
(DNA
or
RNA)
is
a
central
surrounded
by
a
protein
It
coat
or
capsule.
Some
of
them
are
enveloped
in
cell
TIP
core
membrane
is
diffi
cult
remem
ber
their
host
cell
(Figure
Protists
(suc
other
microbes,
protists
have
a
cell
structure,
h
fung
i,
as
similar
to
that
nuclei.
of
Some
plants
and
protists
are
animals;
more
for
example,
animal-like,
their
such
as
3.2.4);
others,
such
as
Euglena
(Figure
3.2.5),
Not
all
protists
are
small
unicellular
organisms;
are
more
some
are
grow
organisms.
up
to
50
Seaweeds,
metres
long,
including
are
the
classified
as
large
kelps,
which
protists.
DID
and
with
see
into
YOU
five
and
the
contain
either
Amoeba
uses
Figure
3.2.5
Euglena
uses
called
pseudopodia
movement
feeding.
KEY
1
Note
algae
inside
food
they
digested
for
places
and
green
where
flagellum
light
the
(×
to
there
is
classify
organisms
fungi,
kingdoms:
animals,
protists.
The
organisms
unicellular
,
Euglena,
bodies
plants
protists
that
e.g.
are
Amoeba
made
or
of
have
simple
many
cells.
photosynthesis
400).
trapped
vacuoles
are
(×
60).
Bacteria
are
unicellular
without
organelles,
with
cell
walls
and
cytoplasm
but
Fungal
cells
have
such
cell
as
walls,
but
no
nuclei,
large
vacuoles
and
Make
a
table
do
enclosed
not
in
a
have
cells.
protein
They
are
made
of
genetic
and
material
protists,
others,
large.
such
as
such
of
compare
bacteria,
the
fungi
viruses.
coat.
2
Some
to
chloroplasts.
structure
Viruses
QUESTIONS
nuclei.
1
4
crosse
s
1.
POINTS
mitochondria,
3
and
KNOW?
SUMMARY
2
compl
e te
reach
where
for
then
ticks
all
they
its
and
extensions
show
that
different
bacteria,
3.2.4
to
ques
tion
Biologists
Figure
table
large
–
may
a
featu
res
plant-
it
multicellular
and
viruse
s.
cells
have
like.
and
Amoeba
the
(Figure
pro tis
ts
which
Mak
e
have
be tw
een
Amoe
ba
Eugl
ena)
is
simila
rities
differe
nces
bacteri
a,
the
the
3.2.3).
and
Unlike
to
from
as
Amoeba
seaweeds,
are
and
Euglena,
multicellular
are
and
unicellular;
can
be
very
Distinguish
the
and
between
following
viruses;
fungi;
pairs:
yeasts
bacteria
and
each
of
bacteria
and
mould
protists.
41
3.3
Cells
Animals
LEARNING
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
cell
you
–
The
to:
work
a
define
the
terms
tissue,
organ
explain
egg.
continue
cells
the
retain
stem
with
to
multicellular
bodies
This
cell
grow
the
divides
and
ability
to
to
divide
carry
organisms
made
of
produce
to
on
form
a
develop
many
a
two-celled
much
dividing
from
larger
throughout
a
cells
single
embryo.
structure.
life:
cells
(see
11.2).
Other
cells
lose
the
ability
to
these
divide
and
system
change
•
multicellular
Most
organ
are
and
are
together
.
fertilised
cells
Some
•
plants
bodies
OUTCOMES
that
At
and
make
what
is
meant
by
in
structure
to
become
specialised
for
certain
functions.
cell
specialisation
Specialised
•
list
some
examples
specialised
and
cells
in
To
animals
function
out
plants
certain
divided
•
explain
being
the
cells
of
advantages
efficiently
we
functions.
between
have
This
different
cells
means
that
that
groups
of
are
the
specialised
functions
of
to
the
carry
body
are
cells.
of
multicellular.
Animal
cells
Epithelial
cells
are
found
on
the
surfaces
of
organisms,
for
example
Nucleus
forming
the
outer
layer
of
our
skin.
They
also
line
internal
structures,
Cell
such
as
the
windpipe
and
lungs.
T
wo
are
described
here:
ciliated
membrane
epithelial
Ciliated
cells
and
reproductive
on
their
In
to
from
Cytoplasm
to
the
lungs,
the
Ciliated
cells
the
from
windpipe
squamous
the
cells
layer
and
cells
from
of
3.3.1).
back
in
the
air
fallopian
These
and
passages
tubes
cells
forth
to
in
have
in
the
tiny
create
a
the
lungs
female
hair-like
current
in
cilia
the
move
and
ovary
surfaces.
to
the
throat.
the
mucus
In
the
that
traps
fallopian
dust
tubes,
and
cilia
pathogens
move
the
egg
uterus.
the
like
form
lining
impulses
the
(Figure
The
cells
one
cells
line
are
of
the
very
tiny
blood
air
thin
cells.
pockets
in
They
the
form
lungs.
the
outer
Squamous
vessels.
Nerve
cells
in
the
specialised
spinal
animal
cord
which
are
visible
that
and
Plant
cells
cells
(×
70).
3.3.2,
many
have
very
distances
of
have
in
long
the
short
these
in
processes
body.
processes
the
brain
that
Some
that
and
transmit
nerve
cells,
connect
the
spinal
nerves
cord
are
move
are
far
in
the
have
a
our
often
fewer
gut
and
single
skeleton
called
types
other
nucleus
are
muscle
of
places
(Figure
different.
fibres
specialised
in
They
rather
cells
the
body
3.3.4).
each
than
in
The
are
have
muscle
plants
long
‘cells’
than
in
thin
the
many
cells
in
cells.
in
Epidermal
cells
form
the
tissue
that
surrounds
leaves.
four
The
these
cells
each
nuclei
There
are
cells)
great
Figure
There
muscle
animals.
nuclei
in
(nerve
over
3.3.3).
muscles
The
the
and
neurones
together.
are
epithelial
skin
alveoli
nerve
42
beat
the
the
Most
of
Cilia
found
in
cells.
Nucleus
human
3.3.2
are
and
(Figure
cell
cilia
nose
Squamous
Figure
system
surfaces.
next
the
up
3.3.1
cells
bronchi)
epithelial
membrane
fluid
Fig
squamous
epithelial
(windpipe
Cell
and
guard
cells
that
open
and
close
the
stomata
are
specialised
epidermal
cells.
Root
hair
cells
that
absorb
water
and
mineral
ions
Cell
are
also
Some
cell
cells
wall
easy
do
epidermal
to
not
They
become
as
they
develop
are
used
specialised
develop;
transport
water
thick
for
membrane
cells.
they
from
cell
the
for
transport.
also
lose
roots
walls
to
and
transport
of
cell
leaves
retain
a
Xylem
their
(see
some
solution
cells
gain
contents
6.6).
of
rich
a
thick
make
Phloem
their
in
to
it
cells
contents.
sucrose,
amino
Nucleus
acids
and
and
other
fruits
solutes.
(Figure
This
fluid
moves
from
leaves
to
roots,
flowers
3.3.5).
Cytoplasm
Organisation
Most
of
specialised
similar
Ciliated
cells
function
dirt
or
the
are
to
trachea
is
an
organs:
root,
trachea
organ
one
stem
or
and
of
more
for
The
of
idea
that
body.
Most
of
and
of
the
major
through
labour.
tissue
the
of
cells
Cells
there
leaf.
Any
of
A
the
is
a
Figure
3.3.4
Muscle
on
need
other
and
take
conditions,
can
work
cells
and
away
such
as
trachea.
carrying
leading
in
An
the
make
muscle
secrete
organ
for
is
a
body.
structure
the
any
Their
bacteria,
up
tissue,
mucus.
group
Plants
in
the
a
some
The
of
of
tissues
have
plant
whole
is
exchange
that
In
work
the
transpiration
certain
for
for
sucrose
out
efficient
one
is
tissues
their
to
waste
(see
Figure
provide
the
products.
and
0.2.3
pH,
on
like
this
the
reproductive
The
page
the
trachea
and
in
arteries
the
and
veins.
6.6)
of
and
the
known
as
in
the
division
of
the
body
body
that
and
maintains
so
that
3.3.5
Xylem
and
phloem
they
the
SUMMARY
QUESTIONS
cells
9).
1
Define
the
following
terms:
specialised,
organ,
organ
system
POINTS
and
Cells
in
multicellular
function
2
of
are
tissue,
1
in
system,
An
multicellular,
KEY
found
6.8).
substances
constant
also
wall
Cells
transport
functioning
function
are
the
gut.
for
transport
(see
(see
functions
the
there
from
three
system.
excretion,
cells
human
a
together
animals,
systems
as
the
walls
gas
body.
are
to
carry
that
coordination,
such
together
that
cartilage,
organs
the
temperature
efficiently
cell
group
Figure
rely
nerve
function.
organs.
up
there
compounds
cells
tissue
major
line
lungs
several
other
make
plants,
specialised
is
three
several
specialise
A
one
that
the
glands
movement,
work
of
functions
these
plant
out
sheets
organ.
functions
in
tissues.
carry
from
one
and
an
lungs
digestion,
translocation
just
comprises
reproduction;
water
is
more
one
and
system
systems
or
3.3.3
in.
example,
blood
one
modification
The
tissue
into
to
thin
away
breathe
example
perform
into
mucus
we
For
tissue,
organised
together
arranged
that
trachea.
are
work
move
Figure
cells
cells
that
epithelial
nervous
that
is
dust
Ciliated
of
cells
of
or
Epithelial
several
cells,
organisms
related
nerve
cells,
are
specialised
for
one
major
2
functions.
muscle
cells,
xylem
cells
division
Name
the
of
specialised
tissues
and
up
human
the
labour
organs
gas
cells,
that
make
exchange
and
system.
phloem
cells
are
examples
of
specialised
cells.
3
3
Cells
are
organised
into
tissues;
tissues
are
organised
Make
on
organs;
organs
are
organised
into
organ
some
learning
notes
into
the
specialised
cells
in
this
systems.
section.
on
page
these
See
6
How
to
to
help
Learn
you
1
make
notes.
43
3.4
Transport
across
cell
membranes
Cells
LEARNING
cannot
have
At
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
Cell
you
the
to:
to
take
define
the
cell,
but
terms
and
total
isolation
explain
important
why
for
surround
they
are
kept
a
that
from
the
partial
in;
they
their
need
surroundings,
cytoplasm
barrier
others
are
to
and
and
get
rid
keep
they
their
wastes.
everything
movement.
exchanged
of
with
Some
the
inside
useful
surroundings.
diffusion,
active
allow
some
substances
to
enter
but
not
others;
this
is
transport
why
and
in
substances
are
Membranes
osmosis
in
membranes
substances
•
exist
OUTCOMES
they
they
are
described
as
differentially
permeable
membranes.
are
cells
Diffusion
•
explain
that
special
type
osmosis
of
is
a
Oxygen
diffusion
is
needed
concentration
•
explain
how
active
from
by
mitochondria
oxygen
within
for
our
aerobic
cells
is
respiration.
very
low
as
it
The
is
used
up
all
transport
the
differs
of
time.
The
concentration
outside
the
cell
in
the
tissue
fluid
is
much
diffusion.
higher.
more
Molecules
pass
movement
their
of
through
is
oxygen
the
diffusion
concentration
Unicellular
oxygen
body
carbon
surface.
surfaces
like
In
the
and
the
gradient,
organisms,
and
move
membrane
such
dioxide
as
into
alveoli
our
cell
are
from
to
high
Amoeba,
large
randomly
the
molecules
across
contrast,
in
about
the
animals
lungs
rely
cell
said
low
on
over
pass
to
time,
out.
move
This
down
concentration.
the
diffusion
membrane
have
(see
and,
than
that
specialised
of
forms
gas
their
exchange
5.9).
Osmosis
The
diffusion
The
movement
solutions
is
Figure
3.4.1
These
yeast
placed
has
in
cells
blue
diffused
have
dye
into
the
on
of
water
of
either
diffusion
of
through
water
side
is
of
water
membranes
influenced
the
from
by
membrane
a
place
is
the
known
(Figure
with
a
as
osmosis.
concentration
low
3.4.1).
of
the
Osmosis
concentration
of
been
which
them.
solutes
(dilute
solutes
(more
solution)
to
a
concentrated
place
with
solution)
a
higher
across
a
concentration
differentially
of
permeable
membrane.
Blood
STUDY
proteins
FOCUS
blood
Cellulose
cell
fully
all
substances
them.
no
or
walls
as
freely
will
but
find
throughout
Make
sure
mean
and
44
means
pass
can
others
these
this
you
can
drops
Figure
of
in
a
3.4.2
blood
are
solution
shows
put
of
salts,
what
into
that
means
terms
blood
cells
in
a
concentration
salt
as
B
Red
blood
cells
in
tap
C
Red
blood
cells
in
a
solution
blood
that
has
about
the
plasma
water
used
guide.
what
them
Red
same
salt
they
correctly.
Figure
3.4.2
greater
than
the
solution
with
a
concentration
concentration
of
blood
to
different
through.
A
glucose
happens
three
as
cannot.
know
use
suspended
plasma.
when
pass
study
cells
through
permeable
substances
through,
Y
ou
can
called
cells
of
described
pass
Impermeable
Differentially
some
are
permeable
can
substances
consists
of
plasma
and
red
solutions.
In
A,
the
liquid
becomes
cloudy
red.
If
a
small
drop
of
this
liquid
is
LINK
examined
shape.
In
cloudy.
under
has
Plant
microscope
are
is
a
no
the
the
cells
cell.
and
osmosis
wall.
is
behave
When
much
the
the
cells
blood
The
when
to
has
has
goes
of
C,
they
is
is
not
put
Amoeba
–
see
is
a
unicellular
protist
3.2.
osmosis
the
moves
because
but
each
that
and
usual
water
by
around
water
water,
their
red,
the
moved
volume
cells
into
have
entered
In
in
animal
put
some
membrane
water
decrease
are
cells
water
water
membrane.
cells
differently
plant
cells
because
permeable
So
burst
and
red
change.
blood
This
differentially
into
the
sudden
red
microscope.
cell
by
a
there
increased
cells
cell
B,
There
a
through
blood
under
red
volume
out
become
they
have
absorb
of
the
crinkly.
a
water
by
The solution outside the
osmosis.
wall
The
making
high
vacuole
the
cell
concentration
fills
with
turgid.
of
water
When
solutes,
and
pushes
placed
water
into
leaves
against
a
the
the
solution
cell
by
cell
with
cell is more concentrated
than in the vacuole
a
osmosis
and
Water
the
vacuole
shrinks
pulling
the
cytoplasm
and
the
cell
out
away
cells
cell
from
in
to
the
this
cell
cell
state
by
wall.
are
This
is
described
osmosis
when
called
as
they
plasmolysis
flaccid.
have
Water
cell
(Figure
can
contents
passes
membrane
move
with
by
3.4.3);
from
different
of
the
cell
osmosis
Cell
wall
Cell
membrane
concentrations.
As cytoplasm is pulled
away from the cell
wall, the cell becomes
Active
Active
a
cell
transport
transport
through
the
is
plasmolysed
the
cell
movement
membrane
of
ions
against
a
or
molecules
in
concentration
or
out
of
Figure
3.4.3
When
with
gradient,
put
a
solutes,
using
energy
released
during
respiration.
Cell
membranes
into
high
plant
and
proteins.
work
to
These
move
ions
carrier
and
proteins
molecules
span
into
the
or
cell
out
of
solution
cells
of
become
have
plasmolysed
carrier
a
concentration
like
this.
membrane
cells
by
active
transport.
KEY
Active
transport
important
villi
in
from
the
the
in
occurs
nerve
small
soil
in
and
kidney
intestine
by
active
almost
(see
all
cells
5.5).
cells,
and
Root
but
also
as
the
hair
we
will
cells
cells
see
that
absorb
it
line
POINTS
is
the
mineral
1
ions
Substances
out
uptake.
QUESTIONS
definitions
concentration
of
the
following
gradient,
terms:
and
active
active
the
molecules
differentially
Make
a
table
diffusion,
column
to
to
show
Explain
why
it
is
permeable
does
not
the
and
the
similarities
active
features
and
transport.
that
you
differences
Remember
are
between
to
include
a
comparing.
of
molecules
water
solution
with
Describe
how
important
that
the
concentration
of
the
become
too
low
or
too
active
transport
occurs
to
a
with
high
a
solutes
from
low
solutes
to
a
solution
concentration
(concentrated
across
a
differentially
blood
membrane.
high.
move
a
molecule
Active
transport
is
the
out
of
molecules
and
cell.
ions
5
of
solution)
movement
of
a
(dilute
of
4
4
diffusion
membrane,
permeable
plasma
gradient.
is
solution)
3
a
transport
show
osmosis
movement
Osmosis
concentration
2
transport.
down
the
and
diffusion,
a
osmosis
is
into
diffusion,
concentration
3
Write
move
by
and
Diffusion
of
1
cells
osmosis
2
SUMMARY
of
Make
a
spider
membranes.
yourself
diagram
(See
about
How
how
to
to
summarise
to
Learn
do
this.)
2,
on
movement
page
8
to
across
remind
cell
across
against
a
gradient
a
cell
membrane
concentration
using
energy
from
respiration.
45
Unit
SECTION
1
3
1:
Practice
Multiple-choice
Chloroplasts
in
a
palisade
exam
questions
questions
mesophyll
cell
are
in
5
Which
of
the
following
is
an
following
is
a
organ?
the
A
cytoplasm
B
nucleus
C
sap
D
space
A
blood
B
epidermis
C
kidney
D
xylem
vacuole
between
the
cell
wall
and
the
cell
6
Which
of
the
membrane
2
Which
to
3
occur
must
between
a
be
cell
present
and
A
cell
wall
and
cell
B
cell
wall
and
cytoplasm
C
cytoplasm
D
vacuole
The
table
and
and
cell
shows
the
microbes.
A,
or
D,
C
A
a
bacterium
B
Amoeba
C
a
D
yeast
osmosis
surroundings?
mould
membrane
wall
of
B,
its
for
membrane
cell
groups
in
4
structures
components
Which
indicates
the
of
of
the
four
following,
components
found
bacteria?
Cell
Cell
membrane
wall
Nucleus
Chloroplast
Mitochondrion
A
✓
✗
✓
✗
✓
B
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
C
✓
✓
✗
✗
✗
D
✓
✓
✓
✗
✓
Substances
transport,
the
cross
cell
diffusion
correct
membranes
and
examples
of
osmosis.
each
of
by
active
Which
these
shows
three
processes?
Active
A
transport
Glucose
by
epithelium
small
B
Mineral
of
root
Osmosis
ions
hair
by
Carbon
cells
red
dioxide
blood
ions
hair
by
cells
Oxygen
by
epithelium
Water
of
in
by
pond
Amoeba
water
alveolus
C
Oxygen
blood
by
red
cells
Carbon
red
dioxide
blood
cells
by
Glucose
Water
in
46
by
pond
Amoeba
water
Mineral
root
ions
hair
by
cells
by
epithelium
small
D
by
cell
intestine
Mineral
root
Diffusion
of
intestine
Oxygen
blood
by
cells
red
fungus
protist?
SECTION
7
2:
Visking
Short
tubing
membrane
Some

Six
in
is
similar
that
students
pieces
answer
of
it
is
questions
to
cell
surface
differentially
followed
Visking
this
e
Predict
permeable.
of
procedure.
tubing
in
length
were
make
a
bag.
Five
tied
bags
at
one
concentrations
were
of
students
filled
peeling
they
weighed
10.0 g.
a
sugar
with
distilled
water
The
bags
were
suspended
in
tied
a
with
large
The
sixth
bag
After
6
blotted
hours,
dry
the
with
of
the
cotton
beaker
bags
paper
of
were
small
onions
The
are
investigation
They
divided
the
into
five
batches
same
Each
of
batch
10
was
onions
placed
solution
of
different
concentrations
of
into
salt
mass.
thread
and
distilled
each
water
.
The
chloride).
batch
was
students
mass.
The
After
immersion
surface
dried
calculated
table
the
shows
and
for
two
percentage
their
hours
reweighed.
change
results.
removed,
towels
results
hours.
(3)
their
onions.
them.
and
Concentration
reweighed.
mass
18
was
in

the
prediction.
continued
50
weighed
(sodium

to
another
solution
a
filled
for
with
and
until
your
happen
left
end
peeled
different
will
if
measuring
by
to
what
bags
Explain
The
140 mm
the
shown
in
Figure
Mean
mass
of
onions/g
Percentage
–3
1.
of
salt
/
g dm
change
before
after
in
2
mass
immersion
hours
22
immersion
0
147
173
+18.0
25
153
165
+8.0
50
176
172
−2.0
100
154
149
150
149
142
−4.5
200
183
175
−4.5
20
g/sruoh
18
6
retfa
16
ssaM
14
Information
and
data
used
to
compile
the
table
from
Practical
12
osmosis
in
Education
vegetable
(1993)
27
pickling,
(2),
Ray
pages
W
James.
Journal
of
Biological
90–91
10
0
50
100
150
200
250
f
300
i
Concentration
of
Calculate
in
–3
sugar/g dm
mass
the
for
percentage
the
onions
change
kept
in
the
–3
100 g dm
Figure
salt
solution.
Show
your
1
working.
a
Explain
why
the
ii
i
included
a
bag
that
contained
distilled
water
surface-dried
Make
Figure
c
a
the
bags
before
weighing
table
to
record
the
data
shown
(4)
the
results
of
the
the
One
student
that
they
how
graph
the
to
calculated
the
mass.
(1)
percentage
change
concentration
of
solution.
iv
Use
in
salt
(5)
your
which
graph
there
to
is
find
no
the
salt
change
in
Total
not
solution
mass. (1)
25
marks
the
results
saying
reliable.
procedure
should
make
the
results
practice
questions
be
examples
can
be
found
more
on
reliable.
of
against
and
changed
in
(5)
criticised
were
a
mass
Further
State
students
change
students’
investigation.
d
in
Draw
in
(1)
1.
Explain
why
(2)
them.
b
State
percentage
iii
ii
(2)
students
the
accompanying
CD.
(1)
47
4
Nutrition
4.1
T
ypes
Producers
LEARNING
At
the
end
should
be
define
of
this
able
the
nutrition,
nutrition
topic
Y
ou
will
and
food
terms
autotrophic
these
into
heterotrophic
and
the
three
webs
and
give
from
show
chemical
compounds
saprophytic
complex
differences
types
of
chains
examples
of
and
energy.
(carbon
organic
autotrophic
1.4
and
feeding
1.5
that
we
can
relationships.
write
food
Producers,
chains
such
as
green
(Figure
webs.
These
and
compounds.
type
the
at
base
energy
absorb
and
of
the
light
also
water)
The
and
are
convert
organisms
dioxide
nutrition
4.1.2),
They
use
simple
them
nutrition
organisms
that
of
almost
from
to
used
feed
the
all
Sun
inorganic
make
by
producers
this
way
are
between
autotrophs.
Consumers
are
not
able
to
utilise
simple
inorganic
nutrition
compounds
•
to
phytoplankton
food
called
the
remember
to:
is
state
consumers
you
nutrition
•
and
nutrition
OUTCOMES
plants
•
of
each
type
or
absorb
and
make
use
of
light
energy.
Instead
they
feed
of
on
other
organisms.
This
type
of
nutrition
is
heterotrophic
nutrition
nutrition.
and
organisms
that
Autotrophic
Autotrophic
simple
and
hydrogen
make
the
means
a
are
and
are
larger
iron
and
raw
as
Figure
4.1.1
Mangrove
all
green
trees,
plants,
called
eat
the
in
solid
the
the
are
of
food
ocean,
48
like
need
elements
major
phosphorus.
about
other
are
elements
elements,
such
these
Carbon
elements
dioxide
carbon,
elements
absorbed
required
These
as
only
are
by
green
required
magnesium,
elements
in
in
sulfur,
4.5.
food
in
a
variety
into
food
of
way.
Protists,
vacuoles.
This
such
as
process
(see
of
(see
3.2
their
the
it
is
food
body
like
this
6.4).
Multicellular
using
and
(see
suck
6.8)
jaws
and
body
and
animals
is
teeth.
fluids.
Fluid
Aphids
mosquitoes
that
feeders
feed
feed
on
from
blood
10.2).
supported
the
and
dead
The
by
fruiting
an
wood.
digested.
bodies
extensive
These
The
of
hyphae
hyphae
mushrooms
network
then
of
release
absorb
in
hyphae
that
enzymes
the
onto
products
feed
of
and
in
a
variety
their
use
hosts.
of
ways.
Lice,
piercing
Some
ticks
and
mouthparts
parasitic
fleas
to
animals
hold
suck
onto
blood.
live
the
on
body
Many
of
parasitic
the
the
live
gut
inside
or
on
the
bodies
nutrients
of
that
their
are
hosts
feeding
transported
in
on
the
digested
blood.
food
There
planktonic
these.
to
from
are
in
algae
more
heterotrophic.
are
where
host
animals
autotrophs
way
all
surface
their
microscopic
and
with
the
need
digestion.
the
open
is
other
three
particles
into
plants
through
Parasites
the
bite
of
4.1.5
spreads
main
their
food
surface
same
Figure
the
food
phloem
Fungi
In
The
environment.
provide
autotrophs
These
organisms
nutrition
phagocytosis
pierce
4.1.2
heterotrophs
like
are
autotrophic.
Figure
gain
engulf
called
their
that
addition
potassium
There
Heterotrophic
Amoeba,
in
compared
calcium.
Heterotrophs
are
Autotrophic
from
materials
ions.
nitrogen,
quantities
way
feeding’.
substances.
surroundings
plants
‘self
oxygen;
of
this
substances
the
range
in
nutrition
inorganic
water
feed
are
some
parasitic
fungi
that
live
on
human
skin;
ringworm
is
an
example.
animals;
typhoid
There
are
examples
and
than
bacteria
on
living
species
affect
tuberculosis
Saprophytic
Many
many
that
us
(TB)
of
bacteria
are
(see
the
that
bacteria
are
parasites
that
cause
of
cholera,
10.1).
nutrition
and
fungi
feed
organisms.
on
Earlier
dead
we
and
decaying
considered
matter
these
rather
organisms
Figure
as
decomposers
because
they
break
down
the
dead
remains
4.1.3
Animals
cattle,
plants
and
animals
and
help
to
recycle
elements,
such
as
nitrogen.
This
is
a
form
of
heterotrophic
nutrition
because
guts
the
source
and
such
as
them,
T
able
carbon
then
fungi
the
absorbing
that
world
4.1.1
compounds
grow
would
summarises
the
on
be
by
soluble
dead
full
the
secreting
of
products.
wood,
dead
enzymes
can
but
differences
not
onto
Many
digest
their
these
that
termites
contain
food
microbes
digest
their
that
help
food.
decomposers,
cellulose.
decomposed
between
sheep,
and
they
many
obtain
as
horses
carbon
have
and
such
of
three
Without
trees.
types
of
nutrition.
T
able
4.1.1
Types
of
nutrition
Figure
Feature
T
ypes
of
4.1.4
This
nutrition
Autotrophic
the
Heterotrophic
boy
has
ringworm
of
scalp.
Saprophytic
(saprotrophic)
Source
of
Light
Complex
energy
Source
e.g.
of
Carbon
dioxide
Complex
carbon
Types
(as
of
All
organism
green
plants;
fat,
compounds
protein,
compounds
of
carbon,
cellulose
of
carbon
above)
Animals;
algae;
carbon
starch,
fungi
parasitic
Decomposers
and
–
many
Figure
4.1.5
species
These
mushrooms
Costa
Rican
millions
some
bacteria
bacteria;
plants,
parasitic
of
e.g.
bacteria
YOU
Scientists
4000 m
have
in
the
found
base
of
the
communities
Cayman
penetrates
to
food
T
rench
these
webs
organisms
between
depths,
obtain
of
so
their
the
Jamaica
at
depths
and
autotrophic
energy
from
Cuba.
of
Draw
a
spider
show
the
at
using
sulfur
and
hydrogen
sulfide
released
floor
known
as
hydrothermal
include
organisms
the
type
of
from
holes
Make
each
a
table
involves
the
conversion
of
compounds
(carbon
dioxide
and
compounds.
The
energy
for
this
water)
comes
to
Heterotrophic
nutrition
involves
Name
from
Saprophytic
involves
matter.
nutrition
feeding
on
is
a
form
organic
the
levels
Give
feeding
on
of
organic
heterotrophic
material
from
dead
a
type
and
of
examples
level
from
in
your
locality.
the
type
of
of
the
compounds.
nutrition
and
special
between
sheep
light.
the
their
a
3
show
complex
and
2
to
trophic
relationship
organic
each
simple
3
inorganic
to
trophic
each
wildlife
nutrition
show
vents.
POINTS
Autotrophic
of
in
nutrition.
1
that
types
named
chemical
assign
KEY
to
nutrition.
different
sea
diagram
different
nutrition;
No
bacteria
simple
over
2
the
QUESTIONS
1.6)
KNOW?
light
reactions
spores.
fungi
(see
1
DID
tiny
a
release
and
SUMMARY
dodder
of
in
forest
bacteria
stomachs
that
(see
live
1.6
in
for
hint).
that
decaying
4
Suggest
fungi
why
saprophytic
produce
many
spores.
49
4.2
Photosynthesis
LEARNING
At
the
end
should
be
Water
weeds
rivers.
During
oxygenate
of
this
able
topic
in
you
oxygen
–
daylight
the
define
the
state
the
the
raw
reactions
term
and
source
of
materials
products
of
energy,
and
write
word
product
of
in
is
which
a
process
carbon
only
is
in
absorbed
by
that
and
ponds,
of
lakes
gas
and
that
(Figure
are
rich
4.2.1).
light
energy
water
are
to
drive
changed
chemical
to
glucose
a
green
pigment
which
is
found
chloroplasts.
process
is
summarised
in
this
role
word
equation:
balanced
equations
the
uses
and
chlorophyll,
energy
for
dioxide
+
water
glucose
photosynthesis
state
tanks,
bubbles
photosynthesis
carbon
•
fish
photosynthesis
dioxide
light
chemical
in
release
oxygen.
Light
the
The
•
they
to:
photosynthesis
•
water
hours
waste
Photosynthesis
•
the
OUTCOMES
+
oxygen
chlorophyll
of
chlorophyll
in
The
chemical
equation
for
photosynthesis
is:
photosynthesis
light
•
describe
the
fate
of
the
6CO
+
6H
2
products
of
the
process
used
The
to
The
•
bright
sunshine
freshwater
releases
in
plant,
bubbles
as
should
learn
these
realise
many
used
Elodea,
of
gas
rich
and
in
two
in
gains
from
A
cellulose
to
reactions
chloroplasts.
reactions
50
a
the
in
for
to
a
dioxide
light
to
These
simple
ions
energy
plant.
water
water
and
to
diffuse
form
electrons
are
sugar.
photosynthesis
the
and
split
Some
is
used
is
to
produce
respired
needed
to
keep
the
produce
to
make:
a
immediately
cells
alive.
the
this
is
glucose
they
transported
and
fleshy
around
dispersal
(see
fruits
6.8,
to
the
plant
9.5
attract
in
the
and
animals
phloem.
for
It
is
pollination
9.6)
storage
organs,
(e.g.
Irish
such
as
seeds,
potatoes),
as
a
swollen
roots
long-term
(e.g.
energy
yams),
store
splitting
gains
help
leaves
to
to
make
seeds
store
cell
energy
walls,
disperse
in
for
also
the
use
used
in
to
respiration
make
fibres
at
in
night
cotton
bolls
wind
that
lipids
to
make
cell
membranes
and
for
energy
storage,
e.g.
in
seeds.
In
combining
where
acids
sugars
and
with
then
use
nitrogen
them
to
from
make
nitrate
ions,
proteins,
plants
such
as
These
of
a
electrons
reduction
in
can
make
carbon
electrons.
the
reaction
substance
called
2
glucose
stems
•
they
(see
water.
–
starch
amino
come
of
use
seed
starch
By
these
dioxide
provides
oxygen.
dioxide
produced
carbon
absorbs
and
substances
nectar
•
•
within
of
6O
oxygen.
but
summarise
one
+
6
FOCUS
equations,
occur
it
plants
sucrose
of
Chlorophyll
carbon
sugar
fate
swollen
You
O
12
the
•
STUDY
photosynthesis,
electrons
reduce
range
cells
The
ions,
simple
wide
by
of
chloroplasts.
hydrogen
In
H
6
chlorophyll
into
4.2.1
C
2
photosynthesis.
In
Figure
energy
O
is
reaction.
5.3)
and
carrier
proteins
in
cell
membranes
(see
3.4).
enzymes
Gas
exchange
in
plants
STUDY
Plants
use
the
oxygen
they
make
for
their
own
aerobic
respiration
Using
(see
5.8).
However
,
they
cannot
use
all
of
it
and
much
diffuses
leaves
into
the
atmosphere
for
other
organisms,
like
us,
to
bullet
use.
to
the
day
carbon
dioxide
diffuses
into
leaves
through
make
stomata
diffuses
out.
At
night,
photosynthesis
cannot
occur
as
there
light.
some
and
Most
remain
some
stomata
partially
carbon
tend
open
dioxide
to
to
to
close
allow
diffuse
at
night
some
out.
to
conserve
oxygen
Much
to
more
water
,
diffuse
Y
ou
Uptake
during
the
day
than
is
produced
at
night
(Figure
good
can
also
put
the
same
into
chart
spider
diagrams
diagrams.
T
ry
but
into
carbon
flow
converting
the
information
the
glucose
on
leaves
dioxide
fate
of
into
a
diagram
is
(see
absorbed
a
is
or
no
is
learning
and
information
oxygen
your
So
notes.
during
points
out
way
of
FOCUS
question
3).
4.2.2).
of
carbon
dioxide
No
net
uptake
or
Release
release
of
SUMMARY
QUESTIONS
carbon
dioxide
1
a
Write
out
chemical
the
balanced
equation
for
photosynthesis.
00.00
06.00
12.00
18.00
24.00
b
Annotate
the
equation
Time/h
by
Figure
4.2.2
The
uptake
and
release
of
carbon
dioxide
from
a
plant
during
identifying
materials,
hours
on
a
very
bright
sunny
on
graph
because
it
shows
is
that
respiring
at
night,
and
not
the
plant
releases
carbon
over
the
next
hour
the
photosynthesising.
light
intensity
The
increases
sun
and
rises
so
of
photosynthesis.
At
08.00,
the
in
respiration
for
its
plant
uses
all
the
photosynthesis
and
carbon
does
from
the
air
.
higher
Between
than
the
09.00
rate
of
and
11.00
the
respiration
so
rate
the
of
equation.
not
the
role
of
chlorophyll
photosynthesis.
dioxide
Make
a
spider
diagram
to
absorb
what
happens
to
photosynthesis
the
becomes
the
Explain
show
any
of
products
the
3
produced
source
the
at
does
in
rate
the
and
dioxide
2
07.00;
raw
day.
energy
The
the
24
plant
absorbs
glucose
produced
in
more
photosynthesis.
carbon
dioxide
from
the
air
.
4
KEY
Make
POINTS
occur
1
Photosynthesis
to
2
sugars
is
using
Photosynthesis
the
light
conversion
as
occurs
a
in
of
carbon
of
energy.
source
dioxide
and
water
and
Chlorophyll
is
the
green
chloroplasts.
pigment
in
5
The
for
chloroplasts
that
the
that
mitochondria
during
the
the
occurs
gas
exchange
between
leaves
absorbs
sugar
produced
storage,
is
sucrose
combined
used
to
make
in
photosynthesis
for
with
transport
nitrogen
and
to
is
converted
cellulose
make
for
amino
to
cell
acids
starch
the
atmosphere
During
the
stomata
day
and
day,
Explain
walls.
and
your
reference
a
during
which
and
to
b
at
night.
answers
by
photosynthesis
respiration.
proteins.
6
5
show
energy.
Some
are
to
substances
between
Describe
the
4
of
day
and
light
diagram
chloroplasts
that
3
a
exchanges
carbon
oxygen
dioxide
diffuses
diffuses
out;
at
into
night
leaves
the
through
reverse
happens.
Discuss
the
importance
photosynthesis
for
life
of
on
Earth.
51
4.3
Leaf
Leaves
LEARNING
the
end
should
•
be
describe
of
this
able
the
topic
leaf
you
to:
external
that
a
typical
describe
of
a
organs
midrib
the
main
which
vein
all
is
adapted
green
for
the
leaf
to
contains
over
the
with
the
the
a
photosynthesis.
large
stem.
main
thin
part
A
surface.
Extending
vein.
of
flat
typical
Minor
the
leaf
The
leaf,
from
veins
known
petiole
the
branch
as
or
petiole
the
is
from
blade
structure
4.3.1).
leaf
the
typical
hibiscus,
attaches
the
Some
•
of
stalk
(Figure
of
plant
OUTCOMES
like
At
are
structure
internal
leaf
as
of
the
external
features
are
adaptations
for
photosynthesis:
structure
seen
in
•
green
to
absorb
•
large
surface
•
veins
–
light
–
the
green
colour
is
chlorophyll
cross-section
•
explain
how
adapted
for
leaves
•
If
to
carry
–
and
oxygen
you
as
so
tear
viewed
two
to
water
blade
hibiscus
and
petiole
of
a
the
there
the
absorb
as
much
light
as
possible
and
ions
throughout
the
leaf
and
carry
When
are
a
cells
are
typical
short
of
Figure
light
scattered
allow
They
is
leaf
blade
with
guard
Stomata
leaf.
of
epidermis.
stomata
The
out
thin
lower
4.3.1
–
photosynthesis.
sucrose
Figure
area
are
some
leaves
4.3.2
that
microscope.
control
to
another
the
the
diffuse
cut
in
distances
is
You
lower
can
for
of
the
out
to
peel
that
Each
hole
of
carbon
the
the
of
there
a
are
stoma
in
air
dioxide
off
epidermis
see
epidermis.
and
for
possible
the
width
in
adaptation
are
it
shows
throughout
gases
leaves
diffusion
leaf
many
consists
between
spaces
them.
inside
the
photosynthesis.
cross-section
and
studied
under
a
leaf.
microscope,
they
Figure
is
same
4.3.4
have
drawn
the
from
appearance
a
section
of
the
through
leaf
in
Figure
another
leaf
4.3.3.
from
the
plant.
Cuticle
Upper
epidermis
Chloroplast
Palisade
mesophyll
Figure
4.3.2
Carbon
diffuse
dioxide
and
through
stomata
(×
oxygen
Air
space
these
200).
Vascular
bundle
(xylem
and
Spongy
phloem)
mesophyll
Lower
Figure
4.3.3
A
cross-section
of
a
see
leaf
blade.
large
spaces,
a
of
the
You
can
intercellular
stoma
and
epidermis
edge
air
a
Sub-stomatal
air
space
Figure
(×
52
100).
Guard
cell
Stoma
vein
4.3.4
This
drawing
shows
the
tissues
inside
the
blade
of
a
leaf.
of
T
able
in
4.3.1
Figures
T
able
summarises
4.3.3
4.3.1
and
Functions
Tissue
Function
Upper
Cells
epidermis
vapour
are
the
of
make
to
the
a
tissues
waxy
the
air
transparent
mesophyll;
Palisade
Cells
mesophyll
the
to
functions
of
the
tissues
that
you
can
see
4.3.4.
contain
cells
are
capture
pushes
allow
many
Cells
mesophyll
mesophyll
to
throughout
Xylem
Supplies
Phloem
Phloem
by
water
light
to
light
to
as
the
pass
loss
through
to
the
much
the
large
light;
vacuole
each
cell
spaces
than
in
carbon
below)
chloroplasts
of
of
water
cells
epidermis
absorb
allow
possible;
diffusion
of
epidermal
lower
to
to
edge
air
the
and
(see
together
larger
allow
the
reduces
cuticle
chloroplasts
much
separated
that
stomata
chloroplasts
Spongy
leaf
6.7);
have
packed
as
a
cuticle
(see
to
may
in
palisade
dioxide
leaf
and
transports
ions
sucrose
away
from
the
leaf
to
other
Figure
parts
of
the
4.3.5
This
plant
of
electron
the
inside
shows
Lower
Cells
are
like
those
of
the
upper
epidermis;
some
specialised
as
pairs
of
guard
cells
that
control
cylindrical
oxygen
Some
of
the
of
stomata
diffuse
internal
in
features
through
and
are
out
which
and
carbon
water
adaptations
dioxide
vapour
for
and
diffuses
close
leaf
packed
–
to
palisade
maximise
mesophyll
absorption
cells
of
light
near
the
where
the
stomata
diffuse
•
thin
–
(usually
into
the
short
atmosphere
in
lower
leaf
(and
distance
to
the
for
cells
epidermis)
oxygen
to
diffusion
of
the
to
upper
its
allow
diffuse
of
surface
intensity
is
of
palisade
and
cells
shape
of
leaf
is
a
air
(×
very
and
extensive
spaces
inside
200).
carbon
QUESTIONS
the
highest
dioxide
to
Make
a
large
hibiscus
out)
carbon
in
photosynthesis:
1
•
there
system
out.
SUMMARY
•
leaf
the
that
aperture
a
palisade
are
are
epidermis
that
micrograph
of
leaf
Annotate
dioxide
spongy
from
to
the
show
features
mesophyll
drawing
in
your
how
are
Figure
of
the
4.3.1.
drawing
the
external
adaptations
for
photosynthesis.
•
large
the
intercellular
mesophyll
•
xylem
to
•
phloem
air
spaces
–
for
diffusion
of
carbon
dioxide
to
all
cells
bring
2
water
and
Make
ions
each
to
transport
sucrose
to
the
rest
of
the
diagram
of
to
tissue
of
leaf,
with
Annotate
show
how
a
cross-
showing
two
or
three
your
the
diagram
internal
POINTS
structure
1
a
plant.
cells.
KEY
a
section
Leaves
are
the
site
are
green
of
most
photosynthesis
that
takes
place
for
in
of
a
leaf
is
adapted
photosynthesis.
plants.
3
2
Leaves
energy;
they
absorption
for
3
Internally,
cells
of
carbon
of
leaves
closely
light
have
and
diffusion
and
as
they
are
large
contain
large
are
carbon
packed
dioxide
a
they
surface
thin
the
the
that
to
absorb
maximise
there
are
vein,
light
short
for
air
State
photosynthesis
layer
spaces
atmosphere
to
for
to
all
by
allow
the
many
absorption
diffusion
mesophyll
of
cells.
4
functions
in
cells
of
leaves:
palisade
guard
distances
having
maximum
the
following
light
air
palisade
intercellular
from
area
to
dioxide.
adapted
in
so
chlorophyll
the
epidermis,
mesophyll,
and
intercellular
spaces.
Use
Figure
diagram
section
to
4.3.5
to
show
through
a
draw
a
horizontal
the
palisade
mesophyll.
53
4.4
Investigating
photosynthesis
T
esting
LEARNING
Testing
At
the
end
leaves
for
of
this
topic
leaves
for
starch
be
able
describe
solution
how
to
presence
•
describe
to
test
of
use
of
iodine
leaves
for
if
the
to
you
and
into
The
simply
decolourised
starch
how
starch.
show
chlorophyll
starch.
colour
put
by
•
explain
for
what
destarched
Put
outline
the
is
meant
by
of
temperature
dioxide
a
leaf
2
If
to
you
of
3
Put
the
the
and
intensity,
a
removing
boiling
so
you
Bunsen
leaf
4
Stand
concentration
on
into
the
5
Remove
test
and
a
a
plant
has
been
photosynthesis
is
is
used
iodine
a
leaf.
to
detect
solution
The
the
cannot
leaves
must
presence
be
seen
first
be
chlorophyll.
water
for
extract
one
the
minute.
This
destroys
chlorophyll.
burner
to
boil
the
water
,
turn
it
off
afterwards.
tube
of
ethanol.
The
chlorophyll
dissolves
tube
in
a
beaker
of
hot
water
for
about
10
minutes.
the
leaf
rehydrates
in
the
cold
leaf
water.
which
This
removes
softens
it
and
the
makes
it
photosynthesis.
to
spread
Spread
the
eye
protection
Safety:
ethanol
is
flammable
If
out.
leaf
on
out
flat
water
If
leaf
you
for
goes
test
Is
Turn
off
Bunsen
a
about
a
has
plant
used
a
white
to
Follow
leaf
is
there
from
week
you
a
surface
light
needed
these
and
put
iodine
is
for
starch
in
to
is
it
present.
If
it
stays
in
a
dark
a
light
starch.
that
has
has
sugars
Plants
instructions
of
no
find
converted
that
starch
is
plant
will
destarched.
show
light
blue-black,
colour
been
production
Iodine
on
it.
the
The
that
been
no
starch
and
have
necessary
for
in
used
in
been
it.
place
All
of
the
respiration.
destarched
are
photosynthesis.
photosynthesis?
to
show
that
light
is
needed
for
the
photosynthesis.
solution
1
T
ake
tin
a
destarched
foil
or
black
plant
and
paper
to
attach
it
cover
prevent
part
light
of
a
leaf
getting
with
some
through.
be
Make
sure
you
firmly
using
tape
or
paper
clips.
not
burn
yourself
Figure
4.4.1
Testing
a
leaf
for
2
Leave
3
Test
the
the
plant
leaf
for
in
the
starch
light
as
in
for
a
few
Figure
hours.
4.4.1.
starch
STUDY
The
FOCUS
results
present
or
therefore
54
on
the
can
test
wash
and
starch
to
in
the
Ethanol
careful
solution
with
solution
yellow-brown
Safety:
that
ethanol.
solution
Boiling
show
carbon
6
wear
to
produced
investigate
light
easy
Safety:
Iodine
change
the
into
use
ethanol
rate
way
sugar
a
leaf
how
effect
the
photosynthesis
in
•
good
are
membranes,
necessary
a
of
that
1
light
Some
to:
converted
•
is
you
photosynthesising.
should
starch
OUTCOMES
from
not;
how
testing
they
do
much
leaves
not
for
tell
us
starch
how
photosynthesis
show
much
took
whether
starch
place.
is
starch
present
is
and
Results:
•
•
Only
the
light
go
The
a
Is
parts
parts
of
the
these
production
a
test
leaf
that
were
left
uncovered
and
received
that
needed
instructions
of
were
covered
did
not
receive
light
and
are
colour.
chlorophyll
T
ake
the
leaf
yellow-brown
Follow
1
of
blue-black.
starch
destarched,
in
to
for
photosynthesis?
show
that
chlorophyll
is
needed
for
the
photosynthesis.
variegated
plant
such
as
a
hibiscus
(Figure
4.4.2).
Figure
(Variegated
2
the
leaves
the
white
Place
the
means
must
be
parts
plant
of
in
the
leaves
green
the
the
have
and
different
white.
There
colours;
is
no
in
this
chlorophyll
Pick
a
leaf
and
draw
it
for
about
six
Examples
hours.
carefully
to
show
the
distribution
of
of
their
and
green
parts
(or
take
a
Test
this
variegated
drawing
of
the
leaf
results
for
or
starch
take
a
The
much
effect
of
temperature
water
the
weed
rate
of
as
in
Figure
4.4.1
and
make
a
is
light
iodine.
photograph.
light
intensity,
the
in
rate
Figure
carbon
of
2
photosynthesis
dioxide
concentration
photosynthesis
on
page
can
be
59.
can
The
be
three
investigated
by
and
investigated
intensity
to
is
factors
59.
using
for
than
Benedict’s
in
5.1.
that
–
by
putting
a
lamp
at
different
–
by
putting
the
plant
in
beakers
QUESTIONS
affect
1
Explain
why:
changing:
distances
from
Leaves
of
water
at
must
b
different
concentration
hydrogen
carbonate
–
by
adding
(NaHCO
)
to
different
the
quantities
be
when
testing
starch.
Destarched
be
dioxide
first
decolourised
the
used
leaves
when
light
should
finding
is
out
needed
of
for
sodium
in
page
leaves
rather
test
whether
carbon
shown
on
described
SUMMARY
temperatures
•
test
sugar
This
for
temperature
10
with
plant
•
and
possible
reducing
a
•
9
photosynthesis?
on
as
experiments
are
photograph).
solution
How
leaves
the
It
4
these
results
questions
white
hibiscus
LINK
and
3
Variegated
in
leaf.)
light
4.4.2
case
photosynthesis.
water.
3
2
a
Predict
would
the
expect
hibiscus
KEY
if
leaves
you
variegated
are
tested
POINTS
for
1
result
To
test
first
for
by
starch,
boiling
in
chlorophyll
ethanol
has
and
to
then
be
removed
testing
with
from
leaves
b
starch.
Explain
your
prediction.
iodine
3
In
experiments
to
measure
solution.
the
2
A
plant
leaves
kept
and
is
in
the
dark
for
a
week
uses
up
all
the
starch
in
its
intensity
destarched.
The
need
for
light
can
be
on
shown
by
using
destarched
are
partially
covered
with
light-proof
Variegated
leaves
with
green
and
white
parts
are
used
keep
the
5
that
Counting
to
chlorophyll
the
determine
bubbles
the
rate
is
needed
produced
of
for
by
rate
it
is
light
of
important
temperature
Suggest
why
this
so.
to
4
show
the
material.
is
4
changing
leaves
constant.
that
of
photosynthesis
to
3
effect
Suggest
why
bubbles
is
counting
photosynthesis.
a
water
photosynthesis.
weed
can
be
used
to
a
measure
good
the
way
rate
of
photosynthesis.
55
4.5
Plant
Plants
LEARNING
need
mineral
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
mineral
you
need
to:
ions
other
needed
•
explain
that
plants
to
nutrients
outline
how
effect
to
of
deficiencies
explain
just
than
and
minerals.
carbon,
These
hydrogen
complex
DNA.
transport
the
(see
on
plant
why
absorption
of
these
many
terms
and
compounds,
called
different
refer
to
oxygen.
such
mineral
as
the
Most
salts,
elements
minerals
amino
acids,
salts,
plants
are
proteins,
Plants
3.4).
absorb
Root
the
hair
mineral
cells
ions
provide
a
they
large
require
surface
by
area
plants
elements
of
mineral
ions.
elements
are
nitrogen
and
magnesium.
Even
though
is
a
huge
quantity
of
nitrogen
in
the
form
of
nitrogen
gas
(N
)
2
growth
the
air,
most
plants
are
unable
to
use
it.
The
exceptions
are
the
require
flowering
the
make
of
in
•
to
sometimes
investigate
there
minerals
order
roles
T
wo
the
in
are
many
for
•
or
nutrients
require
for
active
different
These
make
chlorophyll
mineral
nutrients
nutrition
OUTCOMES
compounds.
At
mineral
nitrogen
plants,
known
as
legumes,
such
as
Pride
of
Barbados
and
(Figure
4.5.1).
These
plants
have
root
nodules
full
of
bacteria,
which
magnesium
can
•
explain
these
how
plants
obtain
take
acids
elements.
of
nitrate
The
1.6).
ions
roles
Nitrate
xylem.
of
nitrogen
(see
ions
the
and
leaves
Leaves
so
make
of
are
in
new
amino
the
phloem.
4.5.1
Pride
of
Barbados
is
You
can
tell
of
the
the
characteristic
seed
can
you
in
KNOW?
deprive
a
plant
the
of
about
start
a
to
week,
turn
its
can
in
and
the
not
56
for
the
chlorophyll.
energy
when
broken
it
is
to
make
not
It
and
of
leaves
for
rebuild
in
the
Magnesium
trapping
chlorophyll
is
part
light
in
their
magnesium.
sugars
Amino
uses
to
they
acids
them
to
flowers,
produce
are
in
exported
make
root
from
proteins
tips
and
in
areas
seeds.
deficiencies
effects
that
mineral
nutrients
have
on
plants
when
they
are
not
available.
grown
water
or
using
sand
(solution).
nutrients
hydroponics.
and
supplied
Solutions
plants
require
are
This
with
the
is
minerals
prepared,
normally
where
plants
they
containing
(complete
are
require
all
the
solution).
needed
for
plant
growth
are
being
investigated,
When
the
leaves
yellow
synthesised.
stimulus
make
of
is
be
water
as
may
have
different
salts
dissolved
in
it
to
give
all
the
mineral
the
nutrients
chlorophyll
the
growth
minerals
water
will
form
light
the
for
amino
pods.
mineral
If
investigate
studying
grown
YOU
to
the
shape
Plants
DID
it
in
plants
responsible
down
the
in
chlorophyll.
is
leaves,
mineral
convert
nitrogen
transported
supply
plant
new
and
this
by
by
which
ions.
soil
absorb
a
We
legume.
as
are
make
using
The
such
the
to
soil.
ions
to
break
nitrate
in
nutrients
constant
acids
and
Investigating
Figure
a
air
have
the
needed
constantly
growth,
in
molecule,
need
photosynthesis
leaves
water
magnesium
ions
Plants
and
the
plants
mineral
chlorophyll
energy.
from
other
from
of
Both
gas
All
that
plants
require
(control).
More
solutions
are
prepared
down
Light
plant
is
a
one
type
nitrogen
and
without
of
mineral
nutrient
in
each
case,
e.g.
without
magnesium.
to
waste
chlorophyll
needed.
omitting
is
Figure
of
4.5.2
mineral
shows
how
deficiencies.
to
use
hydroponics
to
investigate
the
effect
Cotton
Seedling
wool
Black
paper
to
keep
out
light
Figure
2
1
3
4.5.3
Plants
grown
using
4
hydroponics
Normal
culture
No
magnesium
solution
Figure
Plants
they
with
4.5.2
with
deficiency
leaves,
make
leaves.
continually
so
to
nitrogen
cannot
few
How
use
(nitrate)
the
magnesium
older
leaves
to
nitrate
investigate
deficiency
protein.
lower
synthesise
of
hydroponics
much
The
No
ions
They
leaves
chlorophyll
sends
have
a
all
they
very
as
mineral
slowly
A
magnesium
and
of
roots
the
need.
yellow
water
effect
short
yellow
the
mottled
grow
have
turn
the
Distilled
ions
deficiencies
because
and
plants
stems
cannot
plant
with
it
to
has
green
a
the
new
appearance.
Figure
4.5.6
Bladderworts
plants
YOU
Pitcher
and
that
animals,
such
insects.
plants,
they
4.5.4
Crop
soils
do
plants
grown
deficient
not
grow
in
in
Figure
4.5.5
A
nitrogen
leaf
trap
They
aquatic
Explain
b
Describe
deficiency
KEY
why
plants
how
the
Plant
roots
nitrate
a
Explain
need
plants
mineral
obtain
appearance
ions
how
they
their
of
plants
nitrate
for
in
ions.
minerals
b
mineral
grown
magnesium
carnivorous
plants
Nitrate
ions
make
are
amino
the
trophic
ions.
obtain
plants
the
mineral
nutrients
3
If
a
levels
in
occupied
wetland
needed
acids;
without:
need.
bladderworts
growth.
ions.
to
mineral
plant
by
carnivorous
ions
make
ions
are
used
by
chlorophyll.
are
develops
such
lacking,
deficiency
as
plants,
yellowing
as
ions
healthy
ions.
symptoms,
Suggest
such
grow
nitrate
absorb
magnesium
a
b
digest
All
POINTS
to
that
the
and
animals.
in
grow
of
magnesium
2
3
are
QUESTIONS
a
Describe
traps
digest
that
trap
deficient
needed
2
and
throughout
wetlands
including
1
fly
in
1
SUMMARY
small
this
showing
symptoms
well.
as
carnivorous
plants
Caribbean.
Figure
Venus
are
Bladderworts
habitats
trap
flea.
carnivorous
small
green
little
KNOW?
sundews
plants:
are
have
bladders
water
DID
that
of
the
leaves.
ecosystems.
57
Unit
SECTION
1
4
1:
Multiple-choice
Carnivorous
They
use
What
do
digest
Practice
plants
proteins
these
the
trap
from
plants
and
the
exam
questions
digest
insects
produce
in
insects.
5
for growth.
order
catalase
B
proteases
C
hormones
D
hydrochloric
the
plants
elements
by
plants
movement
carry
of
out
gas
Which
gases
at
exchange
summarises
night
night
and
A
calcium,
iron,
carbon
the
oxygen
B
nitrogen,
magnesium,
C
nitrogen,
phosphorus,
D
phosphorus,
The
raw
dioxide
out
out
in
B
out
in
in
out
C
in
out
in
out
D
out
in
out
in
materials
carbon
dioxide,
B
carbon
dioxide
C
chlorophyll
D
chlorophyll,
Most
of
the
A
palisade
B
lower
4
nutrition
C
spongy
D
upper
8
Which
involves
chemical
energy
into
converting
dioxide
simple
complex
feeding
during
complex
carbon
one
on
of
organic
and
organic
light
dead
the
and
compounds
water
light
light
and
chloroplasts
water
in
a
leaf
are
in
the:
mesophyll
of
mesophyll
epidermis
the
following
for
the
of
would
highest
a
rate
tropical
provide
the
of
plant?
Light
Carbon
T
emperature/
intensity
dioxide
°C
decaying
following
does
organisms
not
occur
photosynthesis?
of
light
B
conversion
of
glucose
C
reduction
of
by
carbon
splitting
of
water
A
high
low
30
B
low
high
20
C
low
low
30
D
high
high
35
compounds
chlorophyll
to
sucrose
dioxide
to
a
carbohydrate
58
and
compounds
absorption
energy
water
water
inorganic
A
D
and
concentration
converting
Which
are:
epidermis
energy
D
sulfur
photosynthesis
light
and
photosynthesis
into
for
A
conditions
C
potassium,
day
in
converting
potassium
the
A
Autotrophic
potassium
carbon
dioxide
into
magnesium
the
during
During
oxygen
B
largest
with
7
A
in
to
day?
3
required
are:
acid
atmosphere.
At
mineral
insects?
A
Green
The
quantities
6
2
questions
molecules
using
light
SECTION
9
A
1
2:
student
to
Short
used
the
investigate
intensities
pond
on
plant.
temperature
table
shows
answer
the
the
The
apparatus
effect
rate
of
student
throughout
the
questions
of
shown
in
different
the
student’s
i
Describe
would
light
photosynthesis
monitored
a
Figure
the
of
room
investigation.
ii
The
the
these
why
during
iii
collects
State
the
apparatus
tank
with
State
why
down
water
is
(4)
produced
investigation.
(1)
the
the
air
bubble
moves
tubing.
(1)
here
b
i
Calculate
the
rate
photosynthesis
Test
to
results.
gas
the
student
results.
Glass
Gas
use
obtain
a
how
of
missing
from
tube
the
Pond
ii
plant
table.
Draw
c
Explain
d
Predict
a
graph
the
the
(1)
of
the
results.
results.
results
(5)
(4)
that
would
0
be
10
obtained
between
Scale/mm
plant
20
is
Explain
when
the
lamp
50 mm
your
the
distance
and
and
the
pond
600 mm.
predictions.
(4)
30
Movement
of
e
i
State
two
sources
of
error
in
40
air
bubble
Moveable
this
investigation.
(2)
50
lamp
ii
Air
bubble
capillary
in
Suggest
how
this
investigation
60
could
tube
be
improved.
(3)
70
Total
25
marks
80
10
a
Describe
in
a
how
flowering
photosynthesis
occurs
plant.
(5)
Ruler
b
Make
a
fully
showing
structure
Figure
annotated
how
of
a
the
diagram
internal
leaf
is
adapted
photosynthesis.
c
Distance
Distance
Rate
Describe
lamp
travelled
by
the
fate
(7)
of
the
products
of
of
of
for
1
photosynthesis.
(3)
photosynthesis/
–1
from
pond
plant/mm
air
5
bubble
in
Total
mm/min
100
30
6.0
150
26
5.2
200
14
3.5
300
7
Further
and
on
500
15
marks
minutes/mm
3
practice
examples
the
questions
can
be
found
accompanying
CD.
0.6
59
5
Digestion
5.1
LEARNING
and
T
esting
food
The
diet
substances
the
end
should
•
be
this
how
between
starch,
and
that
formed
and
carry
to
our
out
broken
these
eat.
T
able
fibre
substances
Details
5.1.1
Nutrient
reducing
are
of
the
Chemical
and
carbohydrates,
are
water.
present
tests
tests
are
for
There
in
samples
given
food
are
in
T
able
proteins,
chemical
lipids
of
the
tests
(fats),
to
foodstuffs
show
that
5.1.1.
substances
large
Reagents
Procedure
sugars,
lipids
by
minerals,
distinguish
non-reducing
proteins
are
you
we
to
tests
explain
topic
that
to:
chemical
sugars,
•
of
able
describe
in
substances
OUTCOMES
vitamins,
At
breathing
Starch
molecules
Iodine
Add
solution
drops
few
to
sample
condensation
down
a
Positive
Negative
result
result
Blue-black
Yellow-
a
orange
of
food
by
hydrolysis.
STUDY
Reducing
Benedict’s
Heat
in
sugars
solution
boiling
water
(e.g.
bath
with
glucose
solution
and
the
a
of
food
because
the
test
change
from
solution
to
green,
or
–
remains
blue
Boil
acid
with
solution
sugars
sodium
ions.
(e.g.
sucrose)
reducing
to
become
for
copper( )
Hydrochloric
reducing
so
called
reducing
During
sugars
the
copper
copper( )
precipitate
red
Non-
are
copper( II)
electrons
that
red
are
Benedict’s
reaction
ions
The
sugars
they
contains
donate
change
blue
colour
FOCUS
Reducing
the
No
orange
fructose)
agents.
Colour
you
reducing
see
ions.
Colour
No
change
change
cool;
from
solution
hydroxide
neutralise
to
(NaOH),
with
orange
Benedict’s
test
solution
Benedict’s
(HCl),
HCl;
NaOH;
with
solution
in
sugars
sample
blue
green,
or
colour
–
remains
blue
red
as
above
is
oxide.
Protein
Biuret
Add
solution
–
a
few
drops
of
solution
biuret
of
solution
sodium
hydroxide
a
(NaOH)
the
and
to
solution
of
Colour
No
change
change
from
solution
to
blue
lilac
or
colour
–
is
blue
purple
sample
copper
sulfate
(CuSO
)
4
Lipids
and
(fats
oils)
Water
and
ethanol
Dissolve
White
No
sample
emulsion
emulsion
Greasy
No
spot
spot
in
ethanol,
pour
into
Filter
Figure
5.1.1
Testing
for
paper
Rub
water
the
60
the
food
greasy
reducing
The
into
highest
concentration
on
then
solution
sample
sugars.
white
right.
of
sugar
is
the
paper
leave
to
and
dry
which
is
translucent
Precautions:
tubes
into
a
When
water
you
bath.
carry
The
out
the
water
Benedict’s
must
be
at
a
test,
put
the
temperature
test
above
EXAM
80 °C;
it
when
does
not
carrying
have
out
to
these
be
boiling.
tests.
It
is
Always
essential
wear
to
eye
neutralise
the
reaction
Y
ou
mixture
in
the
non-reducing
sugar
test
because
the
Benedict’s
not
work
if
acid
is
can
call
the
starch
These
do
to
tests
not
tell
modify
biuret
as
of
tests
the
Joining
so
give
and
that
of
and
of
acid
acts
as
solution,
the
people’s
is
are
present,
present.
Benedict’s
colours
starch,
is
water
is
sugar
may
and
more
or
protein
colours
to
a
differ.
acid
catalyst
breaks
of
this
(see
a
bond
bond
5.3).
between
uses
water;
Breakage
of
the
bonds
by
5.1.2
Different
hydrolysis
a
synthesis
of
sucrose
involves
reacting
glucose
and
fructose
chemical
reaction
is
bond
a
molecules,
is
formed
between
condensation
such
as
starch
or
and
a
them
when
dehydration
protein,
involves
water
is
reaction.
forming
formed.
Making
way
–
a
process
known
as
dehydration
many
This
bonds
hydrolysis
and
condensation.
Explain
how
are
involved
in
the
formation
and
breakdown
of
of
Explain
b
Name
the
two
Explain
with
it
A
term
reducing
reducing
how
food
starch
has
contains
food
How
KEY
sample
would
sugar.
sugars
and
differs
from
a
separate
hydrochloric
one
non-reducing
sugar.
hydrolyses
form
right
test
the
solution
sample
to
see
if
sugar
.
it
Then
just
been
developed.
non-reducing
is
you
thought
prove
to
sample
acid.
The
molecules
the
reducing
with
acid
of
sucrose
sugars
glucose.
sugar,
How
starch,
would
you
protein
and
contain
both
glucose
and
and
fructose.
confirm
fat?
and
breakdown
of
sucrose
sucrose.
this?
POINTS
Removal
forms
1
the
reducing
Synthesis
4
sugar
out
Benedict’s
test
Benedict’s
glucose
that
the
sucrose.
to
novel
carrying
First
any
boil
a
A
on
a
has
3
the
these
with
c
on
highest
QUESTIONS
processes
2
the
FOCUS
non-reducing
twice.
molecule
solution:
with
in
testing
Define
0%,
synthesis
involves
1
is
concentration
The
SUMMARY
biuret
of
tested
larger
STUDY
this
solution
together
.
left
A
concentrations
protein
with
The
it
they
Figure
using
‘iodine
call
possible
solution
comparing
judgment
It
become
reducing
by
no t
molecules
breakage
a
The
obtained
hydrochloric
The
substances
Do
‘iodine
’.
tests
substance
colours.
are
breaking
with
food
each
iodine
results
fructose.
hydrochloric
the
of
ranges
standards
and
chemical
concentration
sucrose
glucose
much
However,
colour
Boiling
these
whether
how
the
increases.
set
show
us
solution
intense
of
reage
nt
test
present.
so lutio
n’.
Limitations
the
test
fo r
does
TIP
protection
Benedict’s
solution
solution
used
is
proteins;
the
to
is
used
test
emulsion
for
to
identify
starch;
and
greasy
reducing
biuret
spot
sugars;
solution
tests
tests
identify
of
water
Addition
bond
breaks
of
water
bond
iodine
for
lipids.
+
2
Sucrose
and
starch
are
formed
by
condensation
reactions
Glucose
between
smaller
hydrolysis
molecules.
reactions.
These
bonds
are
broken
Fructose
by
Figure
5.1.3
The
synthesis
breakdown
and
of
sucrose
61
5.2
T
eeth
The
LEARNING
digestive
the
end
should
•
be
identify
of
this
able
the
human
topic
you
the
to:
parts
of
alimentary
the
canal
ingest
digested.
on
This
pancreas
part
to
•
the
of
its
structure
the
of
alimentary
canal
the
structure
(Figure
all
in
chewing
the
mechanical
role
of
the
of
that
is
the
mouth,
fat
do
consists
and
the
organs,
of
then
the
egest
tissues
and
anything
Chemical
of
are
a
as
in
not
digestion
starch,
broken
alimentary
canal,
the
is
liver
not
and
breakdown
churning
the
small
change
of
of
food
intestine.
the
food
in
into
the
These
chemical
stomach
are
nature
smaller
pieces
and
physical
of
food.
teeth
into
down
is
the
breakdown
small,
by
soluble
hydrolysis,
of
large,
molecules.
catalysed
by
insoluble
Large
molecules,
molecules
enzymes
within
the
canal.
in
digestion.
Soft
Mouth
SUMMARY
palate
cavity
QUESTIONS
(buccal
cavity)
Throat
1
cells
that
5.2.1).
by
alimentary
describe
system
digestion
such
tooth
•
of
food
each
functions
describe
consists
digest
Mechanical
processes
relate
and
emulsification
diagrams
•
system
guts
OUTCOMES
that
At
and
Distinguish
between
(phar ynx)
mechanical
Mouth
Epiglottis
and
chemical
digestion.
Tongue
2
Describe
the
role
of
teeth
in
Salivar y
feeding
and
gland
digestion.
Gullet
3
Describe
what
happens
to
(oesophagus)
Diaphragm
food
small
in
the
stomach
and
the
Ring
intestine.
of
muscle
(pyloric
Describe
the
roles
liver
the
pancreas
sphincter)
the
in
the
Stomach
Liver
system.
Gall
bladder
Duodenum
Bile
duct
Enamel
Ileum
Pancreas
Pulp
llamS
and
digestive
of
enitsetni
4
cavity
Caecum
Appendix
Gum
Abdominal
cavity
Root
Rectum
Cement
Anus
Nerves
Ring
of
around
blood
Figure
5.2.2
A
vertical
molar
62
section
tooth
of
muscle
and
vessels
a
Figure
5.2.1
The
human
alimentary
canal
anus
enitsetni
Colon
Dentine
egraL
Crown
T
able
Part
5.2.1
of
Functions
the
digestive
of
the
digestive
system
Functions
system
Mouth
•
mastication
•
secretion
•
food
Oesophagus
•
transfers
Stomach
•
wall
•
muscular
of
Gall
bladder
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Anal
intestine
canal
mechanical
into
food
wall
by
digestion
salivary
boluses
by
stomach
that
peristalsis
secretes
mixes
glands;
can
from
gastric
food
with
of
food
salivary
be
the
teeth
begins
and
the
tongue
digestion
of
starch
swallowed
mouth
juice
using
amylase
to
stomach
containing
gastric
juice
and
hydrochloric
breaks
up
acid
large
and
pieces
pepsin
of
food
into
a
mixture
•
pepsin
begins
•
no
•
secretes
bile
•
secretes
sodium
•
stores
•
secretes
pancreatic
•
secretes
sodium
•
secretes
the
digestion
bile
digestion
Large
–
saliva
formed
creamy
Liver
of
the
of
starch
that
and
as
contains
releases
•
absorbs
products
•
absorbs
water,
•
absorbs
the
•
stores
•
faeces
of
ions
in
the
out
of
salts
into
that
the
to
not
small
carbonate
function
emulsify
to
contains
fats
neutralise
intestine
amylase,
to
maltase,
acid
(see
trypsin
and
environment
5.3)
stomach
through
neutralise
lactase
in
acid
the
and
stomach
bile
duct
lipase
acid
peptidase
that
complete
the
protein
digestion
and
remaining
does
carbonate
sucrase,
and
protein
bile
hydrogen
starch
faeces
it
juice
of
amylase
hydrogen
enzymes
of
pass
digestion
into
vitamins
water
the
into
and
bloodstream
the
bloodstream
ions
rectum
the
body
KEY
POINTS
T
eeth
1
Chewing
It
also
juice.
We
food
decreases
increases
Chemical
have
four
the
its
surface
digestion
types
particle
of
is
area
size
that
much
is
so
we
are
exposed
faster
if
the
able
to
to
saliva
particles
swallow
and
are
Mechanical
the
it.
into
gastric
2
teeth:
Chemical
the
•
Incisors
are
•
Canines
chisel-shaped
for
biting
and
smaller
mastication
smaller.
pointed
for
piercing
and
Premolars
•
Molars
have
are
like
uneven
‘cusps’
premolars
and
for
are
and
chewing
chewing.
up
the
small
the
section
through
a
molar
tooth
(see
Figure
5.2.2).
In
by
Enamel
forms
the
hard,
outer
layer
is
the
part
above
the
the
of
the
crown
of
the
Inside
the
enamel
is
the
to
stomach,
up
food
and
gastric
is
mixed
juice
and
tooth,
acid.
This
starts
gum.
the
•
to
molecules
molecules.
hydrochloric
which
involves
chemical
hydrolysis
large
churned
with
•
digestion
teeth.
food.
3
Study
e.g.
the
tearing.
grinding
for
pieces,
of
is
food
cutting.
change
•
of
using
breaking
bonds
are
digestion
breakdown
softer
dentine,
which
is
like
bone
digestion
of
protein.
in
4
structure.
Bile
emulsifies
fats
in
the
duodenum.
•
A
layer
the
•
The
of
jaw.
The
pulp
blood
cement
root
cavity
vessels.
is
is
fixes
the
the
part
a
space
root
that
in
of
is
the
the
tooth
below
tooth
the
into
a
bony
socket
gum.
containing
in
5
nerves
and
Enzymes
produced
pancreas
intestine
chemical
proteins
and
the
the
small
complete
digestion
and
by
the
of
starch,
fat.
63
5.3
Enzymes
The
LEARNING
as
At
the
end
should
be
food
that
of
this
able
topic
you
starch,
define
the
wall
into
to:
of
small,
the
term
state
that
enzymes
biological
catalysts
the
the
intestine.
soluble
(see
bodies
catalyst
itself
describe
composed
fats.
They
of
This
means
molecules.
5.1).
The
are
large,
The
natural
too
insoluble
large
that
they
breakage
rate
of
to
be
molecules
need
of
the
hydrolysis
absorbed
such
to
be
broken
bonds
at
the
through
down
involves
temperature
is
very
slow.
The
rate
needs
to
be
speeded
up
by
a
of
catalyst.
are
A
•
is
and
catalyst
our
•
eat
proteins
hydrolysis
•
we
OUTCOMES
properties
is
being
a
substance
changed.
that
increases
Biological
the
catalysts
rate
are
of
a
reaction
enzymes
without
(Figure
5.3.1),
of
which
are
proteins.
All
enzymes
are
made
inside
cells,
where
many
of
enzymes
them
•
describe
in
the
chemical
role
of
enzymes
pass
work,
out
from
of
Enzymes
the
have
•
They
are
•
Each
enzyme
•
Only
A
of
the
enzyme
catalase
stomach
our
and
food
small
the
enzymes
intestine.
small
over
period
is
affected
by
pH.
different
it
protein
shapes.
specific
for
Each
are
needed
to
catalyse
time.
activity
of
and
of
Their
made
again
molecules
•
are
used
a
enzyme
temperature.
are
many
different
substrate
part
the
again.
molecules.
enzyme
catalysing
in
model
of
the
of
shape
‘key’)
one
are
a
fit
in
activity
(the
influenced
one
These
molecule
reaction.
is
can
has
This
an
are
you
fits
be
a
folded
shape
explains
each
into
enzyme.
not
as
shape
as
for
that
known
a
‘lock’)
the
by
and
have
by
enzyme
shape
catalysed
to
must
enzyme
–
with
reaction
enzyme
(the
the
enzymes
molecule
wrong
Enzymes
‘the
into
that
why
that
conditions
the
there
‘lock
fits
see
of
in
and
reaction.
key’.
into
Figure
their
will
substrates
the
exactly
in
Only
enzyme
Other
involved
the
can
reaction.
The
the
‘key
5.3.2.
surroundings.
If
enzy
me
the
Enzy
mes
conditions
organi
sms.
become
too
hot,
too
acid
or
too
alkaline
their
shape
are
changes
and
they
stop
acting
as
catalysts.
At
high
temperatures
and
T
hey
at
co rrec
t
be
of
reaction.
by
hole’
pro tei
n
numbers
one
affected
the
TIP
are
catalyses
is
substrate
T
he
properties:
proteins.
reactions
can
following
activity
This
say
all
enzymes
Their
have
kille
d’.
mouth,
digest
•
take
is
the
T
o
computer-generated
image
no t
respiration.
They
makes
Never
into
in
•
many
EXAM
cells
Properties
Enzymes
5.3.1
example
digestion.
many
Figure
for
extreme
pH,
the
bonds
holding
the
enzyme
changes
the
shape
molecule
together
mo lec
ules.
start
wo rd
to
use
is
to
break
substrate
no
down.
longer
This
fits.
We
say
that
of
the
enzyme,
denaturation
has
so
the
occurred
and
dena
tured
the
enzyme
Enzymes
The
down
glucose
digestive
64
in
enzymes
break
to
can
in
no
catalyse
the
reaction.
digestion
our
large
and
longer
digestive
molecules
proteins
enzymes
is
to
system
to
catalyse
smaller
amino
summarised
acids.
in
hydrolysis
molecules,
for
Information
T
able
5.3.1.
reactions
example
about
to
starch
these
STUDY
Y
our
learning
could
the
Enzyme
Substrate
Substrate
into
fits
Enzyme
Products
enzyme
FOCUS
digestive
Label
all
the
5.3.2
Lock
and
key
–
a
model
of
enzyme
each
action
T
ype
Digestive
of
enzymes
Name
enzyme
of
made
Site
in
the
of
human
digestive
production
Carbohydrase
Protease
Lipase
and
of
action
Reaction
Salivary
glands
Mouth
starch
Small
intestine
→
Sucrase
Wall
of
small
intestine
Small
intestine
sucrose
Lactase
Wall
of
small
intestine
Small
intestine
lactose
Maltase
Wall
of
small
intestine
Small
intestine
maltose
Pepsin
Stomach
Trypsin
Pancreas
Peptidases
Wall
Lipase
Pancreas
of
wall
Catalysts
speed-up
end;
enzymes
of
of
sites
of
in
the
action.
by
enzyme
small
intestine
protein
Small
intestine
polypeptide
Small
intestine
peptides
Small
intestine
lipids
→
+
fructose
galactose
peptides
→
→
(fats)
+
glucose
shorter
amino
→
peptides
acids
fatty
acids
+
glycerol
FOCUS
a
reaction
are
and
biological
remain
catalysts
unchanged
that
are
at
made
is
insoluble
makes
of
fat
it
hard
forms
are
specific
to
certain
in
In
chemical
insoluble
digestion,
molecules
smaller,
catalyse
soluble
the
hydrolysis
of
large
molecules.
fat
reach
break
up
smaller
QUESTIONS
fat
the
digestion
Make
a
and
table
nutrients:
have
following
the
to
Some
the
food
make
summarise
starch,
protein,
following
in
a
catalyst,
enzyme,
chemical
of
the
enzyme(s),
contains
starch,
to
of
these
Your
nutrient,
product(s)
as
they
pass
roles
of
the
liver
what
through
and
as
globules
the
globules
ones.
the
the
This
of
bile
fat
of
salts
into
emulsification
surface
so
area
molecules
access
bonds
and
to
the
of
of
fat
between
the
lipase
to
fatty
glycerol.
should
enzyme(s),
digestion,
site
site(s)
of
and
fat.
Use
happens
to
T
able
these
5.3.1
three
the
alimentary
canal.
5.3.3
pancreas
in
your
flow
Large
globules
of
fat
are
Include
emulsified
the
these
food
table
Figure
nutrients
the
system.
protein
show
of
sucrose.
food
digestive
chart
digestion
and
headings:
human
flow
acids
fat
to
canal
duodenum,
easier
break
denaturation
production
action
terms:
the
globules
the
globules
have
Define
This
as
surface
alimentary
When
increases
SUMMARY
spherical
little
the
water
.
digest
reactions.
enzymes
to
as
in
to
into
exposing
Enzymes
to
the
enzymes
sites
glucose
possible.
3
the
glucose
→
water
of
of
their
→
Stomach
protein.
2
Include
POINTS
the
1
and
functions
maltose
→
Fat
3
the
catalysed
STUDY
2
of
5.2).
system
Site
Pancreas
1
topic
enzyme
Amylase
KEY
this
diagram
(see
regions
region.
table
5.3.1
for
large
system
with
production
T
able
a
released
annotate
Figure
notes
include
to
smaller
globules
so
that
lipase
chart.
can
catalyse
glycerol
the
more
formation
of
fatty
acids
and
easily.
65
5.4
Factors
that
affect
enzymes
Effect
LEARNING
of
Amylase
At
the
end
of
this
topic
be
•
that
able
is
that
the
activity
of
enzymes
catalyst
from
for
5.1
the
that
breakdown
iodine
of
solution
starch
is
to
used
maltose.
to
detect
You
the
to:
pH
temperature
the
remember
presence
state
on
you
will
should
temperature
OUTCOMES
is
and
are
influence
this
factors
the
less
activity
by
iodine
of
of
and
starch.
less
taking
As
starch
the
samples
solution
as
starch
present
from
shown
in
in
is
broken
the
the
reaction
Figure
down
reaction
by
amylase,
mixture.
mixture
You
and
there
can
testing
follow
with
5.4.1.
enzymes
T
able
•
explain
how
to
investigate
5.4.1
reaction
influence
pH
on
of
the
temperature
activity
of
shows
mixtures
one
results
kept
at
from
an
different
investigation
in
which
seven
temperatures.
and
5.4.1
Effect
T
emperature
at
were
enzymes.
T
able
Remove
some
the
(°C)
of
temperature
Time
be
samples
on
taken
amylase
for
digested,
t
starch
to
Rate
(minutes)
as
of
reaction
10/t
minute
0
–
0
10
9
1.1
20
7
1.4
30
6
1.7
40
4
2.5
50
8
1.3
60
–
0
intervals
Test
samples
with
drops
iodine
Spotting
solution
Figure
and
amylase
5.4.1
of
solution
tile
solution
Samples
STUDY
taken
from
the
Divide
reaction
tube
of
mixture
are
iodine
minute
added
in
to
solution
until
there
FOCUS
the
digested
every
is
1,
in
the
100
or
10 000
is
(reciprocal).
working
very
fast.
This
by
the
Then
gives
time
we
large
taken
for
have
numbers
starch
peaks
on
a
when
to
graph
the
be
enzyme
when
the
no
enzyme
change
10,
test
drops
is
most
active
rather
than
when
it
is
least
active
if
we
colour.
plotted
time
taken.
3.0
The
graph
in
Figure
5.4.2
shows
that
the
rate
of
reaction
is
2.5
t /01
o
slow
sa
2.0
the
at
low
temperatures,
temperature
etar
40 °C
(optimum
for
increases
to
example
40 °C
temperature).
The
at
10
C.
and
reaches
rate
of
It
a
increases
as
maximum
reaction
at
decreases
at
1.5
o
noitcaeR
temperatures
greater
than
40
C
and
is
zero
at
60 °C.
1.0
The
0.5
As
of
optimum
the
temperature
temperature
substrate
and
increases
enzyme
is
the
best
towards
move
faster
temperature
the
and
optimum,
have
more
for
the
enzyme.
molecules
collisions
so
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Temperature/°C
Figure
5.4.2
Effect
the
66
of
temperature
activity
of
more
reactions
changes
on
amylase
have
to
and
test
optimum
at
occur.
60 °C
At
all
higher
the
temperatures
temperature.
temperatures,
enzyme
between
the
molecules
30 °C
and
enzyme
are
50 °C
structure
denatured.
to
find
the
We
exact
Effect
of
pH
on
the
activity
of
catalase
STUDY
Catalase
is
an
enzyme
found
inside
many
cells.
Its
function
is
Here
to
catalyse
the
breakdown
of
hydrogen
peroxide.
This
is
a
that
is
produced
by
cells
which
can
do
are
damage
if
optimum
accumulate.
It
catalyses
this
and
plant
peroxide
→
oxygen
+
is
found
bacteria
and
1
cork
in
many
plant
and
animal
tissues;
it
is
also
found
in
a
cores
into
2
Put
three
3
Put
the
produced
borer
to
smaller
pieces
remove
sections
into
a
several
that
cores
are
solution
from
each
with
a
a
about
pH
of
potato.
2 mm
in
Cut
volume
of
hydrogen
peroxide
by
enzymes
bacteria
and
Put
one
potato
disc
into
the
test
tube
at
5
As
soon
find
The
Repeat
7
pH
When
all
the
are
the
how
forms
disc
with
less
two
the
starts
it
test
to
takes
between
which
the
disc
long
of
inside
dense
more
the
so
discs
to
the
disc
catalase
to
and
7.0.
into
pH
some
7.0.
surface,
reach
It
test
will
and
start
the
hydrogen
potato
it
so
5.4.2
Effect
the
to
whole
find
the
investigating
other
valid
and
due
procedure
optimum
the
factors
SUMMARY
effect
should
only
timing
and
surface.
peroxide
produces
on
the
activity
Time
taken
for
discs
to
reach
the
underneath
the
disc,
surface
(seconds)
First
Second
Third
Mean
disc
disc
disc
(average)
4
36.03
37.13
38.59
37.25
5
15.77
12.93
14.35
14.35
6
12.06
10.05
11.03
11.05
7
9.13
10.13
9.63
9.63
8
9.67
10.29
9.98
9.98
9
10.81
12.69
11.87
11.79
floats.
that
there
are
three
readings
for
to
be
the
with
pH
of
discs
for
factor
a
range
of
other
values
catalase.
one
kept
at
factor
on
constant.
that
has
the
This
been
activity
ensures
of
enzymes,
the
results
STUDY
Sketch
a
graph
human
to
so
on
the
enzyme,
b
Describe,
a
Use
in
show
rate
such
words,
the
of
as
effect
a
is
catalysed
by
the
results
effect
of
in
pH
T
able
on
the
to
by
your
Describe
c
Explain
the
pattern
activity
why
it
is
a
why
there
shown
good
by
idea
draw
of
about
this
Summary
2c.
a
line
graph
to
POINTS
show
catalase.
your
to
Think
answer
results
graph.
1
b
readings
three
amylase.
shown
5.4.2
repeat
are
disc?
then
question
a
two
there
each
KEY
the
take
that
and
increasing
reaction
salivary
what
of
FOCUS
changed.
QUESTIONS
temperature
2
pH
catalase
sink
for
a
of
tubes.
Why
1
90 °C.
tube.
rise
the
in
7.0.
Repeat
of
bottom
reaction
making
pH
as
out
oxygen
6
the
use
thickness.
pH
towards
for
forensics
of
4
human
(body
the
T
able
same
37 °C
temperature);
fungi.
industry
Use
20 °C;
water
enzymes
Catalase
enzymes
reaction:
approximately
hydrogen
examples
temperatures:
allowed
fungal
to
some
toxic
of
substance
FOCUS
graph.
have
three
The
is
results
for
activity
of
influenced
enzymes
by
pH
and
temperature.
each
pH.
2
d
Explain
from
3
a
these
Sketch
a
rate
an
pH
of
is
above
b
Suggest
below
the
optimum
pH
to
show
the
effect
there
is
no
of
reaction
activity
increasing
pH
where
optimum
below
pH
the
4.0
and
on
the
none
10.0.
why
pH
about
the
4.0
An
at
3
effect
on
enzyme
above
in
this
pH
example
10.0.
shows
no
activity
is
most
optimum
When
all
and
enzyme
its
optimum
enzyme-catalysed
and
pH
uncertainty
results.
graph
6.5
is
pH
active
and
temperature.
investigating
of
the
one
factor
activity
other
of
factors
temperature)
the
(e.g.
an
pH)
enzyme,
(e.g.
should
be
kept
constant.
67
5.5
Absorption
and
assimilation
Absorption
LEARNING
At
the
end
should
be
OUTCOMES
of
this
able
topic
Absorption
is
blood
lymph.
or
define
and
the
terms
by
absorption
pass
diffusion
movement
Simple
of
digested
sugars,
food
amino
molecules
acids,
fatty
into
acids
the
and
through
or
by
the
active
epithelial
cells
of
the
small
intestine
either
transport.
assimilation
The
•
the
to:
glycerol
•
the
you
describe
how
the
for
intestine
is
small
intestine
is
very
long
(about
6 m
in
an
adult)
and
is
adapted
small
adapted
efficient
absorption
of
food
as
it
has:
for
2
•
a
very
large
surface
•
a
thin
lining
area
of
about
9 m
absorption
•
describe
the
role
of
the
molecules
in
of
epithelial
cells
(only
one
cell
thick)
so
that
food
liver
can
easily
move
into
the
blood
and
lymph
assimilation.
•
epithelial
•
cell
The
large
The
is
finger-like
quickly
acids
villi
are
to
and
have
blood
5.5.1
These
small
are
villi
from
intestine
leaf-like
and
–
are
the
the
of
glycerol
leaf-like
en ters
by
are
vessels
the
a re
the
th e
ly mph
h eart.
As
a
fits
transport
into
inner
the
(the
with
full
a nd
lacteals
vein
in
in to
a nd
result,
f at
5. 5. 3).
em pty
does
not
vessels.
in to
en ter
qu ick ly.
villus
Network
Epithelium
blood
of
capillaries
Mucus-
secreting
cell
Lacteal
muscle
Venule
layer
Arteriole
Lymphatic
68
Longitudinal
section
through
a
villus
T he
lac teals
ly m pha tic
they
Fa tty
lym ph.
the
capillaries.
5.5.2
of
(lymph
are
Figure
space
tr a nspor ted
the
c ontr a c ts
m ove
veins,
(Figur e
slo wly
this
are
of
Thin
3.4).
millions
singular
the
they
(see
small
lining
villi
m olec ules
more
to
like
3.1)
active
called
po r ta l
When
A
blood
f ood
hepatic
in
5.5.2).
capillaries
t hem.
for
folded
Figure
th in -walled,
th e
a
projections
and
3.1.2
intestine
has
transported
in side
near
too
it
Figure
proteins
small
Absorbed
causin g
vessels
the
5.5.1
(see
carrier
because
villi.
liver
muscle
bloodstream
Figure
food
in
squeezed
These
or
(Figure
digested
capillaries)
many
area
abdomen
villus)
microvilli
with
surface
the
tiny,
villi
with
membranes
within
of
cells
vessel
the
When
the
food
gets
to
the
colon
there
is
not
much
left
that
is
useful.
LINK
What
been
The
is
left
now
absorbed
solid
food,
is
in
in
waste
the
fibre,
the
or
form
dead
small
faeces
of
cells
and
intestine;
is
stored
faeces,
the
in
passes
bacteria.
rest
the
out
is
Most
the
the
absorbed
rectum.
of
of
The
body
by
water
the
has
colon.
Undigested
confuse
See
the
it
takes
between
24
and
48
hours
for
food
the
length
of
the
digestive
is
egested.
with
Do
excretion.
to
pass
glossary
on
the
CD
anus.
remind
yourself
about
the
along
difference
the
this
undigested
through
to
Normally
food
not
between
the
two.
system.
Assimilation
The
food
molecules
that
and
up
have
been
absorbed
are
transported
around
Hepatic
vein
Stomach
the
body
molecules
functions
taken
by
as
the
cells.
part
of
by
cells.
The
liver
Assimilation
carries
out
a
is
the
use
number
of
of
these
important
assimilation:
Liver
•
It
takes
up
glucose
glycogen.
This
molecules
helps
to
from
regulate
the
the
blood
and
stores
concentration
of
them
as
glucose
in
Hepatic
portal
the
blood.
vein
•
It
uses
blood
amino
acids
to
make
proteins,
such
as
those
involved
in
clotting.
•
It
breaks
down
•
It
converts
surplus
amino
Large
acids.
intestine
the
body,
fatty
e.g.
acids
under
and
the
glycerol
into
fat
which
is
stored
around
Small
skin.
intestine
•
It
produces
cholesterol
from
fats.
Anus
KEY
Figure
POINTS
5.5.3
Rectum
The
hepatic
carries
1
Absorption
is
the
movement
of
digested
food
stomach
molecules
the
through
2
the
Assimilation
wall
is
of
the
the
use
intestine
of
food
into
the
molecules
blood
by
the
and
cells
portal
blood
vein
from
and
the
intestines
to
liver.
lymph.
of
the
body.
DID
3
The
small
intestine
is
adapted
for
absorption
by
being
The
long,
having
a
folded
inner
lining
with
millions
of
tiny
YOU
small
villi.
increase
the
surface
area
of
each
epithelial
The
liver
stores
glucose
as
glycogen,
makes
proteins,
absorbs
about
of
water
every
day.
cell.
As
4
intestine
3
5–10 dm
Microvilli
KNOW?
very
food
more
breaks
passes
water
is
along
the
absorbed
colon,
into
3
down
surplus
glycerol
back
SUMMARY
1
Make
a
into
acids
fat
for
and
converts
fatty
acids
and
storage.
the
blood:
per
day.
by
labelled
writing
diagram
notes
of
about
a
villus.
the
Annotate
functions
of
have
parts
that
liver
is
Distinguish
between
absorption
and
in
assimilation.
the
and
3
Explain
also
involved
in
the
labelled.
regulation
2
0.3–0.5 dm
LINK
your
the
The
you
about
QUESTIONS
large
diagram
amino
how
the
liver
is
involved
in
assimilating
the
products
of
body,
amino
many
such
acids.
substances
as
glucose
There
is
more
of
about
its
waste
substances
role
in
producing
digestion.
4
Suggest
the
danger
in
having
too
much
fat
in
the
blood.
excreted
from
the
that
are
body
in
7.1.
69
5.6
Balanced
A
LEARNING
nutrient
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
energy
define
the
quantities:
to:
term
nutrient
to
the
human
list
the
their
•
main
roles
explain
in
in
the
nutrients
the
term
need
food
These
is
that
are
carbohydrates,
but
also
the
provided
provides
the
fats
by
the
benefit
organic
and
compounds
major
to
the
compounds
proteins.
like
nutrients
body.
amino
Not
we
only
acids,
or
eat
do
sugars
in
they
and
large
provide
fatty
that
we
need
to
make
our
cells.
Vitamins
and
minerals
are
the
diet
minor
•
we
as
acids
applied
substance
that
macronutrients.
you
energy
•
a
OUTCOMES
The
At
is
diet
and
are
body
nutrients
needed
minerals
in
that
or
micronutrients
tiny
we
quantities.
need
are
that
do
Vitamins
inorganic
not
are
and
provide
organic
are
energy
and
compounds;
often
absorbed
as
the
ions.
balanced
A
balanced
diet
provides
all
the
energy
and
nutrients
that
a
person
diet
requires
energy
•
essential
•
such
and
to
keep
us
as
the
that
are
as
the
brain,
alive.
basal
need
can
active.
need
essential
the
is
The
more
eight
to
anything
–
two
proteins
ten
diet
provides:
provide
types
of
this
amino
energy
acid
that
the
else
fatty
acids
that
the
body
cannot
more
that
required
Our
e.g.
vitamins
•
minerals,
e.g.
calcium
•
enough
•
fibre.
A
and
C
and
iron
water
to
replace
water
that
is
lost
each
day
so
when
active
you
for
else
or
energy
energy
anything
vitamins,
we
How
much
energy?
you
energy
that
we
need
in
our
diet
depends
on
age,
gender,
need
and
activity
(how
much
exercise).
People
who
play
sport,
your
do
basal
acids
and
balanced
known
rate.
contract
from
occupation
above
–
from
•
The
are,
acids
make
fatty
lipids
A
energy
metabolism
also
they
liver,
This
metabolic
muscles
amino
needs.
FOCUS
kidneys
basal
immediate
carbohydrates,
cannot
make
Organs,
–
their
•
body
STUDY
for
a
lot
of
fitness
training
or
have
an
occupation
that
involves
taking
metabolism.
much
exercise
American
8000
and
to
9000 kJ
their
energy
they
large
intake
have
intake
require
football
by
a
each
size.
by
energy
need
day
to
build.
75–80%
to
of
2000 kJ
that
that
the
players
Female
of
than
increase
because
Basketball
1000
lighter
about
more
players
as
their
required
need
of
to
training
should
by
in
T
able
energy
intensity
only
athletes
shown
their
their
less
by
training
increase
is
5.6.1.
intake
their
intense
increase
their
and
energy
men.
Vegetarianism
Some
they
are
people
eat
animal
origin.
people
who
A
properly
who
5.6.1
Fresh
fruit
should
be
everyone’s
70
and
a
do
get
foods
eat
are
many
vegetarian
balanced
not
they
are
products,
Vegans
We
are
plant
that
animal
vegetarians.
includes
Figure
decide
some
that
people
of
or
our
provide
and/or
do
have
these
is
are
not
to
eat
and
meat
milk.
eat
from
make
any
although
These
foods
eating
sure
people
of
animals,
that
their
so
diet
nutrients.
a
at
to
eggs
nutrients
diet
fish
going
as
who
vegan
vegetarian
meat
not
such
healthy
risk
of
diet.
However,
vitamin
B 12
people
deficiency
vegetables
major
diet.
part
of
as
this
red
is
only
blood
found
cells.
in
foods
of
animal
origin.
We
need
it
to
make
T
able
5.6.1
Different
energy
needs
for
people
who
take
little
exercise
DID
Age
Recommended
energy
YOU
Other
per
day
factors
energy
Females
body
people
mass
influence
months
10–12
7–10
(fed
on
formula
milk)
2280
months
years
3850
3610
8240
7280
years
11 510
8830
19–49
years
10 600
8100
months
of
pregnancy
10 600
in
climates
cold
energy
since
generate
years
1
8000
9930
A
and
minerals
quantities
make
for
each
from
many
are
micronutrients,
day.
Vitamins
anything
are
simpler.
because
complex
Minerals
you
need
molecules
different
Some
functions,
micronutrients,
A
substance
Macronutrients
as
you
can
are
see
elements
in
T
able
that
large
in
benefit
are
quantities
very
we
small
to
required
their
functions
in
the
body
and
Function(s)
Helps
rods
light
in
in
of
the
the
low
body
eye
to
intensity
Good
8.5)
good
respiration
in
Carbohydrates,
are
the
proteins
and
Liver
,
chili
milk,
sweet
macronutrients
energy
and
dietary
sources
for
vitamins
are
the
are
required
building
and
minerals
micronutrients
for
other
and
roles.
powder
,
potatoes,
aerobic
needed
we
Vegetarians
do
not
eat
meat
carrots
or
Helps
are
day;
5.6.2.
4
(see
each
quantities.
compounds
see
B
a
body.
cells;
Micronutrient
is
micronutrients
very
that
sources
Vitamins
to
maintain
provides
providing
5.6.2
to
temperature.
that
lipids
T
able
need
heat
more
minerals
3
need
require
they
nutrient
in
cannot
a
live
7990
2
vitamins
and
energy
who
POINTS
the
small
Those
body
body
food
Vitamins
Height,
also
10 900
50–59
of
much
needs.
KEY
Roles
how
build
8900
Breastfeeding
60–64
require.
and
person
their
3
the
2160
15–18
Last
influence
(kJ)
Males
0–3
KNOW?
intake
fish,
animal
Cereals
although
products,
some
such
eat
as
1
in
milk
mitochondria
not
C
Helps
tissue
resistance
repair
to
and
Oranges,
disease
and
and
eat
eggs.
any
Vegans
animal
do
products.
lemons
other
citrus
fruits
SUMMARY
D
Helps
absorption
calcium
in
the
strengthening
and
Minerals
Iron
teeth
Forms
(see
part
cells
oxygen
gut
of
Fish
and
bones
5.2
and
in
7.4)
to
the
in
red
(also
skin
made
1
2
eggs
Gives
the
and
Explain
why
transports
of
the
teeth;
needed
in
nervous
to
bones
and
Milk,
fish,
for
Name
synapses
diet
quantities
macronutrients.
four
blood
and
vitamins
that
and
humans
two
require
vegetables
the
diet.
Suggest
some
occupations
clotting
that
5.2
human
large
system;
4
(see
the
green
in
in
micronutrient,
6.4)
strength
involved
nutrient,
mineral
contain
minerals
the
terms
vitamin
must
3
Calcium
Define
macronutrient,
exposed
meat,
cocoa,
QUESTIONS
milk,
sunlight)
Liver,
that
(see
oil,
butter
of
haemoglobin
blood
of
require
a
higher
intake
7.4)
of
energy
the
than
those
given
in
table.
71
5.7
Malnutrition
Malnutrition
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
People
At
the
end
of
this
topic
who
do
not
malnutrition.
should
be
able
explain
the
There
a
are
balanced
forms
of
diet
may
suffer
malnutrition
from
caused
a
by
form
not
of
enough
to:
of
•
have
you
term
the
macronutrients,
or
too
much,
which
can
lead
to
obesity
deficiency
Protein
energy
malnutrition
(PEM)
occurs
in
children,
who
do
not
disease
•
describe
energy
the
effects
of
receive
enough
caused
by
state
and
not
and
receiving
protein
enough
in
their
diet.
Marasmus
energy-providing
foods,
is
so
mainly
protein
is
deficiency
used
•
energy
protein
the
causes,
treatment
blindness,
symptoms
of
scurvy,
loss.
in
night
rickets
and
to
provide
energy.
Kwashiorkor
the
blood
is
also
swelling
of
helps
absorb
to
Growth
body
the
is
retarded
result
tissues
water
of
and
from
a
a
and
protein
swollen
the
there
is
severe
deficiency
liver.
Protein
and
in
weight
results
the
tissues.
anaemia
Deficiency
•
describe
more
to
the
food
effects
than
maintain
is
good
of
necessary
health.
Deficiency
diet.
front
YOU
Eating
and
but
A
too
eating
be
a
much
large
vitamin
A
of
rarely
too
causing
the
eye
are
A
caused
in
night
the
by
diet
blindness.
becomes
cloudy
the
the
If
and
lack
rods
the
light
of
in
micronutrients
the
eye
deficiency
cannot
do
is
pass
not
in
the
work
serious
then
through
the
easily.
vitamins
does
much
lethal.
fishermen
of
of
vitamin
KNOW?
minerals
may
diseases
Without
properly,
DID
diseases
eating
once
A
vitamin
group
ate
halibut
harm,
the
and
of
liver
died
of
poisoning.
Figure
5.7.1
One
of
causes
the
of
children
major
Figure
blindness
is
vitamin
5.7.2
X-ray
in
child
of
the
with
legs
of
a
rickets
A
deficiency.
Without
Vitamin
outwards
has
wear
this
Vitamin
C
5.7.3
This
person
has
iron,
quantity
of
and
bleed
red
oxygen
A
for
C
blood
the
and
teeth
blood
People
out
often
bow
that
sunshine,
body
are
can
most
lead
a
person
or
at
to
who
risk
of
weak
clotting.
fall
formation
out
the
are
of
Wounds
(Figure
contain
in
who
the
calcium
scurvy.
cells
bones
indicating
in
their
of
proper
causes
Leg
body,
go
covers
transported
anaemia.
the
not
defi ciency
slow
vitamin
the
of
do
soft.
less
blood
collagen
are
not
the
skin.
5.7.3).
haemoglobin
decreases.
anaemic
in
repaired
have
less
This
so
is
energy
the
iron-
and
scurvy.
feel
72
of
Without
who
completely
required
gums
deficiency
Figure
is
become
pressure
disease.
teeth,
deficiency
properly,
the
that
deficiency
and
bones
Children
clothing
bones
A
under
rickets.
D
tired
and
lethargic
because
they
have
less
oxygen
available
for
aerobic
respiration.
They
are
likely
to
grow
and
develop
slowly.
Girls
DID
and
women
lose
blood
are
in
more
their
at
risk
monthly
of
iron-deficiency
anaemia
because
YOU
The
periods.
advice
from
Deficiency
diseases
are
treated
by
making
sure
people
have
the
diet
and
by
giving
dietary
supplements,
such
as
pills
and
here
diet.
comes
DASH
for
Dietary
Approaches
with
to
vitamins
given
DASH
a
stands
balanced
KNOW?
they
Stop
Hypertension.
It
has
minerals.
proved
successful
lowering
blood
not
only
pressure
at
but
also
Obesity
for
Consuming
body
fat.
•
being
•
having
more
T
wo
20%
a
food
ways
a
above
body
energy
person
the
than
can
required
be
identified
recommended
mass
index
increases
(BMI)
weight
greater
as
the
obese
for
his
than
quantity
of
people
those
is
calculated
using
the
following
to
lose
and
for
weight.
or
her
height
30.
POINTS
formula:
1
body
BMI
diabetes
wish
are:
KEY
BMI
with
who
mass
(in
Malnutrition
is
the
result
kilograms)
=
of
an
unbalanced
diet
2
height
(in
metres)
where
There
is
an
obesity
epidemic
in
many
regions
of
the
World,
of
the
Caribbean.
The
causes
of
this
there
is
a
shortage
including
nutrients
or
the
person
are:
over-eats.
•
a
change
from
traditional
high
fibre
diets
to
‘Western’
diets
rich
in
2
fatty
food
and
refined
foods
that
contain
much
sugar
Deficiency
caused
sucrose)
and
•
increase
in
•
a
•
the
are
low
in
by
a
change
from
with
more
physically
money
active
to
to
more
spend
on
sedentary
food
the
of
walking
People
of
•
are
Avoid
heart
and
public
school,
disease,
for
high
foods
or
such
as
a
reduction
are
and
are
in
time
spent
at
Obesity
is
a
Eat
plenty
of
•
Eat
regular
risk
(high
(damage
uterine
to
developing
blood
joints),
cancers.
dietary
concentration
of
of
4
pressure),
Eat
meals;
many
People
People
a
with
with
strict
greatly
diabetes
DASH
diet,
should
such
as
and
follow
the
diet.
advice:
glucose
in
the
blood
foods,
avoid
fresh
sugary
fruit
foods
and
and
do
not
skip
QUESTIONS
vegetables.
drinks
especially
between
1
Define
the
protein
and
is
eating.
starchy
breakfast
in
condition
hypertension
meals.
•
a
person
SUMMARY
•
mineral(s)
overweight.
high
given
or
diet.
where
shops.
arthritis
bowel
the
and
hypertension
pressure
increase
after
or
obese
diabetes,
example
blood
that
immediately
transport
market
overweight
problems,
cancer
,
diabetes
and
work,
health
coronary
types
to
who
serious
cars
are
of
occupations
3
use
lack
fibre
vitamin(s)
incomes
diseases
(especially
energy
deficiency
meals.
terms
malnutrition,
malnutrition,
diseases
and
obesity
•
Eat
•
Try
•
low
to
Drink
and
in
foods,
avoid
not
with
addition
e.g.
eating
plenty
do
People
fat
of
fried
fluids
binge
low-fat
to
and
dairy
‘fast
keep
products
and
lean
meat.
food’.
hydrated;
2
drink
alcohol
effects
moderately
should
follow
the
advice
given
above,
reduce
3
should:
their
intake
of
sodium
(should
be
between
1500
a
increase
deficiency
Surveys
have
diseases.
people
in
the
that
Caribbean
Suggest
why.
intake
of
foods
rich
in
potassium,
e.g.
beans,
Summarise
the
dietary
advice
people
with
bananas,
is
given
to
vegetables
make
dairy
two
discovered
anaemia.
diabetes
•
and
day)
that
leafy
diseases
to
4
•
and
vitamin
mineral
have
2300 mg
causes
two
but
many
•
the
of
deficiency
drink.
hypertension
Describe
sure
their
products,
diet
leafy
contains
foods
vegetables,
rich
bread
in
calcium,
fortified
e.g.
with
and
hypertension.
low-fat
calcium.
73
5.8
Respiration
Respiration
LEARNING
constant
At
the
end
should
•
be
define
of
this
able
the
topic
to
you
to:
term
carry
distinguish
and
out
division.
cells.
of
small,
shown
This
all
of
of
the
is
computer-generated
image
of
a
time.
the
ATP
is
made
cell
structures.
0.002 mm
6O
fuels
energy
It
provides
used
is
stay
protein
to
alive
a
synthesis
provide
released
very
and
and
energy
gradually
in
in
a
reactions.
equation
energy
is
breakdown
of
glucose
in
6H
to
O
water
energy
+
energy
released
released
to
energy
ATP
reactions
each
glucose
released
ADP
+
chemical
catalyses
from
cells.
+
2
(ADP)
also
transferring
readily
the
is:
+
many
enzyme
energy
processes
in
dioxide
2
release
down
used
is
occur
These
used
to
in
reactions
convert
triphosphate
heat.
from
respiration
diffuses
with
which
adenosine
as
that
reaction.
the
easily
transfer
to
the
through
of
energy-
the
cell
and
energy.
mitochondrion
with
a
high
is
aerobic
energy
respiration
have
many
occurs
(Figure
5.8.1).
mitochondria.
respiration
anaerobic
respiration
oxygen.
shows
that
The
lactic
word
acid
glucose
Some
In
bacteria
humans,
exercise,
Oxygen
after
energy
sprinter,
Pryce,
may
reach
is
lactic
acid.
acid
when
glucose
respiration
without
in
animals
not
return
Oxygen
tissue
energy
they
released
respire
during
fast
without
bursts
oxygen.
of
weightlifting.
is
to
for
such
aerobic
therefore
released.
resting
required
exercise,
muscles
energy
+
anaerobically
and
does
Muscle
enough
from
anaerobic
acid
strenuous
the
released
lactic
lactic
finishes.
is
for
produced:
sprinting
hard,
needed.
there
Some
to
as
levels
immediately
repay
an
sprinting,
respiration
respires
glucose
to
oxygen
not
anaerobically
is
enough
supply
broken
all
so
down
the
that
to
Shelley-
The
relying
the
anaerobic
exercise
is
respire
consumption
During
oxygen
as
energy
equation
→
produce
muscles
such
the
debt.
muscles
for
Each
using
Fraser
where
demand
long.
In
Jamaican
6CO
summarises
at
is
carbon
→
specific
Anaerobic
her
transport,
to
in
Cells
on
the
this
mitochondrion.
The
of
→
diphosphate
good
breaks
oxygen
2
A
Some
consuming
it
+
respiration
ATP
Anne
are
the
need
equation:
chemical
equation
(ATP).
word
6
adenosine
is
fat
They
active
enzyme-controlled
oxygen
O
12
respiration.
these
and
as
respiration,
the
+
H
6
Most
such
respiration,
by
balanced
C
74
cells
cells.
respiration
aerobic
The
A
Glucose
During
glucose
5.8.2
living
for
aerobic
as
Figure
all
respiration.
In
5.8.1
in
energy
processes,
the
Aerobic
Figure
place
of
respiration
between
anaerobic
supply
cell
series
•
takes
OUTCOMES
respiration
in
lactic
acid.
extra
oxygen
absorbed
after
exercise
is
used
to
respire
When
yeasts
dioxide
as
respire
shown
glucose
Far
less
is
not
acid
and
of
and
measure
alcohol
with
a
to
in
the
in
carbon
of
a
hydrometer
of
sugar
as
a
lot
yeast
and
carbon
you
in
anaerobic
because
glucose
remains
in
lactic
energy.
little
access
growth
to
and
The
air,
it
produces
carbon
dioxide
5.8.3).
need
to
more
decrease
As
released
glucose
is
energy
Figure
produces
5.8.4).
of
bond
for
energy
This
products.
(see
This
of
with
energy
waste
decreases.
+
molecule
solution
release
(Figure
alcohol
dioxide
chemical
respiration,
As
make
respiration.
and
limewater
produced.
liquid
each
down
dioxide
with
carbon
from
form
to
anaerobic
the
+
they
equation:
aerobic
broken
kept
detected
density
alcohol
anaerobically
alcohol
be
is
word
released
alcohol
yeast
respires
To
is
this
compared
completely
When
can
→
energy
respiration
anaerobically
in
alcohol
measure
and
in
is
the
more
density
amount
alcohol,
is
the
measured
produced,
the
density
Figure
of
the
fermenting
mixture
decreases.
Plants
also
respire
5.8.3
Limewater
detect
in
the
same
way
as
yeast.
This
happens
when
soils
get
flooded
the
is
no
air
in
the
soil
(see
used
to
presence
of
and
carbon
there
is
anaerobically
1.3).
by
dioxide
anaerobic
produced
and
aerobic
respiration.
Biogas
Some
bacteria
respire
anaerobically
to
make
the
gas
methane
(CH
).
4
This
gas
biogas
human,
gas
is
can
animal
vented
energy
KEY
that
made
a
source
the
plant
used
use
is
one
of
in
waste
for
solid
available
energy.
Figure
and
cooking.
waste
often
5.8.5
kept
in
There
from
used
There
that
small-scale
are
anaerobic
are
also
sewage
to
are
filled
conditions.
large-scale
treatment
power
the
with
works.
treatment
The
biogas
The
works.
POINTS
ATP
is
the
Glucose
In
energy
between
convert
3
as
like
and
and
energy
2
used
generators
generators
1
be
is
respired
ADP
aerobic
currency
to
of
respiration
in
cells
cells;
and
to
ATP
is
used
to
transfer
energy-consuming
release
energy
that
is
processes.
used
to
ATP
.
respiration
maximum
release
anaerobic
oxygen
of
this
occurs
energy;
where
less
oxygen
with
oxygen
energy
is
not
is
with
the
released
in
used.
Figure
5.8.4
Hydrometers
follow
4
Muscle
tissue
and
some
bacteria
respire
anaerobically
the
alcohol
5
Biogas
lactic
and
acid;
carbon
consists
of
yeast
respires
anaerobically
to
are
to
of
to
ethanol
produce
used
production
by
yeast.
produce
dioxide.
methane
produced
by
bacteria
that
respire
anaerobically.
SUMMARY
1
Define
QUESTIONS
the
respiration
terms
and
respiration,
oxygen
aerobic
respiration,
anaerobic
debt
Figure
2
Make
a
table
to
compare
aerobic
and
anaerobic
respiration.
5.8.5
This
small-scale
generator
biogas
provides
fuel
for
cooking.
75
5.9
Gas
You
LEARNING
the
should
end
be
remember
of
this
able
topic
3.2.
gas
you
Unicellular
exchange
volume
to:
ratio
enough
•
state
the
gas
features
exchange
common
list
the
gas
exchange
Amoeba,
description
large
They
enough
dioxide
to
are
to
use
so
small
allow
leave.
their
and
Both
body
photograph
that
enough
gases
surface
their
oxygen
move
as
surface
to
their
area
enter
across
the
to
and
cell
of
these
protists
by
diffusion.
are
multicellular
animals.
They
too
use
their
body
surface
surfaces
gas
exchange.
An
earthworm
10 cm
in
length
is
about
200
times
earthworms,
longer
humans,
its
this
to
for
of
from
like
surfaces
Earthworms
•
is
creatures
surface.
carbon
membrane
all
Amoeba
surfaces
OUTCOMES
in
At
will
exchange
fish
and
and
1500
times
thicker
than
Amoeba.
This
makes
it
much
flowering
more
difficult
for
oxygen
to
diffuse
from
the
outer
layer
of
the
body
plants.
to
the
centre
reverse
transport
gas
of
the
direction.
gases
exchange
animal
and
Therefore
and
there
(Figure
for
carbon
earthworms
are
many
dioxide
have
tiny
a
blood
to
diffuse
blood
in
system
vessels
the
to
(capillaries)
for
5.9.2).
Layer
of
watery
Cuticle
mucus
Epidermis
Capillary
Muscle
Figure
5.9.3
The
gills
catfish
of
this
have
giant
many
Inside
worm
gill
filaments.
Figure
5.9.1
Gas
exchange
between
in
the
the
soil
occurs
Figure
5.9.2
There
air
and
earthworm’s
are
blood
capillaries
the
below
body
immediately
the
earthworm’s
epidermis.
surface.
The
gas
gills.
exchange
Water
covered
We
in
tiny
breathe
exchange
diffusion
of
flows
such
of
Alveoli
5.9.4
Each
gill
filament
by
that
full
are
provide
a
exchange
76
tiny
of
gill
leaves.
have
fish,
All
even
if
features
refresh
alveoli,
in
alveolar
the
in
gas
the
air
blood
into
air.
Our
and
gas
in
is
the
the
that
dioxide.
These
to
•
a
very
large
•
a
moist
•
walls
surface
the
exchange
and
contact
inside
the
exchange
of
surfaces,
the
internal
with
the
body.
oxygen
and
are:
area
for
the
diffusion
of
gases
gaseous
surface
(X
surface
so
that
gases
can
dissolve
before
diffusion
10).
that
are
thin
so
that
gases
do
not
are
diffusion
exchange
insects
are
deep
for
gas
of
surfaces
them
along
Gaseous
exchange
blood
other
tubes
plates
filaments
lungs.
Gas
the
the
with
gill
5.9.4).
our
lungs.
enclosed
adapt
in
into
breathing
are
leaf-like
and
air
the
exchange
they
tiny
between
5.9.3
common
the
that
has
and
plates
blood
huge
of
fish
(Figures
to
from
from
a
mouth
is
carbon
covered
the
features
gills
surroundings,
Figure
out
in
dioxide
the
surfaces
and
of
the
plates
oxygen
shares
as
gill
occurs
of
carbon
surface
in
surface
into
have
to
diffuse
very
far.
Steep
concentration
gradients
for
oxygen
and
for
carbon
dioxide
are
LINK
maintained
because
there
is:
See
•
a
good
blood
supply,
bringing
carbon
dioxide
for
efficient
3.4
about
and
absorbing
lots
of
to
remind
diffusion
breathing
that
constantly
supplies
fresh
oxygen-rich
air
When
of
waste
inspired
oxygen.
then
very
the
(see
and
Figure
Gas
Gas
diffusion
alveoli
air
exchange
exchange
there
is
in
air
in
air
stomata
spaces
air
two
in
of
reaches
the
layers
distance
those
1
one
the
the
watery
of
cells
between
capillary,
alveoli
lining
into
the
the
cells
which
it
of
contains
each
blood.
forming
are
all
a
A
where
the
is
walls
squamous
on
the
very
surface
are
either
the
side
of
different.
lot
alveolus
There
concentrations
and
a
of
cells
plants
leaves
spaces
allow
the
on
in
occurs
(see
on
movement
leaf.
both
They
all
the
cell
surfaces
exposed
to
4.3).
do
of
gases
not
in
form
a
and
gas
out
of
the
exchange
intercellular
surface
as
sides.
Figure
KEY
is
5.9.5).
intercellular
The
in)
dissolves
through
gradient
dioxide.
(breathed
Oxygen
diffuses
short
carbon
gradients.
and
steep
removes
and
oxygen
concentration
•
yourself
removal
Diffusion
of
oxygen
Diffusion
of
carbon
5.9.5
Gaseous
POINTS
Gaseous
dioxide
exchange
in
an
alveolus
exchange
is
the
diffusion
of
oxygen
and
carbon
LINK
dioxide
between
the
surroundings
and
the
body
of
an
organism.
There
is
more
structure
2
Gaseous
to
3
the
exchange
size
Diffusion
of
an
surfaces
are
thin,
moist
and
large
and
4
Gas
exchange
SUMMARY
1
Describe
in
animals
are
maintained
by
blood
in
5.10.
at
3.3
You
to
All
in
plants
occurs
on
cell
surfaces
inside
EXAM
of
a
specialised
gaseous
exchange
surface.
Name
such
as
gaseous
mammals
exchange;
and
fish,
protists
have
such
these
Explain
for
why
gaseous
Amoeba
do
structures
in
mammals
and
Amoeba
does
not
have
a
Explain
4
Describe
a
at
why
the
night
We
and
walls
can
say
but
that
capilla
ries
made
not.
no t
of
cell
walls
fish.
specialised
structure
remem
ber
have
cell
plan
t
walls
,
cells
but
exchange.
anim
al
3
about
cells.
TIP
specialised
as
–
b
epithelial
Bewa
re!
cells,
a
look
leaves.
have
for
also
yourself
movements.
features
vertebrates,
structures
should
remind
alveo
li
2
alveoli
flow
QUESTIONS
the
of
relative
squamous
breathing
the
organism.
gradients
and
about
function
earthworms
gaseous
b
need
a
exchange
during
the
transport
that
day.
do
no t.
system.
occurs
Explain
cells
in
plants:
your
answers.
77
5.10
Breathing
The
LEARNING
The
At
the
end
of
this
topic
be
able
define
•
describe
lungs
the
are
are
term
the
breathing
describe
in
the
diaphragm,
intercostal
spongy
protected
a
sheet
the
breathing
of
organs
by
mechanism
muscle
abdomen.
downwards
•
system
the
situated
ribcage
within
and
the
the
thorax
backbone.
(chest).
The
diaphragm
to:
is
•
exchange
you
They
should
gaseous
OUTCOMES
and
When
and
fibrous
the
when
it
tissue
muscle
relaxes
separating
contracts
it
is
the
pushed
the
thorax
diaphragm
from
moves
upwards.
of
humans
role
of
the
ribcage
muscles
and
in
breathing.
Figure
5.10.2
An
X-ray
healthy
this
of
with
smoker
a
pair
lungs.
the
in
of
Compare
X-ray
of
a
5.11.
Trachea
Bronchiole
Figure
Left
Bronchus
5.10.1
The
pleural
cavity
membranes
rubbing
move
the
which
each
of
the
left
lung
The
in
tubes
the
Figure
system
or
two
are
air
airways.
nose
the
to
sacs
and
blood
which
air
fluid
passes
cords.
is
a
to
capillaries
moves
to
then
the
take
the
thorax.
is
many
for
an
efficient
reach
the
deep
the
The
the
to
breaths.
to
the
trachea,
trachea
which
small
called
contract
throat
enters
bronchus),
form
which
we
pleural
preventing
muscles
through
into
two
lubricant
when
Air
(singular
of
between
intercostal
and
branch
each
lies
especially
vocal
neck
and
This
The
bronchi
many
through
ribs.
the
continue
tiny
fluid
5.10.1).
the
contains
the
with
breathing,
through
into
alveolus
called
78
exchange
filled
mouth
passes
end
is
during
the
Bronchi
which
Structure
gas
against
which
branches
lung.
5.10.3
ribs
enters
larynx,
Bronchiole
(see
lungs
Air
Figure
The
lung
enter
each
bronchioles,
alveolus.
gas
alveoli
Around
exchange.
are
often
Breathing
1
The
in
muscles
flatten
the
(inspiration)
of
the
central
diaphragm
part
of
the
contract
and
diaphragm,
which
Passage
is
made
are
of
tough
strong
lower
ribs
and
fibrous
connect
and
the
tissue.
to
the
sternum
These
of
air
muscles
backbone,
the
muscles
Ribs
2
The
external
the
internal
the
ribs
intercostal
intercostal
contract
(breastbone).
muscles
muscles
contract
relax.
Lungs
and
This
move
up
and
out
moves
The
volume
of
Ribcage
and
sternum
upwards
and
the
outwards.
chest
cavity
increases
Diaphragm
3
These
movements
the
thorax,
the
lungs
The
air
so
increase
decreasing
the
the
volume
air
inside
pressure
Diaphragm
contracts
and
inside
moves
down
Front
4
pressure
atmospheric
nose
or
1
The
into
out
diaphragm
exerted
fibrous
2
pressure,
mouth
Breathing
inside
The
by
the
tissue
internal
the
so
the
lungs
air
is
less
moves
lungs
and
in
view
of
chest
Side
view
of
chest
than
through
they
your
Figure
5.10.4
Breathing
in
inflate.
(expiration)
muscles
relax
abdomen
and
pushes
the
the
pressure
Passage
central
upwards.
intercostal
of
air
Trachea
muscles
contract
and
External
intercostal
muscles
relax
the
Ribs
external
intercostal
muscles
relax
to
move
and
ribs
downwards
and
move
down
Lungs
the
in
inwards.
Ribcage
3
These
movements
decrease
the
volume
inside
The
the
thorax
so
increasing
the
air
pressure
volume
of
Diaphragm
inside
the
chest
cavity
relaxes
decreases
the
lungs
and
Diaphragm
bulges
upwards
4
The
elastic
this
helps
tissue
around
the
alveoli
recoils
and
Front
During
alone
quiet
may
ribcage
during
to
or
be
move
air
shallow
moving.
when
out
of
the
breathing
Both
taking
the
the
diaphragm
diaphragm
deep
view
of
chest
Side
view
of
chest
lungs.
breaths,
and
for
Figure
5.10.5
Breathing
out
the
example
exercise.
SUMMARY
1
force
QUESTIONS
Distinguish
between
the
terms
breathing
and
respiration
KEY
2
Describe
from
the
the
pathway
atmosphere
taken
into
by
the
air
as
it
respiratory
system.
1
Y
ou
could
draw
this
as
a
flow
chart
POINTS
moves
Breathing
of
3
Make
a
table
to
show
the
functions
of
all
of
the
gas
exchange
system
the
Figures
5.10.1
and
Inspired
Make
a
diagram
of
the
gas
exchange
labels
and
annotate
with
the
functions
different
in
and
out
air
enters
the
the
throat
nose
and
or
then
mouth,
the
passes
larynx,
the
vocal
which
cords.
The
air
passes
through
the
trachea,
bronchi
of
and
the
air
system.
3
Add
of
5.10.3.
contains
4
movement
labelled
through
in
the
lungs.
the
2
structures
is
diagram.
bronchioles
to
the
alveoli,
where
gas
structures.
exchange
occurs.
79
5.11
Smoking
Addicted
LEARNING
At
the
end
of
should
be
•
the
state
this
able
tobacco
topic
describe
If
you
it
is
smoke
is
only
very
main
components
of
•
give
someone
up
the
who
habit.
smokes,
Smokers
explain
effects
of
tar
outline
prevented
with
by
but
smoke
it
is
one
why
to
people
become
Nicotine
to
smoking
the
effects
of
an
is
it
in
having
is
also
order
synapses
of
and
carbon
know
craving
that
that
to
in
another
physical.
function
our
smoke.
The
That
body
properly
nervous
craving
relies
on
because
system.
That
is
the
its
partly
drug
in
molecules
drug
is
nicotine
the
most
addictive
substances
known.
stimulant.
in
heart
alertness.
It
stimulates
rate
and
the
blood
Marijuana
release
of
pressure.
(ganga)
adrenaline
This
contains
a
gives
drug
an
leading
increase
that
has
the
nicotine
monoxide
on
effect.
It
has
a
calming
effect
and
may
induce
a
trance-like
the
state
circulatory
a
increase
mental
opposite
and
also
cause
hallucinations.
system.
a
b
LINK
Cilia move
Dust
Ciliated
These cells
cells
Synapses
drugs
will
a
on
in
nerve
you
have
airways
addicted
•
know
to
psychological
tobacco
smoke
the
or
hard
to:
and
the
smoking
you
interact
•
to
OUTCOMES
are
cells
tiny
(see
8.4).
including
nicotine
act
on
gaps
Many
heroin
our
make mucus
between
and
synapses.
Figure
5.11.2
a
Healthy
bronchus
lining
of
squamous
Cap
Damage
Rubber
to
the
a
of
a
bronchus
long-term
of
a
smoker:
non-smoker,
the
ciliated
b
cells
Lining
are
of
a
replaced
by
cells.
lungs
tube
T
ar
is
the
cools.
It
black
does
sticky
not
material
pass
into
that
the
collects
in
bloodstream.
the
T
ar
lungs
as
irritates
smoke
the
lining
of
Bottle
the
Contents
airways
the
epithelial
cells
to
produce
more
mucus.
of
This
cigarette
stimulating
tends
to
accumulate,
narrowing
the
airways.
Smokers
cough
to
smoke:
make
Nicotine
this
material
move
to
the
back
of
the
throat
(Figure
5.11.1).
Tar
Carbon
T
ar
monoxide
Carcinogens
causes
beating.
the
cilia
Mucus
on
and
the
the
cells
dust,
that
dirt
line
and
the
air
passages
bacteria
that
to
stick
stop
to
it,
Cotton
are
not
removed
bacteria
Figure
5.11.1
A
simple
Scientists
in
mixture
machines
80
blood
bronchi.
of
cells
The
mucus,
The
mucus
accumulates
congregate
bronchi
bacteria
attempt
to
cough
up.
This
with
this
condition
find
it
become
and
where
and
this
blocked
white
to
mimic
our
to
contents
smoke.
condition
difficult
sophisticated
behaviour
the
tobacco
the
lungs.
blood
happens,
with
cells),
is
chronic
which
bronchitis.
have
People
more
analyse
White
phlegm
(a
the
smoking
machine.
smoking
multiply.
particularly
people
used
from
of
are
partly
blocked
(Figure
5.11.2).
to
breathe
as
the
bronchi
Particles,
bacteria
and
tar
reach
the
alveoli.
White
blood
cells
digest
DID
a
pathway
Eventually
break
This
through
this
down
and
They
efficiently.
lining
weakens
condition
breath.
the
burst,
is
the
of
walls
reducing
emphysema,
cannot
Many
the
absorb
long-term
alveoli
of
the
the
have
so
area
leaves
oxygen
smokers
reach
alveoli
surface
which
enough
to
for
both
of
that
gas
as
an
that
for
carbon
these
T
obacco
they
exchange.
gasping
remove
YOU
dioxide
conditions.
try
to
farmers
dry
Carbon
monoxide
red
blood
can
carry.
cells
of
smoked.
to
cases
is
of
be
as
to
the
kill
DNA
of
cells
and
take
leaves.
the
manufacturers
products,
such
volume
much
cancer
cause
of
promote
lining
divide
20
If
years
this
lung
Worse,
organs.
be
a
as
a
with
of
haemoglobin
oxygen
10%
dangerous
in
that
decrease
for
control.
there
people
cancer
airways.
of
before
occur
lung
changes,
the
out
is
not
pushing
part
If
a
more
of
are
discovered
against
the
tumour
removed
much
by
is
the
in
as
cigars
in
blood
the
pregnant
who
the
known
These
This
oxygen
women.
smoke
or
who
carcinogens
as
mutation,
mutations
growth
any
it
may
the
airways
tumour
is
may
discovered
surgery.
difficult
SUMMARY
to
is
cause
very
symptoms.
to
tar.
occur
the
slow
The
in
cells
and
cells
in
it
form
Figure
5.11.3
Lung
cancer
diagnosed
a
grow
to
occupy
a
large
If
the
treat
and
break
before
tumour
(Figures
blood
off
it
has
vessels
and
has
spread
spread,
5.11.3
to
spread
and
block
into
then
then
the
State
2
Smoking-related
healthy
with
X
-rays.
the
lungs
in
X
-ray
5.10.
them.
other
it
may
cancer
is
5.11.4).
components
of
tobacco
smoke.
diseases
are
often
classified
as
5.11.4
This
cancer
Discuss
the
whether
effects
of
or
not
smoking
this
on
is
the
true.
blood
gaseous
has
spread
self-inflicted
through
Outline
this
often
taking
area
Figure
diseases.
is
by
QUESTIONS
1
3
and
make
cigarettes.
of
the
T
obacco
leaves
Compare
tumour.
of
nicotine
insects
oxygen
permanently
the
particularly
lung
The
substances
grow
may
combines
produce
cancer
have
the
of
reducing
may
This
90%
These
so
There
transported.
Lung
transport
eat
harvest
them;
and
on
plants
insecticide
tobacco
Effects
KNOW?
bacteria.
much
people
or
the
the
lung,
vessels
and
blocking
airways.
exchange
system.
4
Explain
KEY
why
smokers
find
it
hard
to
give
up
their
habit.
POINTS
1
Nicotine
2
T
ar
is
the
damages
production
Carcinogens
4
Carbon
cells
to
the
of
3
addictive
lining
mucus
in
reduce
the
of
and
smoke
monoxide
substance
the
in
tobacco
airways,
destroying
smoke.
stimulating
ciliated
cause
lung
cancer.
combines
with
haemoglobin
blood’s
oxygen-carrying
excess
cells.
in
red
blood
capacity.
81
Unit
SECTION
1
Which
5
1:
Practice
Multiple-choice
chemical
human
reaction
exam
questions
takes
place
inside
the
5
stomach?
A
sample
solution.
blue
A
Cellulose
in
fibre
is
questions
digested
by
to
of
food
The
was
solution
purple.
tested
with
changed
Which
nutrient
biuret
colour
was
from
present
in
cellulase
the
food
sample?
enzymes.
2
B
Fats
C
Proteins
D
Starch
A
are
person
by
a
lack
digested
are
is
digested
digested
has
of
into
by
anaemia.
which
amino
by
protease
lipase
This
A
fat
B
glucose
C
protein
D
starch
acids.
enzymes.
enzymes.
could
be
caused
nutrient?
The
A
rubber
sheet
in
this
model
of
thorax
B
iron
C
vitamin
C
D
vitamin
D
shows
diaphragm.
Questions
the
The
6
effect
of
Which
for
human
diagram
and
movements
is
needed
of
the
following
anaerobic
is
respiration
the
in
word
glucose
+
oxygen
→
of
the
answer
tube
equation
yeast?
bell
A
to
7.
glass
3
the
calcium
carbon
dioxide
carbon
dioxide
jar
+
water
balloon
B
glucose
→
C
glucose
+
D
glucose
→
alcohol
oxygen
+
→
lactic
alcohol
+
water
acid
rubber
4
Six
test
tubes
between
were
15 °C
contained
set
and
identical
up
65 °C.
at
Each
solutions
test
of
tube
starch
and
6
amylase.
The
time
taken
for
each
reaction
When
T
est
was
recorded
tube
T
emperature
in
this
the
rubber
sheet
is
pulled
downwards
to
the
finish
sheet
temperatures
balloons
inflate.
This
is
because:
table.
1
2
3
4
5
6
15
25
35
45
55
65
A
air
pressure
in
the
balloons
B
air
pressure
in
the
bell
C
atmospheric
pressure
jar
is
increases
increases
greater
than
air
(°C)
pressure
Time
taken
135
75
30
15
95
in
the
balloons
185
D
atmospheric
pressure
is
less
than
air
(seconds)
pressure
7
The
optimum
temperature
When
the
45 °C
B
65 °C
the
rubber
A
air
deflate.
pressure
sheet
C
between
35 °C
and
45 °C
D
between
35 °C
and
55 °C
B
air
pressure
the
C
is
pushed
upwards
the
because:
balloons
is
greater
than
pressure
in
atmospheric
the
the
is
the
bell
jar
is
less
than
in
balloons
pressure
D
This
in
atmospheric
82
balloons
is:
balloons
A
in
in
pressure
the
balloons
is
greater
than
balloons
contract
to
force
air
out
air
SECTION
8
Some
2:
Short
students
temperature
the
They
cells
source
as
a
oxygen
T
able
questions
investigated
on
catalase.
determined
answer
used
the
of
activity
a
of
effect
the
The
reaction
T
able
1
of
The
enzyme
suspension
catalase.
rate
produced.
10%
the
of
of
yeast
them
students
by
shows
for
collecting
their
student
reaction
the
a
with
is
samples
at
iodine
taken
shown
in
from
intervals
solution.
yellow-brown
samples
results.
took
mixture
colour
from
T
able
each
each
and
The
to
tested
time
taken
appear
reaction
in
mixture
2.
1
T
able
T
emperature/
Volume
Time
°C
of
to
Rate
taken
2
of
pH
Time
taken
for
yellow-brown
3
oxygen
reaction/cm
obtain
colour
collected/
oxygen/
of
seconds
per
to
appear/minutes
oxygen
3
cm
second
0
0
–
10
5
100
0.05
20
10
65
0.15
30
10
12
0.83
40
10
5
2.00
50
10
9
60
6
120
70
0
3
–
0
5
12
7
2
9
4
11
b
i
0.05
–
i
List
the
would
apparatus
use
in
this
that
Outline
the
would
have
to
the
results
given
that
follow
to
students
the
the
the
Describe
the
Calculate
the
Show
your
c
Plot
graph
d
Describe
rate
of
results
of
to
make
reaction
at
results
shown
in
i
students
obtain
the
(4)
Name
that
table.
the
parts
secrete
of
the
alimentary
results
State
reaction
at
50 °C.
what
amylase.
happens
of
alimentary
(2)
starch
to
the
end
digestion
in
f
Explain
i
the
State
results.
(2)
shown
by
your
graph.
of
this
a
Make
Suggest
two
investigation
in
could
which
be
ii
25
(2)
catalyses
the
hydrolysis
of
Write
a
word
equation
to
show
for
State
the
diagram
small
absorption
to
the
gas
intestine
of
exchange
food.
(6)
surfaces
A
catalysed
student
the
five
surfaces
the
are
of
reaction
using
amylase.
mixtures
solutions
the
ways
in
adapted
which
for
gas
these
exchange.
(4)
Explain
why
of
animals
require
a
continuous
oxygen.
(3)
the
effect
The
of
of
fish
starch.
amylase.
investigated
activity
starch
by
of
(2)
Total
reaction
show
is
humans.
Compare
supply
a
annotated
in
marks
c
Amylase
fully
villus
and
the
improved.
Total
9
i
(1)
ways
a
a
adapted
b
investigation.
ii
marks
(4)
(4)
limitation
15
(5)
results.
one
the
canal.
(2)
how
e
canal
(4)
10
the
pH.
the
working.
of
table
your
Total
a
a
each
(3)
products
b
rate
table.
ii
in
student’s
(5)
investigation.
method
the
0
c
ii
Use
showing
ii
a
–
of
student
amylase
15
marks
(2)
pH
and
different
on
made
pH.
Further
and
on
practice
examples
the
questions
can
be
found
accompanying
CD.
83
6
Transport
6.1
Transport
Tiny
LEARNING
unicellular
multicellular
At
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
thin
you
bodies
dioxide.
to:
they
•
explain
why
materials
transported
in
that
animals
are
•
and
the
more
the
by
This
of
an
to
2a,
alkali
you
as
should
the
For
could
the
plot
the
of
horizontal
the
the
ratio
length
cubes
given
case
cannot
axis
axis,
of
column
1,
1.2,
Remember
the
area
to
are
diffusion
not
for
have
and
flat
flat,
carbon
and
transport
thin;
of
great
to
diffusion
becomes
as
a
too
oxygen
about
will
alone.
indicator.
into
dilute
as
the
changes
small
surface
demonstration
pH
distribute
(think
the
throughout
distance
from
the
your
toe)
diffusion
a
bulk:
for
help
Agar,
The
relative
gaseous
a
you
jelly
is
cut
hydrochloric
acid
colour.
diffuses
The
to
special
this
body
mass
understand
jelly,
into
acid.
into
time
to
to
exchange.
is
cubes
The
the
of
is
a
difficulty
with
different
colour
blocks.
takes
the
mixed
of
the
pH
Eventually,
the
measurement
long
the
acid
takes
to
diffuse
to
the
centre
of
the
block.
The
shows
some
students’
results
for
this
investigation.
you
1)
4
6.1.1
Diffusion
for
different
surface
area:volume
ratios
or
(in
1.5,
scale
calculated
and
cubes
2,
of
Surface
Volume/
Ratio
of
Time
taken
for
block
3
3
area/m
mm
surface
to
change
colour
area:volume
acid/seconds
in
the
1
6
1
6:1
8
2
24
8
3:1
26
3
54
27
2:1
43
4
96
64
1.5:1
65
5
150
125
1.2:1
112
6
216
216
1:1
160
the
and
the
surface
the
volume
area
The
20
ratios
time
times
taken
The
ratios
decrease
given
in
in
as
size:
the
the
has
a
ratio
of
of
6:1,
cube
has
a
of
substances
oxygen
they
surface
the
of
centre
the
of
smallest
the
largest
cube
is
cube.
and
by
glucose
diffusion
to
cells
is
far
not
an
efficient
removed
from
way
the
of
places
are
absorbed
into
the
body.
whereas
ratios
ratio
of
of
surface
area
to
volume
given
in
the
table
decrease
as
area
cubes
increase
in
size.
This
is
because
the
volume
of
the
cubes
the
increases
largest
to
centre
cubes
the
volume
diffuse
the
smallest
The
cube
to
to
the
where
increase
acid
than
and
getting
table
for
slower
Movement
volume.
much
more
each
time
than
the
increase
in
the
surface
area.
1:1.
Your
84
organisms
on
oxygen
FOCUS
between
to
of
each
(column
in
plot
students
surface
of
some
correctly.
STUDY
The
transport
rely
increased
2
6).
and
bodies.
too
big
placed
side/mm
and
for
multicellular
with
on
changes
block
how
Cube
which
5.9),
tapeworms,
plot
T
able
side
(see
and
vertical
table
axis.
on
and
are
surface
and
indicator
of
taken
their
efficiently
practical
whole
time
Amoeba
flatworms
diffusion
and
come
your
body
relying
sizes
FOCUS
question
on
most
within
relying
function
the
rely
bulky
distances
lungs
•
In
and
problems
body
plants.
STUDY
as
as
transport
T
wo
the
such
such
multicellular
need
systems
state
organisms,
However,
are
substances
organisms
•
organisms,
OUTCOMES
body
is
much
bigger
than
these
cubes,
so
your
own
surface
area
to
volume
ratio
will
area
to
volume
ratio
we
be
even
smaller.
With
such
a
small
surface
STUDY
from
the
great
body
and
surface
there
is
not
cannot
to
cells
rely
deep
enough
on
in
diffusion
the
surface
body.
area
to
to
transport
The
distances
absorb
FOCUS
oxygen
enough
are
too
oxygen.
Another
absorb
surface
Transport
in
flowering
plants
and
Look
mammals
do
T
able
6.1.2
Feature
Transport
of
Nutrients
transport
in
flowering
plants
systems
and
plants
Carbohydrates:
Others:
of
water
In
Transport
of
respiratory
gases
amino
xylem
(supply
dioxide
spaces
Transport
Fluid(s)
T
ubes
of
hormones
In
transported
used
in
transport
the
sucrose
acids,
for
moving
fluids
is
of
Process
prevent
flow
of
of
ions
sealing
loss
of
oxygen
and
and
sap,
Xylem
vessels,
carbon
through
air
wounds
to
phloem
phloem
the
Yes
(8.2)
sap
phloem
In
The
table
amino
why
we
exchange.
–
glucose
acids,
mineral
fatty
ions
blood
(6.4)
oxygen
and
the
blood
acids,
(6.4)
carbon
dioxide
(9.3)
sieve
tubes
Arteries,
capillaries
–
transpiration
–
pressure
pull
flow
(6.6)
Heart
pumps
and
blood
veins
(6.2)
(6.3)
(6.8)
Faster
seal
of
callose
phloem
sieve
(a
carbohydrate)
Blood
clotting
(6.4)
tubes
POINTS
QUESTIONS
shows
information
about
three
spherical
organisms:
Transport
systems
substances
Feature
Spherical
2
B
Mammals
1
and
flowering
C
plants
2
3
need
because
2
area/mm
organisms.
organisms
A
Radius/mm
move
around
multicellular
Surface
out
gas
body
Blood
1
1
find
for
our
skin.
(6.4)
KEY
SUMMARY
have
6.8)
Production
to
to
it
not
(4.3)
Slower
fluids
Others:
In
diffusion
cells)
xylem
Xylem
fluids
of
by
and
Phloem
Rates
we
Carbohydrates:
mineral
(6.6)
Xylem
(6.6,
Mechanism
8.8
use
vitamins,
the
No
at
not
that
do
Mammals
(6.8)
Transport
is
we
through
mammals
Flowering
transported
reason
oxygen
12.57
50.27
113.10
4.19
33.51
113.10
great
transport
distances
for
are
transport
throughout
the
to
body
systems
too
occur
by
3
Volume/mm
diffusion.
a
State
which
organism
has
the
highest
surface
area:volume
3
ratio.
b
are
Explain
A
Oxygen
may
why
B
and
C
may
need
a
transport
system,
blood
whereas
move
not.
and
in
by
a
Plot
b
Use
a
line
graph
of
the
results
in
T
able
diffusion
graph
you
have
drawn
to
explain
why
a
transport
Flowering
ions
and
dioxide.
plants
organic
How
do
spaces
in
plants.
Carbohydrates,
other
organic
system.
nutrients,
3
but
through
humans
4
need
air
dioxide
the
6.1.1.
flowering
the
in
mammals,
intercellular
2
carbon
transported
have
a
transport
substances,
these
gases
but
system
not
reach
for
cells
for
water,
oxygen
in
the
mineral
and
carbon
leaves?
hormones
in
both
mineral
are
mammals
flowering
ions
and
transported
and
plants.
85
6.2
Transport
The
LEARNING
At
the
end
should
be
transport
of
this
able
describe
topic
you
the
heart
through
the
heart
in
the
in
one
define
the
term
and
functions
capillaries
of
and
how
the
structure
capillaries
related
back
in
to
the
systemic
and
their
the
would
the
blood
of
in
all
be
better
animals
insects
with
to
say
system
blood
have
such
have
blood
where
you
circulation
the
not
in
veins.
through
body.
6.2.1
started.
–
T
o
from
The
We
the
prove
the
two
deoxygenated
pulmonary
circulation
the
aorta
and
circulation
the
veins
–
and
then
have
a
heart
this,
double
twice
follow
lungs,
around
the
circulations
the
are:
arteries
to
blood
the
flows
lungs
from
and
the
back
as
oxygenated
to
the
blood.
oxygenated
blood
flows
from
the
heart,
other
back
arteries
to
heart
to
all
the
through
other
the
organs
vena
cava
as
blood.
is
also
is
as
blood
the
described
remains
as
inside
a
closed
as
circulatory
an
in
large
in
blood
during
its
system
journeys
body.
blood
blood
open
vessels
that
vessels.
crabs
blood
an
and
neck
Not
vessels,
and
circulation
spaces
in
Lungs
the
Jugular
body,
by
from
functions.
circulation
within
animals
flows
the
Figure
Head
flows
heart
away
KNOW?
circulation
enclosed
which
circulation
pulmonary
body
throughout
the
pumped
veins
because
It
is
travels
of
The
YOU
in
towards
diagram
to
through
deoxygenated
DID
that
Blood
veins
of
is
the
pulmonary
through
arteries,
blood
arteries,
•
explain
of
vessels.
system
heart
•
system
complete
around
heart,
the
consists
blood
double
•
state
and
of
humans
circulatory
•
humans
system
circulatory
system
•
a
arteries
circulatory
to:
blood
system
in
humans
OUTCOMES
during
•
system
in
vein
Carotid
artery
vessels.
Pulmonary
Pulmonary
artery
vein
LINK
Left
Squamous
cells
are
very
thin.
Vena
Right
cava
atrium
atrium
They
line
the
capillaries.
alveoli
They
are
as
well
thin
so
as
Aorta
that
Left
Right
the
diffusion
side
to
the
distance
other
is
from
very
one
ventricle
ventricle
Liver
short.
Hepatic
Diffusion
distance
is
is
more
short
efficient
(see
if
the
Hepatic
vein
artery
6.1).
Stomach
and
Hepatic
intestines
STUDY
portal
FOCUS
vein
Intestinal
Blood
is
red.
Oxygenated
blood
Renal
is
bright
red;
Renal
deoxygenated
vein
artery
Legs
blood
is
dark
convention
represent
doesn’t
blood
is
red.
to
It
use
is
a
blue
to
deoxygenated
mean
that
actually
blood.
It
deoxygenated
blue.
It
isn’t.
Figure
86
6.2.1
The
human
circulatory
system
with
names
of
the
major
blood
vessels
Blood
The
vessels
walls
of
arteries
and
veins
are
made
of
three
different
Thick
tissues:
outer
layer
•
squamous
cells
•
muscle
tissue
•
fibrous
tissue
that
that
form
a
smooth
contains
elastic
lining
tissue
and
collagen
fibres.
Small
The
walls
of
capillaries
do
not
have
muscle
or
fibrous
tissue;
they
space
which
only
composed
of
the
squamous
and
6.2.1
The
structure
and
blood
flows
cells.
Thick
T
able
through
are
function
of
blood
layer
elastic
of
muscle
fibres
vessels
Figure
6.2.2
An
artery
layers
Blood
Relationship
between
structure
and
with
cut
the
outer
away
function
vessel
Artery
•
Blood
(Figure
•
Elastic
flows
away
from
the
heart
at
high
Two
pressure
are
tissue
in
the
walls
withstands
surges
in
outer
layers
thinner
than
blood
arteries
pressure;
6.2.2)
•
it
stretches
blood
pressure
Blood
is
than
it
delivered
left
the
and
to
recoils
organs
at
to
a
maintain
pressure
the
slightly
less
heart
through
•
Walls
have
withstand
Vein
•
Blood
(Figure
•
Vessels
thick
high
flows
layers
blood
towards
expand
to
of
muscle
and
fibrous
tissue
to
blood
pressures
the
take
heart
at
low
increasing
elastic
pressure
volumes
of
•
As
during
blood
•
Walls
they
•
Capillary
by
have
do
Blood
6.2.3
A
vein
exercise
pressure
prevented
fibres
blood,
Figure
e.g.
6.2.3)
which
flows
thin
not
low,
layers
have
flows
is
semi-lunar
to
backflow
valves
of
muscle
withstand
between
at
arteries
of
blood
intervals
and
high
and
fibrous
blood
veins
is
along
veins
tissue
as
pressures
at
low
pressure
(Figure
6.2.4)
•
Oxygen
•
Water
and
carbon
dioxide
diffuse
through
the
Red
walls
blood
inside
pass
and
solutes,
across
the
such
walls
as
into
glucose
tissue
and
fluid
amino
a
cells
capillary
acids,
surrounding
the
cells
•
Walls
are
between
thin
the
so
there
blood
is
and
a
short
the
diffusion
tissue
distance
fluid
Figure
KEY
6.2.4
A
capillary
×
2000
of
the
to
In
a
double
heart
circulation
twice
in
one
system,
complete
blood
travels
circulation
of
through
the
the
Blood
flows
pulmonary
from
the
circulation
heart
and
to
the
from
lungs
the
and
heart
to
back
the
in
detail
and
back
in
the
systemic
Blood
heart
flows
in
away
veins
from
and
the
through
have
have
thin
exchange
thick
walls
as
vessels
walls
blood
and
to
heart
in
tissues
arteries,
in
the
is
cut
up
red
away
blood
cells
QUESTIONS
rest
of
the
Explain
towards
very
is
thin
one
how
blood
direction
circulatory
the
in
flows
the
system.
capillaries.
withstand
pressure
have
show
Part
circulation.
2
Arteries
wall.
the
in
4
the
make
body.
1
body
3
that
inside.
SUMMARY
2
show
cells
POINTS
the
1
magnified
to
high
low;
pressure;
capillaries
walls.
veins
are
Relate
the
artery,
vein
the
structure
and
function(s)
these
blood
of
the
capillary
of
each
to
of
vessels.
87
6.3
The
The
LEARNING
the
should
end
be
of
this
able
topic
for
you
describe
the
the
heart
major
structure
valves
blood
•
explain
how
the
to
the
lungs
and
the
body
during
muscle
a
hundred
need
a
heart
of
the
and
contracts
can
four
on
the
then
our
right
vessels
functions
describe
consists
to
and
almost
flow
side
of
or
pump
through
by
the
blood
to
the
entirely
can
of
cardiac
contract
about
without
tiring.
more
to
the
70
muscle
times
a
tissue.
minute
the
around
blood,
vessels
pumps
and
rest
of
The
blood
the
the
body.
applying
to
overcome
heart
the
The
pressure
is
a
the
heart
to
it.
pressure
‘double
lungs
and
The
blood
exerted
pump’:
the
left
the
side
body.
heart
move
to
what
blood
the
atmosphere.
heart
blood
the
to
rest
To
of
From
one
that
years
‘squeezes’
bodies
pumps
•
heart
specialised
to:
including
chambers,
is
up
We
•
human
OUTCOMES
This
At
heart
Aorta
happens
heart
body
body
Vena
cava
(main
beat.
To
vein)
right
lung
To
Semi-lunar
left
lung
valves
Pulmonary
veins
From
Left
Valve
lungs
atrium
tendons
Atrioventricular
valve
Figure
6.3.1
The
heart
front
of
viewed
the
from
the
Vena
body
cava
Left
ventricle
Right
ventricle
From
body
Septum
Figure
The
septum
mixing
heart
Figure
6.3.3
A
heart
dissected
inside
and
the
of
the
to
base
of
left
the
of
heart
separates
the
are
two
two
and
halves
of
the
oxygenated
chambers.
The
upper
heart.
blood.
This
On
chamber
prevents
each
is
the
side
the
of
the
atrium.
show
empties
into
the
atria
from
veins.
When
each
atrium
contracts
ventricle
aorta
it
pumps
muscular
higher
88
The
deoxygenated
there
Blood
the
6.3.2
blood
walls
into
than
pressure
over
a
ventricle.
the
a
atria
great
as
The
ventricles
they
have
distance.
to
have
pump
much
the
more
blood
at
Between
These
each
valves
atrium
when
pulmonary
These
The
is
that
Heart
The
the
is
not
atrium
heart’s
instruct
The
a
has
to
back
pump
the
atrioventricular
back
blood
to
are
the
the
At
around
the
the
around
which
the
body.
have
a
It
left
of
a
Atrial
b
Ventricular
heart
‘told’
are
to
some
atria
and
pumps
the
contract
specialised
pacemaker.
the
contracts
they
relax.
ventricle.
has
body
to
than
spongy
the
texture.
These
then
blood
chamber
cells
the
when
gets
by
the
brain.
cardiac
send
out
ventricles
its
to
muscles
smaller
and
In
muscle
the
wall
of
cells
that
act
chamber
Systole
is
Diastole
During
contracts
when
is
systole,
6.3.4a).
to
higher
atria
relax
arteries
the
when
Figure
the
pulses
of
as
electricity
that
contract.
contract.
squeezes
When
the
the
blood
muscle
out.
After
then
Figure
of
the
to
between
blood
in
ventricles
6.3.4b).
The
it
fills
up
with
blood
Diastole
again.
contract.
muscles
contract
valves
so
muscles
heart
atria
pressure
and
(see
the
relaxes
heart
the
The
it
relax.
force
the
the
blood
atria
atria
contract
higher
into
and
pushing
to
force
pressure
the
ventricles
ventricles
in
open
against
blood
the
(see
due
them.
out
into
ventricles
The
the
closes
Figure
6.3.4
The
the
the
systole
the
c
each
systole
the
valves.
when
right
the
and
base
semi-lunar
than
valve.
right
ventricles
wall
flow
lungs,
into
contract.
there
into
muscular
resistance
through
an
ventricles
aorta
more
more
flows
left
the
is
flowing
action
heart
right
and
flowing
has
it
much
ventricle
blood
and
blood
because
and
the
right
artery
ventricle
overcome
blood
the
prevent
left
This
atrium
prevent
atrioventricular
valves
to
prevent
blood
flowing
back
into
the
changes
heart
that
during
occur
one
in
heart
atria.
beat
The
the
to
increase
arteries
the
rest
The
of
to
lungs
the
in
pressure
open.
in
the
body
chambers
blood
returns
Oxygenated
veins
(see
in
fi ll
to
This
causes
allows
pulmonary
the
aorta
with
the
blood
Figure
also
right
blood
arteries
(main
blood
to
the
semi-lunar
to
flow
and
valves
from
from
the
at
the
base
the
right
left
ventricle
of
ventricle
to
the
SUMMARY
in
diastole.
the
left
vena
atrium
1
Explain
why
2
Describe
cava
in
the
(main
vein).
by
pulmonary
the
6.3.4c).
the
blood
as
need
a
heart.
pathway
it
flows
taken
through
heart.
Explain
the
between
difference
diastole
and
systole.
POINTS
3
1
we
Deoxygenated
2
KEY
QUESTIONS
artery).
during
atrium
returns
the
The
heart
consists
of
two
muscular
pumps
divided
by
The
heart
is
sometimes
a
described
as
a
‘double
pump’.
septum.
2
Each
side
has
two
chambers:
an
atrium
and
a
4
3
Ventricles
contract
atrioventricular
blood
flows
in
to
valves
one
force
and
blood
two
direction
into
arteries;
semi-lunar
through
the
The
right
ventricle
circulation;
circulation.
the
pumps
left
blood
ventricle
into
pumps
the
what
Explain
how
blood
two
valves
ensure
this
means.
one-way
through
the
flow
heart
of
is
achieved.
that
heart.
5
4
Explain
ventricle.
pulmonary
blood
into
the
systemic
Make
of
the
a
large
labelled
human
system
showing
included
in
diagram
circulatory
6.2
all
and
the
organs
6.3.
89
6.4
Blood
LEARNING
At
the
end
should
be
Blood
is
heart.
As
the
of
this
able
topic
are
you
the
to:
list
the
components
of
blood
exchanged
lungs
respiring
•
fluid
that
is
pumped
around
the
circulatory
system
by
the
OUTCOMES
flows
with
there
is
tissues
through
the
surrounding
gaseous
there
capillaries
is
exchange
exchange
in
the
tissues.
with
with
We
the
the
organs,
have
air
cells
in
seen
the
that
substances
that
alveoli.
require
in
In
oxygen
the
and
need
to
have
their
carbon
dioxide
removed.
blood
Blood
•
state
the
function
of
is
a
tissue
that
consists
of
cells
and
fragments
of
cells
each
suspended
in
plasma
(Figure
6.4.1).
component
•
explain
red
how
blood
the
cells
phagocytes
structure
of
(erythrocytes),
and
lymphocytes
Plasma
are
related
to
their
functions
3
Plasma
10 cm
•
explain
how
•
defence
blood
define
against
is
the
system
terms
and
liquid
•
nutrients,
•
wastes,
•
blood
•
hormones,
part
of
such
of
blood
water
as
with
glucose,
(55%
of
blood
chemicals
amino
volume).
dissolved
acids,
lipids,
in
it:
vitamins
involved
and
in
–
consists
mineral
ions,
e.g.
sodium
and
chloride
ions
disease
immune
natural
immunity
such
as
proteins,
urea
such
such
as
and
as
carbon
dioxide
albumen
insulin,
and
glucagon
antibodies
and
adrenaline
3
5 cm
White
Red
Figure
T
able
6.4.1
Figures
Figure
6.4.2
In
this
see
phagocyte
Figure
T
ype
Red
and
6.4.3
of
to
a
blood
lymphocyte.
identify
blood
blood
photograph
red
cell
cell
them
you
cells,
Blood
shows
6.4.2
and
and
the
blood
its
cells
components
features
of
the
blood
cells
you
can
see
in
6.4.3.
can
with
800).
T
able
6.4.1
Features
Relationship
•
Small
Can
•
Shape:
•
No
•
Cytoplasm
cell
biconcave
nucleus,
no
disc
change
is
•
Large
•
Lobed
•
Cytoplasm
full
of
and
fit
easily
and
function
through
space
to
fill
with
haemoglobin
to
haemoglobin
Lobed
nucleus
small
mitochondria
vacuoles
oxygen
nucleus
gaps
in
and
helps
the
carbon
cells
dioxide
leave
capillary
blood
through
walls
and
Vacuoles
small
shape
structure
capillaries
cell
with
between
mitochondria
transport
many
platelets
cells
More
Phagocyte
and
a
Compare
(×
6.4.1
blood
contain
enzymes
to
digest
bacteria
containing
enzymes
Lymphocyte
•
Small
cell
•
Small
quantity
mitochondria
90
When
of
cytoplasm
with
few
activated
cytoplasm
that
are
during
enlarges
made
of
to
an
infection
produce
protein
(see
the
antibodies
6.5)
Defence
against
disease
Phagocyte
Red
Blood
the
is
involved
formation
pathogens
This
1
is
are
interact
preventing
blood
the
blood
Platelets
that
of
enter
how
in
clots
body,
clots
small
with
at
the
site
specialised
are
cell
pathogens
from
of
a
entering
damaged
white
blood
the
blood
cells
body
vessel.
destroy
blood
cells
by
If
them.
formed:
fragments
calcium
ions
in
which
the
release
plasma
to
substances
activate
prothrombin.
Lymphocyte
2
Inactive
prothrombin
3
Thrombin
changes
into
the
active
enzyme
Figure
then
catalyses
the
conversion
of
the
soluble
6.4.3
A
drawing
into
fibrin,
an
insoluble
protein.
photograph
the
(×
4
Fibrin
cells,
Blood
the
which
of
in
to
Phagocytes
cells
in
the
enzymes.
Blood
or
skin,
form
engulf
immune
invade
us
new
skin
are
cells
of
the
that
(see
open
cells
at
the
that
food
in
all
that
small
the
where
and
specifically
invade
List
b
What
in
the
part
they
target
discussed
the
blood.
digested
by
cytoplasm.
non-specific
of
our
form
the
in
are
body
,
defence
our
natural
pathogens
that
6.5.
6.4.4
Red
blood
in
meshwork
a
the
components
percentage
component
of
consists
Make
of
the
total
volume
does
Blood
is
blood
cells,
a
c
State
What
of
cells
and
fragments
of
cells
suspended
in
drawing
of
each
type
of
cell
found
in
2
(phagocytes
of
red
blood
function
the
of
each
and
suspended
liquid
Red
fragments
of
to
cell.
cells
called
and
what
is
and
lymphocytes)
blood
filled
are
white
occupy?
labelled
the
composed
each
blood.
b
fibrin
2000)
blood.
plasma.
a
trapped
of
POINTS
cells
Blood
cells
QUESTIONS
1
2
800)
divide
KEY
a
to
6.4.2
a
(×
1
Figure
prevents
is
the
from
they
other
are
and
there
Figure
SUMMARY
in
blood
epidermis
phagocytes
and
one
damage.
vacuoles
These
and
blood
When
bacteria
attract
are
of
of
the
vacuoles
inherit
They
loss
If
from
similar
6.4.4).
base
phagocytes
we
platelets
wounds.
repair
invasion.
inherited.
Figure
the
to
trap
pathogens.
into
action
to
restrict
stored
defences
not
to
chemicals
defeat
The
scab
destroy
bacteria
the
fibres
through
stem
system
are
a
the
enzymes
may
of
wounds
release
clotting,
immunity.
form
and
engulf
The
defences
to
seals
area
Phagocytes
meshwork
pathogens
the
mitosis
a
dry
clotting
entry
wound
by
forms
made
protein
a
fibrinogen
Platelets
thrombin.
with
in
cells
platelets
plasma.
are
haemoglobin
transport
oxygen;
phagocytes
contain
enzymes
digest
their
to
bacteria;
function?
lymphocytes
3
Explain
how
each
of
the
cell
types
you
have
drawn
in
question
antibody
2a
is
adapted
to
its
Outline
how
blood
defends
the
body
against
Natural
all
Make
a
flow
chart
diagram
to
show
what
immunity
happens
forms
inherit;
of
defence
blood
to
that
clotting
we
and
during
phagocytosis
blood
refers
disease.
the
5
molecules.
function.
3
4
produce
are
examples.
clotting.
91
6.5
Immunity
If
LEARNING
you
while
At
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
you
and
If
to:
define
the
term
and
an
infection,
have
within
the
get
•
have
such
as
the
common
cold,
you
will
be
ill
for
a
OUTCOMES
same
the
a
a
variety
week
strain
same
or
of
of
two
the
symptoms.
you
will
common
symptoms.
Y
ou
will
be
will
back
cold
not
Y
ou
to
virus
be
ill.
then
your
is
to
normal,
invades
This
begin
again,
another
feel
better
healthy
you
will
role
of
self.
not
the
artificial
immune
system:
to
provide
highly
effective
defences
against
specific
immunity
pathogens.
•
outline
how
system
the
provides
Lymphocytes
are
responsible
for
this
specific
immune
explain
is
used
how
in
recognise
antigens
on
pathogens
bacteria
•
immunity.
defences
Lymphocytes
against
specific
and
release
specific
antibodies
vaccination
the
control
communicable
of
(infectious)
diseases.
Antibodies
attach
LINK
to
Antibody
The
reason
infection
the
are
is
body’s
HIV
is
that
defence
diseases.
it
a
for
bacteria
that
much
against
See
on
molecules
serious
destroys
lymphocytes
responsible
our
such
antigens
of
infectious
10.3.
Phagocytes
towards
are
attracted
bacteria
and
engulf
them
Small
vacuoles
contain
EXAM
T
ake
the
TIP
care
wo rd
s
with
with
An
chem
ical
antib
.
is
a
to
produc
e
Antib
od
6.5.1
Lymphocytes
are
pro tei
ns
destro
y
toxin
s
Y
ou
are
born
lymphocyte.
antibodies
and
destroy
that
make
it
easier
for
types
of
phagocytes
them.
with
These
a
very
cells
large
are
number
specific
to
of
different
different
surface
chemicals,
neut
ralis
e
known
as
antigens.
that
and
other
These
are
‘cut
it
pathogens.
When
a
found
on
pathogen
the
surface
and
antigens
enters
the
of
bacteria,
body,
viruses
phagocytes
some
up’
display
to
lymphocytes.
Those
lymphocytes
that
produc
e.
recognise
•
Some
so
the
of
that
blood.
92
bacteria
(pois
onou
s
chem
icals
)
bacteri
a
engulf
help
pathog
ens.
Antit
oxins
the
that
secrete
ies
to
to
within
stim
ulates
Figure
odies
digested
this
antig
en
lymph
ocytes
are
vacuoles
begin
in
that
Bacteria
all
food
that
‘anti’
unit.
enzymes
antigens
these
they
by
lymphocytes
can
These
divide
secrete
proteins
mitosis
become
protein
are
and
multiply.
bigger
molecules
antibodies.
and
into
fill
with
lymph
cytoplasm
and
into
the
•
Some
to
•
antibodies
clump
stick
together
as
Antitoxins
are
products
bacteria,
of
diphtheria,
The
Many
are
pathogens
When
pathogens
The
first
This
is
same
are
pathogens
combine
those
them
invade
find
you
you
so
that
that
takes
This
produce
a
with
the
cause
they
week
a
cells
and
certain
fallen
is
much
is
because
ill.
and
cause
or
toxic
tetanus
have
but
an
so
no
them
waste
and
effect.
and
during
so
they
the
the
to
this
time
to
first
in
so
response
another
you
are
as
the
is
very
slow.
infection
unlikely
many
pathogen.
body
infected
cells.
infection
the
other
for
them
other
the
that
specific
remain
looking
destroy
spread
fast
infection,
body
response
during
recognise
the
infection,
The
faster;
antibodies,
During
patrol
infected
have
that
cells.
to
reproduce
have
pathogen
our
activated
they
produced
not
as
of
6.5.1.
that
such
antibodies
cannot
time
why
symptoms.
are
antibodies
of
surface
ill.
lymphocytes
cells.
the
Figure
neutralising
production
people
to
in
to
by
the
have
any
lymphocytes
Some
of
these
memory
do
cells.
A
Figure
6.5.2
Vaccination
of
second
invasion
of
the
same
pathogen
stimulates
the
large
number
against
memory
for
cells
many
to
respond
years,
perhaps
immediately.
a
lifetime,
Memory
giving
us
cells
remain
long-term
in
the
is
protecting
a
key
part
populations
of
infectious
diseases.
body
immunity
KEY
POINTS
Vaccination
1
It
is
possible
to
promote
the
same
type
of
immunity
Immunity
resist
without
having
to
be
ill.
Artificial
immunity
may
is
the
ability
to
artificially
be
achieved
the
spread
of
an
by
infection.
injecting
a
antigens
taken
vaccines
contain
against
begin
a
vaccine
that
from
stimulate
antigens
measles,
contains
the
surface
immunity
for
several
mumps
vaccination
to
live
of
pathogens,
pathogens
just
one
diseases.
and
rubella.
programme
It
early
(Figure
specific
For
to
6.5.2).
Some
2
infectious
diseases
that
can
be
against
children
the
life-threatening.
risk
require
booster
injections
to
ensure
that
there
against
cells
an
Countries
in
the
invasion
have
body
of
a
to
mount
a
rapid
and
are
effective
specific
Vaccines
to
vaccines
Some
vaccines
such
are
as
programmes
protect
only
vets
given
and
whole
This
population,
happens
everyone
(or
eradicated
because
nearly
from
everyone
to
to
protect
against
travellers
medical
including
staff.
their
and
common
to
special
Vaccination
people
pathogens
everyone)
the
are
as
polio,
are
world
likely
is
in
is
have
who
no
vaccinated.
this
way
and
cannot
place
to
categories
used
to
of
Define
the
terms
to
be
eradicated
in
the
has
and
vaccination
if
2
Distinguish
between
a
and
been
infectious
near
immunity,
protect
vaccinated.
reproduce
Smallpox
other
be
QUESTIONS
specific
non-specific
diseases,
(see
6.4)
future.
natural
and
artificial
(see
6.4).
FOCUS
3
Artificial
immunisation
is
provided
in
two
ways.
Explain
immunity
is
given
by
vaccination;
short-term
immunity
injecting
antibodies
that
are
prepared
from
the
isolated
from
blood
may
Discuss
the
importance
of
plasma
vaccinating
blood
immunity
gained.
is
4
by
how
Long-term
be
of
immunity
diseases.
immunity
given
artificial
populations.
b
STUDY
an
diseases.
immunity
such
pathogens.
defence
vaccine
the
to
act
enough
1
people,
that
pathogen.
vaccination
included
activated
promote
SUMMARY
The
are
antibodies
of
against
memory
infection,
Many
way
vaccines
an
produce
3
catching
During
lymphocytes
protects
that
reduce
or
Others
MMR
important
life
pathogens
disease.
example,
is
in
dead
young
children.
donations.
93
6.6
Xylem
and
transpiration
Plants
LEARNING
is
At
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
water
leaves.
you
large
to:
cell
•
define
require
the
terms
will
internal
a
water
as
state
it
that
pathway
travels
xylem
composed
damp.
explain
of
xylem
how
taken
through
by
a
is
a
xylem
the
vessels
discuss
the
tissue
is
structure
suited
roles
transpiration
have
in
vapour,
inside
the
there
and
at
water
vapour
to
of
The
their
the
gaseous
with
occurs
to
and
of
the
water
5.9
exchange
air.
at
The
any
allow
the
The
is
a
air
surfaces
that
for
cell
damp
carbon
air
inside
body
of
vapour
leaves
a
plant
from
have
their
a
very
photosynthesis.
walls
of
surface
dioxide
the
leaf
concentration
outside.
of
through
cells
the
leaf
of
of
all
tend
of
water
in
the
veins
the
by
leaf.
to
evaporation
then
plants.
molecules
loss
the
the
trans
to
explai
n
piratio
n
cons
eque
nce
surfac
e
all
these
Each
cells
in
to
contact
diffuse
with
into
is
fully
gradient
Transpiration
mesophyll
cells,
saturated
the
between
is
the
followed
by
with
the
air
evaporation
the
diffusion
stomata.
dry,
is
way
sunny
from
trunks
of
to
‘stick
This
pull
the
the
large
to
pull
the
soil.
causes
of
a
are
the
water
in
in
to
called
on
the
move
walls.
the
the
cohesion.
water
from
The
xylem
in
of
water
the
the
under
faster
tension
can
than
be
between
xylem
pulling
transpiration
occurs
the
pulled
force
pull
cell
columns
water
result
a
a
water
in
roots
moves
loss
trees
to
the
As
creates
water
transmitted
down
days
together’,
evaporation
replace
transpiration
of
is
a
having
area
fo r
in
hair
through
cell
so
in
effect
stem
and
stream.
tension.
water
On
can
great
be
that
inwards.
tissue
and
water.
permeable
into
root
into
the
Water
cell
hair
moves
wall
cells.
and
From
by
the
here
osmosis
from
differentially
water
the
soil,
permeable
moves
across
Xylem
tissue
is
the
xylem.
photographs
in
Figure
6.6.1
show
the
pathway
taken
by
water
leave
s.
inside
6.6.1
absorb
fully
membrane
root
a
cells
the
gas
The
exchan
ge
stained
by
the
dyes
and
The
celery
stalks,
dissected
coloured
vessels.
94
so
leaf
water
Root
Figure
4.3
as
TIP
prepar
ed
large
for
from
contact
spaces.
of
absorbed
that
in
stomata
of
hot,
Be
air
water
This
EXAM
Most
vessels
function
•
surface
Evaporation
Leaves
Water
•
water.
quantities
pull
plant
•
of
large
remember
surface
intercellular
the
lose
and
air.
outline
volumes
plants
transpiration,
stream
transpiration
and
You
has
are
transpiration
•
large
OUTCOMES
out
which
from
strands
celery
in
are
the
petioles
of
leaves.
petioles.
the
photographs
of
the
celery
are
xylem
They
are
•
wide
•
no
columns
tubes,
cell
water
cellulose
•
no
•
thick
end
cell
therefore
walls
walls
Xylem
cells
Advantages
to
movement
use
Sun.
any
energy.
water.
This
water
the
are
that
that
provide
little
cells
from
of
the
tend
one
with
to
‘stick’
help
transport
water:
resistance
to
the
flow
another
lignin,
which
prevents
the
vessels
water.
Figure
6.6.3
Lignin
much
in
plant
the
is
laid
walls
vessels
in
down
of
Figure
as
a
raw
Xylem
spirals
and
an
in
to
fill
•
for
the
is
(×300)
a
through
passive
all
the
xylem
process
the
parts
does
driven
of
the
not
by
require
energy
plant
with
the
from
a
plant
the
supply
of
KEY
POINTS
for
Transpiration
of
to
to
dissolve
cells
cool
mineral
is
the
photosynthesis
so
they
plants
in
support
hot
the
plant
surfaces
ions
such
as
nitrate
ions
of
followed
weather
of
•
in
needed:
vacuoles
evaporation
viewed
microscope
(×450).
evaporation
•
vessels
electron
transpiration
It
material
6.6.4
xylem
1
•
of
to
rings
provides
is
to
flow
molecules
made
are
other
water
Transpiration
tubes
features
(×100).
of
of
following
can
strengthened
vessels
than
the
water
hollow
tension
cells
wider
of
water
are
the
have
dead)
that
that
from
from
The
are
separating
walls
6.6.2
that
plenty
vessels
cell
collapsing
cells
that
contents,
(xylem
•
Figure
so
of
and
magnesium
water
of
water
at
mesophyll
by
the
the
cells
diffusion
vapour
through
ions
stomata.
that
One
of
are
disadvantage
water.
do
transported
need
which
They
do
of
not
the
transpiration
transpiration
not
continually
may
in
need
to
always
to
grow
be
use
roots
is
that
energy
to
stream.
plants
to
reach
require
move
fresh
the
large
water,
sources
of
volumes
but
2
Evaporation
water,
The
transpiration
pathway
xylem
roots
and
the
following
transpiration
terms:
transpiration,
transpiration
Explain
why
4
transpiration
is
a
consequence
of
Describe
4
Explain
5
Outline
the
pathway
taken
by
water
as
it
to
Xylem
is
water
xylem
vessels
are
adapted
passes
to
the
advantages
and
their
disadvantages
of
from
the
leaves.
are
empty
through
a
plant.
walls
resistance
that
to
columns
cells
without
Their
provide
the
cell
flow
walls
little
of
are
function.
strengthened
plants.
by
photosynthesis.
water.
how
vessels
the
vessels
wide
end
3
stream
taken
pull
stream
of
2
move
QUESTIONS
in
Define
the
to
available.
the
1
pull
water.
3
SUMMARY
drives
transpiration
they
transpiration
to
prevent
with
collapse
lignin
when
to
under
tension.
95
6.7
Investigating
transpiration
A
LEARNING
potometer
how
At
the
end
should
•
be
outline
of
this
able
how
topic
less
you
to
to
much
than
some
to:
use
of
the
the
investigate
1
transpiration
explain
the
external
to
effects
factors
plants
measure
volume
water
of
is
take
up.
transpiration
water
used
for
The
taken
volume
indirectly
in
by
of
the
photosynthesis
water
by
roots.
and
lost
finding
This
to
is
out
is
keep
slightly
because
cells
turgid.
measure
rate
of
water
uptake
rates
Leafy
shoots
entering
•
used
water
a
T
o
potometer
of
is
OUTCOMES
are
xylem
cut
under
vessels
water
and
and
blocking
kept
there
to
prevent
air
them.
of
on
rates
of
2
The
3
The
potometer
is
put
into
tap
reservoir
a
large
basin
of
water
and
submerged.
transpiration
•
describe
and
adaptations
explain
of
the
plants
the
The
stem
tight
5
The
be
of
6
7
fit.
should
The
8
of
The
may
A
potometer
the
rate
leafy
of
water
shoots.
page
101
is
potometer
for
can
uptake
uptake
1
like
this
by
is
left
has
0.01 g
if
over
short
a
placing
of
there
is
water
inside
angle
to
give
a
large
surface
for
This
bubble
the
of
is
a
the
Put
water.
so
tubing,
a
by
After
glass
the
reaches
the
air
different
a
making
while
tubing
inside
that
uptake
travelled
you
rubber
the
bubble
while,
water
be
reservoir
air
be
the
a
leaks.
from
an
may
that
can
inside
no
the
shoot
constant
bubble
period
over
of
a
will
bowl
tubing.
leafy
a
air
into
a
time
adjusts
rate.
suitable
for
each
investigate.
re-set
to
the
end
of
the
capillary
tube
by
tap.
environmental
conditions
on
the
rate
of
water
uptake
by:
•
placing
•
using
•
use
a
black
bag
over
the
leafy
shoot
to
find
out
the
effect
of
darkness
a
a
clear
bag
over
the
leafy
shoot
to
investigate
the
effect
of
one.
air
a
fan
or
hair
dryer
to
increase
the
wind
speed
shading
and
lamps
on
loss
to
a
provide
different
light
intensities.
both
in
factors
affecting
transpiration
balance
mass.
measure
results
to
transpiration
The
•
to
be
period
of
time.
–
vapour
to
are
Light
major
taken
•
Stomata
diffuses
factor
Humidity
The
–
in
for
than
in
of
in
darkness
leaves
determining
of
air
inside
the
water
transpiration
steep
close
out
The
humidity
gradient
96
an
tubing.
for
and
distance
time.
be
there
investigated
•
on
diagram
measure
and
put
measure
balance
at
placed
glass
Environmental
to
that
KNOW?
Potometers
are
so
closed.
removed
conditions
air
be
is
the
that
the
of
effect
still
they
opened
measuring
Figure
a
so
Measure
The
if
cut
and
conditions
opening
6.7.1
into
apparatus
the
set
water
is
then
should
potometer
taken
period
YOU
is
be
water
There
water
to
DID
It
water.
absorbing
Figure
the
tubing.
to
4
conserve
on
glass
dry
how
leaves
vapour.
air.
the
In
open
fully
air
humid
in
stomata
much
is
surrounding
because
and
through
light.
their
As
transpiration
saturated
determines
conditions
concentration
water
a
water
vapour.
concentration
there
gradient
is
occurs.
with
the
most
width
for
is
less
water
is
less
•
Temperature
inside
the
vapour
•
Wind
–
than
speed
reducing
–
molecules
In
conditions
This
cooler
the
steepness
Warm
leaves.
is
are
still
air,
blown
the
the
warmer
air
rate
of
holds
evaporation
more
water
air.
water
concentration
of
increase
because
away
vapour
gradient.
from
concentration
the
remains
In
windy
leaf
gradient
near
the
leaves
conditions,
surface,
(Figure
so
water
increasing
the
6.7.2).
noitaripsnart
noitaripsnart
noitaripsnart
fo
fo
fo
Figure
6.7.3
Some
etaR
etaR
etaR
that
plants
roll
vapour
to
near
epidermis,
rate
25
50
75
100
10
15
20
25
0
8
of
have
keep
the
so
leaves
water
lower
reducing
the
transpiration.
16
–1
Humidity / %
Figure
6.7.2
The
Temperature / °C
effect
rates
Adaptations
There
of
are
many
transpiration
features,
rather
which
than
•
deep
•
extensive,
•
thick,
of
allow
it
that
increasing
plants
that
and/or
humidity,
temperature
and
wind
speed
on
in
is
to
obtain
places
in
short
obtain
and
where
supply.
sufficient
conserve
there
They
are
high
have
water
water
rates
special
and
retain
it
transpiration:
extend
to
roots
cuticles
to
live
water
them
in
shallow
waxy
of
velocity /km h
transpiration
plants
losing
roots,
of
Wind
great
that
over
the
depths
cover
stems
a
wide
and
area
leaves
to
reduce
the
water
Figure
loss
through
the
upper
and
lower
6.7.4
Sea
epidermis
grape
root
with
•
thick
leaves
and/or
stems
to
store
water;
plants
like
this
are
has
system
thick
an
and
extensive
leaves
cuticles.
The
called
leaves
are
arranged
shade
each
to
succulents.
KEY
SUMMARY
State
what
happens
to
water
taken
up
by
plants
that
is
List
the
with
precautions
potometer
Rates
to
that
measure
should
the
rate
be
of
taken
water
when
uptake
using
by
a
2
a
leafy
List
the
factors
that
influence
rates
of
a
Light
a
Describe
and
explain
the
adaptations
of
plants
that
water
is
in
short
Outline
the
abiotic
potometer.
intensity,
factors
of
humidity,
and
that
wind
speed
influence
transpiration.
Plants
have
adaptations
for
supply.
water
b
and
measured
grow
3
where
uptake
are
transpiration.
rates
4
water
temperature
shoot.
are
3
of
transpiration
not
transpired.
2
POINTS
QUESTIONS
1
1
other.
factors
that
make
these
absorption,
water
adaptations
storage
and
reducing
the
necessary.
rate
of
transpiration.
97
6.8
Phloem
Sources
LEARNING
the
end
of
this
topic
be
able
plant
transport,
described
define
the
term
translocation
and
state
that
substances
transported
in
the
ions
travel
which
•
as
a
the
organ
source
where
and
any
substances
destination
is
start
a
their
sink.
are
are
absorbed
in
xylem
all
sinks.
by
vessels
the
to
root
stems,
system,
leaves,
which
buds,
is
to
how
fruits,
of
water
in
sugars
are
xylem
sink
transport
explain
source,
and
are
made
•
the
flowers
Simple
source
and
phloem
Uptake
from
movement
Water
to:
mineral
•
sinks
you
is
should
storage
OUTCOMES
In
At
to
and
the
of
sucrose
in
in
the
leaves
by
phloem
photosynthesis.
structure
These
Bud
of
phloem
is
suited
to
are
its
converted
to
Leaf
function
sucrose,
Sunlight
energy
•
identify
in
storage
plants
and
compounds
animals
and
in
where
they
are
phloem
the
the
dioxide
rest
the
the
importance
in
to
plant.
of
and
other
sugars
of
made
storage
the
transport
sucrose
discuss
tissue
of
stored
Simple
•
transport
Carbon
In
places
for
organisms.
Simple
by
products,
such
as
sugars
photosynthesis
amino
made
from
and
the
leaves
and
minerals
Sucrose
soil
moves
growing
root
growing
bud
down
or
up
are
the
other
source
organs
are
to
sinks.
to
This
called
Water
the
into
sucrose
Water
acids,
and
transport
is
translocation,
which
means
‘from
minerals
place
taken
by
to
place’
up
(Figure
roots
6.8.1).
Substances
Figure
6.8.1
Transport
in
xylem
and
are
phloem
transported
phloem
directions:
flowers,
and
tubes.
by
parallel
These
have
many
prevent
end
Sucrose
an
veins
In
this
cross-section
tissue
you
some
sieve
plates,
many
sieve
pores
of
can
‘head
to
roots,
from
upwards
storage
from
organs
to
leaves
new
to
stems
to
columns
to
reduce
the
into
the
leaf
living
cells
The
sieve
under
the
sieve
requiring
to
plates.
to
tubes
energy.
provide
concentration
causes
water
that
end
pressure
resistance
mitochondria
high
throughout
them.
form
bursting
process,
of
between
pores
moved
The
vessels
to
of
at
Cells
the
is
6.8.2
in
the
surrounding
in
by
for
the
cytoplasm
that
contents
source
sieve
perforated
thought
their
energy
in
phloem
some
are
(Figures
sucrose
diffuse
It
the
are
contain
walls
of
flow
plants
this
sieve
osmosis.
they
and
and
are
6.8.3).
leaves.
sieve
tubes
loading
tubes
This
This
of
in
the
builds
of
pressure’
that
forces
the
phloem
sap
out
of
the
leaf
up
veins
see
each
with
(× 130).
into
the
flow.
when
98
also
the
of
a
phloem
is
many
sucrose.
6.8.2
leaves
and
xylem
walls
cells
active
have
Figure
from
buds
to
are
small
the
perforated
is
and
in
different
leaves.
Running
and
downwards
fruits
in
stem
The
and
highest
plants
are
on
to
rates
the
of
sinks.
This
translocation
producing
lots
of
mechanism
occur
sugar.
on
is
called
warm,
pressure
sunny
days,
Storage
When
stems
swell
in
growing
or
roots
with
nutrients
In
be
plants,
that
are
often
are
to
provide
once
Fat
fat
the
too
a
for
they
corms,
for
under
and
are
too
is
the
may
too
to
the
or
too
survive
and
a
starch,
for
with
harsh
and
to
leaves,
organs
protein
of
or
energy
a
and
Conditions
periods
are
all
Plants
before
store
the
food,
organs
food
in
germination
that
seeds
and,
established.
store.
large
good
store
growing
storage
during
energy
are
Structures
reproduction
become
around
Humans
or
supply
photosynthesis.
embryo
to
lipids
a
reproduction.
rhizomes
the
sucrose
storage
cold.
long-term
skin
These
provide
reproduction.
for
kidneys.
transport
vegetative
seedling
with
be
harsh
or
associated
bulbs
the
plants
storage.
organs
wet
asexual
energy
animals
for
which
vegetative
for
good,
Storage
have
enough
layer
heart
hot,
storage
germinated,
provides
in
food,
conditions
food
used
are
animals
modified
three.
produced
T
ubers,
also
all
dry,
because
again.
are
stored
of
when
too
and
conditions
that
the
combination
may
plants
at
Mammals
organs,
storing
store
such
fat;
as
this
was
Figure
probably
a
useful
adaptation
for
times
when
food
was
scarce.
This
6.8.3
Sieve
plates
clearly
rarely
the
case
now,
yet
we
still
store
fat
easily
and
have
an
are
visible
obesity
well
as
to
show
vitamins
for
and
it
(see
5.7).
minerals,
The
such
liver
as
also
vitamin
stores
B
some
and
iron
in
th is
epidemic
longitudinal
of
also
is
–
fat
as
phloem
sectio n
sieve
of
tubes.
both
12
needed
Fat
it
for
stores
for
the
are
put
buoyancy
vitamins,
such
Define
to
and
as
SUMMARY
1
production
good
as
a
of
red
use;
for
thermal
vitamin
blood
cells.
example,
insulator.
It
marine
also
mammals
stores
use
fat-soluble
A.
QUESTIONS
the
terms
translocation,
source
and
sink
Figure
6.8.4
A
seed
in
an
early
germination.
2
Describe
briefly
how
sucrose
is
transported
in
the
provide
Make
4
Explain
fat
KEY
1
a
table
a
why
stored
by
A
source
is
a
Plants
the
the
the
have
and
storage
for
lipid
is
to
growth.
phloem.
organs
and
b
the
roles
of
in
and
a
the
where
sink
is
its
phloem
in
of
sucrose
and
other
organic
is
a
substance
begins
its
movement
destination.
by
pressure
flow
as
the
result
of
leaves.
animals
energy
movement
store
and
carbohydrate,
materials,
often
lipids
during
and
times
proteins
when
to
food
Figure
6.8.5
Hunter
Animals
thermal
store
gatherers
Kalahari
scarce.
often
5
energy
and
phloem.
organ
processes
provide
is
is
in
plant;
Movement
active
4
plants
xylem
starch
mammals.
Translocation
through
3
compare
of
POINTS
compounds
2
to
stage
embryo
phloem.
respiring
3
The
fat
as
insulation
a
long-term
and
energy
buoyancy.
store
and
to
provide
to
where
be
store
plenty
energy
scarce.
fat
in
The
times
provides
in
from
food
times
ability
of
them
of
the
may
with
scarcity.
99
Unit
SECTION
1
6
1:
Practice
Multiple-choice
Plants
absorb
to
atmosphere.
the
does
A
water
pass
palisade
→
water
from
soil
mesophyll
root
hair
the
to
cells
soil
and
which
lose
it
6
When
blood
root
hair
cells
1
fibrinogen
→
xylem
root
2
prothrombin
cells
mesophyll
2
3
spongy
→
→
mesophyll
xylem
mesophyll
cells
3
platelets
which
process?
lost
from
xylem
cells
leaves
A
photosynthesis
B
respiration
C
translocation
D
transpiration
A
to
fibrin
is
converted
to
thrombin
release
calcium
substances
that
interact
ions
→
vessels
blood
cells
are
trapped
in
a
mesh
of
fibres
→
root
hair
blood
the
correct
sequence
of
these
stages
clotting?
to
the
atmosphere
are
dissolved
in
1
→
2
→
3
→
4
B
2
→
1
→
4
→
3
C
3
→
2
→
1
→
4
D
4
→
1
→
2
→
3
by
for
substances
A
cells
human
Questions
7
and
1
Cytoplasm
2
Nucleus
3
Cytoplasm
plasma?
carbon
is
→
vessels
is
blood
converted
cells
Water
Which
is
vessels
hair
→
occur:
cells
in
D
following
vessels
Which
C
the
atmosphere?
4
xylem
clots
structures
with
B
questions
questions
Through
from
exam
is
8.
is
full
of
haemoglobin.
lobed.
has
many
small,
enzyme-filled
vacuoles.
dioxide,
haemoglobin
and
4
Shape
is
5
Cell
6
Nucleus
a
biconcave
disc.
glycogen
B
carbon
dioxide,
C
glucose,
D
oxygen,
protein
hormones
and
and
and
no
nucleus.
occupies
most
of
the
cell.
urea
7
urea
has
starch
Which
of
these
features
describes
red
blood
features
describes
phagocytic
sucrose
cells?
4
Which
is
the
circulation?
whole
A
body,
from
description
each
blood
the
before
correct
In
complete
of
the
circuit
of
human
alimentary
returning
through
the
1,
2
and
3
B
1,
4
and
5
C
2,
3
and
6
D
3,
4
and
5
passes
to
canal
the
to
the
liver
heart
8
B
A
the
pulmonary
circuit
and
Which
white
systemic
C
through
before
D
before
5
Which
is
the
four
to
arteries,
effect
chambers
the
returning
an
of
the
the
and
heart
smoking
on
in
A
1
and
5
B
2
and
6
capillaries
C
2
and
3
D
3
and
5
veins
the
gas
Which
carbohydrate
system?
tissue?
100
A
bladder
B
chronic
C
heart
D
high
cells?
heart
lungs
arterioles
to
of
9
exchange
these
blood
circuit
going
through
of
the
cancer
A
Fructose
B
Glucose
C
Maltose
D
Sucrose
bronchitis
disease
blood
pressure
is
transported
in
phloem
SECTION
10
A
2:
student
Figure
1
Short
used
to
answer
the
questions
potometer
investigate
the
shown
effect
of
in
d
Use
i
conditions
on
the
rate
of
water
the
results
to:
different
Describe
the
movement
by
ii
Leafy
effect
of
humidity
and
air
uptake.
the
on
leafy
Explain
the
rate
of
water
uptake
shoot.
the
effect
of
increasing
air
shoot
speed
Reservoir
and
decreasing
humidity
in
the
investigation.
Air
e
bubble
The
lower
shoot
jelly,
in
(6)
surfaces
Figure
which
is
1
of
all
were
the
leaves
coated
impermeable
to
in
of
the
petroleum
water
.
The
Reservoir
shoot
was
then
exposed
to
dry,
moving
air
.
Water
Ruler
i
Figure
Predict
1
ii
The
the
result
that
would
be
obtained.
student
set
up
the
potometer
in
a
Give
an
(2)
explanation
for
your
brightly
prediction.
lit
laboratory
at
room
temperature
and
f
three
sets
of
conditions,
A,
B
and
C,
as
The
still,
humid
B
moving,
air
humid
moving,
dry
this
repeated
time
balance
Explain
air
in
C
student
the
investigation,
follows:
but
A
(3)
provided
to
the
mass
as
placed
record
the
any
advantage
well
as
the
potometer
changes
of
in
measuring
uptake
of
each
case,
the
before
student
waited
for
taking
any
readings.
T
able
results
are
shown
in
T
able
Figure
2
shows
of
a
the
ginger
Distance
in
travelled
different
by
the
air
rhizome
growing
at
the
season.
1.
New
minutes
marks
The
1
Time/
25
10
beginning
student’s
(3)
air.
11
minutes
a
changes
water
.
Total
In
on
mass.
shoot
bubble
conditions/mm
Rhizome
A
B
C
Figure
2
3
6
8
4
4
12
16
6
7
17
30
10
9
21
57
a
Describe
of
b
2
how
carbohydrate
Explain
the
11
25
could
are
in
find
stored
advantages
carbohydrate
12
you
of
out
in
the
what
types
rhizome. (7)
storing
structures
such
as
rhizomes.
86
(3)
a
Describe
student
three
precautions
should
take
when
that
c
the
setting
up
the
potometer.
b
Explain
why
minutes
set
of
(3)
the
before
student
taking
waited
readings
for
for
Explain
new
why
shoots
materials,
the
are
rather
Draw
graph
of
the
than
the
for
a
tips
the
of
the
transport
source.
Total
10
conditions.
a
at
sink
of
(5)
15
marks
each
(2)
Further
c
cells
a
results
in
the
table.
practice
questions
(6)
and
on
examples
the
can
be
found
accompanying
CD.
101
7
Excretion
7.1
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
define
•
distinguish
•
Metabolism
is
bodies.
of
the
topic
of
you
no
Some
chemical
use
and
may
chemical
and
physical
even
be
processes
changes
toxic
if
produce
that
occur
allowed
to
substances
in
that
are
accumulate.
to:
term
the
Excretion
excretion
between
ways
metabolic
from
excretion
Waste
in
humans
substances
in
produced
by
humans
are:
wastes
plants
and
•
carbon
•
urea
•
bile
dioxide
are
from
the
water
in
from
how
animals
and
substances
catalase
cells
broken
plants
by
(see
the
excess
amino
acids
bilirubin
dead
and
aerobic
dioxide
is
biliverdin,
is
blood
from
the
breakdown
of
cells
respiration.
the
it
red
waste
product
carried
in
the
of
aerobic
blood
to
respiration.
the
lungs
Produced
where
If
carbon
dioxide
accumulated
in
the
body
it
it
would
is
be
toxic
peroxide,
as
by
of
one
hydrogen
produced
in
mitochondria,
excreted.
immediately
breakdown
pigments,
Carbon
substance,
respiration
animals.
LINK
seen
aerobic
excreted
•
have
from
which
haemoglobin
is
the
the
egestion
state
We
all
OUTCOMES
•
and
movement
Excretion
LEARNING
At
and
and
causes
acidosis
–
a
condition
that
leads
to
cell
damage.
is
down
to
it
Amino
in
harmless
that
enzyme
acids
proteins,
are
(Figure
5.4).
can
be
excess
used
pH
are
they
our
This
in
of
less
for
water
is
the
its
from
stored
requirements
process
cytoplasm
by
be
respiration
Ammonia
converted
absorbed
cannot
to
7.1.1).
storage.
the
that
but
forms
or
toxic
in
making
liver
into
the
as
are
less
which
is
used
Any
down
and
into
be
acids.
in
to
the
carbohydrates
active.
less
make
amino
because
It
is
that
or
it
acids
liver
compounds
concentrations
enzymes
urea,
can
broken
ammonia
converted
low
gut
amino
fat
for
increases
immediately
harmful
and
requires
excretion.
Cells
Protein
Gut
Some
acids
into
Skin
excretes
Digestion
urea
amino
are
built
protein
make
new
to
Excess
cells
taken
and
amino
to
the
acids
liver
are
and
salts
changed
into
Urea
urea
Lungs
Absorption
excrete
carbon
dioxide
Liver
Amino
acids
Liver
Figure
processes
7.1.1
This
the
materials
makes
shows
what
happens
to
the
amino
acids
that
are
absorbed
from
toxic
small
intestine.
and
them
The
liver
also
breaks
down
old
red
blood
cells
to
release
harmless
haemoglobin.
Kidneys
excrete
and
iron
is
part
of
102
7.1.2
The
excretory
recycled
to
make
of
haemoglobin
new
are
haemoglobin.
broken
The
rest
down
of
the
and
the
haem
urea
haemoglobin
molecules
is
converted
into
bile
pigments,
salts
which
Figure
Molecules
organs
are
excreted
accumulate
in
the
in
urine
skin
and
and
faeces.
eyes
giving
If
not
them
excreted,
a
yellow
bile
pigments
colour.
Additionally,
the
liver
breaks
down
hormones
into
inactive
substances
LINK
that
are
removed
from
the
body.
See
The
body
also
has
more
than
enough
of
some
substances.
Water
3.4
cells
example,
is
absorbed
into
the
blood
from
food
and
drink.
It
is
swell
as
a
waste
product
of
aerobic
respiration.
If
water
builds
up
body
,
many
If
that
The
•
ions
these
so
cells
(from
water
organs
Lungs
–
excess
leaves
–
and
•
Liver
–
•
Skin
filter
in
the
salts),
by
urea,
of
to
the
cells
is
alveoli
produce
with
can
in
have
and
less
the
if
the
there
is
too
much
water
body.
too
chloride.
concentrated
humans
from
why
even
efficiently
.
are:
blood
by
5.9).
urine,
dissolved
too
function
lost
(see
also
sodium
become
7.1.2)
which
the
body
fluids
(Figure
dioxide,
walls
and
The
potassium,
tissue
osmosis
blood
(see
burst!
especially
and
excretion
requirements
salts
even
blood
cells
the
produces
–
and
carbon
across
of
urea
the
involved
excrete
Kidneys
swell
mineral
accumulate,
diffusion
•
could
yourself
possibly
in
in
the
remind
and
also
burst
produced
to
for
which
waste
is
water
substances
in
such
as
7.2).
bile
sodium
pigments
and
and
chloride
spent
ions
hormones.
are
excreted
when
we
sweat.
Figure
7.1.3
objects
in
The
oxalate
crystals
this
Agave
sharp
leaf
needle-like
are
calcium
Egestion
Egestion
but
not
such
is
the
removal
digested
as
fruit
egested.
egested
and
and
Bile
in
vegetables,
they
faeces
absorbed.
pigments,
since
the
is
some
have
been
Fibre
the
of
of
anything
or
roughage
main
which
in
excreted
the
has
from
component
are
produced
that
liver
of
in
by
been
plant
our
the
ingested,
material,
diet
that
faeces,
our
herbivores.
the
stoma
that
Notice
at
the
top
are
not
KEY
waste
is
the
the
leaves.
Other
waste
that
from
product
respiration.
for
their
excretory
compounds
oxalate,
fall
of
day
are
plants.
to
used
of
photosynthesis;
Some
respiration;
compounds
make
the
the
being
oxalate
oxygen
rest
cannot
substances,
before
Calcium
of
is
diffuses
be
such
excreted
crystals
carbon
are
lost
as
in
dioxide
used
out
so
Metabolism
very
and
and
sharp
the
the
damage
plants
Plants
of
the
how
mouths
they
and
(Figure
that
of
herbivores;
tannins
also
deter
as
do
this
is
not
known
for
terms
2
Distinguish
3
a
and
b
Make
a
table
animals
and
Explain
why
to
the
excretion
show
ways
wastes
the
in
waste
must
be
products
is
Distinguish
between
excretion
egestion.
The
main
Explain
why
dioxide
at
plants
night.
excrete
products
each
is
of
plants
excreted
animals
oxygen
of
substances
in
excess,
and
ions.
removal
material
metabolic
humans
The
are
of
through
urea
wastes
and
dioxide.
and
from
the
5
body
.
kidneys,
are
Plants
and
gas
and
in
during
the
lungs,
excretory
excrete
carbon
liver
and
organs.
oxygen
dioxide
exchange;
by
organic
such
as
calcium
plants.
oxalate
5
the
anus.
skin
excreted.
in
toxic
the
compounds
4
is
body
excretion
and
which
in
certain.
4
between
the
water
Egestion
in
metabolism
occur
7.1.3)
carbon
the
the
herbivores,
3
Define
all
substances
such
QUESTIONS
1
and
physical
from
waste
the
SUMMARY
cuticle
leaf.
excretion
metabolism,
use
calcium
bark
that
undigested
although
the
is
and
body;
removal
their
easily.
tannins
leaves
by
of
is
2
and
deterring
plants
waste
product
during
of
at
waxy
POINTS
changes
Oxygen
thick
metabolism.
chemical
in
the
good
is
1
Excretion
are
day
and
carbon
leaves
for
are
and
stored
bark)
(e.g.
and
in
used
protection.
103
7.2
The
human
urinary
system
One
LEARNING
the
At
the
should
end
be
of
the
of
this
able
topic
urinary
describe
excretory
the
system
(Figure
organs
in
humans
is
the
kidney.
It
is
part
of
7.2.1).
you
to:
Renal
•
main
OUTCOMES
human
vein
takes ‘cleaned’
urinary
Renal
blood
away
from
the
ar ter y
brings
waste
to
kidneys
the
kidneys
in
the
blood
system
Kidneys
•
describe
of
•
the
internal
structure
and
the
structure
of
remove
other
from
kidney
describe
kidney
the
the
urea
chemicals
blood
a
nephron.
Ureters
to
the
carr y
Bladder
Ring
Urethra
carries
Figure
The
Figure
7.2.2
A
kidney
ureter
with
part
of
the
of
the
7.2.1
of
stores
urine
muscle
until
keeps
you
the
bladder
urinate
body
The
functions
down
urine
closed
out
urine
bladder
of
human
the
•
excretion
•
osmoregulation
urinary
kidney
system
are:
attached
–
maintenance
of
constant
water
content
of
the
body
•
maintenance
potassium,
•
control
The
The
the
7.2.3
A
to
kidney
show
medulla,
cut
the
open
vertically
cortex,
pelvis
and
or
each
kidney
function
pH
and
of
the
in
Figures
internal
kidney
of
ions,
e.g.
sodium
and
blood.
structure
tubules,
of
concentration
blood
are
7.2.2
is
the
and
structure
thousands
which
nephrons
of
you
to
can
filter
of
of
7.2.3
the
tiny
only
the
kidneys
and
Figure
7.2.4
show
kidney.
tubes
see
blood,
called
under
a
nephrons,
microscope.
remove
waste
The
chemicals,
ureter
reabsorb
useful
reabsorbed.
the
104
the
photographs
external
constant
the
internal
Inside
Figure
of
of
in
body
in
substances
The
waste
urine.
and
allow
chemicals
and
water
excess
to
be
excreted
water
are
or
removed
from
Medulla
Cortex
KEY
POINTS
Medulla
Pelvis
1
Renal
The
urinary
composed
brings
to
the
ureters,
2
Each
vein
and
Figure
7.2.4
A
tubule
vertical
Collecting
section
of
the
duct
from
3
Kidneys
kidney
is
Cortex
on
the
with
a
detailed
view
of
a
renal
flows
artery
arterioles
a
in
a
which
the
is
renal
supplies
a
artery
many
blood
(Figure
cup-like
glomerulus
to
Urine,
which
excretory
out
to
a
times
a
7.2.5)
structure.
form
into
kidney.
to
form
closely
that
inside
is
glomerular
the
arterioles.
packed
fits
Blood
Inside
group
kidney,
Each
of
filtered
as
it
fl ows
Blood
the
stored
these
capillaries
Bowman’s
filtrate.
of
the
in
in
around
rest
the
the
renal
another,
of
the
vein
nephron
reabsorb
At
the
is
many
to
end
of
a
of
goes
the
from
kidney.
thinner
arteriole
nephron.
Blood
and
from
then
into
leave
coiled
the
the
Water
these
capillaries
to
wastes
solvent
yellow
be
the
may
Urine
stored
dissolved
for
these
pigment
in
in
microscopic
in
filtrate
medulla
be
tube.
the
Cells
filtrate
drains
and
reabsorbed
collects
the
in
the
bladder.
water.
wastes,
in
water,
urine
Water
such
is
Make
into
lining
back
a
the
into
it
nephron
the
–
as
made
bringing
to
bladder
be
until
QUESTIONS
a
diagram
empties
collecting
into
the
with
system
of
the
as
urine
pelvis
flows
and
the
flows
Urine
always
urea
in
is
and
the
a
has
solution
to
be
excess
body
of
the
of
each
Make
a
diagram
to
show
the
of
structure
of
a
kidney
the
into
you
would
see
with
the
the
bile
as
eye.
Label
the
main
regions
of
the
Make
large,
kidney.
the
salts.
The
3
a
diagram
pigments.
of
a
will
need
question
1
labelled
nephron
associated
You
Glomerulus
Bowman’s
functions
excretory
present
mineral
from
annotate
duct,
pelvis
through
then
and
part.
blood.
its
Arteriole
ureters,
the
flows
naked
ureter
in
kidneys,
kidney.
substances
nephron,
through
ducts.
the
capillaries
that
collecting
of
the
internal
the
solution
through
flows
2
which
a
called
urinary
Each
is
waste
capsule,
1
into
reabsorbed.
urination.
SUMMARY
glomerulus
are
nephron
branches
glomerulus
blood
useful
three
along
Blood
and
left
passes
of
many
where
filtered
of
Structure
outer
a
pelvis.
contain
substances
4
nephrons
an
urethra.
kidney
nephrons
kidney
has
surrounding
medulla
Ureter
One
and
blood
away
the
is
kidneys,
bladder
kidney
cortex
takes
of
blood
kidney
Renal
system
artery
in
blood
this
to
and
vessels.
answer
7.3.
capsule
4
a
Suggest
the
Distal
convoluted
how
renal
blood
in
blood
vein
the
in
differs
renal
from
artery.
tubule
b
Branch
Suggest
must
renal
why
blood
of
flow
continuously
vein
Loop
through
the
kidneys.
Proximal
Capillaries
convoluted
tubule
Collecting
duct
Filtration
Urine
Figure
7.2.5
A
nephron
105
7.3
Kidney
Pressure
LEARNING
the
end
of
this
topic
kidneys
•
be
define
able
the
filtration,
and
terms
pressure
selective
reabsorption
high.
the
pressure
inside
Ions,
the
water
kidney
functions
net
with
nephron
in
describe
diuretic
of
role
of
hormone
how
is
in
used
kidney
tiny
of
holes
Small
the
blood
7.2.5
pressure
that
the
in
the
blood
wider
molecules
the
in
than
to
are
capillaries.
it.
Blood
the
one
increase
so
forced
The
cells
out
lining
and
leaving
that
of
of
large
it.
blood
the
the
This
is
causes
filtered.
blood
plasma
capillaries
molecules,
like
big
to
pass
through
the
capillary
lining
and
like
blood
so
molecules,
like
urea,
glucose,
amino
acids,
stay
ions
The
(ADH)
renal
the
are
filtered
into
Bowman’s
capsule
to
form
filtrate
in
and
(Figure
blood
that
entering
flows
7.3.1).
from
the
glomerulus
has
less
plasma
than
the
it.
dialysis
treatment
of
FOCUS
a
in
drawing
(see
of
question
with
urea
waste
renal
and
substances
artery
the
3
in
7.2)
Urine
you
is
failure.
Annotate
as
renal
vessel
anti-
other
nephron
is
glomerulus
small
too
Blood
STUDY
so
Figure
urine
the
outline
the
walls
are
blood.
blood
•
heart,
from
the
water
,
•
the
see
of
the
formation
to
can
glomerulus
and
the
proteins,
the
close
Y
ou
entering
through
osmoregulation
describe
is
to:
a
•
are
you
artery
should
filtration
OUTCOMES
The
At
functions
read
this
section.
with
most
of
urea
removed
the
flows
collecting
Blood
down
duct
to
ureter
Water
maybe
reabsorbed
Pressure
filtration
from
urine
Blood
Plasma
protein
pressure
STUDY
FOCUS
Blood
in
It
is
important
concentration
that
of
in
capillary
glomerulus
the
blood
and
Capillary
tissue
fluid
When
is
there
kept
is
wall
constant.
plenty
of
water
Selective
in
the
does
the
body,
not
the
secrete
collecting
impermeable,
reabsorbed
is
produced.
ADH,
ducts
no
and
reabsorption
hypothalamus
are
water
dilute
The
is
Filtrate
in
Bowman’s
capsule
urine
control
of
Capillary
water
in
the
body
hypothalamus,
by
ADH
the
convoluted
and
All
glucose,
some
water,
Water
All
the
kidney
is
an
example
of
these
–
maintaining
body
constant
(see
conditions
in
some
the
blood
the
into
into
capsule
Ions
8.8).
Figure
106
tubule
Urea
Bowman’s
near
filtered
ions
pass
Glucose
from
homeostasis
are
7.3.1
Filtration
and
reabsorption
in
a
nephron
the
blood
back
Selective
reabsorption
LINK
The
body
needs
glucose,
amino
acids,
some
ions
and
much
of
Try
the
water.
The
cells
lining
the
first
part
of
the
nephron
to
convoluted
tubule)
reabsorb
these
from
the
filtrate.
question
11
on
page
113
(proximal
Glucose,
ions
find
out
more
about
kidney
and
dialysis.
amino
by
acids
are
osmosis.
ions.
be
As
The
the
waste
filtrate
filtrate
reabsorbed
collecting
reabsorbed
if
ducts
the
is
chemicals,
kidney
body
to
is
water.
urine.
urine
is
a
in
water
blood,
dilute
water
with
The
a
the
lower
the
passes
solution
of
urea,
excess
water
enters
may
the
concentration
of
vein.
out
collecting
and
that
conserving
water
reabsorbed
more
fluid
renal
is
urea
nephron,
with
in
and
fluids,
the
water.
kidney
much
with
transport;
mostly
low
The
the
how
supplied
The
is
active
through
hormone
controls
well
now
on
body
leaves
Anti-diuretic
The
is
fl ows
by
in
the
ducts
salts
water
urine.
are
and
If
the
impermeable
Figure
7.3.2
Kidney
visits
other
a
compounds.
it
is
hot,
If
you
you
have
are
dehydrating
in
drinking
been
the
brain
anything,
sweating
(see
concentration
the
pituitary
8.4)
of
the
gland
hormone
(ADH).
cells
the
lining
permeable
blood
to
a
vessels
the
urine
to
the
of
blood
to
lot
and
vessels
the
the
epithelial
become
Blood
Blood
in
out
surrounding
have
water
by
a
high
diffuses
osmosis.
from
Dialysis
This
fluid
Dialysis
out
forms
that
concentrated
would
urine
otherwise
conserving
have
been
Figure
out.
7.3.3
As
blood
and
flows
through
concentrations
in
people
accident
die
in
a
most
and
of
have
or
very
dialysis.
the
of
dialysis
glucose
the
water
kidney
have
short
Their
an
content
failure,
infection.
time.
blood
These
flows
excretory
SUMMARY
of
If
people
a
without
plasma
because
nothing
through
waste
the
perhaps
can
is
be
done
it
using
machine
unbalancing
have
about
treated
dialysis
(Figure
they
the
they
1
7.3.3).
2
Annotate
your
functions
of
diagram
the
of
different
a
nephron
(from
7.2)
with
the
diffuses
stabilised.
and
Make
a
flow
chart
diagram
to
plasma
Bowman’s
Useful
how
the
pituitary
control
gland,
of
the
blood,
kidneys
concentration
and
of
ADH
are
of
some
the
the
between
pressure
and
involved
in
Explain
the
role
5
Explain
how
of
ADH
in
the
3
ADH
selective
dialysis
body.
saves
the
It
lives
of
the
is
are
the
filtrate
capillaries
nephron.
secreted
people
is
too
stimulates
by
the
when
the
water
concentrated.
the
from
uptake
urine
in
with
collecting
kidney
as
and
reabsorption.
of
kidney
such
salts
the
blood
4
filtrate
hypothalamus,
urine.
filtration
the
capsule.
water
blood
ions,
leave
form
from
hypothalamus
Distinguish
to
materials
reabsorbed
show
urea,
water
in
the
occurs
through
blood
most
parts.
flows
glomerulus;
glucose
glucose
filtration
blood
the
removes
QUESTIONS
Pressure
as
kidney
that
salt,
will
along
3
urea
are
POINTS
into
2
ions
been
glucose,
1
machine
and
dialysis
KEY
Some
fluid
in
water
passed
out
Kidney
times
anti-diuretic
ducts
medulla
so
three
week.
stimulates
makes
The
salt,
the
It
release
collecting
in
into
responds
ADH
involves
clinic
hypothalamus
blood.
water.
concentration
the
a
because
Blood
not
dialysis
to
ducts.
failure.
107
7.4
Movement
Movement
LEARNING
Movement
At
the
end
of
this
topic
be
able
define
and
animals
its
is
an
action
position
or
by
an
organism
or
part
of
an
organism
that
place.
to:
Plants
•
plants
you
changes
should
in
OUTCOMES
movement
are
fixed
in
one
position
and
have
spreading
bodies
that
and
absorb
light,
carbon
dioxide,
water
and
mineral
ions.
Some
plant
locomotion
movement
•
distinguish
flytrap
locomotion
in
animals
movements
are
in
grains
outline
for
the
roles
animals
and
of
movement
plants
these
to
and
competition
methods
describe
how
human
its
plant
the
structure
expose
and
reproduce
the
Venus
they
one
plant
to
another.
Their
make
seeds
(see
plant
to
colonise
new
areas
and
are
reduce
9.6).
are
due
to
growth
and
are
slow
(see
8.2
for
They
their
relate
leaves
to
skeleton
is
to
their
as
nutrition.
much
light
Shoots
as
grow
possible
so
towards
that
they
light
efficiently.
Roots
grow
downwards
towards
can
sources
related
water.
functions.
animals
which
is
about
by
7.4.1
The
of
cotyledons
this
peanut
(seed
have
into
for
so
the
the
shoot
light
to
•
hide
•
migrate
•
find
mates
•
find
nesting
and
in
one
place.
They
Movement
move
in
their
animals
is
whole
body,
brought
contraction.
necessary
escape
to
animals
move
gain
to
from
avoid
coral
to:
harsh
sites
are
and
fixed
polys,
food
predators
make
and
sea
and
conditions
or
in
search
of
food
nests
only
move
anemones
defend
part
and
of
their
barnacles.
bodies,
Parts
of
for
their
body
themselves.
leaves)
moved
can
human
skeleton
grow
absorb
light
Locomotion
is
crucially
important
to
humans.
We
are
bipedal
(we
photosynthesis.
front
on
The
two
limbs
which
or
be
eaten.
and
running
for
Both
cheetah
their
are
lives.
us
functions
T
ry
gazelle
legs).
free
allow
STUDY
Eat
fixed
locomotion.
food
example
walk
7.4.2
is
not
as
muscle
find
The
apart
are
known
•
Some
108
from
parent
movements
Locomotion
Figure
mimosa
of
Most
Figure
of
plants
reproduction
of
to
move
the
photosynthesise
the
leaves
When
of
to
•
that
from
examples).
nutrition
the
8.1).
and
Most
relate
fast:
(see
plants
dispersed
•
quite
examples
and
pollen
growth
occurs
between
with
manipulate
grasp
the
objects.
objects
skeleton
four-legged
and
are
We
make
shown
have
and
in
animals,
we
opposable
use
T
able
have
our
thumbs,
tools.
7.4.1.
FOCUS
you
names
to
of
answering
help
to
Compared
to
of
question
locate
the
the
bones
15
which
important
and
identify
you
will
parts
the
of
find
the
on
the
CD.
skeleton,
positions
of
the
This
learn
joints
will
the
(see
7.5).
T
able
7.4.1
Functions
of
the
skeleton
KEY
Function
Comments
Locomotion
•
1
Bones
by
•
are
a
firm
structure
for
muscle
POINTS
Movement
is
organism,
or
skeleton
has
systems
of
levers
to
move
an
organism,
causing
body
from
place
to
place,
or
move
parts
the
body
relative
to
one
•
The
cranium
•
The
ribcage
protects
the
brain,
the
eyes
and
of
position
the
lungs
and
vertebral
column
protects
the
whole
The
types
spinal
plants
pelvis
protects
the
•
The
e.g.
bones
systems
•
The
•
The
provide
of
nervous,
uterus,
internal
the
body,
endocrine
backbone
the
ovaries
a
urinary
and
framework
such
and
provides
and
as
of
to
jawbones
The
ribcage
volume
of
red
for
the
all
the
digestive,
muscular
support
3
other
excretory,
and
cells
of
Red
bone
and
at
that
support
is
moved
muscles
the
the
up
to
thorax
marrow
the
ends
divide
for
the
functions
are:
locomotion,
limbs
and
Long
and
down
increase
(see
and
by
the
humerus
fore
is
of
bones,
support
decrease
skeleton
protection,
red
and
the
blood
cells.
in
of
the
by
long
mitosis
those
that
are
the
interior
of
have
the
short
and
produce
stem
red
removed
from
the
of
the
upper
arm
(Figure
QUESTIONS
cells,
blood
cells
Define
the
terms
movement
to
locomotion
circulation.
Write
a
7.4.3).
3
a
food
chain
organisms
Figure
bone
for
movement.
bones
limb
long
the
adapted
5.10).
bones
to
e.g.
are
the
three
The
the
teeth.
2
human
of
breathing
production
and
replace
The
reproduction.
The
support,
systems.
1
blood
of
bladder.
SUMMARY
•
are
forms
head.
intercostal
Production
animals
their
humerus,
•
movement
genital
4
Breathing
of
organism.
and
nutrition
organs,
place.
cord.
related
The
or
movement
heart.
in
The
is
ears.
2
protects
a
another.
the
Support
by
of
of
Locomotion
•
part
the
change
•
action
an
tendons.
The
whole
Protection
an
attachment
for
the
visible
in
7.4.2.
Make
a
table
movement
to
in
compare
plants
and
animals.
Cartilage
A
Rounded
blade
to
head
form
fits
a
into
ball
the
and
b
shoulder
socket
joint,
Explain
your
the
table
differences
from
part
in
a,
by
A
allowing
movement
in
three
planes.
referring
B
The
ends
of
the
humerus
are
made
bone,
which
is
light
and
the
forms
of
of
B
spongy
to
nutrition
and
reproduction
in
and
animals.
strong
D
and
withstands
stresses
in
all
directions.
plants
E
C
Growth
D
Red
of
the
bone
occurs
here.
4
bone
marrow
in
the
ends
of
a
List
the
functions
of
the
the
F
human
bone
produces
E
Yellow
F
The
the
bone
long
shaft
chances
red
blood
marrow
is
of
a
is
a
hollow,
break
cells.
store
G
of
which
fat.
b
State
the
body
that
the
The
occurring
outer
part
of
compact
Rounded
the
shaft
is
made
of
to
of
the
functions
in
listed.
J
ends
form
a
hinge
joint
Explain
how
radius
and
triceps
the
biceps
surface
as
this
other
of
is
the
blood
H
ulna.
and
muscles
shaft,
attached
to
the
not
the
formation,
scapula.
The
humerus
bone
in
showing
breathing,
protection
and
Cartilage
Explain
how
adapted
7.4.3
human
support.
6
Figure
the
involved
locomotion,
attach
but
is
with
C
The
the
bone.
skeleton
the
of
involved
across
5
J
are
bone.
strong,
H
bones
reduces
each
G
skeleton.
how
it
is
adapted
for
its
for
the
its
humerus
is
functions.
functions
109
7.5
Joints,
and
muscles
movement
Joints
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
Locomotion
At
the
end
of
this
topic
skeletal
should
be
able
name
the
the
skeleton,
joints
between
the
bones
and
the
muscles.
to:
The
•
involves
you
types
of
joint
in
place
where
two
bones
meet
is
a
joint.
There
are
two
types
of
the
joint:
skeleton
•
•
describe
movement
at
a
fixed
of
•
describe
the
structure
of
•
describe
human
define
where
there
is
no
movement,
e.g.
between
the
bones
cranium
a
moveable
(or
synovial)
joint
where
there
is
movement.
joint
the
structure
of
T
wo
the
types
of
moveable
joint
are
(Figure
7.5.2):
forearm
•
•
the
a
•
moveable
joint
joints
the
term
antagonistic
a
hinge
elbow
joint
and
in
the
which
movement
occurs
in
one
plane,
e.g.
at
the
knee
muscles
•
•
explain
moves
how
the
a
pair
of
muscles
a
ball
e.g.
and
at
socket
the
joint
shoulder
where
and
the
movement
occurs
in
all
three
planes,
hip.
forearm.
Ligament-holds
Humerus
the
bones
Synovial
fluid
together
Cartilage
Synovial
membrane-
produces
synovial
Ligament
fluid
Radius
Figure
7.5.1
You
can
see
the
cartilage
Plane
at
the
end
of
the
bones
of
movement
of
Femur
these
pig’s
Synovial
Pelvis
trotters.
Ulna
membrane
Capsule
STUDY
You
a
can
pig’s
and
learn
a
trotter.
then
that
Figure
FOCUS
are
lot
separate
bones
to
across
the
the
see
the
to
the
the
skin
tendons
the
tendons
hinge
the
bones;
inelastic
collagen
and
joints
ligaments
and
open
pull
muscle
joints
cartilage
the
oily
to
and
find
the
lubricant.
and
a
ball
and
socket
joint
(hip)
on
up
of
the
inserts
to
fibres
each
bones
that
run
muscle.
tendons
moves;
by
deep
When
which
the
tendons.
is
bones
muscles
move
origin
into
These
the
the
to
The
full
form
contract
bone.
fixed
are
tough,
the
and
end
of
origin
shorten
where
the
end.
Cut
are
attach
also
bones
made
of
together
collagen
and
and
support
are
tough,
the
joints.
but
they
Most
have
of
some
the
tissue
which
means
that
they
can
stretch
a
little.
more
synovial
fluid
–
Cartilage
than
from
110
(elbow)
around
elastic
hinge
joint
attached
insertion
they
and
movement
joints.
are
these
the
hinge
Muscles
Ligaments
through
A
dissecting
Remove
attached
manipulate
by
7.5.2
covers
the
end
bone
and
smooth
wear
and
tear.
so
of
it
bones
glides
at
moveable
over
the
joints.
ends
It
is
softer
protecting
the
bone
Synovial
joint.
Muscles
move
a
fluid
This
fluid
only
part
bone.
is
is
secreted
an
oily
contract,
of
your
Muscles
by
they
body,
cannot
the
liquid
synovial
that
do
not
muscles
push
expand.
contract
the
membrane
lubricates
bone
the
To
move
and
to
surrounding
about
shorten
move
the
joint.
it
or
and
back
to
to
pull
on
where
Radius
it
started.
In
order
to
get
a
bone
to
move
back
another
muscle
is
Triceps
needed.
For
example,
there
are
two
muscles
that
move
the
forearm
(relaxed)
and
they
biceps
form
and
type
muscle.
relaxes
and
of
is
Contraction
This
type
of
extended.
and
is
to
of
movement
triceps
is
is
the
the
the
of
7.5.3).
They
are
the
the
antagonist
triceps
raises
biceps
muscle,
muscle
extension
extensor
biceps,
muscle
and
the
is
the
forearm.
the
Insertion
flexor
triceps,
longer.
the
called
the
biceps
flexion
become
shortening
muscle,
(Figure
Humerus
called
happens
pulled
The
antagonist
shortening
this
pair
muscles.
movement
When
and
antagonistic
triceps
Contraction
This
an
and
the
muscle.
relaxes
and
is
lowers
arm
When
pulled
the
is
now
this
to
forearm.
happens
become
the
longer
.
Origin
Radius
Lever
Levers
action
are
the
most
efficient
way
of
moving
or
supporting
a
Triceps
load.
(contracted)
There
is
a
lever
action
in
every
moveable
joint
in
the
body.
Joints
act
Insertion
as
fulcrums.
provide
the
These
effort
are
to
the
points
move
about
which
a
lever
pivots.
Muscles
levers.
Ulna
Levers
in
the
body
support
the
weight
of
the
body.
The
arm
acts
as
Figure
a
lever
(Figure
fulcrum
of
the
arm,
and
is
of
the
held
minimises
example,
movement
KEY
what
muscle
for
7.5.4):
a
muscle
in
the
the
of
hand
effort
movement
457 mm
provides
the
of
is
the
the
needed
25 mm
hand
at
load.
to
of
the
effort,
The
move
the
end
the
the
the
is
7.5.3
the
load.
In
results
and
action
antagonistic
flexing
extending
(left)
(right)
the
a
lever.
E
POINTS
are
of
in
forearm
the
in
The
muscles
arrangement
biceps
of
joint
1
Joints
where
2
Ligaments
bones
meet.
L
attach
3
Fixed
and
bones
joints
tendons
are
together;
occur
both
tendons
where
there
tough
attach
is
no
where
there
is
movement
in
one
where
there
is
movement
in
three
tissues.
muscles
Ligaments
to
movement;
plane;
ball
bones.
hinge
and
joints
socket
joints
F
planes
F
(rotational).
E
L
SUMMARY
=
=
=
Elbow
Biceps
joint
muscle
Forearm
and
weight
7.5.4
The
lever
arm:
Explain
2
State
3
hand
is
meant
locations
in
by
the
the
terms
body
of
fixed
hinge
joint
and
joints
synovial
and
ball
joint
F
effort
is
action
the
and
L
of
the
fulcrum,
is
E
is
load.
and
joints.
Describe
joint:
4
what
the
socket
in
QUESTIONS
Figure
1
held
the
functions
cartilage,
Explain
how
of
ligament,
the
human
the
following
tendon,
forearm
in
muscle
is
a
movement
tissue
and
extended,
about
a
synovial
and
b
fluid.
flexed.
111
Unit
SECTION
1
2
Where
1:
in
4
Practice
Multiple-choice
the
human
body
exam
questions
is
urea
made?
6
Bones
are
attached
bladder
A
cartilage
B
kidney
B
ligaments
C
liver
C
synovial
D
stomach
D
tendons
Which
substance
is
not
in
the
urine
of
a
7
person?
A
glucose
B
sodium
C
D
Pairs
of
across
muscles
a
hinge
B
extensor
urea
C
flexor
water
D
skeletal
Excretion
is
the
A
dead
B
excess
C
undigested
D
waste
What
removal
from
the
body
of
8
Blood
is
products
of
when
the
muscle
forearm
Triceps
is
muscles
muscles
muscles
muscles
filtered
Which
part
collect
in
of
in
the
the
glomeruli
nephron
contracts
relaxes
after
A
Bowman’s
B
Collecting
C
Distal
D
Proximal
Urine
the
flows
pelvis.
passes
C
relaxes
contracts
D
relaxes
relaxes
Collecting
ducts
before
following
leaving
it
can
occurs
removed
is
reabsorb
leaves
the
when
from
secreted
permeability
a
is
ducts
ADH
not
of
to
the
water
kidney.
there
the
is
Which
excess
of
duct
tubule
convoluted
tubule
to
nephrons
of
be
is
the
structures
voided
remain
is
and
permeable
secreted
of
to
the
to
through
from
the
→
bladder
B
collecting
duct
→
urethra
C
ureter
D
urethra
→
bladder
→
ducts
to
→
bladder
is
ducts
112
not
secreted
remain
and
the
impermeable
the
ducts
to
collecting
to
into
which
urine
→
→
urethra
bladder
urethra
→
10
Which
of
the
following
organ
A
kidney
B
liver
C
lungs
D
skin
that
and
with
water.
ureter
it
correctly
the
and
excretes?
urine
bile
and
and
pigments
oxygen
carbon
pairs
metabolic
collecting
collecting
kidney
body?
duct
water.
decrease
the
collecting
substance
the
the
in
correct
A
excretory
collecting
from
Which
the
water
water.
ADH
kidney.
filtrate
from
body?
increase
secreted
permeability
D
the
the
glomerulus?
water.
C
in
capsule
convoluted
sequence
ADH
does
muscle
B
B
movement
as:
raised?
9
ADH
about
known
metabolism
contracts
A
bring
are
materials
happens
is
by:
heat
contracts
that
together
skin
A
urine
that
joint
antagonistic
ions
firmly
membranes
A
Biceps
5
questions
A
healthy
3
7
dioxide
an
waste
SECTION
11
a
2:
Short
Ammonia
waste
is
answer
questions
produced
product
of
by
their
all
animals
as
a
3.0
metabolism.
ni
Explain
table
blood
this
is
shows
plasma
in
necessary.
(3)
the
composition
the
renal
artery,
aerU
The
urea
of
filtrate
in
2.5
eht
b
why
is
g/doolb
to
humans
md
converted
by
noitartnecnoc
produced
3
Ammonia
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
Bowman’s
capsule
and
urine.
0.0
0
−3
Substance
Concentration/g dm
5
10
15
20
25
30
Time/days
Blood
in
plasma
Filtrate
renal
in
Urine
Figure
Bowman’s
artery
1
capsule
i
Urea
0.2
0.2
20.0
Glucose
0.9
0.9
0.0
State
how
received
dialysis
evidence
Amino
0.05
0.05
9.0
9.0
0.0
many
from
times
the
man
treatment;
Figure
1
to
give
the
support
your
answer.
(2)
acids
ii
Mineral
Calculate
the
decrease
in
the
16.5
concentration
of
the
man’s
urea
in
the
ions
blood
Protein
82.0
0.0
from
end
Show
Four
of
the
substances
shown
in
dialysis
table
are
of
your
Describe
present
in
the
filtrate,
his
treatment
on
day
is
not.
(2)
and
the
20
in
amino
the
that
in
the
occur
blood
acids
are
Explain
the
changes
you
have
not
urine.
concentration
ions
is
higher
in
iii.
(3)
(2)
in
of
the
urea
urine
and
than
in
the
blood
c
Explain
12
a
in
the
renal
concentration
in
the
how
renal
filtrate
is
artery
of
urea
has
b
a
Distinguish
and
(3)
blood
higher
i
Make
arm
(1)
in
those
ii
the
kidney.
(4)
large
the
the
and
A
man
with
dialysis
shows
his
the
kidney
treatment
how
blood
start
the
for
his
20
received
days.
concentration
changed
of
failure
over
the
of
urea
days
iii
1
Draw
and
(2)
the
to
show
shoulder,
practice
examples
upper
following
on
joint,
radius,
(3)
your
hinge
scapula
diagram:
joint,
and
diagram
muscles.
sites
Label
of
the
ulna.
the
origin
biceps
two
and
(3)
and
muscles
insertion.
(3)
Explain
why
a
the
pair
movement
of
of
antagonistic
the
forearm
muscles
and
questions
can
be
just
one
muscle.
(4)
found
Total
the
the
the
treatment.
not
on
plants
forearm.
your
their
requires
and
on
triceps
in
from
c
Further
of
regular
Figure
30
movements
diagram
of
socket
humerus,
d
marks
animals.
bones
and
Label
ball
between
of
a
major
than
vein.
formed
25
mineral
filtrate.
The
the
(3)
Total
The
in
over
days.
described
present
changes
concentration
(2)
iv
Glucose
iv
20.
working.
but
the
protein
iii
until
the
urea
ii
of
why
iii
i
start
0.0
the
Explain
the
accompanying
15
marks
CD.
113
8
Irritability
8.1
Coordination
and
survival
LEARNING
At
the
end
should
be
In
order
in
its
in
the
to
survive
of
this
able
topic
you
an
to:
environment
define
the
terms
(sensitivity),
response,
and
•
their
and
environment.
organism
sensitivity,
•
in
habitat
each
organism
needs
to
sense
changes
OUTCOMES
as
is
a
A
make
response
direct
the
suitable
result
ability
to
of
is
a
detect
a
responses.
change
stimulus.
stimuli
in
A
stimulus
position
or
Irritability,
and
respond
a
change
behaviour
also
to
is
known
of
as
them.
irritability
Figures
stimulus,
receptor,
and
effector
8.1.1
to
8.1.6
show
some
examples
of
responses
of
plants
animals.
coordinator
explain
how
effectors
are
receptors
involved
and
in
coordination
•
explain
stimuli
how
are
responses
important
to
for
survival.
Figure
8.1.2
seedling
roots
Touch/stimulus
stem
are
is
This
kidney
germinated
growing
growing
responds
to
in
the
bean
dark.
downwards
upwards
as
The
and
the
the
plant
gravity.
Figure
8.1.4
sensitive
This
to
Earthworms
vibrations
earthworm
pecking
at
the
has
soil
in
the
detected
showing
are
ground.
a
an
bird
escape
response.
Figure
8.1.1
mimosa
leaflets
the
fold
petiole
parallel
Lightly
(‘sensitive’
to
up.
Keep
bends
the
or
touch
‘shy’
the
plant)
touching
downward
leaves
and
the
so
leaf
the
of
the
and
leaf
is
stem.
Figure
8.1.3
touched
of
the
leaf
trapped.
plant
114
the
in
and
There
the
Venus
sensitive
fly
hairs
trap.
on
has
been
is
drawing
a
questions
at
well
and
of
the
The
the
a
end
fly
surface
truly
Figure
whole
of
Unit
8.1.5
octopus
8.
match
This
changes
its
its
Caribbean
reef
appearance
surroundings.
to
Receptors
and
effectors
LINK
In
each
of
these
cases
a
stimulus
is
detected
by
receptors.
These
The
detect
certain
stimuli
and
send
information
about
them
to
roles
effectors
which
carry
out
the
response.
Communication
between
receptors
is
Receptors
energy
of
the
in
function
animals
stimuli
of
are
such
a
travel
towards
middle
fluid
the
ear
that
Some
along
of
Venus
Other
causes
light
or
specialised
movement
receptor
cells;
pigments
Effectors
nerves,
animals
plant
are
cells
into
that
convert
electrical
ducts
onto
responses
starch
to
are
touch
surface
in
the
impulses
detected
8.1.6
of
of
to
such
the
a
Identify
each
bend.
as
in
Figures
answer
detect
are
no
where
elongate
by
elongate
more
where
and
glands.
parts
of
other
growth
to
When
the
in
cool
responses
cells
side
on
so
faster
the
the
move
upper
side
of
bends
of
cells
cells
the
the
the
ways:
and
and
light
carry
blood;
body
down
apical
one
8.1.1–8.1.5,
question
or
,
when
the
out
Irritability
is
in
A
response
organism;
in
it
the
is
effectors
a
case
of
hot.
are
the
organ
petiole
lower
in
grow
The
side
of
bends
the
or
away
in
evening.
faster
the
stem
upwards
opposite
of
a
than
Here
root
from
the
T
o
movement
on
the
is
the
Sensory
hair
cochlea
in
(×
from
inner
the
ear
600)
to
this
lower
caused
by
petiole.
the
the
ability
to
make
responses
to
stimuli
that
are
environment.
is
a
change
in
position
or
behaviour
of
8.1.7
If
an
responses
have
survival
insect
detect
stimuli,
effectors
these
hairs
between
carry
out
systems,
receptors
such
as
the
and
effectors
is
the
role
Venus
nervous
List
all
b
List
the
the
different
effectors
how
ensure
fly
within
trap,
20
the
of
trap
to
seconds.
digest
system.
secreted
glands
all
by
the
over
the
insect
the
red
surface
15).
QUESTIONS
a
Explain
two
leaf
of
(×
SUMMARY
a
responses;
are
coordination
on
value.
Enzymes
communication
touches
an
shuts
Receptors
to
cells
the
side
morning
achieve
those
8.1.6
cells
the
2
then
release
of
1
and
2.
by
Figure
3
of
organism
POINTS
changes
2
value
each
by
others
meristems.
side
move
downwards
the
the
on
also
downwards.
on
as
plant
Leaves
and
leaf
If
other
,
occurs.
light
growth
KEY
1
the
the
than
growth
known
water
.
to
movement.
stimulated
body
into
elsewhere
surface
occurs
absorbing
most
intercept
growth
survival
specialised
Figure
regions
the
response
temperature.
that
in
bones
nerves,
FOCUS
waves
movement
Figure
of
and
There
three
into
endings
hormones
lead
body
discussed
grains.
move
release
that
the
are
see
sound
the
waves
can
the
their
funnels
causing
obvious.
muscles
glands
into
glands
by
you
detect
over
less
stimuli
contract
Some
substances
sweat
gravity
muscles
response.
are
ear
sound
simply
that
hairs
instead
and
in
have
vibrates,
that
are
skin
receptors
outer
convert
‘hairs’
the
The
which
and
the
in
traps
plant
cells.
receptors
those
fly
drum
move
animal
some
Most
ear
to
nerve
and
are
8.2.
STUDY
that
receptors
plants
coordinator.
generally
as
in
and
in
effectors
of
effectors
each
of
in
stimuli
plants
the
that
and
are
mentioned
in
this
topic.
animals.
responses
in
Figures
8.1.1–8.1.5
helps
survival.
115
8.2
Plant
Responses
LEARNING
At
the
end
should
be
describe
stems
to
of
this
able
•
relate
the
and
light,
to
topic
responses
roots
these
Plant
responses
depend
Plant
responses
can
of
and
Seeds
gravity
then
to
of
plants
in
cress,
are
soaked
arranged
•
to
results
investigations
that
of
in
A
Kept
B
Put
into
C
Put
into
D
Put
onto
as
in
the
plants
piece
every
The
A
an
B
a
in
15
investigated
or
stimulus.
with
seedlings
of
plants,
such
as
peanuts.
in
water
in
investigations
The
have
so
that
they
1
to
start
to
germinate.
They
are
3.
responses
of
seedlings
to
light
been
grown
in
the
dark
are
put
in
conditions
A
to
D:
dark.
with
environment
Seedlings
growing
from
side
one
in
revolving
groups
of
uniform
with
light
light
from
(light
one
from
side
all
around).
only.
The
D
to
in
give
light
must
all
from
one
experience
side.
the
same
conditions
factors.
Figure
light
to
8.2.2
all
is
a
sides
are
continue
taller
seedlings
are
continue
not
to
than
as
grow
those
clinostat
of
to
tall
grow
as
upwards,
in
the
–
it
revolves
once
seedlings.
upwards,
those
leaves
are
yellow,
leaves
are
green,
B.
in
A.
C
The
seedlings
grew
as
in
Figure
8.2.1.
D
The
seedlings
grew
as
in
Figure
8.2.2.
Plants
have
plant.
pigments,
They
the
The
The
results
results
use
are
shown
3
water.
are
The
shown
starch
Downward
a
The
occur
light.
response
on
one
response
of
side
Chemicals
by
of
diffuse
stimulating
roots
seedling
and
roots
through
more
shoots.
to
gravity
in
in
Figure
8.2.3.
response
of
seedling
shoots
to
gravity
in
dark
Roots
of
2
to
detect
the
dark
Investigation
the
which
coordinate
growth
Investigation
in
to
with
light
only
growing
A
other
apparatus
seedlings
elongation
clinostat
disc
results
The
the
Seedlings
and
minutes
seedlings
116
be
corn
environment
an
seedlings
8.2.2
1
temperature
The
Figure
the
tables.
of
8.2.1
of
of
The
Figure
direction
make
investigations
responses
record
the
their
Seedlings
how
controlled
on
the
habitats
plant
gravity
of
seedlings
responses
beans,
Investigation
outline
and
you
to:
touch
behaviour
•
light
OUTCOMES
peas,
•
responses
in
grains
growth
Growth
has
into
Figure
inside
cells
survival
the
soil
8.2.4.
to
value
also
detect
as
the
roots
anchors
direction
grow
the
of
towards
young
plant.
gravity.
a
source
Shoots
Moist
Clinostat
cotton
Petri
dish
wool
Result
after
2
days
Control
Figure
may
the
8.2.4
not
be
Seedling
pointing
direction
of
shoots
grown
upwards.
gravity
and
in
the
They
dark
have
respond
by
a
similar
growing
system
to
upwards
detect
towards
the
Figure
source
of
light
for
8.2.3
Seedling
the
Response
Plants
show
plant)
and
that
are
is
of
tendrils,
on
observed
time
roots
direction
to
of
fly
response
trap,
on
such
the
by
(time-lapse
When
types
Venus
dependent
dependent
best
the
as
to
touch.
example,
direction
those
position
taking
for
of
of
the
Mimosa
show
growth
of
the
morning
stimulus
observations
or
responses
stimulus.
glory,
is
(Figure
The
slower
8.2.5).
photographs
at
and
They
are
intervals
of
photography).
touch
avoid
Plant
a
as
an
the
they
responses
seed
object
in
the
obstruction.
push
are
germinates
soil
In
they
this
grow
way
in
a
roots
different
use
their
way
particularly
it
can
be
through
noticeable
orientated
in
the
in
air
less
young
any
spaces
in
energy
plants.
direction,
it
the
8.2.5
Use
soil.
A
plant
The
position
kept
leaves
reach
the
in
so
the
remain
light
the
root
dark
will
yellow
source.
grows
continue
and
This
downwards
is
do
to
not
to
grow
unfurl
ensure
or
that
and
the
needs
shoot
upwards
expand
the
most
effectively
–
growing
through
the
at
a
until
seedling’s
soil
to
reach
leaves
unfurl
and
and
grows
over
fast
rate.
1
a
they
energy
the
Make
a
results
table
State
POINTS
Describe
to
Figure
responses
are
fast,
such
as
the
closing
of
of
to
fly
trap;
most
plant
responses
are
slow
because
growth
Investigation
three
the
ways
Plants
3
Plant
the
respond
to
responses
the
the
direction
of
light,
gravity
and
in
to
have
light.
responses
as
of
shown
the
in
8.2.3.
Explain
the
advantages
using
the
clinostat
effect
of
are
investigated
each
stimulus
under
can
be
controlled
Plant
growth
light,
carbon
responses
dioxide,
ensure
water
that
and
to
in
3.
conditions
Explain
and
3
why
are
Investigations
set
up
in
the
2
dark.
determined.
plants
ions
1
touch.
5
4
1
responses.
4
so
1.
in
seedlings
gravity
Investigations
2
the
they
of
are
record
the
3
Venus
hours.
expand.
roots
plant
a
it
light;
2
Some
several
how
is
responded
1
stimulate
QUESTIONS
Investigation
KEY
to
observe
to
which
then
pencil
upwards.
b
used
a
tendril
When
SUMMARY
change
in
(‘sensitive’
sudden
Figure
for
grown
dark
touch
two
the
not
response
to
roots
photosynthesis.
for
gain
their
sufficient
survival.
Explain
plants
light,
the
of
advantages
these
gravity
to
responses
and
to
touch.
117
8.3
Invertebrate
The
LEARNING
responses
the
end
should
•
be
of
this
able
describe
the
temperature
explain
how
topic
school
you
responses
to
light
and
to
of
terrestrial
lab
with
and
some
intensity,
•
moving
invertebrates,
earthworms,
simple
can
apparatus.
be
such
as
woodlice,
The
investigated
responses
in
that
the
they
show
directly
towards
•
changing
their
•
changing
direction
speed
in
or
away
from
response
to
a
the
source
of
intensity
a
of
stimulus
the
stimulus
moisture
with
the
intensity
of
the
stimulus.
investigate
The
behaviour
millipedes
involve
to:
invertebrates
•
small
OUTCOMES
maggots,
At
of
responses
using
way
in
which
results
are
recorded
is
determined
by
the
type
of
choice
response
shown
by
the
invertebrates.
chambers
•
explain
how
to
carry
out
Investigation
controlled
investigations
The
invertebrate
apparatus
Place
the
invertebrates
and
they
are
like
described
investigations
cool
you
damp
less
carry
the
a
of
invertebrates
to
light
8.3.1
is
arranged
so
that
the
desk-lamp
is
from
Put
active
one
the
end
of
marked
maggot
the
A4
exactly
tray,
shining
paper
at
in
the
at
a
shallow
angle
tray.
likely
out
ones
live
habitats
to
in
dark,
where
dehydrate.
investigations
described
on
you
should
take
harm
the
the
cover
over
the
the
centre
of
tray.
Mark
the
the
small
position
circle
of
and
the
cover.
in
Start
timing
circle.
Mark
seconds,
If
the
as
soon
this
mark
the
maggots
as
the
position
head
on
the
maggot’s
are
very
of
the
beaker
position
lively,
five
maggot
with
a
again,
seconds
crosses
small
using
may
be
the
a
the
‘a’.
inner
Every
same
better
10
symbol.
interval.
here,
care
in
a
suitable
table,
across
which
sector
(+ve,
−ve,
or
neutral)
not
the
to
Figure
transparent
Record,
then
tray.
one
centre
If
response
FOCUS
place
these
in
100 mm
along
The
The
responses.
about
STUDY
1
on
maggot
left
the
outer
circle.
Continue
marking
its
position
at
animals.
regular
Repeat
a
new
cover
Place
the
these
the
the
until
steps
symbol
in
(‘b’,
same
it
reaches
until
‘c’,
you
‘d’,
position
transparent
relative
T
able
Positive
intervals
position
the
have
etc.
for
cover
of
the
on
for
a
of
the
recordings
each
each
lamp.
edge
marked
from
one).
T
ake
10
paper.
maggots:
care
to
place
use
the
trial.
large
sheet
Make
a
of
table
paper,
for
and
your
mark
results
as
in
8.3.1.
response
T
able
8.3.1
−1
Sector
Neutral
Neutral
response
response
Number
of
Mean
speed
at
2
second
intervals/mm s
maggots
2
4
6
8
10
1
1.75
0.75
1.00
0.00
0.00
15
12.40
9.00
8.30
5.50
3.50
4
1.56
0.59
0.35
0.25
0.00
Positive
Negative
response
Negative
Neutral
Tray
Sheet
of
A4
paper
This
Figure
8.3.1
Apparatus
for
method
investigating
Cheverton
responses
to
118
light
of
invertebrates
and
Figure
8.3.1
were
provided
by
the
late
John
Investigation
Draw
in
a
the
a
line
bowl
small
2
The
across
of
cold
the
middle
water
beaker
,
invertebrate
response
not
inside
from
the
the
of
of
the
the
invertebrates
base
tap.
temperature
beaker
and
of
a
Record
of
the
record
to
beaker
.
the
air
water
how
temperature
Place
the
beaker
temperature
bath.
often
the
Put
an
animal
in
T
able
8.3.2
T
emp.
Number
/°C
millipedes
active
line
in
3
line
bowl
in
to
T
able
a
given
give
8.3.2
Figure
different
shows
temperature
Choice
period
was
air
some
of
time.
Use
hot
temperatures
results
repeated
after
with
in
and
the
cold
and
ice
in
halves
that
versus
dry,
shows
have
a
choice
this
different
different
chamber.
conditions,
versus
dark
chloride
a
low
in
and
damp.
silica
humidity;
the
used
or
combinations
air
to
gel,
cotton
light
drying
placed
immediately
give
A
and
of
This
such
procedure.
in
wool
be
light
Bench
in
such
such
lower
soaked
above.
dark
agent,
the
used
to
versus
as
as
light
give
dark,
water
gives
and
and
anhydrous
compartment
lamps
3
mean
4
3
6
4
20
9
8
7
8
25
12
15
12
13
30
16
17
15
16
40
3
5
4
4
Each
millipedes.
can
as
conditions
2
10
two
damp
Damp
and
minutes
the
chambers
8.3.2
the
beaker
.
following
three
water
times
crossed
crosses
1
the
of
a
Hole
Woodlouse
half
the
to
put
in
woodlice
calcium
gives
higher
black
dry
paper
air
with
humidity
can
be
compartments.
Wet
Woodlice
can
of
be
be
(Figure
collected
woodlice
counted
T
able
8.3.3
in
at
8.3.3)
in
a
each
released
number
of
into
ways,
compartment
timed
shows
are
or
the
for
the
choice
example
number
chamber.
the
that
total
are
Results
number
moving
tissues
Transparent
cover
Gauze
can
Dr ying
agent
intervals.
some
data
from
a
student’s
choice
Figure
8.3.2
A
choice
Figure
8.3.3
The
chamber
chamber
investigations.
T
able
Time/
8.3.3
Investigation
1
Investigation
2
min
Number
each
of
woodlice
in
Number
area
in
Light
each
Dark
of
woodlice
moving
area
Dry
Humid
0
10
0
5
5
2
6
4
7
1
4
3
7
3
2
6
3
7
1
0
8
1
9
0
0
10
1
9
0
0
KEY
1
Invertebrates
Choice
respond
and
the
to
light,
moisture.
chambers
investigate
SUMMARY
woodlouse
POINTS
temperature
2
common
are
used
responses
to
of
QUESTIONS
invertebrates
to
these
three
stimuli.
1
Draw
graphs
conclusions
of
the
can
results
you
make
shown
from
in
the
T
ables
8.3.1–8.3.3.
What
3
results?
Small,
terrestrial
invertebrates,
2
Explain
how
to
use
choice
chambers
to
investigate
woodlice
responses
of
small
invertebrates
to
Explain
the
terrestrial
survival
value
invertebrates
of
to
the
light,
that
live
as
in
or
light.
on
3
such
the
responses
shown
temperature
and
by
small
moisture.
the
soil
are
dehydration
damp
and
prone
and
cool
to
prefer
conditions.
119
8.4
Nerves
and
the
brain
Coordination
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
Animals
At
the
end
should
•
be
outline
of
this
able
the
topic
to:
structure
of
•
a
nervous
nervous
including
•
describe
the
the
•
an
outline
how
about
•
roles
of
of
the
brain
neurones
a
systems:
consisting
system
of
nerve
consisting
of
cells
as
adrenaline
and
insulin,
organs
into
the
that
secrete
hormones,
blood.
Figure
brain
8.4.1
and
shows
spinal
nerves
that
the
cord
structure
form
spread
the
of
the
human
central
throughout
the
nervous
nervous
body
system.
system
from
the
The
(CNS);
CNS
form
all
the
receptors,
and
effectors
simple
The
reflex
nervous
system
(PNS).
bring
responses
describe
system
endocrine
peripheral
neurones
coordination
system
parts
the
•
two
the
such
human
have
you
action.
cranial
and
surrounded
cells
that
by
send
distances.
spinal
tough
nerves
fibrous
electrical
There
are
are
bundles
tissue.
impulses
three
types
many
Neurones
to
of
of
and
from
nerve
are
the
cells
specialised
CNS
over
nerve
long
neurone:
cranial
•
brain
Sensory
neurones
conduct
electrical
impulses
from
sensory
cells,
ner ves
such
as
rods
and
cones
in
the
eye,
to
other
neurones
in
the
CNS.
spinal
spinal
•
Motor
neurones
conduct
electrical
impulses
from
the
central
ner ves
cord
nervous
glands,
•
Relay
system
such
are
storing
The
The
effectors.
sweat
are
between
other
types
information
These
glands
only
and
found
sensory
of
and
for
the
in
and
neurone
effectors
adrenal
the
CNS
motor
in
the
decision
are
muscles
and
they
neurones.
CNS
brain
is
the
body’s
from
functions
main
receptors,
instructions
certain
for
transmit
In
addition,
integrating
to
effectors.
(Figure
centre
decisions,
Parts
of
the
which
stores
brain
are
receives
memories
EXAM
The
human
nervous
and
specialised
for
8.4.2).
b
Cerebrum
Cerebrum
8.4.1
and
making.
coordination
makes
a
Figure
and
glands.
brain
information
sends
as
neurones
information
there
to
system
TIP
Hypothalamus
Do
no t
confus
e
the
spinal
Medulla
co rd
with
the
spin
e.
Pituitar y
gland
Oblongata
Medulla
See
7
.4
to
be
sure
Cerebellum
of
Cerebellum
the
Oblongata
differe
nce.
Figure
8.4.2
The
a
120
brain
left
side
showing
of
the
the
brain,
location
b
of
vertical
the
four
section
regions
through
listed
the
in
brain.
T
able
8.4.1.
T
able
8.4.1
Functions
of
the
parts
of
the
brain
KEY
Region
of
the
POINTS
Functions
1
brain
The
nervous
systems
Conscious
Cerebrum
the
left
right
Coordination
of
Memory,
and
of
Interpretation
hemispheres
voluntary
learning
Understanding
cerebral
endocrine
the
thought
body’s
consisting
and
coordinate
and
of
actions
2
reasoning
language
and
sensory
activities.
control
of
information
brain
and
comprise
speech
from
The
the
spinal
cord
central
nervous
system.
sense
organs
3
Cerebellum
Receives
the
ear
and
information
and
from
from
stretch
balance
receptors
receptors
in
in
and
muscles
balance,
posture
and
and
controls
body
content
of
the
temperature
release
of
The
Medulla
ADH
and
FSH
(see
9.3)
to
and
hormones
Controls
control
LH
many
to
cerebrum,
medulla
from
the
the
kidney
control
involuntary
the
(see
•
rate
•
heart
and
depth
the
and
of
peristalsis
–
such
cycle
5
A
reflex
action
of
simple
hot,
a
person
there
is
a
touches
very
a
quick,
hot
response
a
controlled
stimulus
think
This
is
an
working
example
of
stimulus
of
a
movement
of
food
in
a
Reflex
actions
require
object
without
response
realising
that
the
that
it
is
reflex,
which
is
an
person
involuntary
impulses
receptor
sensory
Define
and
fast,
are
protective.
QUESTIONS
the
of
simple
reflexes
neurone
in
CNS
neurone
motor
this
are
and
2
Make
a
in
the
protective.
is
Make
receptors
A
used
in
tap
the
spinal
to
on
check
muscle
in
leg.
the
that
knee
tendon
cord.
neurone
lower
action
drawing
system
to
and
use
distinguish
and
the
of
the
colour
between
PNS.
a
large
label
8.4.1
their
drawing
the
parts
and
of
the
from
annotate
functions.
reflex
the
nervous
system
is
Describe
In
that
this
the
upper
it
and
send
reflex
stimulates
Try
stretches
a
leg.
tendon;
impulses
there
motor
The
a
is
no
along
relay
neurone
effector
this
a
stimulates
sensory
neurone,
that
muscle
the
response
to
each
functioning
of
correctly.
involuntary
simple
CNS
brain,
4
reflex
simple
neurone
with
jerk
neurone,
(effector)
arm)
like
terms
receptor,
reflex
T
able
a
are
conscious
action.
3
the
brings
in
impulses
muscle
to
a
does
is:
response
sensory
from
muscle
response.
no
effector,
temperature
(withdrawal
the
a
so
coding
to
which
about
nervous
This
to
the
reflexes
relay
Knee
impulses
receptor
canal
automatic
simple
events
object)
Many
by
series
about.
sequence
(hot
in
pressure
1
The
to
breathing
blood
SUMMARY
not
an
automatic
decisions
When
is
as:
6
Coordination
of
brain.
(effector),
alimentary
are
regions
7.3)
sensory
•
cerebellum
oblongata
main
transmitting
rate
system.
pituitary
menstrual
actions,
of
neurones
oblongata
nervous
the
the
blood
the
gland:
from
comprise
brain
and
three
Controls
the
movement
and
water
from
nerves
cord
peripheral
of
4
Monitors
nerves
spinal
spinal
tendons
Coordination
Hypothalamus
Cranial
neurone
so
conducts
contracts
the
following
a
touching
b
a
impulses
to
the
stimuli:
stretch
bright
the
a
very
light
hot
object
shining
into
eye
move
c
a
piece
d
an
of
grit
in
the
eye
see!
insect
bite.
121
8.5
The
The
LEARNING
eye
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
describe
the
to
to:
structure
of
with
focusing
you
light
brain
•
and
each
state
the
functions
Rods
how
images
in
by
the
define
the
•
describe
organs.
extra
It
contains
protecting
optic
the
structures
eye
sensory
nerve.
The
(Figure
that
receptor
8.5.1).
neurones
brain
are
cells
to
involved
in
Receptor
conduct
interprets
all
in
the
moving,
cells
respond
impulses
the
to
impulses
the
that
to
form
an
image
of
what
we
are
looking
it
at.
and
at
cones
the
are
back
of
highly
the
specialised
eyeball.
Rods
sensory
detect
cells
light
located
of
low
in
the
intensity
are
used
for
night
vision.
They
need
vitamin
A
to
function
eye
term
how
of
stimulating
the
properly
•
sense
are
and
formed
our
of
part
explain
of
number
the
retina
•
a
and
via
receives
eye
one
OUTCOMES
retina
At
is
eye
(see
5.7).
Cones
are
only
stimulated
by
light
of
high
intensity
accommodation
focusing
is
achieved.
so
only
to
different
from
function
these
receptors
brain
so
in
daylight.
wavelengths
three
in
the
they
types
fovea
also
of
of
cone
are
give
There
light.
to
cones.
us
acute,
are
The
three
brain
give
us
Each
our
has
detailed
types
that
interprets
colour
its
own
respond
best
information
vision.
neurone
All
to
the
the
vision.
Choroid
Ciliary
muscle
full
changes
thickness
of
of
black
absorb
lens
when
pigment
to
the
light
and
stop
reflection
focusing
Vitreous
jelly-like
the
humour
substance
internal
Conjunctiva
which
pressure
in
maintains
the
eye
and
its
shape
Retina
inner
light-sensitive
layer
which
contains
Cornea
rod
Aqueous
watery
cone
humour
liquid
cells
that
cells
that
front
of
in
detect
dim
light
colour
and
and
details
filling
Yellow
the
work
the
spot
or
fovea
eye
Pupil
most
sensitive
Blind
part
of
the
retina
spot
Lens
point
can
change
its
shape
light
onto
the
where
the
optic
nerve
attaches
to
to
focus
the
eye;
no
light-sensitive
cells
here
retina
Iris
controls
light
the
intensity
entering
of
through
Optic
the
nerve
pupil
carries
Suspensory
ligaments
hold
in
the
lens
tough,
Figure
8.5.1
A
horizontal
section
through
the
white,
When
horizontal
includes
blind
section
both
spot.
includes
blind
impulses
brain
layer
formation
light
A
the
vertical
either
spot
or
of
the
fovea
the
the
section
fovea
neither
eye
and
of
or
the
them.
focused
travelling
relied
of
the
we
on
enters
lens
as
it
the
passes
through
the
world
see
light
122
the
eye
it
is
focused
onto
the
retina.
Most
light
FOCUS
is
A
protective
nerve
to
eye
Image
STUDY
away
Sclerotic
place
sharp
focus
around
light.
from
air
to
The
Figure
Each
one
and
focus
us.
images.
the
passes
the
cornea
through
the
now
light
lens
medium
to
enters
we
shows
has
This
a
a
is
see
the
how
a
fine
the
refractive
another
it
because
denser
would
provides
8.5.2
medium
cornea.
is
it
medium.
very
If
we
blurred
focusing
cornea
index
refracted
was
so
and
and
or
image
that
the
when
‘bent’.
Looking
Light
on
Light
reflected
person
in
all
off
rays
the
are
at
a
distant
object
focused
retina
the
directions
All
the
these
light
two
rays
enter
within
the
eye
The
and
ring
the
of
ciliar y
lens
Figure
is
muscle
pulled
8.5.3
relaxes
into
The
image
is
Figure
8.5.2
as
they
air
into
pass
the
Formation
(upside
from
brain
cornea
of
an
image
of
an
down)
–
interprets
image
the
object
at
on
from
an
the
object
far
eye
at
a
near
object
the
the
right
a
shape
inverted
Looking
(bent)
thin
Focusing
away
refracted
a
way
up
distance
from
the
eye
Accommodation
Accommodation
is
the
term
used
to
describe
the
changes
that
The
occur
in
the
eye
enters
the
eye
image
clearly.
when
it
must
focusing
be
on
refracted
far
and
(bent)
near
so
objects.
that
we
As
can
light
see
and
ring
the
call
this
focusing.
About
60%
of
the
ciliar y
muscle
becomes
refraction
8.5.4
Focusing
light
rays
The
lens
can
recoil.
and
is
is
done
by
surrounded
The
shape
suspensory
the
by
of
cornea
elastic
the
ligaments
lens
(see
and
tissue
is
the
rest
which
controlled
Figure
is
can
by
done
be
the
by
the
and
at
a
distant
KEY
the
ciliary
suspensory
elliptical
the
in
muscles
1
8.5.1).
The
eye
the
object
lens
(thin)
and
focus.
relax.
ligaments
shape.
focused
The
The
lens
tightly
Light
on
does
pressure
rays
the
not
(or
are
retina
need
of
the
taut)
so
the
refracted
(Figure
to
fluids
do
as
lens
they
8.5.3).
too
inside
much
is
the
eye
pulled
pass
The
as
into
an
retina
2
from
each
point
are
nearly
parallel
when
they
enter
the
Light
and
is
is
a
near
ciliary
The
the
muscles
suspensory
elastic
spherical
looking
lens
(fatter).
at
needs
the
to
contract
around
Light
distant
do
The
the
eye
to
are
the
rays
counteract
not
lens
are
object.
more
control
(Figure
of
the
accommodation
pulled
recoil
near
as
the
the
and
so
refracted
The
focusing
cannot
clearly
see
cones.
(bent)
the
as
it
cornea
Accommodation
of
the
is
the
image
lens
on
the
to
form
retina.
a
For
pressure
become
the
lens
more
object
light
is
in
slack.
becomes
than
rays
inside
they
focus.
are
the
This
eye.
lens
lets
the
more
were
This
as
is
are
thin.
and
For
the
the
taut
suspensory
slack
when
time
diverging
objects
ligaments
suspensory
and
near
the
objects
ligaments
lens
much
are
fatter
.
the
they
QUESTIONS
8.5.4).
shape
is
on
of
lens.
SUMMARY
enter
full
object
ligaments
tissue
is
sense
light
eye.
distant
The
which
through
the
sharp
at
complex
focuses
refracted
focusing
Looking
a
light
3
rays
and
passes
object
the
is
that
pulls
through
distant
focusing
object
eye
POINTS
rods
The
an
the
muscles
organ
Looking
to
lens.
stretched
ciliary
on
of
close
the
contracts
rounder
the
Figure
We
of
lens
of
another
where
the
lens
reflex.
you
are
by
This
the
too
going,
ciliary
is
you
muscles
protective
will
–
damage
in
if
you
yourself.
1
Use
the
Figure
information
8.5.1
showing
parts
of
to
the
the
in
make
a
functions
table
of
the
eye.
123
8.6
Eye
defects
pupil
Eye
LEARNING
the
end
be
of
this
topic
an
able
describe
the
the
and
causes
that
long
is
too
sight.
short
If
you
or
a
are
lens
that
is
not
long-sighted
convex
then
objects
close
to:
causes
corrective
long
eyeball
you
to
•
reflex
defects
enough
should
the
OUTCOMES
Having
At
and
and
measures
short
sight
for
and
for
the
eye
are
to
sight
using
by
lenses
a
blurred
focused
point
(Figure
and
as
out
they
of
reach
converging
or
focus
the
because
retina.
convex
the
light
Opticians
lenses
in
rays
correct
spectacles
or
are
not
long
contact
8.6.1).
glaucoma
Short
•
describe
the
pupil
sight
is
caused
by
having
a
long
eyeball
or
convex.
and
If
out
retina.
you
of
are
focus
Opticians
(Figure
short-sighted
because
correct
the
then
light
short
distant
lens
rays
sight
are
with
objects
focused
cur vature
enough
or
is
not
eyeball
that
is
too
Overcome
(convex)
objects
8.6.1
Glaucoma
obstructs
supplies
of
yellow
the
by
the
lenses
the
people
the
are
in
eyes
or
and
often
their
often
corrected
of
by
in
The
unaware
of
peripheral
a
the
of
pressure
eye.
converging
the
focused
cloudy
in
the
nerve
start
later
there
and
which
of
is
are
are
a
dying;
those
from
poor
develops
children
appearance
can
retina
reducing
because
as
objects
the
eyeball
and
usually
Some
far
on
lenses.
this
increases
changes
vision.
and
nerve,
retina
Glaucoma
the
in
optic
Neurones
periphery
near
focused
pressure
supplying
the
have
using
increased
nutrients.
the
fovea.
fluids
are
retina
converging
vessels
supply
spot
is
result
oxygen
of
sight
blood
that
deterioration
their
Long
is
the
those
drainage
and
of
concave
lenses
be
and
front
or
shor t
Both
the
blurred
great
too
behind
first
in
diverging
Near
Figure
are
8.6.2).
Lens
124
a
reflex.
slowly
slow
born
very
with
watery.
it
Lens
cur vature
eyeball
too
is
too
great
or
long
Far
objects
front
of
are
the
focused
in
retina
Figure
Overcome
(concave)
by
8.6.3
Children
should
have
their
diverging
eyes
lenses
age
tested
to
from
make
defects
are
a
sure
young
that
detected
any
and
treated.
Both
be
Figure
Pupil
Move
dark.
8.6.2
from
For
a
going
a
moment
the
a
very
while
is
from
a
bright
you
dark
you
are
adjustments
iris
contract
contract
Sensory
along
sight
corrected
by
using
and
diverging
far
on
objects
the
can
retina
lenses.
reflex
–
These
Short
near
focused
to
to
the
optic
place
almost
are
nerve;
entering
by
by
the
motor
the
light
in
from
neurones
iris.
the
very
For
adjust.
muscles
radial
controls
to
reverse
eyes
Circular
retina
transmit
the
bright.
your
pupil;
reflex
the
somewhere
about
until
the
of
simple
impulses
into
think
somewhere
diameter
A
walk
Now
muscles
diameter.
transmit
and
much.
blinded
made
its
place
see
and
decrease
increase
neurones
well-lit
cannot
muscles
them.
the
impulses
in
Figure
8.6.4
brain
to
the
Constriction
of
protects
the
retina
damage
by
along
STUDY
another
one
of
the
cranial
lenses
are
thicker
in
the
middle
than
they
are
at
so
they
are
convex
in
shape.
Diverging
lenses
are
POINTS
Defects
edges
than
they
are
in
the
middle
so
they
are
in
concave
caused
that
they
‘cave
(long
sight)
drainage
eye
Define
short
the
terms
accommodation,
glaucoma,
long
sight
and
sight
Explain
3
Make
Muscles
of
in
diameter
the
how
opticians
correct
long
and
short
the
flow
light
chart
diagram
to
show
how
the
pupil
reflex
the
of
when
you
walk
from
a
dark
room
Explain
the
the
eyes.
purpose
of
constricting
and
iris
the
that
retina
the
control
pupil
enters
the
into
bright
dilating
the
from
light.
the
pupil
the
altering
eye.
protects
damage
Dilating
the
by
pupil
light.
increases
4
in
is
bright
controlled
fluid
sight.
the
a
and
poor
(glaucoma).
Constricting
2
sight
and
QUESTIONS
2
1
can
mis-shapen
in’).
short
SUMMARY
by
in
eyeballs
(remember
eyesight
thicker
be
the
in
the
1
shape
light
reflex.
FOCUS
Converging
at
simple
nerves.
KEY
edges
bright
pupil
from
iris
this
muscles
the
pupils
in
the
the
retina
vision
in
to
light
reaching
enable
dark
better
conditions.
125
8.7
Drugs
The
LEARNING
term
applied
At
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
define
•
state
the
term
are
drug
different
drugs,
to
any
which
substance
any
alters
a
that
chemical
is
taken
into
reaction
in
the
the
body
body
or
or
pathogen.
including
medicinal
be
divided
Most
into
medical
others
are
those
drugs
freely
are
that
are
for
available
available
‘over
medical
only
the
on
use
and
those
prescription
counter’
from
that
from
a
pharmacies,
categories
legal
and
and
supermarkets.
Non-medicinal
drugs
which
are
used
and
for
illegal,
skin
with
can
not.
shops
of
refers
the
to:
doctor;
the
to
interferes
you
Drugs
•
drug
OUTCOMES
the
pleasure
that
they
are
supposed
to
give
are
often
known
as
nonrecreational
drugs.
Some,
such
as
caffeine
and
alcohol,
are
part
of
medicinal
everyday
•
discuss
the
use
and
life
medicinal
drugs,
and
in
discuss
social
drug
and
the
and
effects
including
of
illegal
and
Medicinal
as
cocaine,
heroin
and
as
of
they
are
illegal
considered
drugs
or
a
risk
involved
in
to
health.
their
People
production,
supply
are
prosecuted
by
law
enforcement
agencies.
drugs
heroin
Some
drugs
much
longer,
are
prescribed
for
short
periods
of
time
and
some
for
alcohol.
abused
obtained
drug
drug
Sedative
or
Examples
Effects
Valium,
Slows
Librium
tranquilliser
on
some
this
cases
includes
prescription
is
Effects
the
of
for
for
certain
a
a
anxiety;
Almost
bought
8.7.1).
induces
all
the
10.1
to
drugs
can
counter
find
and
out
why
the
lifetime.
drugs
Effects
functions
over
See
person’s
body
body
lifetime.
drugs
(T
able
prescribed
8.7.1
down
relieve
in
and
on
insulin
T
able
of
such
physiological,
be
T
ype
Others,
heroin
economic
abuse
are
possession
trafficking
•
people.
caffeine,
found
alcohol
many
abuse
marijuana,
of
for
to
of
Overdose
sleep
be
fatal,
abuse
of
some
sedatives
especially
if
taken
may
with
alcohol
Antidepressant
Prozac,
Relieves
Citalopram
many
for
depression;
other
pain
also
conditions
taken
for
including
relief
Even
the
without
have
severe
untypical
Pain
killer
(analgesics)
Paracetamol,
Relieves
Aspirin,
production
pain
Ibuprofen
cause
by
of
interfering
chemicals
with
that
inflammation
Aspirin
the
Testosterone
Increases
and
athletic
other
anabolic
Diet
pill
muscle
paracetamol
mass
and
performance
steroids
Ephedrine
weight
suppressing
blood
infertility,
the
loss
by
appetite
increasing
metabolic
increasing
use
of
fat
rate
in
Used
and
so
respiration
while
can
of
to
help
become
side
and
as
of
in
to
of
liver
fatal
male
heart
attack,
baldness
a
(e.g.
stimulant,
addictive
effects,
stroke
and
females
concentration
studying);
serious
lead
be
pressure,
hair
such
overdose
can
male
can
behaviour
bleeding
may
than
these
effects,
an
High
attack
126
and
growth
Promotes
side
causes
more
dose,
violent
stomach;
failure
Steroid
taking
prescribed
and
such
it
have
as
heart
STUDY
The
to
is
FOCUS
distinction
country.
banned
Saudi
between
Alcohol,
for
general
Caffeine
is
a
soft
alertness
harm
is
much
legal
and
example,
illegal
is
legal
consumption
in
drugs
in
varies
many
some
from
country
countries
countries,
but
such
as
Arabia.
Non-medicinal
some
for
drugs
stimulant
drinks
and
very
and
present
energy
improving
high,
caffeine
so
are
it
in
beverages,
drinks.
It
stimulates
concentration.
is
regarded
anxiety,
as
insomnia,
such
The
a
the
dose
safe
as
coffee,
CNS,
needed
drug.
The
hallucinations
tea,
increasing
to
effects
and
Figure
cause
of
other
8.7.1
Heroin
addiction
serious
form
of
but
more
is
a
addition,
too
far
people
put
severe
their
lives
at
risk
from
effects.
nicotine
and
alcohol
addiction.
Alcohol
of
is
a
depressant
impulses
along
drug
neurones.
that
At
slows
low
down
the
concentrations
transmission
it
reduces
KEY
concentration
and
increases
and
the
our
inhibitions.
time
we
take
to
It
impairs
respond
our
to
sensory
stimuli.
Long
term,
1
alcohol
which
causes
is
Heroin
an
is
a
neurones
The
damage
irreversible
powerful
nerves
and
to
the
liver
causing
that
information
structure
of
heroin
slows
from
is
down
pain
similar
impulses
receptors
to
one
of
to
When
drug
is
any
into
the
skin
which
a
warm
rush
people
of
take
heroin
for
the
first
the
time
body’s
they
in
interferes
brain.
the
as
contentment
and
intense
happiness.
There
are
This
state
who
to
start
but
three
heroin.
impulses
taking
they
heroin
quickly
want
to
become
repeat
the
dependent
feelings
on
the
they
drug
weeks
More
to
the
natural
different
of
Drugs
are
addicted.
painkillers
brain.
But
painkillers.
to
just
and
are
the
The
needed
body
Addicts
deaden
the
economic
dependent
behaviour.
The
swings
and
distant
from
to
crime
body
to
develops
prevent
does
not
nerve
produce
a
have
to
take
heroin
in
in
on
illegal
withdrawal
violent
their
order
family
buy
effects
drugs
of
may
effects
and
Many
crimes
of
They
join
drugs
are
on
cells
more
ever
may
be
to
gain
drug
not
drugs
may
a
cost
provide
to
the
criminal
society
of
facilities
offences,
drugs
to
money
and
is
treat
of
lead
to
apprehending
drug
harm
is
much
very
drug
rehabilitate
traffickers
higher
than
if
abused.
Social
and
economic
effects
greater
drug
abuse
often
normal
are
very
high.
involve
their
sub-culture.
they
are
not
They
able
1
mood
friends,
may
with
drug
abuse;
a
table
8.7.1
alcohol
resort
obtain
women
Make
T
able
become
to
to
buy
high.
drug
the
costs
Communities
cope
users.
have
with
and
to
caffeine,
heroin.
an
turn
Explain
the
meanings
of
the
to
terms:
But
the
are
illegal
drugs,
to
drug,
dealing
with
legal
medicinal
prescription
drugs
and
drugs.
devoted
social
illegal
drugs,
non-medicinal
drug-related
Resources
suppliers.
of
similar
for
drugs.
addiction,
and
QUESTIONS
social
cost
Discuss
the
social
and
of
economic
alcohol
may
its
3
to
which
but
sending
and
The
body
abuse
maintain
lose
drug
because
associated
enough
physiological
the
beneficial,
following
prostitution
illegal.
pain.
behaviour.
to
and
tolerance
2
income.
including
non-
legal
have
SUMMARY
People
drug
and
first
of
quantities
Social
or
pathogen.
and
4
own
any
is
effects
to
the
own
3
two
to
chemical
euphoria
experienced,
in
a
usually
medicinal;
People
taken
applied
body
with
medicinal
known
or
alters
categories
feel
substance
body
reaction
along
the
2
painkillers.
A
cirrhosis,
condition.
depressant
transferring
molecular
to
POINTS
awareness
drugs,
effects
of
drug
as
abuse.
a
greater
proportion
of
the
population
abuse
alcohol.
127
8.8
The
LEARNING
human
Sebaceous
OUTCOMES
skin
gland
Hair
muscle
Hair
At
the
end
of
this
topic
you
Sweat
should
be
able
Layer
and
•
describe
the
pore
to:
structure
of
of
stem
cell
melanocytes
the
Epidermis
human
skin
Sweat
–
•
describe
the
role
of
melanin
•
describe
the
role
of
the
detect
pain,
pressure,
temperature
skin
in
and
cold
duct
Blood
Sweat
capillar y
gland
heat
control
Arteriole
•
define
the
•
discuss
term
the
creams,
use
sun
homeostasis
of
Fat
skin
protection
Sensor y
factors
and
layer
skin
neurones
Motor
neurones
bleaching.
Figure
8.8.1
The
skin
–
the
part
between
the
epidermis
and
the
layer
of
fat
is
the
dermis.
The
Blood
gets
Blood
skin
and
its
functions
temperature
Brain
too
hot
falls
The
skin
is
the
largest
organ
in
the
body
and
one
with
important
roles
switches
in
on
interactions
between
our
bodies
and
our
surroundings.
The
cooling
functions
mechanisms
Normal
the
body
Normal
•
temperature
of
the
structures
labelled
in
Figure
8.8.1
are:
body
Epidermis
–
this
is
made
of
layers
of
squamous
cells
filled
with
temperature
the
tough
fibrous
protein
keratin;
these
cells
provide
mechanical
Brain
protection
switches
on
Blood
against
injury
and
are
gradually
rubbed
away.
warming
gets
Blood
temperature
•
Layer
of
stem
cells
–
these
cells
divide
by
mitosis
to
replace
cells
mechanisms
too
cold
rises
lost
•
Figure
8.8.2
The
control
of
temperature
of
from
surface
Melanocytes
–
of
the
these
epidermis.
cells
are
between
the
stem
cells
and
make
body
is
an
melanin,
example
homeostasis.
its
which
harmful
•
Hair
•
Sweat
glands
pores;
sweat
•
–
provides
Arterioles
the
absorbs
ultraviolet
light
protecting
the
body
from
effect.
–
–
some
insulation
secrete
sweat
evaporates
control
flow
on
the
which
to
lose
of
blood
head
travels
up
sweat
ducts
to
sweat
heat
to
capillaries
which
lose
heat
to
surroundings
LINK
•
Homeostasis
is
maintenance
of
conditions
the
in
hypothalamus
is
constant
body.
the
•
Sensory
•
Motor
It
8.4
to
of
see
regulates
homeostasis.
its
neurones
neurones
and
example
see
location
of
10.1
cells
–
detect
changes
in
conduct
nerve
impulses
to
the
CNS
–
conduct
nerve
impulses
to
instruct
the
hair
to
contract
in
for
and
raise
the
hairs
Fat
–
store
of
energy
and
a
thermal
insulator
See
the
control
another
homeostasis.
No
matter
37 °C,
128
sensory
pain
other
T
emperature
brain
–
and
and
The
•
aspects
endings
pressure
body’s
muscles
thermostat.
nerve
temperature,
the
near
Sensory
what
unless
the
you
weather
have
a
is
fever.
like,
your
Sensors
in
body
the
temperature
skin
detect
stays
changes
at
in
air
temperature.
detect
If
the
brain
•
changes
Arterioles
The
cooling
When
to
of
the
so
the
glands
heat
of
blood
nerve
the
more
body
spinal
of
the
flowing
impulses
blood
surroundings
produce
the
in
temperature
sends
widen
heat
Sweat
it
Receptors
the
temperature
increases,
loses
•
in
sweat
causes
through
to
the
flows
by
by
cord
the
skin
through
sweat
hypothalamus
promote
the
and
from
to
hypothalamus
to
convection
filtration
the
and
blood.
heat
capillaries
in
the
loss:
and
radiation.
the
blood
evaporate
plasma.
having
a
effect.
we
feel
hypothalamus
cold
and
sends
our
nerve
blood
temperature
impulses
to
the
decreases,
skin
to
reduce
the
heat
loss
by
stimulating:
Figure
•
Arterioles
to
contract
so
reducing
blood
flow
through
8.8.3
The
the
danger
skin
of
using
bleaching
some
products
capillaries.
•
Sweat
If
the
glands
blood
to
stop
producing
temperature
sweat.
continues
to
SUMMARY
fall,
the
hypothalamus
1
stimulates
muscles
heat
to
through
production
contract
the
liver
to
and
in
the
release
liver
heat
muscles
is
by
and
sends
shivering.
warmed
and
impulses
Blood
to
Make
of
the
revision
drawing
a
diagram
showing
before
The
to
receptors
warning
the
effects
changes
in
detect
large,
labelled,
flowing
distributes
heat
to
the
structure
the
the
skin.
diagram
early
by
Annotate
your
body.
Temperature
an
notes
skeletal
of
rest
QUESTIONS
in
about
the
skin
possible
blood
temperature
of
adjustments
the
temperature
whether
they
are
are
loss
useful
of
heat
the
to
cold,
the
as
they
give
on
surroundings
in
falls.
made
had
the
by
the
the
body
in
monitored
desired
result
response
by
the
to
2
hypothalamus
(Figure
with
functions
Make
a
and
to
of
the
skin
temperature
sensitivity.
large
diagram
8.8.2).
information
protection,
control
continually
have
in
flow
show
hypothalamus
chart
how
the
controls
body
temperature.
Skin
All
care
people,
whatever
their
skin
colour
,
are
at
risk
of
developing
skin
KEY
cancer
.
light,
Melanin
which
protection
the
UV
spent
in
is
the
the
causes
against
light.
protection
in
The
skin
cancer
.
UV
Creams
light.
higher
afforded.
sun
provides
These
the
sun
between
and
lotions
products
protection
Although
differs
protection
the
actual
people,
it
against
are
available
absorb
factor
length
and/or
(SPF)
of
depends
the
time
on
to
provide
1
deflect
more
able
their
by
to
skin
the
time
of
day
(the
UV
light
is
more
intense
in
the
middle
Body
temperature
monitored
be
the
and
is
controlled
hypothalamus
in
the
brain.
colour
2
and
POINTS
ultraviolet
of
The
skin
protects
the
body
the
against
injury
and
is
an
day).
People
in
may
which
wish
areas
particularly
to
of
dark,
lighten
skin
e.g.
their
lighten,
under
skin
they
the
because
have
arms,
or
areas
they
they
of
have
skin
believe
vitiligo
that
that
are
it
or
fashionable
to
have
a
light
in
control;
it
touch,
ingredients
Some
products
European
(Figure
of
contain
Union
8.8.3).
some
as
it
is
skin
bleaching
products
is
have
which
thought
carcinogenic
be
receptors
and
for
temperature.
Skin
care
includes
using
skin.
hydroquinone
to
has
pain
products
The
temperature
is
3
preferable
effector
severe
banned
in
effects.
the
(cancer-causing)
UV
light
cancer;
protect
which
skin
products
with
to
cause
lightening
should
caution
contain
can
against
as
be
used
some
potentially
harmful
substances.
129
Unit
SECTION
1
The
are
8
1:
type
Practice
Multiple-choice
of
cells
that
all
exam
questions
sense
organs
contain
5
called:
A
man
injures
Afterwards,
hand,
A
ciliated
B
effector
C
receptor
D
squamous
from
but
Which
all
the
B
all
nerves
of
to
the
following
light
from
a
happen
near
when
the
ciliary
contract
suspensory
all
the
ligaments
tension
and
in
of
the
all
C
relax
the
the
ligaments
of
the
increasing
ligaments
increasing
and
reducing
ligaments
the
a
This
the
tension
and
in
his
his
arm
his
CNS
are
and
the
cut
between
his
hand
and
the
CNS
damaged
Which
part
and
of
the
the
heart
brain
controls
the
breathing
rate?
A
cerebrum
B
cerebellum
C
hypothalamus
D
medulla
the
in
the
suspensory
curvature
of
the
tension
in
oblongata
The
movement
and
decreasing
of
a
tendril
suspensory
the
curvature
of
of
bright
of
is
light
the
an
is
pupil
shone
into
the
eye,
A
an
effector
B
a
growth
C
a
stimulus
D
a
reflex
decreases.
example
B
a
C
homeostasis
D
a
simple
of
heat
at
the
the
is
a
medicinal
A
caffeine
B
heroin
C
nicotine
D
paracetamol
response
following
end
of
a
are
Blood
in
through
skin
responsible
flow
capillaries
the
for
loss
sprint?
Arterioles
the
Which
reflex
voluntary
of
response
the
8
130
receptors
in
increasing
tension
decreasing
accommodation
of
damaged
lens
A
Which
are
that:
cut
lens
diameter
4
be
lens
relax
When
hand
the
are
between
in
nerves
example
3
CNS
his
could
his
away
the
7
D
his
this
touching
hand
lens
reducing
suspensory
curvature
in
between
and
nerves
are
rate
contract
of
his
eyes
6
B
move
cause
accident.
muscles
increasing
curvature
cannot
an
objects
object?
D
A
in
feel
receptors
effectors
The
arm
can
The
A
C
adjust
his
he
he
them.
hand
2
questions
Secretion
of
in
dermis
by
sweat
sweat
glands
A
constrict
decreases
decreases
B
constrict
increases
decreases
C
widen
decreases
increases
D
widen
increases
increases
drug?
around
a
stick
is
an
SECTION
9
2:
Woodlice
not
have
They
Short
are
a
feed
answer
terrestrial
very
on
questions
animals
waterproof
decaying
that
body
wood
do
Relative
Mean
Mean
humidity/%
percentage
of
speed
of
mm min
surface.
and
woodlice/
shelter
−1
underneath
stones
and
logs.
Some
woodlice
students
moving/%
investigated
three
the
different
behaviour
1
The
made
moist
cotton
agent
the
on
same
released
wool
the
into
9
a
why
on
on
one
Both
choice
woodlice
both
choice
intensity.
the
minutes,
State
a
other.
light
woodlice
in
10
95
300
25
90
280
50
77
270
75
35
250
100
15
100
investigations.
Investigation
students
of
the
sides
of
side
sides
10
and
woodlice
in
the
intensity
the
a
with
drying
received
chamber.
were
light
chamber
choice
were
After
20
damp
was
e
Draw
the
State
the
c
the
stimulus
behaviour
Suggest
how
woodlice
is
and
shown
the
the
by
chamber.
response
the
behaviour
f
Describe
g
Explain
for
The
made
how
h
(3)
Explain
of
5
chambers
with
these
results.
(3)
the
behaviour
of
how
chambers
more
increases
in
would
find
out
important
of
the
animals
you
to
in
that
woodlice
if
the
made
by
glycerol.
using
20
chamber
of
in
this
The
different
woodlice
and
time,
each
different
left
the
chances
their
use
of
habitat.
three
was
times
placed
minutes.
choice
humidity
or
determining
of
with
the
woodlice
recorded.
This
different
light
the
woodlice.
(4)
25
marks
were
into
At
(4)
different
concentrations
were
5
number
chamber
repeated
for
humidities
in
students
Total
humidities.
(6)
results.
the
behaviour
students
show
investigations
out
survival
the
is
2
the
three
carried
(2)
coordinated.
Investigation
to
(1)
woodlice.
of
graph
same
the
b
a
side.
10
of
a
Make
each
the
end
your
moving
groups
diagram
Label
of
the
a
horizontal
following
section
structures
of
on
diagram:
ciliary
was
a
eye.
nerve,
muscle,
retina
cornea,
and
iris,
fovea
lens,
(yellow
optic
spot).
(7)
of
b
Explain
how
an
image
is
formed
in
the
woodlice.
eye.
Investigation
your
3
c
Single
woodlice
were
placed
into
2.
the
The
over
with
d
a
same
speed
humidities
of
each
two-minute
10
as
in
This
use
a
diagram
to
help
Describe
(3)
and
eyesight
explain
of
what
people
is
who
wrong
why
was
was
recorded
repeated
i
short
sight
ii
long
iii
glaucoma
sight
the
speed
of
the
woodlice
(5)
was
Total
recorded
from
the
placed
into
after
minutes.
5
the
time
choice
when
they
chamber
table
shows
the
15
marks
were
and
not
(2)
Further
results
of
Investigations
practice
questions
2
and
and
with
have:
woodlice.
Explain
The
with
answer.
investigation
woodlouse
period.
may
chambers
the
with
You
examples
can
be
found
3.
on
the
accompanying
CD.
131
9
Growth
9.1
and
reproduction
Growth
Growth
LEARNING
as
At
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
•
define
•
describe
of
a
multicellular
organism
is
a
permanent
increase
in
its
size
OUTCOMES
the
topic
during
structure
of
of
an
growth
which
increase
There
Flowering
growth
of
the
result
organism.
you
to:
term
a
is
in
plants
more
in
the
number
about
the
type
of
cells
of
cell
and
the
division
mass
that
of
the
occurs
11.2.
begin
contains
a
their
growth
multicellular
from
embryo
seeds
with
(Figure
stores
9.1.1),
of
each
energy-rich
a
compounds
(such
as
starch
and
lipids).
seed
•
describe
during
the
events
that
occur
germination
Radicle
pocket
Radicle
Plumule
•
state
in
where
the
growth
bodies
of
occurs
plants
and
Micropyle
Radicle
mammals
•
discuss
ways
to
measure
growth.
Hilum
Testa
a
b
Figure
9.1.1
Seeds
of
STUDY
FOCUS
Germination
growth
is
the
from
water
by
the
does
of
is
not
seed
until
you
self-sufficient
need
energy.
to
Look
answer
remind
use
at
question
so
its
5.1
yourself
absorb
tissues
of
water
a
external
view,
cotyledons
b
embryo
separated
to
after
show
removal
radicle
and
through
1
help
and
about
the
seed
the
and
micropyle
they
swell.
by
The
osmosis.
testa
or
This
seed
hydrates
coat
and
the
embryo
starts
to
grow:
germination
begins.
it
stores
to
inside
The
following
kidney
beans
events
(Figure
occur
during
germination
of
seeds,
such
as
9.1.2).
5.3
Water
activates
the
enzymes
inside
the
seed
that
catalyse
the
the
hydrolysis
properties
bean
with
a
•
to
c
process
splits
seedling
kidney
coat,
absorption
the
of
the
seed
plumule
Seeds
of
of
the
c
of
starch
to
maltose,
maltose
to
glucose,
lipids
to
enzymes.
glycerol
•
and
Glucose
fatty
and
cotyledons
acids,
amino
to
the
and
acids
growth
proteins
are
to
amino
translocated
points
at
the
in
tips
acids.
the
of
phloem
the
from
radicle
and
the
the
plumule.
•
DID
YOU
Water
activates
increases
There
are
two
flowering
plants
with
groups
plants:
(dicots)
two
have
of
dicotyledonous
have
•
seeds
one
cotyledon.
provide
rates
divide
causing
plants
by
that
the
examples
of
both
Unit.
The
groups
Y
ou
only
need
to
the
seeds
of
dicot
as
radicle
rate
of
respiration
cells
with
mitosis.
The
new
pressure
to
and
on
ATP
for
absorb
cells
the
fill
cell
growth
much
with
walls
(see
water
to
5.8).
Seeds
oxygen.
and
stretch
form
them
enlarge.
breaks
through
the
testa
and
begins
growing
into
the
soil
(see
8.2).
The
plumule
breaks
through
the
testa
and
grows
upwards.
Once
know
leaves
have
unfurled
and
expanded,
the
plant
can
begin
to
plants
and
gradually
becomes
beans.
reserves
132
the
respiration
exert
photosynthesise
such
the
in
the
about
that
There
•
this
of
cells
downwards
are
so
have
•
with
Cells
to
high
vacuoles
cotyledons;
monocotyledonous
seeds
mitochondria
KNOW?
stored
in
the
cotyledons.
independent
of
the
energy
LINK
Cotyledon
First
leaves
Radicle
See
6.8
to
remind
translocation
and
from
to
sources
yourself
about
movement
sinks.
Plumule
KEY
POINTS
Lateral
Cotyledon
root
1
Radicle
Growth
is
increase
in
mass
an
by
number,
2
Lateral
root
a
permanent
size
or
and
dry
increase
in
cell
or
size,
Germination
involves
activation
tissues
the
seed;
the
seed
of
water
is
swells,
cell
both.
the
inside
absorbed,
the
seed
Radicle
coat
breaks,
then
3
a
a
radicle
plumule
Growth
in
and
emerge.
plants
occurs
by
Radicle
cell
division
apical
tips
Figure
9.1.2
Stages
of
germination
of
kidney
bean
in
plants
roots.
are
They
are
cylinders
is
localised
Apical
where
of
growth
tissue
These
meristems
xylem
and
to
tissues
meristems
that
produce
in
of
at
length
extend
new
are
the
cells
unspecialised
the
tips
occurs.
length
that
of
all
cells,
Lateral
meristems
Lateral
of
the
become
are
plants,
such
as
trees
and
shrubs,
which
and
transport
important
keep
year
and
producing
new
woody
tissue
for
roots.
SUMMARY
occurs
regions
at
all
over
stops
at
a
end
certain
of
the
the
body,
long
but
there
bones
(see
are
growing
support.
In
specialised
7.4).
Growth
in
Maize
grains
of
Describe
show
linear
increase,
•
area
•
numerical
•
mass
can
be
e.g.
e.g.
in
in
increase,
measured
in
many
different
reducing
their
Describe,
length
of
surface
e.g.
in
e.g.
using
root
area
of
number
wet
in
would
of
the
best
and
new
indicators
organic
photosynthesis
involves
water.
This
batches
(see
killing
of
compounds
and
the
can
and
a
of
(fresh)
growth
be
6
at
that
absorption
organism
done
harvesting
question
germination.
detail,
leaf
in
kept
the
by
have
dry
in
deep
Explain
in
and
dry
mass,
of
concerned
batch
Unit
been
mineral
dividing
each
end
of
in
some
at
growth
in
full
the
of
sunlight
shade.
the
roles
of
meristems
plants.
leaves
mass
is
how
shoot
mass.
Make
fully
diagrams
since
this
annotated
to
produced
ions.
seeds
a
result
Unfortunately,
order
intervals
as
to
or
remove
all
seedlings
over
the
show
and
the
early
growth
measures
of
the
is
sugars
investigate
germination
One
you
starch
ways:
4
increase,
to
differences
growth
3
increase,
how
that
mammals
and
•
in
age.
measure
plants
rich
growth
plants
Growth
are
mammals,
you
to
QUESTIONS
year
2
Ways
new
phloem.
tissues
during
the
cylinders
in
changed
growth
are
produce
and
would
after
the
meristems
shoots
the
especially
that
and
starch.
perennial
at
shoots;
known
shoots
1
phloem.
are
and
meristems
tissue
xylem
meristems.
roots
plants
of
as
meristems:
meristems
of
lateral
Growth
in
time
kidney
beans.
of
this
the
into
period
5
Suggest
the
advantages
disadvantages
leaves
as
a
of
way
and
counting
to
measure
growth.
9).
133
9.2
Sexual
and
asexual
reproduction
Sexual
LEARNING
cells,
At
the
end
should
•
be
define
state
of
this
able
the
asexual
topic
are
you
terms
sexual
differences
In
and
for
•
describe
the
structure
of
reproductive
state
the
organs
functions
in
involves
the
two
gametes,
different
much
to
the
reproduction
offspring.
identical
Any
the
form
from
variation
information.
fusion
each
of
male
the
is
variation
is
of
the
due
to
one
as
there
and
and
female
offspring
from
their
parent.
they
is
very
the
nutrients
The
sex
produced
parents.
This
offspring.
only
parent
means
availability
zygote.
other
among
there
to
This
a
inherit
little
effect
and
All
of
water
the
offspring
exactly
variation
the
the
same
amongst
environment,
determine
how
the
organisms
grow.
A
group
of
individuals
that
are
all
genetically
systems
identical
•
to
example
well
human
as
genetically
genetic
the
them
rise
asexual
are
and
between
known
genetically
gives
to:
reproduction
the
reproduction
OUTCOMES
of
is
called
a
clone.
the
systems.
The
The
male
testes
reproductive
are
the
male
system
gonads.
They
produce
the
male
gametes
or
the
male
hormone
Seminal
spermatozoa,
vesicle
or
sperm
for
short,
and
secrete
testosterone.
Prostate
Functions
of
the
organs
labelled
in
Figures
9.2.1–2
are
summarised
in
gland
T
able
Sperm
9.2.1.
duct
T
able
9.2.1
The
male
reproductive
organs
Urethra
Spongy
tissue
Organ
Function
Testis
•
Penis
Testis
Produces
from
•
sperm
puberty
Secretes
(male
gametes)
throughout
testosterone
the
that
in
rest
huge
of
stimulates
numbers
life
sperm
Foreskin
production
Scrotum
Figure
9.2.1
The
male
development
of
secondary
sexual
characteristics
reproductive
Scrotum
system
and
viewed
from
•
Holds
the
testes
at
a
temperature
slightly
lower
than
the
body
temperature
front
Sperm
•
Transfers
sperm
from
the
testes
to
the
urethra
in
the
Rectum
Bone
duct
penis
Prostate
•
gland
Secretes
the
Penis
seminal
fluid
containing
sugars
as
food
for
sperm
•
Inserted
•
Has
into
many
sexual
vagina,
sensory
releases
cells
that
semen
are
that
contains
stimulated
sperm
during
intercourse
Anus
Sperm
STUDY
FOCUS
duct
Humans
Sperm
tubules
in
internal
testis
aspects
Figure
9.2.2
The
male
system
134
reproductive
viewed
from
the
side
are
mammals.
fertilisation
of
our
In
and
common
internal
reproduction
as
with
other
development.
you
study
the
mammals
Look
rest
of
for
this
we
have
these
unit.
The
female
reproductive
system
LINK
The
structure
of
the
female
reproductive
system
is
shown
in
11.4
Figures
9.2.3–4
and
the
functions
of
the
main
organs
are
the
in
T
able
9.2.2.
The
ovaries
are
the
female
gonads,
and
11.5
which
are
offspring
that
make
and
release
gametes
or
eggs,
and
secrete
oestrogen
and
why
sexually
organisms
are
the
genetically
hormones
of
the
reproducing
organs
explain
summarised
different
from
one
progesterone.
another.
T
able
9.2.2
The
female
reproductive
organs
KEY
Organ
Functions
Ovary
•
1
Produces
and
releases
eggs
(female
POINTS
Eggs
and
sperm
specialised
•
Secretes
oestrogen
that
stimulates
development
sexual
Secretes
gametes.
Fusion
progesterone
that
maintains
the
soft
lining
occurs
during
the
second
half
of
the
menstrual
during
•
Moves
eggs
from
ovary
to
uterus
using
cilia
and
Site
of
Sexual
•
Lining
provides
reproduction
site
for
implantation
and
the
genetic
offspring;
of
the
Foetus
develops
•
Muscle
within
the
the
outer
Human
layer
ovaries
contracts
during
of
muscular
and
produce
that
glandular
tissue
at
are
released
at
birth
ovulation
Ring
not.
uterus
eggs
in
does
embryo
3
•
•
variation
asexual
early
reproduction
development
Cervix
in
fertilisation.
in
Uterus
not
peristalsis
produces
•
but
reproduction.
pregnancy
2
Oviduct
of
sexual
cycle
asexual
and
in
of
reproduction,
uterus
known
characteristics
gametes
•
cells
of
as
secondary
are
gametes)
the
base
of
into
the
oviduct
fertilisation
occurs.
the
where
uterus
The
•
Secretes
different
forms
of
mucus
during
the
uterus
is
the
site
of
menstrual
internal
development.
cycle
Vagina
•
Retains
•
Lining
contents
secretes
•
Sperm
•
Widens
are
of
uterus
during
4
pregnancy
Human
produce
sperm
released
during
deposited
form
the
in
the
birth
•
Sensitive
are
are
region
at
entry
stimulated
intercourse
vagina
to
vagina
with
many
travel
through
during
sexual
to
the
the
sperm
urethra.
receptors
5
that
that
canal
ducts
Clitoris
continually
mucus
to
to
testes
The
prostate
gland
produces
intercourse
seminal
fluid.
SUMMARY
QUESTIONS
Oviduct
Oviduct
Uterus
Rectum
1
Make
a
asexual
table
and
to
compare
sexual
Bone
reproduction.
Ovary
2
Uterus
lining
Make
of
Uterus
of
the
labelled
female
and
diagrams
male
wall
reproductive
Clitoris
Cervix
large
Urethra
Annotate
(neck
uterus)
the
Anus
systems.
the
functions
diagrams
of
the
with
organs
Opening
Vagina
of
that
vagina
3
Figure
9.2.3
The
female
system
front
reproductive
viewed
from
the
Figure
9.2.4
The
you
State
a
have
where
labelled.
the
male
and
female
reproductive
system
viewed
the
from
side
female
b
gametes
where
develop,
fertilisation
and
occurs.
135
9.3
The
The
LEARNING
the
end
should
be
monthly
of
this
able
topic
that
define
cycle
•
the
you
cycle.
to:
and
describe
terms
the
the
the
changes
and
role
gland
menstrual
releasing
•
outline
and
•
that
ovary
puberty,
through
the
vagina.
it
that
is
and
the
ready
monthly
girls
breaks
cycle
start
to
down,
to
uterus
are
of
an
changes
have
and
receive
synchronised
periods.
blood
is
embryo
the
This
and
is
cells
if
menstrual
when
are
the
passed
When
menstruation
happens
for
the
first
out
time
shows
the
of
in
pregnancy
her
first
menstrual
cycle
(Figure
9.3.1).
are
born
and
with
they
a
do
very
not
large
number
produce
any
of
potential
more
during
egg
their
cells
in
their
lifetime.
egg
is
surrounded
by
a
small
group
of
cells
and
Each
together
the
of
the
had
form
a
follicle
controlling
Each
by
and
oestrogen
As
month
cells
menstrual
will
At
and
the
to
If
into
of
the
The
If
If
this
and
cycle
This
not
breaks
down
begins
occurs
is
occurs
the
the
If
is
dies
ovary
the
it
to
egg,
protein.
towards
the
pressure
some
Some
is
thick
arrives
and
out
lining
follicle
follicle
cells
occurs,
it
of
the
uterus
and
full
of
nourish
is
in
and
the
protect
uterus
and
implantation.
passes
breaks
passed
moves
meiosis
pregnancy.
embryo
egg
the
by
and
fertilisation
reproduction
the
and
body.
ovulation
of
fat
menstruation,
ovulation.
potential
divides
of
and
releasing
developing,
the
in
after
cell
stores
fluid
throughout
is
stage
occur
This
egg
with
with
bursts
after
with
body
fills
yellow
ovary
week
fertilisation
yellow
the
Each
fills
weeks
it
follicle
vessels
does
then
pregnancy
the
two
oviduct.
the
the
and
that
form
in
lining.
the
uterus
the
develop.
cytoplasm
great
to
In
blood
the
About
so
as
follicles
enlarges
into
time
fertilisation
vagina
it
remain
thicken.
embryo.
sinks
is
ovary
and
as
ovary.
fluid
the
and
two
grows
the
same
glands
the
in
or
size
follicle
the
grow
starts
ovulation
of
the
remain
cycle.
in
follicle
edge
inside
of
one
increases
the
the
effect
on
has
cycle
progesterone
the
girl
uterus
cycle
roles
a
occur
hormones
the
describe
This
uterus
they
the
the
uterus
menstrual
menstrual
the
pituitary
in
the
the
potential
outline
occurs.
During
ovaries,
•
of
ovulation
ovary
during
lining
of
Girls
in
the
fertilisation
lining
•
changes
cycle
OUTCOMES
so
At
menstrual
out
down.
during
of
The
the
thick
lining
menstruation.
again.
the
embryo
releases
a
hormone
that
stimulates
uterus
the
ready
yellow
body
to
remain
active
which
in
turn
of
implantation
the
uterus
nutrients
ensures
There
to
and
that
Control
are
continue
oxygen
as
to
it
menstruation
of
four
the
thicken,
continues
will
not
menstrual
hormones
that
supplying
its
(Figure
9.3.1
During
cycle
the
the
ovaries
and
the
of
•
follicle
•
luteinising
The
menstrual
activities
9.3.2).
ovary
The
stimulating
secretes:
•
oestrogen,
and
•
progesterone.
are
synchronised.
136
the
(LH).
embryo
development.
This
cycle
control
gland
hormone
hormone
the
uterus
pituitary
the
occur.
the
menstrual
menstruation
Figure
stimulates
lining
for
secretes:
(FSH),
and
cycle
with
also
FSH
starts
cells
to
the
Oestrogen
to
cycle
secrete
receive
causes
a
Oestrogen
by
the
fertilised
in
stimulating
oestrogen
the
into
lining
egg
blood
of
and
a
the
follicle
the
uterus
prevents
passes
to
to
develop
and
the
follicle
bloodstream.
the
to
any
thicken
more
pituitary
in
eggs
gland
preparation
developing.
and
prevents
KEY
it
making
which
any
more
stimulates
FSH.
Instead
ovulation
and
it
stimulates
the
the
remaining
production
follicle
cells
to
of
form
a
1
yellow
POINTS
LH,
The
menstrual
monthly
The
yellow
thicken
body
even
secretes
more
and
progesterone,
prevents
it
which
breaking
makes
down.
the
Both
uterus
ovary
lining
progesterone
are
needed
to
prepare
the
lining
of
the
uterus
of
the
fertilised
and
The
pregnancy
They
the
the
make
occurs
sure
woman’s
these
that
the
menstrual
the
uterus.
pituitary
and
LH
gland
that
secretes
stimulate
egg.
changes
If
is
in
for
FSH
implantation
changes
oestrogen
2
and
cycle
body.
two
hormones
lining
cycle
of
the
starting
continue
uterus
stays
to
be
thick
and
they
in
secretion
produced.
the
of
ovary
and
oestrogen
the
and
progesterone.
stop
again.
3
Oestrogen
stimulates
thickening
of
lining
and
gland
to
the
the
the
uterus
pituitary
release
LH.
It
also
LH released;
prevents
Ovary
FSH
production.
yellow body
forms
4
LH
stimulates
the
formation
body
the
ovulation
from
of
the
follicle.
the
yellow
remains
The
and
yellow
of
body
Relative
secretes
concentration
progesterone
to
Follicle stimulating
Luteinising hormone (LH)
maintain
in the blood of
the
uterine
lining.
hormones
from the
pituitary gland
Progesterone
SUMMARY
Oestrogen
QUESTIONS
Relative
concentration in
the blood of
1
Define
the
following
terms:
hormones from
menstruation,
ovulation
and
the ovary
implantation
Lining shed
Oestrogen
Progesterone released by yellow
Lining breaks
(menstruation)
released by
body; lining of uterus continues
down if
overay; lining of
to thicken
pregnancy
2
uterus starts
does not
to thicken
occur
Draw
a
time
the
changes
the
ovary
line
to
that
show
occur
in
Lining of
uterus
during
0 days
7 days
14 days
21 days
28 days
3
a
a
and
in
the
menstrual
Name
four
uterus
cycle.
hormones
Time/days
involved
the
Figure
9.3.2
Changes
in
secreted
by
the
the
ovary
and
pituitary
uterus
are
coordinated
by
FSH
and
in
coordinating
menstrual
cycle
and
LH
state
gland.
where
they
are
secreted.
b
STUDY
Describe
the
hormones
the
The
by
to
menstrual
hormones
show
and
roles
of
these
FOCUS
from
these
charts
to
cycle
involves
the
changes
a
complex
pituitary
and
summarise
all
gland.
make
the
your
series
of
Compare
own
information
events
you
find.
controlling
cycle.
controlled
different
annotated
in
menstrual
ways
diagrams
4
Make
a
human
timeline
gametes
production
until
for
the
from
fertilisation.
137
9.4
Reproduction
birth
Human
LEARNING
the
end
of
this
topic
be
able
sperm
mucus
describe
up
to
the
and
are
in
deposited
the
cervix
in
into
the
the
vagina,
uterus
some
and
sperm
then
to
swim
the
through
oviduct.
Many
to:
sperm
•
fertilisation
you
the
should
control
OUTCOMES
After
At
and
events
cells
numbers
leading
do
of
not
survive
sperm
to
this
difficult
increase
the
journey.
chances
of
A
man
produces
huge
success.
including
If
there
is
an
egg
in
the
oviduct,
a
sperm
cell
may
succeed
in
fertilisation
fertilising
•
describe
the
process
it.
First
enzymes
are
released
by
the
tip
of
the
sperm
to
of
digest
a
pathway
through
the
jelly
coat
around
the
egg.
implantation
The
•
describe
the
functions
egg
the
amnion,
placenta
discuss
of
sperm
membrane
the
advantages
the
sperm
nucleus
fuses
enters
the
with
egg
the
membrane
cytoplasm
around
(Figure
the
9.4.1).
immediately
forms
around
the
fertilised
egg
or
zygote
stop
disadvantages
of
other
sperm
cells
from
entering.
Only
one
sperm
is
successful.
and
The
methods
two
nuclei
fuse
together
to
form
the
zygote
nucleus.
Sperm
can
of
stay
birth
the
cord
to
•
membrane
and
and
A
umbilical
cell
of
alive
for
two
or
three
days,
so
if
intercourse
happens
just
before
control.
ovulation
the
sperm
can
fertilise
an
egg,
if
it
is
released
during
this
time.
Implantation
After
fertilisation
embryo.
Head
of
one
penetrates
sperm
egg
is
a
is
moved
Egg
to
fuses
may
of
cilia
zygote
cells,
on
several
divides
which
the
by
dividing.
moves
epithelial
similar
to
Tail
embeds
the
vessels,
which
along
peristalsis
oviduct.
the
in
a
oviduct
the
two-celled
the
embryo
The
embryo
and
also
by
gut.
days
into
for
the
the
soft
embryo
lining
of
to
the
reach
the
uterus.
uterus.
This
is
The
The
uterus
lining
is
thick
with
many
called
glands
provide
Carbon
dioxide
food
and
oxygen
to
the
embryo
by
and
blood
diffusion.
egg
embryo
T
able
as
a
has
and
chemical
developed
foetus
(Figure
wastes
organs
diffuse
and
is
out
of
the
recognisably
embryo.
human,
it
Once
is
9.4.2).
9.4.1
9.4.1
shows
the
functions
of
the
structures
labelled
in
sperm
Figure
9.4.2.
Fertilisation
T
able
Organ
Structure
Amnion
•
Thin
9.4.1
How
the
foetus
develops
Function
layer
of
cells
and
fibrous
tissue
•
Encloses
foetus
amniotic
against
•
Disc
of
large
138
the
form
hours,
of
successful
cord
down
cells
to
few
sperm
known
Umbilical
a
with
the
Placenta
mitosis
After
stop
implantation.
entering
Figure
the
continues
contractions,
take
embryo
membrane
successful
other
sperm
ball
by
muscular
changes
of
hollow
it
membrane
It
Nucleus
Then
•
tissue
surface
Rubbery
two
that
cord,
veins
has
many
villi
giving
a
•
area
containing
an
artery
and
a
of
and
watery
which
mechanical
Exchange
blood
in
fluid,
substances
Deoxygenated
•
Oxygenated
the
protection
between
foetal
blood
blood
blood
–
damage
maternal
•
fl uid
provides
flows
returns
to
to
the
the
placenta
foetus
Birth
Birth
control
control
involves
any
methods
removing
Methods
the
that
conception
has
is
started
method
to
that
prevent
embryo
or
prevent
and
to
Umbilical
prevents
fertilisation
foetus
at
fertilisation
implantation
develop,
then
some
are
have
the
the
or
birth
of
a
baby.
implantation
stage
during
methods
occurred
of
and
destruction
of
this
This
pregnancy.
embryo
is
Placenta
occurring,
contraception.
the
cord
an
or
If
foetus
abortion.
Amniotic
Abortion
is
birth
control
but
not
a
method
of
contraception.
fluid
Amnion
T
able
T
ype
9.4.2
Methods
of
birth
of
birth
control
Details
Advantages
Disadvantages
control
Figure
9.4.2
A
Barrier:
prevents
condom
fits
over
sperm
the
reaching
penis
the
egg
in
the
oviduct
protects
can
against
during
KEY
foetus
in
the
prevent
release
POINTS
split
1
to
Male
fuse
of
semen
into
transmission
of
fits
over
cervix
to
form
the
woman
is
does
cervical
prevent
After
entry
of
in
control
protect
into
uterus
contains
(the
oestrogen
a
zygote.
fertilisation
by
ball
of
cells
very
low
not
all
can
use
embryo.
and/
failure
rate
progesterone
follicles
some
in
of
the
and
duct
tied;
are
ovary
is
is
called
foetus.
at
risk
of
3
The
developing
cut
no
prevents
other
form
do
of
the
connected
clots
not
amnion
protect
by
sperm
embryo
and
women
blood
Surgical:
the
organs
method;
prevents
development
as
further
this
a
–
zygote
form
women
develops
or
to
known
After
development,
pill)
the
mitosis
STIs
an
Hormonal
gametes
fertilisation
against
a
sperm
at
not
divides
cap
female
STIs
2
diaphragm
and
together
intercourse
to
vagina
and
full-term
uterus
method
the
holds
fluid
foetus,
to
the
umbilical
to
which
is
placenta
cord.
protect
against
STIs;
4
The
placenta
is
the
site
of
vasectomy
sperm
being
ejaculated
sterilisation
oviduct
is
cut
contraception
these
is
permanent
between
methods
foetal
necessary
prevents
reaching
site
exchange
of
of
substances
maternal
blood
and
blood.
and
birth
tied;
are
control
eggs
of
SUMMARY
QUESTIONS
fertilisation
Natural
monitoring
body
temperature
changes
mucus
fertile
in
to
no
or
menstrual
higher
involved;
cervical
need
determine
time
costs
to
no
rate
obtain
failure
than
1
2
condoms,
during
pills,
etc.
zygote
cycle
have
used
birth
control
and
methods
for
centuries.
The
the
contraceptive
pill
in
the
1960s
gave
women
far
their
fertility
children
to
and
gave
have
and
greater
when.
opportunities
Widespread
more
for
people
provision
Describe
allowed
governments
to
take
steps
to
limit
of
population
countries
birth
control
methods
have
been
so
have
fallen
below
the
level
needed
to
maintain
to
plan
growth.
successful
the
embryo;
sperm;
embryo
roles
sac,
of
the
placenta
and
cord.
how
Explain
the
biological
contraception
that
involved
in
each
of
In
methods
of
birth
control
birth
in
rates
the
and
control
the
some
between
ovum
the
principles
has
implantation.
development
4
many
at
at
foetus.
umbilical
over
and
and
amniotic
of
happens
Distinguish
following:
3
People
what
fertilisation
other
methods
State
T
able
9.4.2.
population.
139
9.5
Flowers
Flowering
LEARNING
Flowering
At
the
end
of
this
topic
be
able
outline
the
flowering
including
stages
plant
grains
reproduction
pollination
structure
male
of
flower
•
compare
insect-
function
the
and
seed
by
vegetative
growth
by
growth;
at
producing
some
flowers
of
to
the
gamete
grows
the
male
female
to
into
the
an
plants
have
stamens
of
gamete,
part
of
female
embryo
the
see
T
able
for
with
flowers
flower
gamete
that
flowers
the
9.5.1.
where
inside
male
pollen
These
they
internal
develops
both
produce
will
are
deliver
fertilisation.
the
ovule
The
which
an
each
structures
contain
Most
The
the
seed.
The
embryo
remains
dormant
inside
the
seed
and
while
the
from
reproductive
structures.
that
becomes
insect-pollinated
state
grow
begin
reproduction.
transferred
and
the
the
will
female
zygote
describe
plants
they
sexual
and
in
fertilisation
•
cycle
to:
for
•
life
you
stage
should
plant
OUTCOMES
it
is
dispersed
away
from
the
female
parent
plant.
part
The
of
transfer
agents
wind-pollinated
of
flowers.
of
flowers
by
of
pollen
pollination
shows
from
are
how
the
anthers
insects
they
are
and
to
the
adapted
stigma
wind.
for
is
pollination.
Studying
pollination
the
by
T
wo
structure
insects
and
wind.
Insect-pollinated
flowers
Anther
These
flowers
are
often
large
and
conspicuous
to
insects,
which
are
Style
attracted
pollen
by
bright
(Figures
colours,
9.5.1–4).
scent
Nectar
is
and
a
the
prospect
liquid
rich
in
of
nectar
sucrose,
and
and
pollen
Petal
is
a
good
The
functions
flowers
Filament
Ovary
ovules
9.5.1
This
drawing
made
of
by
has
vitae
of
protein.
the
different
summarised
9.5.1
Functions
of
in
a
Sepal
Protects
the
Petal
Attracts
insects
the
having
part
Anther
of
flower)
Carpel
(female
of
when
the
–
the
Filament
Style
flower)
tubes
–
–
140
by
insect-pollinated
in
insect-pollinated
flowers
they
being
supports
and
pollen
is
bud
brightly
that
nectar
grains;
coloured,
direct
at
the
anthers
the
centre)
split
ripe
anther
through
and
provides
xylem
and
phloem
deposited
sugars
for
Ovary
–
contains
ovules
Ovule
–
contains
the
equivalent
of
are
the
sugars
a
(lines
pollen
grains
is
large,
source
produces
–
it
of
growth
which
embryo
the
the
develop
sac
pollen
of
which
pollen
into
is
–
are
insects.
an
sac
–
contains
the
grain
female
seeds
the
vitae
coloured
that
pollinated
when
guides
the
provides
Embryo
indicator
by
honey
pollen
ions
Stigma
part
female
Lignum
brightly
these
structures
flower
towards
water,
are
different
Function
(male
of
the
Structure
Stamen
Flowers
in
9.5.1.
flower
half.
insect
9.5.2
structures
T
able
been
and
Figure
in
inside
sectioning
Lignum
are
of
with
T
able
Figure
source
gamete
Wind-pollinated
These
flowers
are
insect-pollinated
individual
grows
This
is
to
into
the
lightly
their
much
so
to
rest
the
can
be
the
Stigmas
They
and
are
grouped
the
that
it
attached
pollen.
are
above
ensure
air,
smaller
flowers.
flowers
which
flowers
closely
of
the
pollen
spread
is
large
conspicuous
green
and
so
and
in
together
plant
away
wide.
they
Inflorescence
an
from
to
Single
in
and
the
the
trap
those
Often
of
the
inflorescence,
9.5.5
Anthers
shake
feathery
than
colour.
in
(Figures
blown
far
filaments
are
less
often
9.5.6).
plant
are
and
large
wind
pollen
to
and
release
grains.
spikelet
Single
Spikelet
Figure
9.5.3
A
half
flower
drawing
flower
(group
of
of
a
flower
of
Pride
of
flowers)
Barbados.
to
identify
Use
the
Figure
9.5.1
parts.
Anther
Stamen
Filament
Inside
a
single
flower
Feathery
stigma
Long
filament
Style
Anther
with
mobile
hinge
Ovary
Figure
9.5.4
Flowers
of
Barbados
Figure
9.5.5
A
wind-pollinated
Pride
are
of
typical
of
the
flower
legume
family
of
flowering
plants.
KEY
POINTS
1
Pollination
2
The
is
the
structure
of
transfer
flowers
insect-pollinated
that
make
small,
pollen
and
SUMMARY
1
Define
2
Draw
and
flowers
feathery
related
have
scent;
that
pollen
to
large,
anthers
the
agent
brightly
to
large
trap
anthers
pollen
to
of
stigma.
pollination:
coloured
wind-pollinated
have
stigmas
from
flowers
to
in
flowers
have
produce
the
DID
YOU
Lignum
for
the
lasted
KNOW?
vitae
locks
for
wood
on
over
a
was
Lake
100
used
Erie.
They
years.
much
wind.
QUESTIONS
vegetative
a
is
flowers
nectar
green
of
flow
growth,
chart
reproductive
diagram
to
show
growth
the
life
and
cycle
pollination
of
flowering
plants.
3
4
a
Make
b
Label
Make
a
a
half
the
table
flower
parts
to
and
drawing
of
annotate
compare
wind-
an
with
and
insect-pollinated
the
flower.
functions.
insect-pollinated
flowers.
Figure
9.5.6
141
9.6
Pollination
to
seed
dispersal
Self-pollination
LEARNING
In
At
the
end
of
this
topic
be
the
able
examples
one
flower
in
to
this
the
compare
self-
and
from
cross-
which
where
describe
occurs
how
in
describe
develop
ovaries
describe
is
another
transferred
flower
on
from
the
another
anthers
plant.
This
is
how
from
seeds
and
any
does
not
pollen
then
lead
lands
on
the
stigma
self-pollination
to
happens
fertilisation,
all
the
time
but
and
of
occurs.
there
it
the
In
are
leads
same
most
to
flower
plants
some
plants
fertilisation.
ovules
FOCUS
fruit
Remember
and
sequence
fertilisation
how
If
released
plants
that
of
pollination,
•
pollen
of
fertilisation
flowering
after
is
self-pollination
STUDY
•
it
self-pollination
pollination
•
section,
stigma
to:
cross-pollination.
•
cross-pollination
you
of
should
and
OUTCOMES
seeds
pollination
events
(3)
is
(1)
growth
comes
pollen
of
before
released
pollen
tube,
fertilisation.
from
and
The
anthers,
(4)
(2)
fertilisation.
Use
are
this
sequence
for
the
basis
of
your
revision
notes
for
this
topic.
dispersed.
Fertilisation
Fertilisation
land
to
female
If
a
the
a
pollen
pollen
As
it
the
to
grain
tip
enter
Events
Pollen
dispersed
into
from
a
gains
the
the
ovule
with
breaks
and
a
it.
–
the
with
zygote
is
of
it
small
allow
the
the
same
to
the
by
when
now
the
at
the
male
of
it
occur
.
produces
(Figure
and
ovary,
entry
tube
the
ovule.
nucleus
nucleus.
the
9.6.2).
carries
the
to
gamete
gamete
fusion
can
style
the
pollen
transferred
species,
ovary
reaches
female
formed
of
hole
the
is
fertilisation
tissues
When
to
complete
nucleus
that
style
the
the
down
fuse
so
stigma
from
micropyle
which
after
ripe
is
male
ovule
down
nutrition
nucleus
the
tube
in
a
grows
the
The
two
This
is
nuclei.
fertilisation
the
The
wind
it
on
Pollination
stigma.
inside
lands
gamete
of
pollination.
female
which
through
fertilisation
9.6.1
the
gamete
tube
male
The
on
grows,
grows
Figure
follows
grains
zygote
divides
by
mitosis
and
grows
into
the
embryo.
The
ovule
pendulous
forms
the
seed
with
the
embryo
inside
it.
After
fertilisation,
many
of
sedge
the
parts
and
Stigma
of
the
stamens
flower
wither
are
and
not
fall
needed
off.
They
any
have
more,
so
the
completed
sepals,
their
petals
functions.
Germinating
pollen
The
grain
ovary
part
Pollen
tube
grows
down
of
swells
the
provide
to
ovary
water
form
is
and
the
the
fruit
placenta
nutrients
to
with
that
the
seeds
inside
contains
growing
it.
xylem
seeds.
The
central
and
phloem
to
Fruits
develop
in
style
ways
have
Ovule
that
one
contain
Seed
Male
gamete
nucleus
about
Pollen
to
tube
with
egg
cell
9.6.2
nucleus
few
to
the
seeds
seeds
and
dispersal
and
split
are
of
their
dispersed
open
to
seeds.
Some
together.
release
Other
fruits
only
fruits
them.
dispersal
Fertilisation
over
plants
a
have
wide
mechanisms
area.
This
avoids
for
shedding
competition
and
with
dispersing
the
parent
their
plant
micropyle
in
a
between
the
seedlings.
The
disadvantages
are
that
many
flower
will
142
a
many
Flowering
and
Figure
or
related
penetrates
seeds
fuse
are
be
eaten,
or
land
somewhere
not
suitable
for
growth.
seeds
T
ypes
of
seed
and
fruit
dispersal
KEY
1
Wind
POINTS
Cross-pollination
transfer
The
fruits
develop
hairs
of
that
catch
the
wind
the
seeds
to
travel
of
one
flower
the
to
and
the
allow
the
from
or
anthers
wings
is
pollen
stigma
of
a
flower
on
a
some
different
plant
of
the
same
distance.
Figure
9.6.5
A
howler
willing
seed
monkey
dispersal
forest
is
participant
for
a
species;
self-pollination
transfer
of
same
this
2
tree.
Pollen
the
tubes
style
This
fruit
Amazon
of
the
vine
dry
each
deliver
gamete
give
a
has
with
quite
two
a
wing
structure
helicopter
it
falls
that
from
and
split
open,
suddenly,
to
project
within
the
seeds
away
from
the
A
zygote
like
spins
the
is
produced
carry
to
the
them
fur
of
some
or
to
form
a
multicellular
After
fertilisation
embryo.
the
seed,
into
parts
the
a
ovule
the
fruit,
wither
ovary
all
and
other
die.
that
mammals
distance
shaking
at
divides
as
that
5
before
them
Seeds
are
dispersed
competition
Figure
rubbing
this
tree.
flower
attach
ovule.
a
develops
hooks
female
embryo
plant.
becomes
have
the
their
Animal
fruits
the
the
often
4
Some
to
inside
fertilisation;
to
down
Monarch
3
seeds
to
grow
(self-dispersal)
sac
Fruits
9.6.3
the
the
flower.
gamete
Figure
is
within
in
male
Mechanical
pollen
9.6.6
Fruits
of
legumes
crack
halves,
eject
open
which
the
to
to
avoid
colonise
dry
off.
and
and
into
twist
new
two
areas;
occurs
to
seeds.
by
by
seed
wind,
dispersal
water
and
animals.
Water
Some
rivers
plants
and
buoyant
Figure
9.6.4
Duppy
sharp
fur
needles
hooks
and
to
often
have
that
stick
to
from
the
fruits
withstand
These
that
by
are
that
immersion
parent
of
along
produce
SUMMARY
in
by
water.
water
miles
1
–
Describe
and
fruits
often
attract
are
full
brightly
away
animals,
of
such
2
Describe
ovule
to
birds,
to
eat
them.
to
the
the
and
changes
female
ovary
fertilisation
until
are
either
from
seed
dispersal.
List
the
advantages
and
The
disadvantages
seeds
that
gamete,
monkeys
3
and
and
plant.
sugars
as
happens
pollination
fertilisation.
clothing.
coloured
what
between
occur
Fleshy
QUESTIONS
can
dispersed
thousands
the
grow
sea
scattered
on
of
seed
the
dispersal.
ground
or
eaten
and
egested
far
Figure
from
the
parent
9.6.7
Fruits
of
manchineel
can
4
plants.
be
dispersed
by
Suggest
the
advantages
of
ocean
seeds
being
dispersed
by
currents.
animals
DID
YOU
KNOW?
5
Make
that
revision
comparing
T
rees
release
huge
numbers
of
seeds
during
their
lifetime.
ingest
of
those
seeds
needs
to
germinate
and
grow
for
its
and
Only
successfully
as
in
flowering
a
plants
replacement
notes
fertilisation
development
one
them.
and
humans.
parent.
143
Unit
SECTION
1
The
A
9
1:
best
a
Practice
Multiple-choice
definition
permanent
an
organism
an
increase
of
increase
in
SECTION
questions
growth
6
is
the
exam
dry
mass
Some
in
the
size
of
an
students
early
400
seeds
an
increase
in
the
number
answer
questions
investigated
growth
of
maize
the
germination
plants.
They
took
of
40.
and
The
divided
seeds
were
them
into
soaked
in
10
batches
water
and
organism
planted
C
Short
and
of
B
2:
questions
of
cells
of
in
seed
compost.
an
At
intervals
of
time
a
batch
was
removed
from
organism
the
D
an
increase
in
the
volume
of
an
compost,
Which
are
the
features
of
wind-pollinated
plant
flowers?
A
T
able
anthers
are
inside
flowers,
smooth
weighed.
was
thoroughly
and
The
mean
calculated.
dry
The
mass
results
of
are
each
in
T
able
1.
1
pollen,
Stage
no
dried
organism
then
2
washed,
of
Day
Mean
dry
Presence
scent
growth
B
coloured
C
large
petals,
flowers,
sticky
pollen,
nectaries
strong
present,
mass/g
scent
per
of
leaves
plant
light
Germination
0
0.40
✗
1
0.33
✗
15
0.29
✗
30
0.64
✓
50
4.65
✓
64
20.01
✓
71
34.56
✓
100
111.65
✓
113
121.99
✓
pollen
D
no
petals,
anthers
are
outside
flowers,
no
nectaries
Early
3
What
is
the
function
of
the
ovary
in
growth
human
of
seedling
reproduction?
A
4
formation
of
a
mature
B
secretion
of
FSH
C
secretion
of
LH
D
site
What
of
is
ovum
(egg)
Vegetative
growth
fertilisation
cut
during
a
vasectomy?
a
A
Explain
why
B
sperm
C
ureter
dry
mass
of
i
Describe
plants
Which
are
A
features
dispersed
light
are
by
seeds
associated
with
seeds
as
animals?
with
fruits
c
that
are
formed
fleshy
Explain
the
that
into
the
(2)
the
growth
shown
in
of
the
the
maize
table.
(3)
C
fruits
D
large
the
changes
in
dry
masses
of
plants.
(4)
State
two
disadvantages
mass
as
way
a
of
of
using
recording
the
dry
growth
fruits
that
are
brightly
coloured
d
Figure
that
dry
seeds
to
that
open
float
of
(2)
1
shows
cucumber
leaf
the
change
over
20
in
area
of
a
days.
explosively
on
water
Suggest
i
how
you
growth
ii
the
a
would
in
of
obtain
surface
advantages
way
plants,
144
determined
plants.
plants.
wings
B
students
maize
urethra
ii
5
the
duct
b
D
the
oviduct
of
area
using
measuring
such
as
results
of
a
leaf
growth
cucumbers.
for
the
leaf
area
of
(3)
as
crop
(3)
7
240
a
220
Describe
how
pollinated
the
flower
structure
differs
of
an
from
insect-
the
structure
200
of
a
wind-
pollinated
flower.
(5)
180
2
mc/fael
160
b
i
State
the
difference
between
cross-
140
pollination
and
self-pollination.
(2)
fo
120
aerA
100
ii
Explain
how
plants
ensure
that
their
80
flowers
are
cross-pollinated
and
not
60
self-pollinated.
40
(3)
20
c
Describe
what
happens
following
pollination
0
2
0
4
6
8
10
Time
12
da
14
16
18
to
20
ensure
that
an
embryo
is
formed.
Total
Figure
15
marks
1
8
The
(5)
s
ovaries
of
tomato
flowers
develop
a
Describe
and
fleshy
fruits
after
fertilisation.
Figure
2
shows
section
through
a
tomato
roles
umbilical
of
cord
the
in
placenta,
the
amnion
development
of
a
a
vertical
the
into
foetus.
(6)
fruit.
b
Condoms
are
used
for
birth
control.
Sepal
i
Seeds
What
name
is
used
to
describe
this
Placenta
method
ii
Explain
of
how
method
Fruit
birth
of
a
control?
condom
birth
(1)
acts
as
a
control.
(2)
wall
iii
State
an
added
advantage
of
using
condoms.
Figure
c
e
(1)
2
The
the
placenta
growth
i
a
sugar
ii
the
of
the
tissue
is
that
the
source
Measurements
the
that
through
iii
provides
sugars
seeds.
to
support
control.
Name
transported
transports
Vasectomy
is
another
Explain
during
of
the
the
these
seeds
sugars
from
growth
as
d
Outline
three
social
many
of
shown
Mean
early
width
Placenta
Pericarp
Fruit
in
width
width
diameter
Explain
in
marks
T
able
practice
questions
2.
examples
the
can
be
found
accompanying
CD.
size/mm
of
fruit
mid
development
late
the
the
ripe
0.2
0.5
1.0
1.1
15.0
21.6
12.2
5.0
2.6
8.1
10.2
12.2
27.0
42.6
79.2
139.2
(OCR
f
15
fruits
Stage
Seed
(3)
tomato
on
tomato
of
(3)
2
Features
aspects
contraception.
and
T
able
birth
(2)
Total
sugars.
taken
of
prevents
placenta
were
their
method
this
pregnancy.
to
Further
fruits
how
reasons
for
the
March
changes
1999)
shown
table.
(5)
Total
25
marks
145
10
Disease
10.1
Diseases
Disease
LEARNING
a
At
the
end
should
be
is
not
an
of
this
able
•
define
•
distinguish
the
topic
or
symptoms
you
help
to:
term
condition
to
illness
to
word
to
define;
decide
which
There
physiological
way
diseases
the
of
treatment
these
are
is
gives
control
the
it
can
be
defi ned
body.
We
can
as
they
look
for
professionals;
disease
we
describe
certain
signs
that
have.
disease
deficiency,
and
discuss
affects
of
disease
between
pathogenic,
hereditary
that
medical
Categories
•
easy
OUTCOMES
to
many
ways
classify
examples
to
them
of
the
classify
by
diseases
cause
four
as
into
shown
categories
of
in
different
T
able
disease
categories.
10.1.1.
that
you
The
One
table
should
know.
and
T
able
diseases.
10.1.1
Category
Examples
and
of
causes
of
disease
Examples
Cause
Pathogenic
HIV
,
Virus
(see
yellow
cause
10.2):
influenza,
fever
disease-causing
Tetanus,
organisms
tuberculosis
Bacterium
or
(TB),
gonorrhoea
pathogens
Ringworm,
Deficiency:
Night
lack
total
of
a
nutrient
(see
in
thrush
Fungus
blindness,
Lack
of
vitamin
A
Scurvy
Lack
of
vitamin
C
(Iron-deficiency)
Lack
of
iron
blindness
diet
5.7)
anaemia
Hereditary:
inheritance
Figure
10.1.1
Is
poverty
World
a
Health
(WHO)
children
at
risk
of
The
mutant
a
Mutant
cell
anaemia
(see
11.6)
allele
of
gene
for
of
gene
for
haemoglobin
allele
Haemophilia
Mutant
(see
blood
allele
Organisation
certainly
as
and
disease?
Sickle
of
like
many
deficiency
thinks
these
11.7)
clotting
factor
so,
are
pathogenic
Physiological:
malfunction
Inability
Diabetes
or
of
of
to
produce
tissues
to
insulin
respond
to
it
diseases.
organs
or
organ
Cause
Hypertension
(in
most
cases)
systems
unknown
STUDY
The
FOCUS
number
some
of
cases
hereditary
decreased.
of
diseases
Genetic
Treatment
has
(DNA)
given
whether
or
to
This
for
parents
to
have
have
the
involves
inherited
proceeding
choice
children
assisted
the
conditions
with
at
all
•
diseases
embryos
antibiotics,
infections;
•
before
such
they
as
are
anti-viral
drugs,
retroviral
drugs
anti-fungal
11.6).
ringworm.
146
disease
are
treated
with
drugs:
penicillin
not
such
for
and
suitable
as
amoxicillin,
for
acyclovir
treating
HIV
treating
for
(see
are
viral
treating
used
and
to
treat
fungal
herpes
and
bacterial
diseases
anti-
10.3)
pregnancy
•
(see
of
of
reproduction.
testing
control
testing
Pathogenic
has
and
drugs,
such
as
clotrimazole
for
treating
thrush
and
Vaccination
is
an
effective
control
measure
for
many
infectious
STUDY
diseases.
polio
It
from
providing
are
has
been
the
western
dietary
treated
in
used
to
eradicate
hemisphere.
supplements.
different
ways
smallpox
Deficiency
Hereditary
depending
the
diseases
and
on
from
world
are
treated
physiological
the
cause
and
by
diseases
its
FOCUS
and
effect.
The
control
another
of
blood
example
Remember
that
concentration
The
concentration
of
glucose
in
the
blood
is
maintained
limits.
Tissues
in
the
pancreas
detect
changes
in
within
This
increases
when
you
absorb
a
meal
and
between
meals
and
when
you
exercise.
The
tissues
in
the
at
the
hormone
insulin
when
the
concentration
increases.
to
the
cells
in
storage
the
liver
and
decreases,
to
break
body
muscles
muscles
mellitus
stop
make
produced
Diabetes
diet
high
I
to
usually
II
this
in
in
the
If
absorb
the
glucose
and
glucagon,
concentration
which
often
to
a
coma
of
stimulates
do
the
not
have
storage
insulin
of
convert
as
glycogen.
glucose
liver
cells
just
called
or
the
diabetes)
target
cells
occurs
in
the
when
liver
and
it.
starts
in
childhood
pancreas
usually
form
of
starts
are
later
diabetes
and
refined
pressure
and
high
often
or
adolescence.
destroyed,
so
The
no
cells
insulin
is
if
sugar
in
life.
there
and
is
not
There
is
genetic
a
very
high
risk
predisposition,
enough
fi bre.
Obesity,
of
a
high
Figure
10.1.2
physical
blood
cholesterol
concentration
developing
this
are
increase
the
risk
of
Exercise
health
by
benefits
reducing
diseases
and
the
people’s
chances
often
of
improves
also
their
that
diabetes
into
glucose.
insulin
fat
factors
going
they
stimulate
physiological
blood
untreated
of
all.
type
developing
(most
responding
insulin
at
to
producing
type
glycogen.
secretes
glycogen
stops
Diabetes
that
pancreas
down
Diabetes
the
the
compound
but
limits.
Insulin
glucose
it
fluctuates
pancreas
to
stimulates
glucose
narrow
with
risk
because
secrete
the
decreases
are
in
is
the
People
concentration.
glucose
homeostasis.
within
stays
narrow
of
mental
health
as
they
feel
better
about
disease.
themselves.
Insulin
at
is
used
regular
that
it
is
to
treat
intervals
not
to
excreted
diabetes;
stimulate
in
the
this
the
has
to
be
storage
of
injected
glucose
into
as
the
blood
glycogen
so
KEY
1
People
with
hypertension
have
high
blood
pressure
and
are
Disease
best
of
the
fact
indicators
as
there
that
a
are
few,
person
is
if
at
any,
risk
symptoms.
of
heart
It
is
disease
one
or
that
drugs
reduce
and
blood
The
roles
are
the
prescribed
effect
of
for
stress
hypertension,
hormones
that
including
increase
beta
the
defined
illness
as
that
of
the
body.
their
People
can
symptoms;
blockers
heart
medical
staff
can
signs
help
their
observe
rate
to
diagnosis.
pressure.
2
of
diet
and
exercise
Four
are
categories
than
pay
for
expensive
drugs,
it
is
better
to
of
pathogenic,
hereditary
Rather
or
stroke.
describe
Various
be
condition
affects
the
can
often
a
unaware
POINTS
urine.
and
disease
deficiency,
physiological
prevent
diseases.
physiological
balanced
in
diseases
diet,
moderation
developing
taking
(if
at
many
of
developing
exercise,
all)
are
these
in
not
the
first
smoking,
simple
ways
in
place.
and
which
Eating
drinking
people
a
alcohol
can
3
avoid
Drugs,
are
diseases.
such
used
to
diseases;
as
people
physiological
A
balanced
diet
provides
all
the
nutrients
needed
for
good
health
prevention
of
deficiency
diseases.
It
also
means
that
people
do
more
energy
in
their
diet
than
they
expend
in
daily
activities.
the
risk
of
storing
excess
fat
and
becoming
overweight
or
to
take
for
for
their
The
risks
reduced
Explain
how
diseases
are
Discuss
as
–
whole
lives.
of
developing
the
ways
in
by
diseases
taking
can
be
exercise
categorised.
and
2
such
longer
QUESTIONS
physiological
1
drugs,
much
obese.
4
SUMMARY
often
This
often
reduces
diseases
not
insulin,
have
pathogenic
with
and
need
the
antibiotics,
treat
which
diseases
can
be
prevented.
eating
a
throughout
balanced
diet
life.
147
10.2
Mosquitoes
This
LEARNING
section
serious
At
the
end
should
•
be
identify
of
this
able
the
the
topic
life
their
•
Aedes
aegypti
different
describe
types
of
mosquito
that
transmit
three
•
Anopheles
which
transmits
dengue
and
yellow
fever
cycle
of
which
transmits
malaria.
stages
species
have
the
same
life
cycle.
Female
Anopheles
mosquitoes
mosquitoes
their
eggs
in
bodies
of
still
water
,
such
as
ponds,
drainage
and
habitats
irrigation
•
two
diseases:
you
lay
and
about
tropical
to:
These
in
is
OUTCOMES
their
life
the
water
storage
tanks,
in
fact
anywhere
that
fills
with
cycle
water
.
explaining
channels,
term
Female
Aedes
lay
eggs
that
withstand
dry
conditions
and
deposit
complete
them
on
the
sides
of
containers
of
water
where
they
may
survive
for
metamorphosis
months
•
define
the
term
vector
until
the
container
fills
with
water
.
of
The
eggs
of
both
types
of
mosquito
hatch
to
form
larvae,
which
live
disease
in
•
describe
the
role
water
in
of
dengue
fever
angle
state
on
bacteria
and
small
organisms.
Aedes
to
the
have
breathing
surface;
tubes
Anopheles
at
their
larvae
rear
rest
end
parallel
and
to
rest
the
at
surface
out
gas
exchange
through
their
whole
body
surface.
fever
After
•
feeding
and
carrying
yellow
surface,
transmitting
an
malaria,
the
of
Larvae
mosquitoes
near
the
ways
mosquitoes
moulting
several
times,
each
larva
changes
into
a
pupa.
During
are
the
pupal
stage
the
body
goes
through
a
change
into
an
adult
with
controlled
a
•
discuss
the
impact
on
very
different
adults
populations
of
diseases
plants
and
emerge
from
sexes
need
feed
the
to
on
Female
she
using
take
parasite
stop
female
mosquito
Aedes
aegypti
taking
a
a
the
Y
ellow
on
cool
metamorphosis,
away
(Figure
the
10.2.3).
(nectar
are
her
its
blood
of
to
and
phloem
both
places
provide
types
to
the
sap),
but
live
in
protein
after
and
that
around
they
human
rest.
disease
vectors
parasites
life
from
cycle
salivary
meal
fever
is
from
clotting
caused
mosquitoes.
to
by
Dengue
disease
occurs
of
disease.
the
person
inside
glands.
an
as
by
the
When
she
gut
is
of
Transmission
uninfected
she
the
feed
on
when
when
aegypti,
person,
the
female
feeding
the
is
mosquito
complete
injecting
feeds
from.
The
and
when
her
she
saliva
to
feeds.
yellow
they
infected
which
fever
infected
feed
on
humans
then
virus,
animals
them.
to
the
is
transmitted
forests,
The
return
transmits
which
in
then
greatest
urban
virus
to
pass
risk
areas
other
of
and
the
an
are
humans.
fever
fever
is
They
humans
Aedes
Dengue
is
caused
increasing
by
a
across
virus
the
transmitted
world,
by
including
mosquitoes.
the
This
Caribbean
Anopheles
(T
able
10.2.1).
Epidemics
tend
to
occur
feeding
population
148
fly
fever
epidemic
female
to
blood
infection
mosquitoes
up
blood
Yellow
by
T
wo
and
blood
meal
10.2.2
of
completes
moves
takes
Figure
complete
case
juices
on
Adults
dark,
mosquitoes
may
then
feed
eggs.
Transmission
A
plant
females
make
dwellings
10.2.1
After
pupal
livestock.
mating
Figure
the
of
Both
crop
appearance.
human
of
mosquitoes
increases.
after
heavy
rains
when
the
fed
Malaria
Malaria
is
complex
from
caused
than
many
by
a
single-celled
bacteria
countries
or
by
viruses.
parasite
The
breaking
that
disease
the
is
has
much
been
transmission
more
eradicated
cycle.
Adult
Eggs
Lar va
Pupa
Control
of
mosquitoes
Figure
Mosquitoes
•
reducing
•
covering
are
the
the
controlled
10.2.3
The
life
cycle
number
of
places
surfaces
of
water
where
with
they
oil
or
can
lay
cannot
Anopheles
eggs
polystyrene
beads,
T
able
so
10.2.1
Distribution
transmitted
larvae
of
mosquitoes
by:
of
vector-
diseases
in
the
breathe
Caribbean
•
stocking
larger
bodies
•
spraying
insecticide
of
water
with
fish
that
eat
mosquito
larvae
Disease
in
houses
and
on
breeding
Countries
is
Plant
By
and
keeping
animal
livestock
monocultures
we
in
a
risk
of
cause
large
provide
epidemics.
the
Dengue
Throughout
fever
Caribbean
Malaria
Haiti,
selective
variation.
diseases
a
numbers
perfect
Almost
was
out.
and
grown
which
there
wiped
that
Crops
for
disease
be
breeding
is
they
a
all
attacked
are
over
and
growing
conditions
of
our
crop
genetically
wide
have
chance
This
for
crops
as
pathogens
to
Guyana,
plants
little
that
happened
by
a
areas
fungal
uniform
are
are
at
resistance.
varieties
with
the
disease
risk
If
with
Gros
with
the
of
and
identical
Michel
known
is
as
an
1950s.
grown
This
variety,
may
is
at
happen
risk
of
a
again
new
as
strain
of
this
the
Yellow
Trinidad
epidemic
screw-worm
fly
attacks
cattle
and
other
genotypes
of
fever
Guyana,
disease
most
in
POINTS
commonly
A
vector
adults
lay
is
in
sharp
the
jaws
flesh
to
of
animals.
burrow
into
The
the
eggs
hatch
animals.
If
and
the
untreated
maggots
the
use
animals
consequences
of
plant
and
animal
diseases
death
of
livestock
•
expenditure
pesticides
on
and
and
loss
control
of
crops
measures,
fungicides
for
so
as
2
T
wo
types
lose
drugs
money
less
•
possible
are
food
for
human
famine
destroyed
if
by
and
for
livestock
main
staple
widespread
is
dengue
and
fever
crops
animal
of
diseases:
fever
and
of
foods,
such
as
wheat,
rice
and
maize,
3
Adult
life
term
Redraw
the
roles
of
mosquitoes
as
by
State
the
are
life
likely
stages
in
controlled
cycle
(without
habitats
Summarise
the
populations.
habitats
bodies
diagram
of
mosquitoes
as
a
flow
chart
Growing
genetic
of
by
and
water
so
at
pictures).
of
the
larvae,
impact
of
pupae
plant
and
breathe.
risk
and
adults
of
crops
animal
with
variation
of
disease
them
out
limited
puts
that
and
them
may
lead
to
mosquitoes.
reduction
5
other
cycle
cannot
wipe
4
are
spraying
vectors.
4
the
diagram
the
vector
they
3
is
QUESTIONS
the
Describe
yellow
malaria.
mosquitoes
covering
2
and
of
Anopheles
controlled
disease.
draining
Define
Aedes
vector
consumption
the
1
mosquito
pathogens
the
insecticides;
SUMMARY
infectious
humans.
the
human
aegypti
vector
•
that
are:
farmers
such
animal
their
die.
of
•
an
to
transmit
The
an
their
disease
eggs
Suriname
will
1
The
Tobago,
banana
disease.
livestock.
and
of
transmits
The
Republic
genetic
and
variety
Panama
Cavendish,
the
result
little
pests
there
Belize,
spread
KEY
the
the
region
Dominican
of
there
disease
diseases
Suriname
and
where
sites.
diseases
on
human
of
loss
of
and
possible
food
income
for
supplies,
farmers
famine.
149
10.3
Sexually
transmitted
infections
Sexually
LEARNING
the
end
should
•
be
define
of
this
able
the
outline
the
•
STIs
occurs
during
prevent
Gonorrhoea
STIs
the
causative
and
how
gonorrhoea
agents
gonorrhoea
HIV/AIDS
are
and
treated
moist
either
of
and
be
The
first
bacteria
become
antibiotics,
Experts
the
for
bacterium
resistant
which
days
the
of
after
multiply
and
or
other
a
in
other
transmitted
intimate
ways,
homosexual
bacterium
or
woman
of
one
the
in
the
or
the
the
disease
the
when
may
female
to
infection.
within
multiply
pain
a
by
male
from
pain
Women
will
women
now
be
on
cases.
that
from
but
sexual
most
activity.
transmission
activity.
that
urethra
other
in
develop
urethra,
only
of
a
penis
an
inside
present
in
infection
intercourse.
between
the
producing
If
the
sexual
men
on
survive
tract.
man,
during
appear
Sores
can
reproductive
two
and
the
unpleasant
urinating.
cervix
notice
the
men
antibiotics
and
symptoms
have
will
and
as
and,
a
to
a
lesser
discharge
in
gonorrhoea
not
disease
long-term
soon
resistant
or
they
but
extent,
often
inside
there
the
may
be
no
realise
to
damage
women
to
the
infected
early
they
have
the
sexual
partners.
urinary
resulting
Most
their
that
other
men.
from
in
and
men
symptoms,
infection
If
not
will
and
treated,
reproductive
know
whereas
may
there
systems
many
pass
may
of
be
both
sterility.
to
can
be
treated
effectively
by
antibiotics.
However,
as
with
cases
many
go
caused
of
vagina.
that
many
some
warned
bacterium
to
are
treating
have
suitable
will
is
vagina
Gonorrhoea
all
are
during
KNOW?
gonorrhoea
useless
heterosexual
symptoms
seven
Bacteria
has
(STIs)
people
transmitted
transmitted
discharge
The
be
lining
the
can
to
controlled.
YOU
uninfected
Gonorrhoea
to
the
to
sexually
infection
of
outline
DID
may
ways
HIV/AIDS
•
you
people
transmission
state
the
topic
Some
to:
term
transmitted
•
infections
OUTCOMES
infected
At
transmitted
(STIs)
diseases,
prevention
is
better
than
cure.
The
following
steps
untreated.
can
•
be
taken
Have
only
infection
•
If
the
•
If
a
prevent
one
is
man
another
to
partner;
not
uses
person
be
spread
of
is
a
both
condom
and
he
is
diagnosed
traced,
the
if
partners
are
disease-free,
then
possible.
person
should
infection:
the
bacteria
unlikely
with
warned
to
cannot
be
gonorrhoea,
and
treated
pass
through
it
to
infected.
then
with
all
sexual
antibiotics
contacts
to
stop
the
disease.
HIV/AIDS
In
1982,
patients
of
doctors
with
result
of
condition
AIDS.
virus
Figure
10.3.1
Across
many
who
by
150
the
world
children
have
been
HIV/AIDS.
there
like
rare
pneumonia.
the
The
–
in
North
conditions
Scientists
immune
was
called
causative
human
America
and
especially
discovered
systems
that
acquired
agent
of
in
a
that
did
Africa
rare
cancer
these
not
began
collapse
function
immunodeficiency
in
virus
the
or
and
rare
form
were
efficiently.
This
syndrome
immune
HIV
.
see
a
conditions
immunodeficiency
this
to
AIDS
system
is
a
or
is
collection
are
these
orphaned
of
different
People
who
diseases.
diseases,
have
The
some
AIDS
do
condition
is
cancers
not
now
and
always
some
have
generally
infectious
the
same
known
as
a
diseases.
collection
HIV/AIDS.
of
Transmission
of
HIV
DID
HIV
does
not
survive
for
long
outside
the
human
body.
It
is
an
infected
person
to
an
uninfected
person
in
body
infectious
in
semen
and
vaginal
fluids
during
unprotected
(unsafe)
blood
if
as
there
is
blood-to-blood
contact
between
two
of
the
example
intravenous
drug
users
sharing
needles
to
a
such
surgical
•
in
•
from
that
Treatment
as
caused
is
mother
Anti-viral
heroin,
instruments
blood
such
as
of
drugs
by
baby
control
not
‘needle
stick’
sterilised
transfusion
during
now
the
and
bacteria
is
in
by
if
birth
accidents
in
hospitals
people
there
is
still
spread
anti-fungal
and
very
newly
no
large
proportion
who
have
died
the
of
fungi.
much
infected
cure
early
it
is
and
not
in
heat-treated
breast
to
kill
HIV
enters
the
genetic
virus
for
1980s
milk.
The
of
HIV
drugs
life
higher
in
the
body
control
expectancy
than
and
other
opportunistic
it
used
a
normal
for
to
people
be.
Some
drugs,
infections
living
with
doctors
think
now
the
will
live
condition
and
no
life
vaccine
span.
(as
of
10.3.2
This
However
,
lymphocyte
HIV
particles
released
2013).
it
is
estimated
that
about
30
million
people
enters
DNA
the
in
material.
body
the
The
These
it
infects
nucleus
result
‘bud’
is
and
that
off
a
certain
uses
the
from
it
to
type
make
lymphocyte
the
of
surface
to
lymphocyte.
many
fills
copies
up
infect
with
other
It
of
1
its
new
agent
cells
of
human
virus
drugs
nausea,
the
fever,
virus
used
is
to
treat
copied.
HIV
diarrhoea,
skin
These
disrupt
rashes
drugs
the
and
have
way
mood
side
the
of
mothers
who
have
HIV
has
the
such
virus
infection
to
babies.
and
need
If
a
this
is
not
lifetime
of
done,
babies
are
2
transmission
often
They
of
the
spread
of
effective
born
with
sex.
way
Other
to
control
barrier
treatment.
3
HIV
the
spread
diaphragm
or
semen
vaginal
and
cap,
are
not
of
of
HIV
is
the
effective
contraception,
use
as
there
is
still
such
of
as
contact
HIV
Describe
the
Distinguish
3
Describe
between
4
fluids.
a
of
decrease
of
those
in
lymphocytes
infected
opportunistic
as
TB,
and
HIV
is
at
high
infections,
cancers.
transmitted
unprotected
transmission,
treatment
and
control
5
of
at
sex,
contact,
during
blood-to-
breast
feeding
between
HIV
and
6
AIDS.
different
ways
in
which
HIV
is
birth.
Anti-retroviral
used
three
to
treat
Preventing
is
by
the
steps
of
HIV
that
can
be
infection.
taken
to
reduce
drugs
are
HIV
.
the
spread
health
of
awareness
transmitted.
campaigns,
cases
a
the
HIV
new
with
QUESTIONS
2
Explain
cause
treated
condoms
gonorrhoea.
4
(STIs).
antibiotics.
number
and
1
may
is
causes
blood
SUMMARY
it
of
making
methods
infections
the
such
during
are
of
risk
One
the
sexually
Gonorrhoea
the
Controlling
is
as
course
the
by
causative
genetic
effects,
swings.
reduced
many
immunodeficiency
(HIV).
sterility;
Treatment
caused
the
HIV/AIDS
transmitted
of
infect
of
are
lymphocytes.
is
bacterium;
examples
material
full
POINTS
Gonorrhoea
a
10.3.2).
Anti-retroviral
to
is
which
have
KEY
particles.
(Figure
AIDS.
HIV
AIDS.
When
and
of
thoroughly
other
Since
is
common
if
Figure
that
T
uberculosis
most
HIV/AIDS
antibiotics
HIV/AIDS
are
used
to
and
are
inject
people
drugs
that
HIV
people,
infects
for
with
opportunistic
infections.
one
in
people
known
sexual
intercourse
•
diseases
fluids:
infect
•
KNOW?
passed
The
from
YOU
the
number
of
especially
encouraging
men
to
use
condoms.
151
Unit
SECTION
Much
of
disease
need
to
use
1:
in
know
them
answer
information
the
information
Practice
Short
the
is
to
10
form
how
by
of
to
they
questions
questions
you
will
tables
make
analysing
that
exam
find
and
these
and
about
charts.
and
Try
of
how
interpreting
present.
Figure
You
Ribeirão
the
drawing
2
all
shows
dengue
Preto,
between
the
fever
2000
number
reported
São
and
in
Paulo
of
new
the
State,
cases
city
of
Brazil
2009.
of
2500
the
graphs
find
this
with
advice
section,
those
on
on
and
the
selecting
CD.
and
then
check
There
you
drawing
the
your
will
correct
eugned
answers
in
2000
fo
for
disease
refer
some
1
but
to
of
other
other
the
Aedes
topics
units
answers
aegypti
of
is
as
in
to
the
data
–
well.
this
You
book
these
vector
not
only
may
for
on
need
help
with
questions.
of
several
ylhtnoM
to
presentation
sesac
graphs
1500
1000
500
diseases
0
including
a
dengue
Explain
in
the
what
fever.
is
context
meant
of
by
the
pathogenic
term
diseases.
life
1
cycle
shows
of
two
Aedes
stages,
A
and
Jan
Jan
Jan
Jan
Jan
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
(2)
Figure
Figure
Jan
2000
vector
B,
in
2
the
aegypti.
c
i
Describe
dengue
ii
Suggest
you
A
the
an
have
i
Explain
in
outbreaks
Figure
explanation
for
of
2.
the
(4)
pattern
(3)
data
such
as
on
pathogenic
that
shown
in
Figure
1
2,
ii
i
of
described.
why
diseases,
b
shown
B
d
Figure
pattern
fever
Name
the
stages
and
state
their
may
not
Suggest
be
steps
accurate.
that
(2)
health
authorities
habitat.
should
take
to
reduce
people
infected
the
number
of
(2)
ii
Outline
what
happens
in
the
life
during
an
outbreak
dengue.
between
stages
A
and
B.
Explain
how
these
two
stages
Name
another
disease
that
is
transmitted
are
by
controlled.
(4)
(3)
e
iii
Aedes
aegypti.
(1)
(4)
Total
152
of
cycle
25
marks
2
a
State
three
ways
in
which
HIV
is
T
able
transmitted.
1
(3)
Year
T
able
1
shows
the
number
of
new
Gender
reported
not
cases
of
HIV
between
b
1982
Present
cases
c
Use
infection
the
in
T
able
1
in
Scientists
state
that
the
between
males.
percentage
T
able
seven
2
of
in
shows
has
living
female
known
T
otal
the
(4)
for
region
females
the
is
on
the
HIV
0
2
0
2
1986
238
84
0
322
1988
370
161
34
565
1990
755
469
76
1300
HIV/
1992
1020
661
134
1815
1994
1095
735
220
2050
1996
1198
866
274
2338
1998
1219
966
305
2490
2000
1572
1205
309
3086
2002
1817
1484
96
3397
2004
1670
1495
66
3231
2006
1865
1779
479
4123
2008
1815
1789
26
3630
2010
507
570
45
1122
in
proportion
infection.
living
All
1984
than
data
second
HIV/AIDS
countries.
0
mainly
rather
highest
the
0
shows
(2)
with
has
0
HIV/AIDS
data
the
0
to
Caribbean
does
1982
of
highest
with
HIV
.
for
data
estimates.
T
able
e
male
(5)
graph
population
data
Caribbean
of
the
How
region
the
number
this?
Africa
population
region
graph.
line
the
the
and
support
Caribbean
total
line
your
in
males
the
Caribbean
Caribbean.
between
1
the
a
that
epidemic
Sub-Saharan
are
as
transmission
T
able
The
for
progress
epidemic
AIDS
of
1
and
the
the
2010.
data
T
able
describe
d
and
in
i
Calculate
the
percentage
2
of
Country
people
live
ii
in
with
Present
each
country
HIV
.
the
Number
Number
of
reported
people
of
Number
deaths
of
from
(1)
results
calculations
Population
(2012)
that
as
a
of
bar
your
chart.
living
new
with
infections
HIV/
HIV
HIV/AIDS
AIDS
2009
(2009)
indicated)
(for
2009
unless
(for
unless
indicated)
(5)
iii
Explain
to
The
why
show
the
it
is
percentage
the
population
the
numbers.
number
infection
of
and
rather
the
280 000
3360
400
Belize
330 000
7590
150
11 000 000
11 000
600
9 800 000
186 200
10 000
7100
740 000
8880
300
200
Cuba
than
cases
of
number
of
HIV
Haiti
Guyana
Jamaica
deaths
from
AIDS
in
many
part
world
may
be
Suggest
why
this
(2010)
250
2 900 000
52 200
<
2000
100
1200
550 000
5500
1 200 000
18 000
200
<
200
decreasing.
Trinidad
f
30
of
Suriname
the
(2010)
of
(2)
new
Barbados
important
may
1077
(2011)
500
be
and
happening.
(3)
Total
25
Tobago
marks
Data
from
Indexmundi.com
Further
and
on
practice
examples
the
questions
can
be
found
accompanying
CD.
153
11
Genes
and
11.1
inheritance
DNA
Nucleus
LEARNING
The
At
the
end
of
this
topic
be
•
that
nucleus
able
genetic
matter
DNA
the
activities
chromosomes.
and
from
deoxyribonucleic
histones.
the
wound
the
inheritance
transmitted
to
is
material
of
controls
are
of
These
cells.
are
Contained
thread-like
within
the
structures
made
to:
from
state
chromosomes
you
nucleus
should
and
OUTCOMES
that
is
Each
around
molecule
of
acid
chromosome
the
DNA
histones
can
be
up
(DNA)
has
and
one
proteins,
very
as
you
can
to
50 mm
long
see
in
known
molecule
Figure
as
of
DNA
11.1.1.
Each
long.
generation
Strand
generation
of
•
define
the
terms
gene
DNA
and
chromosome
•
define
the
term
chromosomes
homologous
and
recognise
Histone
pairs
•
of
explain
them
the
in
significance
of
Figure
haploid
of
and
diploid
chromosomes
animal
life
in
plant
between
is
each
the
chromosome
genetic
is
packed
material;
the
around
histones
histone
provide
molecules.
structural
The
support.
organism
has
a
certain
number
of
chromosomes
in
each
nucleus.
genes
number
is
not
associated
with
the
complexity
of
the
organism.
alleles
Humans
fern,
have
which
Figure
pairs
46
has
11.1.2
based
sex
on
are
the
same
that
genes.
were
each
Life
pair
in
the
was
cycle
of
A
research
studies
images
of
X
and
shape.
A
and
zygote
when
from
numbers
do
In
into
pair
shapes.
the
chromosomes
chromosomes
sorted
Y
.
cells;
of
are
X
he
his
can
each
be
photograph
homologous
the
same
Y
are
size
not
was
conceived.
and
the
held
One
other
a
a
man’s
pairs
and
the
homologous
and
are
by
into
shape
and
homologous
chromosomes
father
is
is
nucleus.
sorted
chromosomes
and
The
the
22
in
record
copies
as
of
have
they
those
chromosome
from
his
in
mother.
The
in
number
YOU
not
reproducing
the
in
number
a
remain
gametes
zygote
(2n).
In
constant
organisms
is
(Figure
called
and
in
the
cells
humans,
n
throughout
11.1.3).
haploid
derived
=
23
2n
the
=
46.
human
all
the
DNA
is
in
and
the
nucleus.
chloroplasts
There
that
are
have
small
loops
genes
for
of
DNA
these
cell
homologous
structures.
process
Scientists
known
as
are
using
‘barcoding’.
this
DNA
to
identify
species
(n
for
zygote
KNOW?
mitochondria
life
number
number
from
and
the
The
arranging
in
pairs.
and
been
inherited
sexually
diploid
Not
into
size
the
body
worker
chromosomes,
them
that
Chromosomes
chromosomes
DID
11.1.2
thousand
of
cycles
short).
the
a
nucleus
chromosomes
sizes
Chromosome
of
their
have
two
different
each
over
chromosomes,
because
the
in
shows
chromosomes
154
in
DNA
and
The
Figure
DNA
cycles
distinguish
and
11.1.1
numbers
Each
•
molecules
diagrams
–
a
is
LINK
Adult
male
(2n)
Adult
female
Question
(2n)
the
Growth
and
7
on
page
chromosomes
168
of
a
shows
female
Meiosis
muntjac
development
Haploid
sperm
(n)
Haploid
egg
deer.
Make
sure
(n)
that
for
you
know
when
what
identifying
to
look
pairs
of
Mitosis
Diploid
multicellular
Diploid
embryo
zygote
homologous
(2n)
(2n)
Also
the
Figure
11.1.3
Genes
The
as
is
and
length
genes.
make
a
of
for
a
that
of
Each
used
in
of
four
of
sequence
a
gene
a
protein.
it
change
to
the
an
showing
A,
acid
of
the
position
G
three
in
and
of
meiosis
and
other
for
A
Cells
bases
into
amylase
20
‘read’
(e.g.
amino
(see
guanine
sequence
are
segments
assembling
or
thymine,
C.
There
DNA
can
can
of
ATC)
four
and
different
cytosine,
amino
for
to
acids
in
one
codes
groups
of
the
changes
may
be
or
are
the
Such
a
change
sequence
very
of
significant
functions
in
life-threatening,
a
and
different
as
you
to
DNA
amino
will
is
acids
change
way.
see
in
the
This
the
changes
are
beneficial,
as
you
will
see
in
in
Unit
11.6.
forms
of
a
gene
are
known
as
alleles.
In
some
are
two
alleles,
alleles
but
for
each
a
gene;
diploid
some
genes
organism
can
within
only
a
species
have
two
part
of
This
DNA.
model
Note
the
shows
double
a
very
helix
and
cases
four
bases,
A,
T
,
C
and
G,
which
together
have
make
many
11.1.4
12.
the
there
about
DNA
bases
bases
codes
acids
small
The
more
known
5.4).
these
different
the
change.
affect
function,
protein
cases
for
mitosis
Figure
In
11.7
chromosomes.
11.1.4).
this
the
not
and
acids.
divided
catalase
adenine,
T
,
(Figure
bases
does
as
proteins.
of
is
instruction
such
amino
Sometimes
so
animals
bases:
make
mutation
protein
of
chromosome
is
to
group
amino
a
gene
to
Each
cycle
protein,
of
sequence
three.
The
DNA
abbreviated
are
types
life
see
sex
alleles
specific
composed
usually
The
chromosomes.
of
them.
up
stands
the
for
genetic
the
sugar
code.
that
The
is
letter
part
of
D
the
DNA
molecule.
KEY
POINTS
SUMMARY
1
Chromosomes
proteins;
material
they
that
are
are
made
of
located
codes
for
the
in
the
nucleic
cell
nuclei.
synthesis
of
acid
DNA
DNA
is
and
the
proteins
genetic
from
QUESTIONS
histone
1
amino
Arrange
by
acids.
size,
these
smallest
histone,
DNA
is
is
the
passed
material
from
of
generation
to
generation
in
gametes
Homologous
inheritance.
chromosomes
2
are
the
same
size
and
shape
Explain
the
the
same
Diploid
cells
5
A
have
gene
an
cells
is
allele
protein,
6
A
a
is
but
mutation
code
for
of
two
is
the
of
different
in
a
a
of
each
length
a
difference
of
pairs:
the
chromosome
genes.
have
one
cell.
and
and
4
and
each
following
have
largest:
gene,
and
between
3
to
nucleus,
chromosome
2
structures
each
type
of
chromosome;
haploid
haploid
type.
DNA
form
different
change
sequence
of
codes
a
gene
for
a
that
specific
codes
protein;
for
the
3
same
the
the
nuclei
sequence
amino
acids
in
of
bases
in
proteins.
DNA
that
and
and
State
gene
4
of
Explain
when
and
allele;
diploid;
amino
protein.
number
chromosomes
way.
to
of
acid
that
gene;
all
of
the
haploid
humans.
what
there
in
happens
is
a
to
DNA
mutation.
155
11.2
Mitosis
A
LEARNING
cell,
such
surface
At
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
define
the
larger,
to:
following
area
enough
you
this
•
division,
•
outline
cell
can
nuclear
grow
sustain
division
itself.
occurs
there
is
would
by
getting
a
decrease
larger
Therefore
and
each
nuclear
cell
and
for
an
because
would
not
organism
divides
division.
it
its
into
The
two.
to
get
grow
Before
nucleus
divides
so
that
each
new
cell
has
the
genetic
information
it
by
needs
division
function.
the
events
that
occur
state
that
mitosis
number
of
a
of
role
of
mitosis
replacement
repair
copies
of
must
the
be
genetic
made.
information
This
happens
in
the
before
divides.
and
During
copying,
the
DNA
in
the
chromosomes
the
is
in
of
and
arranged
very
loosely
in
the
nucleus.
After
copying,
cells,
each
tissue
new
chromosome
chromosomes
uncoiled
growth,
divides,
each
nucleus
the
cell
maintains
DNA
state
mitosis
mitosis
Before
•
to
happen,
Before
the
cannot
ratio
mitosis
during
•
zygote,
volume
terms:
to
and
a
to
oxygen
mitosis,
cell
as
OUTCOMES
chromosome
consists
of
two
copies
of
all
DNA
material.
As
asexual
mitosis
begins,
the
DNA
coils
up
tightly.
Each
chromosome
appears
reproduction.
as
a
are
double-stranded
chromatids.
During
Figure
so
time
As
of
Figure
11.2.1
An
example
of
a
a
shows
divides
what
you
human
result
of
plant
numbers
the
to
plantlets
cell
like
each
the
to
four
Human
diagram
divides
as
happens
mitosis.
the
mitosis
is
one
occurs
Growth
identical
strands
replication
chromosomes
cells
happens
have
to
all
46
46
as
the
chromosomes,
chromosomes
each
this.
daughter
original
copied
by
another
cell
parent
has
cell.
the
As
same
the
number
a
reliable
system
they
DNA
are
in
the
genetically
and
to
the
parent
cell.
in:
–
•
Tissue
the
•
•
cane
all
and
genetically
will
crop
give
when
Fields
of
a
cannot
the
of
all
cane
are
a
clone.
same
–
such
–
cells
for
(see
a
or
7.4
and
example,
wear
of
the
animal
meristems
wounds
short
T
able
–
as
(see
for
repair
division
plant
out
time
the
and
as
and
in
plants
later
and
it
is
the
9.1).
stem
in
zygote
embryo;
die,
they
cells
skin
at
such
do
the
(see
as
not
base
of
8.8).
red
have
blood
a
nucleus
7.4.1).
occurs
kingdom.
All
in
the
fungi
and
organisms
in
plants,
produced
but
by
is
rare
asexual
wiped
disease.
from
one
Identical
individual
twins
are
are
a
genetically
clone
as
they
identical
are
and
formed
from
a
same
embryo
that
splits
into
two.
The
plantlets
that
are
at
on
the
leaves
of
the
Mexican
hat
plant,
Bryophyllum,
out
vegetative
the
live
to
reproduction
reproduction
form
are
which
being
cells
divide
animal
produced
risk
of
only
a
bones
repair
divide
first
of
places,
long
wound
which
Asexual
the
monoculture,
and
in
the
body
identical
uniform
harvested.
sugar
regions
with
the
cuttings
in
are
starts
certain
Replacement
and
sugar
to
epidermis
cells,
These
this
throughout
growth
156
is
from
restricted
by
DNA
leaves.
then
11.2.2
genetically
large
•
Figure
two
copying
Mexican
produces
of
in
chromosomes
Mitosis
its
The
of
asexual
identical
hat
what
during
see
chromosomes
reproduction:
process
mitosis
11.2.3
nucleus
structure.
The
reproduction
are
a
clone
(see
Figure
11.2.1).
by
Parent
Cell
cell
membrane
Chromosome
1
The
chromosomes
they
Cytoplasm
can
be
shorten
seen
under
a
and
thicken;
light
microscope.
Nuclear
membrane
Chromatids
2
Due
to
replication,
double
stranded
identical
Centromere
each
with
chromosome
two
is
genetically
chromatids.
Figure
3
Equator
The
chromosomes
11.2.4
In
in
the
middle
(equator)
of
the
membrane
around
the
photograph
growing
nucleus
root
has
the
disintegrated.
tip,
of
of
can
a
that
see
stages
are
of
drawn
in
of
Figure
movement
the
you
different
mitosis
Direction
region
cell.
cell
The
this
linea
up
the
double-stranded
of
of
4
The
chromatids
chromatids
separate
to
stranded
chromosomes.
opposite
poles
of
the
form
These
11.2.3
(× 170).
single-
move
to
cell.
LINK
See
5
The
single-stranded
are
now
the
cytoplasm
divided
in
to
the
daughter
of
form
10.2
and
the
two
nuclei
original
Figure
11.2.3
Mitosis
in
an
has
crops,
sugar
such
animal
When
is
meant
by:
chromosome,
chromatid,
it
a
cell
reaches
divides
division;
into
a
certain
two
nuclear
by
division
mitosis
occurs
before
the
division
cytoplasm
a
genetically
variation.
mitosis
by
2
are
little
QUESTIONS
what
cell
which
with
POINTS
cell
and
and
cell
size
Explain
cane
cells
1
1
as
cells.
KEY
SUMMARY
the
having
and
cell
daughter
of
uniform
Daughter
for
consequences
bananas,
2
12.4
chromosomes
Describe
what
happens
inside
a
cell
before
it
can
divide
divides.
by
2
Mitosis
is
a
type
of
nuclear
mitosis.
division,
b
Describe
what
happens
to
a
chromosome
during
which
Describe
what
happens
to
a
cell
after
mitosis
is
Make
models
cleaners
what
4
Human
The
to
of
wool
or
using
string.
chromosomes
modelling
Use
when
your
cells
clay,
pipe
models
divide
by
to
show
blood
cells
do
not
live
very
long
and
mitosis.
why
in
Figure
11.2.4
must
be
plant
Suggest
why
all
the
individuals
in
a
clone
the
Mitosis
but
may
not
look
always
number
as
the
of
parent
in
growth,
reproduction,
of
tissues
of
cells.
and
repair
replacement
cells.
are
Crops
that
are
produced
by
genetically
vegetative
identical
nuclei
same
occurs
asexual
they
5
5
nuclei.
nucleus.
divide.
cells
daughter
chromosomes
4
red
The
have
why:
cannot
b
chromosomes
lengths
happens
Explain
a
or
of
identical
complete.
3
3
two
mitosis.
genetically
c
forms
reproduction
are
alike.
genetically
risk
of
identical
being
wiped
and
out
at
by
disease.
157
11.3
Meiosis
If
LEARNING
human
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
define
the
generation
fertilisation
humans
to:
term
every
when
you
be
•
a
remains
different
explain
of
the
meiosis
importance
in
halving
chromosome
generating
•
describe
the
number
by
occurs.
the
type
Since
same
of
(at
nuclear
of
mitosis
it
would
chromosomes
mean
the
46),
number
in
every
division
of
would
that
chromosomes
generation
involved
double
in
the
there
in
must
production
this
the
number
in
and
and
the
from
which
also
halves
generates
daughter
each
the
cells
number
variation
are
of
chromosomes.
among
genetically
the
Meiosis
the
movement
gametes,
different
from
the
so
the
nuclei
parent
cell
other.
Cell
of
during
Parent
membrane
cell
Chromosome
chromosomes
chromatids
First
meiosis
Cytoplasm
division
Chromosomes
and
shorten
thicken.
Nuclear
•
explain
the
role
of
meiosis
in
membrane
sexual
reproduction
Chromatids
•
state
when
meiosis
occurs
in
Each
flowering
life
plant
and
animal
chromosome
genetically
has
identical
two
chromatids.
cycles.
Centromere
Equator
Homologous
form
Diploid
cell
Diploid
ovar y
in
pairs
chromosomes
the
middle
of
the
cell
the
and
exchange
Homologous
parts
of
them.
chromosomes
46
Homologous
each
chromosomes
double-stranded
moving
to
opposite
separate,
Direction
chromosome
poles
of
the
of
cell.
Cell
Haploid
Fertilisation
division
sperm
Nuclear
membranes
may
23
egg
form
around
each
chromosomes.
46
cytoplasm
two
Diploid
11.3.1
divides
to
give
zygote
The
number
division
of
Chromosomes
chromosomes
during
the
gametes
formation
in
restored
humans
to
the
middle
at
of
the
in
cell.
of
and
diploid
The
number
are
halves
the
is
of
The
cells.
Second
Figure
group
chromatids
Direction
separate
move
poles
of
to
the
movement
opposite
four
care
mitosis
word
s
when
and
are
divide
daughter
to
form
cells.
writi
ng
meiosis
very
cells
as
the
4
simila
r
.
Figure
158
division
TIP
The
T
ake
of
chromosomes
cells.
Cell
EXAM
of
fertilisation.
and
11.3.2
This
diagram
shows
the
two
Daughter
cells
divisions
of
of
movement
chromosomes
23
Haploid
pair
testes
between
46
in
of
cell
cell
in
of
does
variation
homologous
and
produced
process
meiosis
gametes,
•
were
the
OUTCOMES
in
At
gametes
–
meiosis
and
Figure
of
11.3.2
shows
chromosomes
divisions
of
diagram,
the
each
what
during
cell
of
to
happens
meiosis.
give
these
four
has
to
cells.
two
two
There
pairs
are
In
two
Reproductive
growth
the
chromosomes
Flower
so
the
number
happening
to
give
has
within
four
been
a
cell
haploid
halved.
with
cells,
Imagine
46
each
this
chromosomes
containing
23
Diploid
chromosomes.
a
sperm
leave
cell.
one
In
In
the
the
large
testis
ovary,
haploid
each
three
cell
–
will
of
the
develop
the
egg
cells
into
die
cell
stamen
to
in
Diploid
(2n)
cell
carpel
in
(2n)
Vegetative
growth
cell.
and
Meiosis
development
In
meiosis
the
daughter
cells
are
not
Haploid
identical.
pollen
grain
They
to
are
genetically
genetic
evolve
in
different
variation
response
which
to
and
this
allows
changing
of
flowering
(n)
organisms
to
environments.
in
cycle
embr yo
sac
contributes
Haploid
Life
Haploid
(n)
male
pollen
nucleus
tube
Female
(n)
gamete
embr yo
sac
in
(n)
plants
Fertilisation
This
differs
meiosis
from
occurs
that
in
the
of
animals.
production
In
animals,
of
gametes
Diploid
(see
Figure
11.1.3).
In
flowering
plants,
multicellular
embr yo
results
both
and
in
pollen
divide
female
grains
further
by
gametes,
and
embryo
mitosis
to
sacs.
give
respectively.
Diploid
(2n)
(2n)
These
the
male
Anthers
Figure
11.3.3
Meiosis
of
contain
occurs
pollen
released,
many
diploid
cells
that
divide
by
zygote
meiosis
meiosis
to
in
grains
flowering
and
embryo
plants
embryo
sacs
in
sacs.
remain
in
the
production
Pollen
the
grains
ovule
are
inside
the
produce
ovary.
pollen
ovule
One
cells
one
grains,
one
of
from
diploid
these
die.
of
The
embryo
cell
is
the
to
sac
then
fuses
the
by
form
female
tube
within
haploid.
divides
embryo
pollen
sac
are
develops
which
the
which
In
meiosis
a
divides
with
developing
to
haploid
gamete.
ovule
the
a
by
At
mitosis
four
sac.
to
fertilisation
haploid
(Figure
produce
embryo
female
form
a
haploid
The
other
several
haploid
gamete
in
cells.
three
cells,
nucleus
KEY
the
POINTS
11.3.3).
1
Meiosis
have
produces
half
the
chromosomes
SUMMARY
The
the
parent
number
chromosomes
How
as
that
of
QUESTIONS
nucleus.
1
nuclei
number
many
chromosomes
are
there
in
the
following
in
of
daughter
human
nuclei
is
the
haploid
number.
cells:
a
a
cell
c
a
from
sperm
the
cell,
lining
d
a
of
an
zygote,
alveolus,
e
a
red
b
an
blood
egg
cell,
2
cell?
Haploid
that
2
a
State
the
products
of
meiosis
in
animals
and
3
There
in
Each
leaf
cell
of
an
onion
has
16
has
to
form
the
chromosome
numbers
chromosomes;
what
are
two
meiosis.
a
pollen
grain,
ii
a
sac,
iv
a
root
tip
cell,
iii
a
nucleus
in
a
State
b
Explain
three
ways
the
in
xylem
which
advantages
in
the
division
In
and
the
then
second
vessel?
meiosis
of
pair
an
division
3
divisions
Homologous
are
separate.
embryo
number.
in:
first
i
zygote
diploid
chromosomes
the
fuse
a
flowering
plants.
b
gametes
together
differs
genetic
from
variation
mitosis.
each
the
chromatids
chromosome
of
separate.
among
4
In
animals,
meiosis
produces
gametes.
haploid
4
Use
two
models
of
divisions
chromosomes
of
meiosis.
to
show
what
happens
during
the
plants,
gametes;
pollen
embryo
sacs
in
grains
are
the
flowering
and
products.
159
11.4
Meiosis
Random
LEARNING
At
the
end
should
be
explain
meiosis
genes
the
•
of
this
able
the
topic
One
way
is
‘shuffle’
to
in
in
which
the
the
transmission
one
in
during
of
of
generation
to
which
the
randomly
with
23
and
roles
of
random
genetic
to
pass
state
the
on
as
random
the
of
to
pairs
Make
and
some
use
what
one
(see
two
homologous
meiosis.
middle
of
the
the
23
next
of
pairs,
The
the
giving
chromosomes
different
cell.
There
generation.
assortment
across
in
the
a
–
think
random
middle
in
Summary
Now
are
imagine
many
many
The
pairs
mixtures
random
are
are
of
arranged
arranged
this
possible
happening
random
chromosomes
arrangement
about
sorting
out
of
fashion
the
cell.
on
It
either
is
a
side
good
the
of
idea
question
is
known
homologous
an
to
imaginary
model
this
as
2.
A
Cell
B
pair
to
to
to
show
and
during
crossing
and
model
(Figure
during
variation.
them
11.3)
to
then
random
11.4.1).
Haploid
Figure
11.4.1
the
B.
any
cell
about
chromosome
The
adult
This
means
Crossing
Homologous
Crossing
over
to
of
A
differ
divide
be
by
random
alleles
from
those
as
the
gametes
see
how
from
there
in
cell
is
by
by
the
parent
is
A
a
that
that
the
random
nuclei
cell
chance
50%
as
gametes
of
assortment
produced
from
B.
50%
and
combinations
produced
all
–
assortment
different
of
into
meiosis
arranged
gametes
of
variation
chromosomes
cells
in
that
cell
from
one
chromosomes.
organism
have
different
genes.
over
Chromatid
chromosomes
material
During
up
meiosis,
homologous
chromosomes
exchange
parts
between
exchanged
them
11.4.2
cell
contain
that
combinations
introduces
will
advantage
organism
Haploid
homologous
parent
For
cells
Meiosis
of
Crossing
over
homologous
are
the
160
two
of
happens
11.4.2)
pairs
assortment
Figure
gametes
shows
between
chromosomes
introduce
(Figure
pair
between
11.4.1
meiosis.
models
happens
meiosis
over
to
with
what
Figure
FOCUS
understand
Start
variation
assortment
differences
homologous
meiosis
of
of
chromosomes.
Cell
STUDY
the
variation
suggested
mitosis
generates
chromosomes.
crossing
plate
•
of
division
across
pairs
arrangements
the
meiosis
pairs
two
first
chromosomes
in
chromosomes
to:
next
over
of
you
importance
from
outline
assortment
variation
OUTCOMES
ways
•
and
paired
first
occurs
when
as
you
crossing
can
over,
see
also
in
Figure
11.4.2.
introduces
This
process,
known
as
variation.
chromosomes
together
division
of
during
meiosis.
Variation
two
in
the
processes
genetic
that
material
occur
in
in
the
meiosis.
gametes
Few,
if
any,
results
from
gametes
these
produced
during
an
variation
and
the
the
organism’s
is
caused
gametes
opportunity
variation
is
changing
Some
leads
to
lifetime
fuse
for
at
genetically
The
random.
even
more
See
flowering
self-fertilisation.
12.2
plant
Even
These
of
exactly
choice
The
survival
and
reproduce
the
the
mate
two
same.
is
often
factors
advantage
of
12.3
though
of
other
variation.
chances
environment.
of
are
fertilisation.
increase
species
to
at
the
for
by
next
more
introduce
of
all
this
generation
about
and
in
a
this.
self-pollination,
male
Further
random
female
which
gametes
EXAM
have
come
limited
plant
from
variation
are
not
reproduction
offspring
are
the
so
same
that
exactly
there
the
the
is
individual,
no
genetically
next
same
meiosis
generation
genetically.
meiosis
and
identical,
no
introduces
of
self-pollinating
Remember
fusion
forming
a
a
of
that
in
gametes,
clone
(see
9.2
Rem
embe
r
asexual
so
all
and
halves
the
num
ber
varia
the
of
mitosis
and
11.4.1
summarises
the
meiosis
differences
and
tion
produc
ed.
between
mitosis
and
11.4.1
The
differences
between
mitosis
and
meiosis.
and
meiosis
are
Feature
Mitosis
no t
the
of
divisions
of
the
amon
g
chan
ge
cells
1
2
paren
t
o ther
the
num
ber
produc
ed
gene
tically
each
are
Mito
sis
identic
al
Meiosis
to
Number
resul
ts
that
chrom
osom
e
T
able
meio
sis
chrom
osom
e
gam
e tes
does
T
able
the
that
11.2).
in
Comparison
TIP
some
and
to
the
cell.
nucleus
Pairing
of
homologous
No
Yes
No
Yes
2
4
chromosomes
Crossing
Number
nuclei
over
of
daughter
produced
Genotypes
of
Identical
to
the
All
are
different
from
SUMMARY
daughter
nuclei
parent
to
nucleus
each
and
each
other
other
parent
and
to
nucleus
1
Roles
in
organisms
Growth,
QUESTIONS
the
Production
of
in
production
a
State
three
meiosis
replacement
of
cells
animals;
ways
in
which
gametes
differs
from
mitosis.
and
tissues,
wound
of
pollen
grains
b
repair
,
asexual
and
embryo
sacs
Explain
the
genetic
reproduction
flowering
advantages
of
in
variation
among
plants
gametes.
Chromosome
numbers
Same
as
the
parent
Half
the
number
as
2
of
daughter
nuclei
nucleus
the
parent
Use
to
be
KEY
models
of
POINTS
show
how
Gametes
differ
from
each
other
as
they
have
random
assortment
of
of
chromosomes
homologous
as
pairs
a
in
result
the
of
first
the
first
Crossing
over
occurs
in
meiosis
and
division
involves
of
meiosis.
3
a
Use
between
chromosomes
in
a
the
homologous
division
swapping
Figure
Mitosis
and
division;
meiosis
meiosis
variation;
nuclei
are
halves
the
the
produced
two
different
chromosome
by
mitosis
are
of
types
of
in
meiosis.
11.3.2
of
the
to
make
stages
of
meiosis,
but
include
pair.
crossing
3
by
chromosomes
drawing
of
DNA
meiosis
arrangements
random
a
2
in
can
different
the
combinations
variation
generated
the
homologous
1
chromosomes
nucleus
of
number
and
genetically
generates
identical.
over
homologous
nuclear
b
Explain
the
crossing
between
a
pair.
advantage
of
over.
161
11.5
Genetics
Genetics
LEARNING
is
the
characteristic
At
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
from
you
define
the
following
phenotype,
trait,
dominant
allele,
allele,
The
recessive
trait,
recessive
homozygous
make
and
genetic
explain
the
crosses
and
diagrams
results
dominant
we
see,
of
can
to
inheritance
short
a
between
and
fruit
single
fly.
We
of
genes.
have
Each
learnt
Monohybrid
characteristic,
their
recessive
such
11.5.2
all
in
wings
gene
ability
appearance
as
wings,
for
and
an
biology
humans.
and
We
example
have
(see
and
the
shows
flies
alleles
is
organism’s
organism,
Almost
of
an
groups
Figure
genetic
investigations
an
two
distinguish
a
phenotype
of
of
inheritance
•
of
organism.
determines
aspects
blood
heterozygous
•
the
of
which
an
gene
lot
controls
about
inheritance
such
to
a
a
as
the
genetics
concerns
wing
length
the
of
fruit
fly.
terms:
genotype,
dominant
of
studying
inheritance
to:
flies
•
study
OUTCOMES
the
are
wing
wings,
unable
to
to
make
an
use
individual.
its
features
often
that
of
but
fly.
sure
genes.
the
length
inheritance
long
11.1
of
except
in
fruit
gene
you
to
flies
in
the
such
one
as
feature
11.5.1).
fruit
that
wings
the
to
all
features
(Figure
some
for
know
to
see,
apply
length
are
refers
includes
cannot
term
wing
there
The
we
It
It
flies.
have
very
therefore
difference
has
between
allele).
traits.
A
male
and
with
then
amongst
Parental
long
males
wings
and
is
crossed
females
of
with
the
a
next
female
with
generation
short
are
wings
crossed
themselves.
generation
First
generation
(F
)
Second
generation
large
males
all
numbers
and
with
–
large
numbers
2
of
of
flies
females
long
)
(F
1
–
of
and
both
sexes
smaller
wings
with
with
number
short
long
of
wings
flies
wings
×
Male
Female
flies
F
were
allowed
1
to
Figure
11.5.1
Fruit
to
flies
keep,
produce
and
The
are
Figure
easy
short
offspring
life
spans.
disadvantage
You
can
is
wings.
that
they
see
This
that
wing
short
the
flies
The
a
that
the
reces
sive
le tter
.
the
fo r
we
the
that
fruit
long
flies
not
in
wing
recessive
in
the
can
has
see
trait.
that
been
first
allele
alleles
and
a
appear
in
the
first
generation.
the
is
fi rst
the
generation
dominant
have
trait
long
From
the
results
in
the
and
second
the
recessive
passed
on,
but
trait
did
reappears
not
affect
so
the
the
allele
wings
of
generation.
used
flies,
of
is
to
the
refer
there
this
genetic
is
gene
a
to
the
gene
and
composition
alleles
that
they
are
of
of
the
controls
an
organism.
genes
wing
represented
being
length.
in
a
The
term
investigated.
There
genotype
are
by
two
letters:
the
for
the
allele
for
long
wings,
and
w
for
the
allele
for
short
wings.
smal
l
differe
nt
alleles
gene
.
genotype
fruit
of
The
parental
they
come
wings
only
for
have
Genetic
162
all
the
wing
usually
In
W
as
use
the
is
alwa
ys
le tter
allele
Never
same
we
domin
ant
capita
l
le tters
does
TIP
No tic
e
as
feature
fly!
for
show
recessive
shows
is
generation,
EXAM
The
for
short
researchers
11.5.2
easily,
many
have
only
small,
mate
interbreed
generation
from
many
the
a
stock
in
of
this
generations.
allele,
diagrams
W,
are
investigation
fruit
and
drawn
flies
As
a
that
result
we
short-winged
to
explain
are
had
know
flies
how
pure
either
the
only
the
breeding
long
wings
flies
or
long-winged
have
alleles
the
are
as
short
allele,
flies
w.
inherited.
Parental
phenotypes
Male
long
Female
wing
×
short
wing
EXAM
Parental
genotypes
Parental
gametes
WW
TIP
ww
+
W
When
w
you
gene
tic
F
genotype
write
out
diag
rams
Ww
like
1
this
F
phenotype
All
long
one,
wing
mak
e
them
1
F
phenotypes
Long
wing
×
Long
simpl
e
wing
–
homoz
ygou
s
1
organi
sms
F
genotypes
Ww
only
mak
e
Ww
1
gam
e tes
F
of
one
gametes
1
w
,
W
W
+
w
,
so
only
the
Male
gametes
a
grid,
WW
this
Ww
to
once
Alwa
ys
calle
d
possib
le
Female
write
diag
ram .
squa
re,
W
geno
type
a
in
use
Punn
e tt
show
all
the
geno
types.
gametes
When
Ww
w
on
F
genotypes
and
WW
2 Ww
ww
long
short
you
section
,
ww
have
try
page
read
this
ques
tion
7c
169.
2
phenotypes
long
F
phenotypic
ratio
3
wing
long
wing
:
1
wing
short
wing
wing
2
If
an
organism
concerned.
dominant,
alleles
are
If
if
has
the
two
identical
alleles
they
are
different
are
recessive
then
it
alleles
both
is
it
is
homozygous
dominant,
then
it
is
then
it
is
homozygous
heterozygous.
If
the
for
the
gene
homozygous
recessive.
males
and
If
the
two
females
in
SUMMARY
the
as
first
the
generation
F
are
generation,
homozygous,
and
the
then
second
the
first
generation
generation
is
the
F
1
is
QUESTIONS
known
generation
2
1
Amongst
the
F
generation
¼
(or
25%)
are
homozygous
dominant;
Fruit
flies
crossed
with
with
grey
fruit
bodies
flies
are
with
2
½
(or
Since
50%)
the
are
heterozygous;
phenotypes
of
WW
¼
(or
and
25%)
Ww
are
are
homozygous
the
same,
¾
of
recessive.
the
F
ebony
flies
had
bodies.
grey
All
bodies.
the
offspring
When
these
2
have
a
long
ratio,
3
wings
long
and
wing:
¼
1
have
short
short
wings.
This
can
also
be
written
as
offspring
wing.
themselves,
the
next
bodies
KEY
allele
Follow
these
points
when
writing
genetic
Genotypes
of
organisms
have
two
alleles
as
they
are
two
sets
of
Genotypes
of
are
haploid
are
produced
gametes
(have
by
(sperm
and
eggs)
have
one
allele
as
the
rest
flies
had
in
ebony
alleles
Write
the
use
that
out
a
one
set
meiosis
grid
can
the
the
males
of
chromosomes).
which
show
at
This
is
because
were
grey
G
body
for
grey.
and
the
for
ebony
g
body,
for
draw
diagram
to
explain
result.
A
fruit
halves
the
chromosome
that
and
they
females
then
the
all
the
possible
will
in
first
make
combinations
that
you
crossed
show
of
clearly
first
a
black
offspring
3
a
grey
with
a
had
Define
body;
had
grey
black
the
body
fruit
generation
is
4
are
known
as
the
Suggest
good
F
why
F
the
and
homozygous,
and
fruit
animals
of
bodies
F
1
generation
fly
50%
bodies.
terms
heterozygous,
have.
the
with
number
.
50%
sure
fly
they
fertilisation.
genotypes
and
homozygous,
to
occur
phenotypes
symbols
they
with
Always
for
genetic
was
If
the
chromosomes).
2
5
and
the
allele
this
4
of
diploid
a
(have
3
¼
generation
among
diagrams.
the
2
crossed
POINTS
Using
1
were
for
2
flies
make
studying
1
generation,
and
the
second
generation
is
the
F
generation.
genetics.
2
163
11.6
Inheritance
Mutations
LEARNING
much
At
the
end
should
•
be
of
this
able
describe
affect
the
ways
genes
work.
In
some
cases,
there
is
so
OUTCOMES
the
topic
all.
you
change
In
others,
produced
to:
effects
to
the
the
but
it
gene
change
that
to
functions
it
the
in
a
does
DNA
not
is
code
quite
different
for
small
any
and
protein
a
at
protein
is
way.
of
Albinism
mutations
•
define
People
codominance
in
•
interpret
pedigree
•
state
causes
the
and
inheritance
of
this
these
sickle
cell
cannot
iris
of
make
the
eye.
the
pigment,
Several
melanin,
enzymes
are
which
needed
is
to
pigment
enzymes
and
that
it
is
is
a
the
mutation
cause
of
in
the
a
gene
that
condition.
codes
People
for
one
who
are
albinism
albino
and
the
explain
of
the
albinism
and
charts
make
the
with
skin
are
homozygous
recessive,
aa.
People
who
are
homozygous
anaemia
dominant,
the
or
functioning
they
risk
have
of
heterozygous,
enzyme
normal
sunburn,
normal
A
AA,
and
so
Aa,
melanin
pigmentation.
skin
cancer
have
and
People
is
the
that
produced.
with
damage
allele
to
This
albinism
the
eyes
codes
are
than
for
means
at
that
greater
people
with
pigmentation.
family
with
albinism
is
shown
in
this
pedigree
chart.
3
12
Figure
11.6.1
An
albino
Kuna
13
14
15
16
17
18
Indian
21
woman
The
and
Kuna
in
the
normally
Indians
Caribbean
highest
her
coast
live
of
pigmented
along
the
Panama.
percentage
of
19
20
eastern
They
people
child.
have
with
Key
the
albinism
Male
Female
world.
People
STUDY
very
chart
of
If
as
and
work
at
out
people
cannot
whether
is
carefully
many
you
be
homozygous
the
the
as
can.
A-
where
the
The
examples
The
recessive
you
have
albinism.
Look
carefully
at
the
key.
that
dash
allele
or
allele
we
is
have
not
looked
at
expressed
in
involve
the
alleles
that
phenotype
of
are
recessive.
individuals
or
the
heterozygous
caused
by
genotype.
dominant
alleles,
Sometimes,
an
example
is
genetic
diseases
Huntington’s
can
disease
stands
question
10
on
the
CD).
Other
examples
arise
when
neither
allele
a
dominant,
and
both
alleles
are
expressed,
allele.
a
164
family
can
is
recessive
this
genotype
(see
dominant
in
Codominance
be
a
people
sure
with
for
Several
genotypes
you
dominant
then
11.6.2
pedigree
absolutely
someone’s
heterozygous,
write
albinism
FOCUS
Figure
Look
with
mixture
of
the
effects
of
each
allele.
so
that
the
phenotype
is
This
condition
is
codominant
white
you
flowers.
cross
Flower
plants,
give
–
pink
capital
an
the
as
codominance
The
Four
colour
homozygous
flowered
as
known
alleles.
lower
case
and
plant
determined
red-flowered
offspring
intermediate
and
is
o’clock
are
all
colour.
letters
–
by
plants
pink.
the
can
one
with
Both
they
are
red
gene.
called
flowers
are
alleles
are
or
However,
homozygous
alleles
Codominant
instead
alleles
have
white-
expressed
are
usually
if
not
to
written
written
as
R
superscripts
of
the
letter
chosen
to
represent
the
gene,
e.g.
C
for
red
W
and
The
C
for
ABO
There
is
white
blood
more
(see
question
group
about
system
7di
is
a
on
page
human
codominance
in
169
for
example
an
of
example).
codominance.
Figure
12.1.
11.6.3
Codominance
these
flowers
o’clock
Sickle
People
of
a
cell
with
sickle.
sickle
The
blood
cells
and
found
is
including
the
have
a
to
to
of
carry
anaemia
of
normal
The
and
SCA
Asia
and
abnormal
is
red
North
who
forms
common
in
cells
in
among
for
and
South
is
common
Caribbean
people
and
with
or
the
the
used
USA.
in
Four
plant.
East
genotype
ss
heterozygous,
but
they
people
are
from
shape
the
red
Africa,
have
Ss,
They
the
have
rarely
resistant
areas
where
Figure
malaria
the
America,
haemoglobin.
oxygen,
the
difficult
West
the
are
of
it
and
have
who
of
blood
makes
common
in
People
transport
allele
is
People
disorder.
with
have
haemoglobin
Caribbean.
the
visible
(SCA)
oxygen.
parts
problem
malaria.
cell
abnormal
in
the
symptoms
both
anaemia
is
of
to
As
genotype
be
both
Ss,
common,
forms
the
two
of
such
as
parts
haemoglobin
alleles
are
of
are
11.6.4
Red
the
blood
person
made
cells
with
from
sickle
a
cell
anaemia
by
codominant.
SUMMARY
QUESTIONS
LINK
1
You
can
genetic
find
out
diagram
about
in
the
answer
inheritance
to
question
of
8
SCA
on
by
the
writing
CD.
a
very
tests
exist
for
the
three
human
conditions
fair
described
in
This
means
that
it
is
possible
for
people
to
Use
the
know
if
the
mutant
allele
or
1
determine
the
sequence
of
amino
acids
in
the
If
the
protein
sequence
functions
Albinism
the
is
the
production
and
is
present
result
of
changes
as
in
a
different
of
a
mutation
skin
from
a
result
way,
or
of
mutation
Codominance
expressed
phenotype
of
to
pigment.
where
neither
two
being
heterozygous
organisms
distinguish
not
in
one
Albinism
of
is
at
the
a
and
Sickle
that
cell
mutant
give
anaemia
codes
the
for
allele
alleles
of
dominant
organisms
with
the
is
caused
haemoglobin.
are
sickle
active
cell
allele,
of
terms
genotype
and
heterozygous,
and
recessive
State
the
Kuna
woman
homozygous
dominant
genotype
and
of
her
the
child
all.
genes
recessive
for
Figure
two
trait
11.6.1.
possible
child’s
Suggest
genotypes
the
of
the
father.
or
is
a
gene
are
recessive.
a
both
State
the
The
trait,
in
a
tree
people
which
the
a
in
normal
who
gives
in
in
Figure
the
of
family
11.6.2.
What
are
is
the
probability
genotypes.
mutation
Both
genotypes
intermediate
homozygous
by
the
people
that
4
between
pairs
phenotype,
b
between
described
birth.
occurs
with
albino.
then
4
3
examples
and
in
2
an
being
each
3
protein.
or
of
not.
POINTS
Genes
skinned
following
gene
KEY
risks
they
the
carry
health
this
here
section.
the
Genetic
2
(DNA)
State
the
gene
allele
and
heterozygous
resistance
16
to
the
to
malaria.
the
and
next
17
albinism?
diagram
child
will
Draw
to
of
have
a
genetic
explain
your
answer.
165
11.7
Sex
determination
sex
Sex
LEARNING
the
end
of
this
topic
•
be
able
describe
sex
the
based
determination
chromosomes
46
chromosomes
inheritance
on
the
X
and
of
chromosomes
can
chromosomes
that
chromosomes.
Y
X
what
term
sex
state
that
is
meant
by
be
which
these
matched
are
not
Females
chromosome
and
chromosomes
explain
and
colour
sex
use
are.
In
pairs.
humans
In
there
females
all
46
in
a
have
Y
the
They
two
X
pairs.
known
The
determine
Males
as
chromosomes
chromosome.
gametes
into
are
and
diagram
the
sex
the
have
X
and
males
shows
of
two
Y
have
how
an
sex
individuals.
linkage
haemophilia
blindness
are
X
Y
and
Meiosis
Male
examples
XY
cell
X
linkage
in
•
23
the
Diploid
of
you
in
together
alike.
Gametes:
•
sex
occur
to:
chromosomes
•
determine
you
are
should
linkage
OUTCOMES
Your
At
and
genetic
explain
sex
diagrams
testis
to
50%
of
an
chromosome,
X
sperm
have
X
linkage.
50%
XX
50%
have
a
female
Y
Y
Meiosis
Female
XX
Diploid
in
X
All
X
Figure
11.7.2
The
are
All
egg
an
X
At
a
cells
Y
-bearing
or
XY
numbers
The
11.7.1
An
X
and
a
Y
in
an
microscope
Y
12 000)
the
the
of
no t
the
fo rge
t
of
chrom
osom
es
haploid
num
to
ber
22
and
o ther
give
of
Y
.
the
23.
There
Y
chromosomes
chromosome.
of
may
There
is
an
being
far
the
fuse
sperm
the
of
then
located
if
any
to
are
Males
on
is
of
linked
X.
with
equal
and
Half
sperm
determines
an
chance
or
genes
the
a
whether
sperm
Y
we
the
than
the
sperm
zygote
because
sperm
contain
chromosome.
X-bearing
of
male
Y
-bearing
fewer
of
contain
either
female
One
testes
the
the
a
in
body
X
large
a
with
gene
on
the
the
that
embryo.
Y
If
develops
chromosome
them
in
one
are
two
recessive
chromosome
mutant
determining
of
recessive,
X
are
(Figure
other
or
inheriting
there
are
equal
11.7.2).
chromosomes
chromosome
it
is
is
not
stimulates
present,
or
if
it
female.
sex-linked.
with
many
allele
and
in
genes
then
of
a
colour
this
girls.
gene
features
controlling
the
the
chromosomes
than
are
with
copy
alleles
boys
examples
the
involved
have
have
common
T
wo
do
genes
only
women
have
166
and
The
X
genes.
Most
have
sex
each
(egg
contai
n
X
only
the
and
that
gam
e tes
sperm
)
X
of
linkage
chromosome
chrom
osom
es,
than
mutated,
Genes
show
s
inherit
ance
X
has
an
female.
half
child
X-bearing
fewer
nothing
Do
of
development
Sex
11.7
.2
egg
sperm.
the
an
have
electron
(×
TIP
Figu
re
an
or
and
chromosome
far
has
EXAM
contain
and
eggs
chromosome
and
viewed
male
chromosome
inheritance
male
chromosome
fertilisation,
XX
Figure
50%
XY
cell
ovary
is
why
effect
on
the
are
and
are
on
will
less
be
who
X
and
are
with
blood
X
gender.
clotting.
chromosomes;
seen.
affected
sex-linked
Women
blindness
vision
that
they
associated
Because
by
conditions
sex-
are
heterozygous
chromosome
haemophilia.
are
more
and
carriers.
Colour
blindness
KEY
One
of
the
genes
on
the
X
chromosome
controls
the
ability
to
see
1
red
and
green
colours.
There
is
a
mutant
allele
of
this
gene
POINTS
Sex
is
sex
does
not
produce
a
protein
necessary
for
colour
vision.
determined
The
allele
chromosomes,
so
any
girl
or
woman
who
is
heterozygous,
Rr,
the
has
X
and
Y
.
is
Males
recessive,
by
which
are
XY
and
females
normal
XX.
colour
vision.
inherited
the
Males
allele
only
r
have
they
will
one
be
X
chromosome
so
if
they
have
colour-blind.
2
Sex-linked
on
the
Males
X
genes
located
chromosome.
only
have
chromosome,
alleles
are
are
one
so
more
expressed
in
X
mutant
likely
males
to
be
than
in
females.
3
Key
linked
Male
colour
11.7.3
What
If
can
you
you
cannot
something
then
you
11.7.4
with
that
be
the
colour-blind
who
familiar
both
boy
has
carriers
colour
have
who
of
such
sex-
as
blindness
Males
red–
and
can
never
carriers.
is
parents
normal
vision.
have
are
disorders,
haemophilia.
red-green
blindness
Note
see
must
red–green
Figure
see?
green
Female
People
Figure
Females
SUMMARY
QUESTIONS
colour
blindness.
1
The
is
R
Father’s
genotype
X
R
Y
×
X
r
X
Mother’s
ratio
about
females
genotype
of
R
Y
to
females
slightly
males
Draw
a
in
more
the
genetic
r
R
X
with
than
population.
Gametes
males
1:1
X
X
+
diagram
Female
is
gametes
1:1
are
2
X
why
slightly
more
the
why
ratio
there
females.
X
R
X
show
suggest
r
R
X
R
to
and
R
R
X
r
X
What
is
woman
X
the
probability
who
is
a
of
carrier
a
of
Male
haemophilia
having
a
child
gametes
R
Y
r
X
Y
X
Y
with
has
R
Children’s
genotypes
X
R
R
X
X
r
R
X
X
the
phenotypes
Girl
with
Girl
who
Boy
X
with
Boy
with
has
colour
normal
vision,
vision
is
a
normal
but
colour
Draw
explain
3
Haemophilia
your
None
of
the
condition
disease
in
which
the
blood
clots
very
slowly.
It
result
protein
A
of
a
that
carrier
of
Her
blood
It
rare
mutation
is
on
the
of
X
gene
that
chromosome.
haemophilia
clots
the
is
normally
a
woman
because
codes
The
who
she
diagram
answer
.
conditions
also
for
a
mutant
has
the
has
blood
allele
are
you
between
that
is
a
sex-
tell
the
genetic
sex-linked
one
that
is
not?
clotting
is
recessive.
recessive
the
11.6
can
is
and
a
in
How
difference
a
genetic
vision
linked.
is
a
blindness
described
Haemophilia
husband
Y
colour
carrier
her
clotting
red–green
to
normal
if
blood
r
Y
time?
Children’s
disease
normal
allele,
dominant
h.
allele,
H.
LINK
is
have
her
to
for
woman
inherit
mother.
enough
a
to
the
to
mutant
Historically,
have
haemophiliac
have
may
allele
many
children.
man
haemophilia.
from
father
haemophiliac
Successful
have
her
a
This
with
is
because
as
men
treatment
daughter
is
well
did
now
the
as
not
she
would
from
live
available,
genotype
Now
long
so
to
a
try
test
question
your
9,
on
the
understanding
CD,
of
sex-linkage.
HH.
167
Unit
SECTION
1
Which
11
1:
of
formed
Multiple-choice
the
by
Practice
following
meiosis
in
exam
questions
describes
the
cells
4
humans?
A
short-haired
haired
One
A
They
are
genetically
identical
and
cat.
of
B
They
They
are
genetically
They
are
In
a
identical
and
they
not
genetically
identical
and
they
are
not
genetically
identical
and
they
species
is
of
plant,
dominant
long-haired
Which
ratio
would
be
A
1
:
1
B
1
:
2
C
2
:
1
the
allele
for
blue
(b).
D
3
:
1
over
the
allele
for
T
wo
There
blue-flowered
were
white-flowered
genotypes
crossed
hair.
with
cat.
of
short-haired
to
long-haired
cats
:
1
One
of
the
86
plants
of
the
chromosome.
BB
and
bb
B
BB
and
Bb
C
Bb
and
Bb
D
Bb
and
bb
blood
clotting
is
on
the
What
allele,
People
H,
who
have
do
not
have
the
haemophilia
in
which
and
are
is
slow
to
clot.
the
Which
parents?
carrier
A
for
were
blue-flowered
offspring.
genes
white
blood
30
long-
expected?
dominant
crossed.
was
a
short
flowers
X
flowers
offspring
with
had
tissues.
5
(B)
crossed
gametes.
become
2
was
offspring
they
tissues.
become
D
cat
the
gametes.
become
C
All
these
another
become
questions
of
of
H
A
X
B
X
C
X
D
X
the
following
is
the
genotype
of
a
haemophilia?
H
X
H
h
X
h
h
X
h
3
How
does
diploid
haploid
nucleus
of
A
It
has
different
B
It
has
twice
C
It
has
half
D
It
has
twice
SECTION
7
a
Each
2:
as
(2n)
the
many
chromosomes
of
from
6
species?
chromosomes.
much
DNA.
this
What
is
A
a
B
an
C
a
D
the
a
cell
dividing
by
allele?
length
of
DNA
alternative
thread
1
deer
has
shows
species,
all
a
diploid
a
i
the
of
DNA
genetic
that
codes
version
of
made
a
up
for
a
gene
gene
of
an
a
make-up
of
labelled
A
Use
the
letters
identify
homologous
to
string
of
genes
organism
to
pairs
of
the
chromosomes.
(1)
F
,
ii
in
an
questions
muntjac
Figure
Y
a
chromosomes.
answer
6.
differ
genes.
Indian
of
same
many
as
Short
female
number
as
nucleus
Describe
in
outline
what
will
happen
mitosis.
to
the
visible
chromosomes
in
Figure
after
the
stage
1.
(3)
F
A
iii
State
the
number
of
chromosomes
in
E
the
B
D
C
Figure
168
1
gametes
deer.
of
female
Indian
muntjac
(1)
b
Figure
2
shows
chromosomes.
diagram
in
a
diploid
Copy
Figure
2
cell
and
to
with
four
complete
show
the
ii
Copy
the
of
chromosomes
complete
in
of
this
table
by
the
type
of
flies
present
in
the
the
offspring
gametes
the
possible
•
combinations
and
indicating:
organism.
with
a
tick
( ✓)
or
a
cross
(3)
( ✗)
the
•
Diploid
cell
ratio
eyed
d
The
of
Four
three
pink
Gametes
Figure
c
A
of
red-eyed
to
purple-
(2n=4)
A
(n=2)
flies.
(5)
o’clock
plant
different
(see
Figure
student
with
(Cross
1).
have
red,
flowers
white
and
11.6.3).
crossed
plants
can
colours,
some
some
red-flowered
white-flowered
plants
2
gene
The
in
allele
fruit
R
flies
gives
controls
red
eyes
eye
and
grew
colour.
from
the
She
them.
these
collected
All
of
seeds
the
had
the
seeds
plants
pink
that
and
grew
flowers.
R
allele
r
gives
crossed
purple
homozygous
homozygous
The
of
4)
were
Cross
of
Cross
(Cross
2).
carried
A
researcher
red-eyed
purple-eyed
offspring
interbreed
and
eyes.
1
flies
were
Further
out
with
flies
with
(Cross
Using
for
1).
allowed
Crosses
the
i
to
ii
(3
the
symbols
white,
make
explain
this
Explain
how
shows
that
a
W
C
for
red
genetic
and
C
diagram
to
result.
the
the
(4)
result
alleles
of
Cross
are
1
codominant.
offspring
(1)
1
The
Cross
Phenotype
Ratio
red
of
eyed
eyes
the
fruit
of
red-
flies
student
crosses
as
carried
out
three
further
to
Cross
flies
then
follows:
2:
offspring
of
Cross
1
×
of
Cross
1
×
red-
of
Cross
1
×
white-
purple-eyed
offspring
of
Cross
1
flies
purple
eyes
Cross
1
red-eyed
×
✓
3:
offspring
1:0
✗
flowered
plants
purple-eyed
Cross
2
red-eyed
4:
offspring
×
flowered
plants
red-eyed
iii
3
red-eyed
×
✓
4
purple-eyed
the
genotypes
of
the
fruit
in
genotypes
offspring
4,
using
the
of
and
phenotypes
same
Crosses
symbols
2,
as
3
in
and
Explain
Cross
1.
the
diagram
in
d
the
importance
i.
of
(3)
meiosis
in
the
flies
life
used
the
genetic
e
State
the
of
×
purple-eyed
i
State
✓
purple-eyed
cycles
of
plants
and
animals.
(3)
(1)
Total
Further
and
on
practice
examples
the
25
marks
questions
can
be
found
accompanying
CD.
169
12
Variation
12.1
and
Variation
Look
LEARNING
the
end
should
be
around
of
this
able
topic
can
exists
you
define
the
variation
species
also
the
•
family
These
and
you
differences
Domesticated
example,
chickens.
find
If
think
you
variation
between
species
and
how
different
animals
about
look
the
closely
and
plants
different
at
wild
variation
also
breeds
animals
of
that
show
cats,
and
dogs,
plants,
within
these
species
you
too.
both
to
the
between
differences
species.
that
Here
we
exist
will
within
deal
species
with
and
variation
species.
variation
T
ypes
The
and
of
variation
most
widely
known
blood
group
system
is
has
four
blood
types:
A,
B,
AB
variation
and
A
the
ABO
system
has
three
alleles,
I
O.
B
,
The
ABO
causes
of
variation.
codominant,
so
group.
I
is
people
is
an
with
the
gene
O
I
and
I
system,
genotype
I
that
controls
A
.
A
the
the
discontinuous
which
describe
see
the
between
continuous
•
will
are
variation
species
distinguish
refers
differences
within
distinguish
a
species.
for
and
Variation
and
to
between
and
other.
variation,
discontinuous
within
friends
each
variation,
will
•
your
from
our
variation;
to:
terms
continuous
be
in
cattle
•
at
OUTCOMES
we
At
selection
Alleles
B
I
and
I
are
B
I
have
the
AB
blood
O
Blood
a
Allele
group
distinct
of
blood
variation
Height
and
variation.
a
range
there
end
of
are
of
divide
is
the
the
example
of
discontinuous
group:
mass
you
there
as
no
two
as
you
features
that
heights,
widths
The
To
into
present
groups
data
do
between
this
data
(Figure
alleles.
variation.
intermediates.
charts
are
intermediates
range.
data
are
bar
other
measure
measurements.
many
the
to
presented
body
If
recessive
can
show
the
as
a
in
on
this
Figure
have
type
12.1.2.
continuous
and
not
Data
see
People
fit
masses
into
two
you
distinct
extremes
histogram
will
at
you
find
groups;
either
first
have
to
12.1.3).
60
can
you
people?
30
20
10
2
0
0
–
2
0
9
9
9
1
9
0
–
1
8
9
1
8
0
–
year
1
7
9
1
7
0
–
1
A
6
16
9
1
6
0
–
1
1
5
9
1
5
12.1.3
0
Figure
–
the
4
in
9
1
4
0
–
1
1
a
3
means
related
9
This
1
1.
closely
3
of
0
groups
of
olds/cm
histogram
showing
in
Jamaican
Unit
Height
group
Blood
–
12.1.2
1
species
2
term
1
the
O
2
used
AB
Blood
Figure
We
B
FOCUS
0
A
STUDY
–
0
9
egatnecreP
ycneuqerF
these
height
.on(
differences
between
fo
see
40
Mean
fo
What
eht
12.1.1
)slaudividni
noitalupop
Figure
50
population
the
group
in
normal
heights
olds.
organisms
The
variation
of
16
mode
year
is
160–169 cm.
that
are
able
to
produce
fertile
12.3
more
for
interbreed
offspring.
about
this.
and
See
Both
your
170
genes
determine
and
the
blood
lifetime
as
a
environment
groups.
result
Your
of
influence
blood
where
you
variation.
group
live
or
does
your
not
Genes
change
way
of
life.
during
Features
that
show
continuous
variation,
such
as
height,
are
influenced
both
LINK
by
genes
both
as
by
your
that
and
the
by
the
the
environment.
you
exercise
result
effects
are
the
genes
food,
are
There
and
of
of
several
inherited
and
Your
and
illness.
causes
of
such
by
as
genetic
height
is
determined
environmental
There
environmental
diseases,
final
are
some
influences
polio
(see
factors,
long-term
alone,
Unit
such
such
Work
features
as
scars
page
the
10).
random
(see
•
Figure
exchange
over
•
arrangement
If
group,
you
of
homologous
chromosomes
during
meiosis
homologous
meiosis
all
the
is
also
This
is
after
between
(see
genes
Figure
that
to
learn
you
12
more
of
the
know
about
ABO
your
probably
on
blood
blood
know
that
variation:
11.4.1)
during
alleles
of
181
question
inheritance
group.
it
•
through
chromosomes
when
they
was
cross
positive
the
or
Rhesus
rhesus
negative.
system,
monkeys
in
named
which
it
discovered.
11.4.2)
are
inherited
from
genetically
different
parents
•
random
•
gene
fusion
of
gametes
at
fertilisation
STUDY
mutation
–
when
new
genetic
material
is
FOCUS
formed.
Make
a
factors
list
of
that
the
environmental
influence
the
way
Mutation
children
There
are
two
forms
of
mutation:
the
factors
people
•
Chromosome
mutation
is
a
change
in
the
number
or
•
that
behave
Gene
Gene
mutations
This
is
the
mutation
increased
tobacco
occur
only
occurs
by
way
at
a
in
copying
which
random,
error
new
but
the
during
alleles
rate
at
are
the
replication
most
by
exposure
smoke.
to
radiation
Ultraviolet
damaging.
example
and
radiation,
some
which
mutations
X
-rays
chemicals,
and
such
gamma
rays
as
occur
Mutations
in
body
cells
may
affect
the
they
may
lead
to
cancers.
This
happened
after
QUESTIONS
are
The
mean
of
were
dropped
in
Japan
in
1945
and
the
nuclear
Chernobyl
in
the
Soviet
the
atomic
power
station
is
Union
term
as
they
cells,
can
or
be
in
exploded
gametes
in
1986.
Mutations
inherited
and
themselves,
provide
are
new
that
of
to
in
gene
mutations
are
harmful,
but
sometimes
they
variation.
2
the
Measure
can
and
case
help
with
a
organisms
mutation
to
in
survive
the
in
gene
certain
for
environments,
haemoglobin
(see
as
11.6
about
the
sickle
cell
the
height,
of
foot
index
mass
of
as
finger,
many
is
as
you
can
(at
least
for
20).
information
is
commonly
group?
length
body
people
the
term
most
be
or
useful
of
the
the
length,
Many
What
in
occur
important
forms
group
indicated
at
occurring
gamete-forming
the
individual,
given
long
how
some
histogram.
bombs
in
as
of
students
for
well
way
formed.
1
the
as
all
the
grow.
SUMMARY
in
affect
of
chromosomes.
DNA.
is
Think
structure
they
of
develop.
Present
your
results
as
a
trait).
histogram.
Genetic
variation
is
the
raw
material
for
natural
selection.
3
KEY
Use
examples
difference
POINTS
and
1
Variation
refers
to
the
differences
between
species
and
to
2
between
Discontinuous
individuals
variation
has
within
distinct
a
discontinuous
a
Explain
groups
without
in
continuous
within
a
range
variation
between
b
State
the
two
there
two
A
gene
mutation
is
a
change
in
the
are
Genetic
variation
changing
is
important
environments.
for
mutation.
examples
in
of
humans.
many
Explain
why
is
genetic
important.
DNA.
d
4
term
extremes.
variation
3
variation.
any
c
intermediates
the
continuous
species.
mutation
intermediates;
explain
the
4
differences
to
between
the
survival
of
species
in
State
three
increase
factors
the
mutation
that
chances
of
occurring.
171
12.2
Natural
Natural
LEARNING
selection
the
end
should
•
be
define
of
this
able
the
selection,
existence
topic
to
you
explain
terms
•
natural
struggle
the
next
selection
to:
and
the
for
use
involves
far
of
generation
to
describe
each
most
that
generation
than
can
are
less
well
they
produces
survive
organisms
because
Competition,
selection
on
to
their
their
adapted.
alleles
Natural
are
in
large
the
remain
fairly
limited
by
numbers
environment.
stable
from
generation
environmental
factors,
where
individual
organisms
compete
for
resources,
as
food,
water
and
space.
Some
will
have
better
ways
to
occurs.
these
Predation,
resources
where
animals
than
many
eat
others.
individuals
seedlings
are
eaten
(primary
by
predators.
consumers);
tertiary
FOCUS
consumers
term
struggle
does
not
fight
each
mean
for
that
other
to
existence
•
organisms
refers
to
survive.
the
Disease,
are
have
shelter
,
Differential
in
and
many
individuals
weakened
by
the
are
infected
diseases
that
by
they
pathogens
and
cause.
survival
–
the
individuals
that
survive
long
enough
to
breed
good
at
obtaining
and
resources
withstanding
from
disease.
their
Less
environment,
successful
evading
individuals
die
evading
reproducing,
or
only
have
small
numbers
of
offspring.
defending
•
themselves
or
obtaining
before
predators
where
killed
predation
water
,
herbivores.
difficulties
are
organisms
eat
The
•
food,
adapted
pass
as:
Grazing
that
well
and
how
•
phrase
are
breed
of
obtain
The
those
to
following.
more
offspring,
such
STUDY
organisms
chance
variation
examples
natural
the
than
of
•
•
when
greater
–
such
genetic
a
generation
Populations
adaptation
importance
have
Overproduction
to
•
occurs
OUTCOMES
environment,
At
selection
against
Reproduction
and
inheritance
–
organisms
that
are
successful
in
the
disease.
struggle
the
•
for
alleles
existence
for
Adaptation
–
the
have
features
organisms
a
higher
that
that
chance
have
survive
made
are
to
breed
them
those
and
pass
on
successful.
suited
best
to
the
Key
bacteria
to
not
environment
resistant
If
the
environment
populations
giving
antibiotic
as
for
the
to
first
resistant
they
very
time
bacteria
non-resistant
long
are
and
changes,
bacteria
in
to
bacteria
or
be
now
has
antibiotic
of
adapted.
short
wings
stormy
individuals
the
are
at
an
and
population.
natural
do
the
For
not
range
selection
change
of
example,
do
not
weather.
with
features
advantage.
pass
on
their
Selective
such
profound
maintains
much
variation
over
female
do
not
time.
sparrows
survive
with
survive
to
However,
breed
when
as
the
they
are
environment
that
They
help
then
them
survive
compete
the
changed
successfully,
alleles
which
become
more
common
as
agents
predators,
are
disease
those
and
aspects
of
the
competitors,
that
have
effects.
resistant
variation
occurred
for
it
Antibiotic
resistance
by
mutation
by
our
generation.
and
is
arises
is
described
responsible
for
Environmental
of
in
reproduction
as
all
the
the
raw
material
factors
different
for
natural
select
for
phenotypes
the
most
a
particular
ensure
that
situation.
there
is
Mutation,
genetic
meiosis
variation
selected
in
use
is
in
selection
each
favourable
resistance
phenotype
172
they
antibiotic
selection
12.2.1
well
very
environment,
used
because
Figure
extremes
during
breed
Genetic
the
change,
so
stop
these
to
not
reproducing
killed
continues
all
the
not
killed
survive,
or
at
are
conditions
antibiotic
does
organisms
grow
reproduce
growing
of
treat
often
and
time.
resistance
Individuals
disease
particular
with
mutation
used
that
antibiotic
bacteria
antibiotic
at
antibiotics.
each
generation
for
natural
selection
to
act
on.
and
among
sexual
individuals
Human
In
these
impact
examples,
environment
have
not
are
the
and
pass
on
of
Pesticide
die,
to
while
the
to
an
changing
and
have
a
They
resistance
of
kill
bacteria
antibiotics
were
such
as
mutation
are
The
to
but
or
in
the
unaffected.
discovered.
antibiotic,
penicillin.
the
pollution,
breed.
that
introduction
soon
or
will
chemicals
resistance
antibiotic.
for
–
Selection
with
resistant
happens
the
bacteria
down
organisms
are
were
to
for
pesticides
able
to
resistant
their
penicillin,
that
gives
produce
bacteria
offspring.
most
them
an
reproduce
This
is
an
selection.
sprayed
pathogens
some
gene
natural
resistance
been
same
the
after
developed
exposed
breaks
responsible
which
antibiotics
are
selection
antibiotics,
Antibiotics
Soon
survive
that
example
have
other
However,
ability
enzyme
–
bacteria
bacteria
killed.
are
chosen
growth.
some
Fortunately,
When
humans
resistance
their
1940s,
natural
introducing
consciously
Antibiotic
inhibit
by
on
forms
weeds
resistant
to
has
also
insecticides.
survive
that
the
are
happened
Insects
and
increase
resistant
fungicides
to
used
to
insect
susceptible
in
number.
herbicides
to
to
control
pests
that
insecticides
The
and
fungal
them.
Figure
Industrial
melanism
–
Found
in
temperate
regions
of
the
12.2.2
Your
is
hemisphere,
there
are
two
forms
of
the
peppered
moth
view
–
a
very
and
a
melanic
(black)
variety.
Before
the
industrial
A
century),
few
were
to
melanic
easily
breed.
with
an
Lichens
variety
The
the
populations
individuals
spotted
eaten
Industrialisation
increase
died
was
and
cities,
remained
in
most
proportion
big
and
of
the
as
W ith
this
by
led
to
species
became
Air
soot
covered
the
form
Acts
in
in
in
Britain.
less
all
are
melanics
again
has
at
a
selective
advantage
Now
of
coal
the
speckled
populations
areas
the
it
around
still
speckled
numbers
no
of
new
selection
species
occur
have
to
change
some
aspect
of
Define
2
Explain
There
is
evolved.
the
term
the
natural
following
competition,
There
is
a
b
for
to
predation
and
disease.
terms:
overproduction,
struggle
competition,
Only
well-adapted
for
existence,
individuals
variation,
differential
survival
to
breed
and
pass
on
and
genes
to
their
offspring.
success.
factors
that
limit
the
growth
of
populations
of
Antibiotic
resistance
in
animals
industrial
melanism
plants.
and
a
‘struggle
due
bacteria,
4
same
selection
4
and
between
existence’
their
reproductive
the
the
QUESTIONS
survive
List
of
species.
3
3
variation
individuals
a
2
SUMMARY
1
POINTS
of
decreased.
examples
species;
as
agents.
survived
1
These
the
camoufl aged.
rural
the
of
act
environment.
industry,
and
that
they
KEY
forms
birds
speckled.
burning
best
in
In
moths
that
revolution
because
never
the
soot.
melanic
and
but
the
increased
in
nearly
birds,
increase
and
Manchester
Clean
were
mutation
predatory
and
melanic
by
an
dioxide
conspicuous
such
rare.
sulfur
trees
of
appeared
to
speckled
selective
(19th
these
similar
predatory
variety
of
northern
Explain
the
natural
selection
State
the
roles
agent
of
in
of
humans
this
in
the
three
examples
topic.
selection
in
of
pesticide
among
insect
pathogens
each
case.
examples
resistance
pests,
and
of
plant
weeds,
natural
are
selection.
173
12.3
Species
and
their
formation
The
LEARNING
are
At
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
A
you
define
the
many
is
a
biodiversity
together
to:
terms
species
different
species
to
•
Caribbean
‘hot
spot’.
This
means
that
there
OUTCOMES
be
is
a
and
very
habitats
group
of
produce
little
occupied
related
fertile
variation,
by
many
organisms
offspring.
while
in
In
others,
different
that
are
some
species.
able
species
individuals
to
breed
there
may
appears
look
as
if
and
they
belong
to
different
species.
Sometimes
two
species
look
very
speciation
alike
•
use
examples
to
describe
and
Species
speciation
without
by
occurs
physical
with
Caribbean
discuss
the
remain
cannot
breed
species
do
examples
extinction
distinct
together
attempt
do
not
of
12.3.1).
cannot
pair
testing
allows
whether
or
not.
in
which
new
ecological
is
the
of
is
the
result
of
a
a
male
donkey
female
produce
different,
horse.
fertile
It
are
not
of
that
can
green
small
cross
seems
the
washed
beach
they
late
on
large
far
a
bodies
fetched.
1990s
iguanas
up
terrestrial
in
was
raft
Anguilla.
that
they
trees
which
and
as
not
mate
but
produce
embryos
sterile
offspring
horse
like
the
mule
chromosomes,
to
look
no
at
they
can
breed
in
gametes
the
enough
difficult
formation
may
so
to
be
genes
to
be
test
are
which
of
organisms
classed
whether
rare,
produced.
difficult
as
the
different
or
and
same
species
impossible
to
captivity.
species
of
arise:
new
from
species.
There
geographical
are
two
ways
separation
or
in
from
separation.
same
species
such
conditions
so
to
as
may
bodies
either
over
a
period
from
no
interbreed
longer
a
lizards
side
become
of
of
separated
water
the
or
by
mountain
barrier
are
ranges.
likely
to
of
time
each
the
other
populations
through
become
natural
and
belong
to
produce
the
same
fertile
selection.
offspring;
this
They
means
species.
into
of
natural
found
of
different
selection
islands
adapted
on
to
in
the
Caribbean
conditions
species.
This
different
on
adaptive
islands
from
different
radiation
operating
in
the
islands
is
a
different
and
result
ways.
trees
Ecological
and
behavioural
separation
on
can
occur
within
a
population
without
there
being
any
Scientists
came
iguanas
colonised
have
group
a
This
may
happen
because
some
individuals
occupy
of
a
habitat
that
the
others
do
not
and
become
may
also
result
adapted
to
the
severe
thrown
into
barriers.
from
following
had
have
diversified
the
conditions
there
(Figure
behaviour.
Female
12.3.2).
It
from
a
change
in
the
cichlid
fish
in
Lake
Victoria
in
Africa
select
males
of
sea.
a
certain
(See
174
the
They
part
Guadeloupe,
storm,
species
different
separation
mainland.
physical
reckon
some
and
meiosis,
similar
new
different
able
Speciation
a
of
KNOW?
Anolis
in
different
cannot
offspring.
that
But
from
individuals
and
significantly
ocean
apart.
cross
be
between
do
barriers,
Environmental
mule
are
behavioural
geographical
of
Some
donkey
during
breed,
species
or
Populations
animals
individuals
produce
have
extremely
or
of
Geographical
idea
them
together;
scientists
is
can
captivity,
Speciation
The
because
some
they
It
Formation
YOU
tell
successfully.
breed
Mules
together
organisms
keep
DID
to
species.
of
a
to
develop;
(Figure
species
A
eye
to
decide
12.3.1
expert
barriers
DNA
Figure
an
separation
geographical
use
takes
and
that
•
it
how
colour
question
and
15
on
this
the
has
CD.)
resulted
in
the
formation
of
new
species.
Extinction
Organisms
•
Habitat
Cuban
led
•
to
be
of
macaw
the
–
in
seal
Predation
which
It
seal
•
by
to
Disease
–
a
mountain
Island
•
rat
so
officially
ate
large
last
the
is
between
water
Rica
of
in
of
for
in
the
them
a
1980s.
seals
the
to
time
Caribbean
between
1996.
breeding
Caribbean
from
of
the
the
considered
sighting
Bank
Jamaica
Other
and
species
of
12.3.3).
for
example,
owl
to
Atlantic
causing
Dominica
extinct
of
Costa
of
example:
extinction
extinction
extinct
for
the
extinction;
destroyed
mongoose
goats
about
half
the
else.
amphibian
in
lack
fishermen
species,
the
the
in
reported
(Figure
in
to
numbers
declared
infection
many
the
Seranilla
nowhere
become
–
to
Antiguan
Helena
chicken
Competition
the
found
of
has
on
led
reasons,
toad
century;
The
of
century;
golden
killed
1952
fungal
populations
20th
introduced
St
species
variety
19th
the
endangered
probably
introduced
native
and
in
a
contributed
mid
was
are
–
the
of
onwards.
was
Honduras.
•
the
for
deforestation
during
hunting
seal
Columbus
monk
–
extinction
competitors
monk
extinct
destruction
Hunting
monk
become
and
as
significant
species;
a
disease
Montserrat;
result
indigenous
of
and
decreases
is
in
affecting
the
the
Christmas
disease.
introduced
species,
this
has
Figure
wiped
out
many
island
the
Extinction
species
KEY
1
leads
to
become
a
loss
extinct,
in
biodiversity
.
habitats
But
become
extinction
available
for
is
not
new
all
bad.
species
When
to
species
together
Dominican
group
and
of
related
produce
that
evolved
species
that
migrated
Speciation
is
3
Speciation
can
geographical
ecological
living
4
in
organisms
fertile
loss,
reasons
why
Make
that
are
able
to
breed
Extinction
There
offspring.
2
Mules
male
3
find
are
gametes.
parrot
not
an
in
when
barrier;
place
hunting,
species
new
also
the
disease
become
same
and
separated
occurs
differences
at
are
when
between
by
there
a
is
have
Make
a
to
a
fact
been
over
the
Earth;
the
dinosaurs
ago
are
the
being
and
a
mainland
these
islands.
of
life.
seven
the
great
history
of
mass
65
the
extinction
million
most
of
years
well-known.
populations
time.
competition
are
three
extinct.
notes
out
fertile
(see
on
speciation
which
because
why
11.3
for
help
for
using
of
not
with
this
examples.
lizards
cannot
does
the
local
Anolis
meiosis
meiosis
explanation
the
species
live
occur
occur
in
For
near
to
you.
produce
female
or
question).
evolution
of
different
species
of
Caribbean.
Figure
4
parrot
Caribbean
species.
populations
speciation
behavioural
Explain
mules
Suggest
occur
of
from
two
QUESTIONS
revision
example,
formation
same
Habitat
SUMMARY
1
or
the
the
Lucian
are
FOCUS
extinctions
2
St
species
STUDY
is
The
parrot
fill.
POINTS
A
12.3.2
species.
list
of
the
factors
that
can
cause
species
to
become
extinct.
are
12.3.3
endangered:
one
–
the
T
wo
the
Hawaiian
species
of
monk
Mediterranean
monk
seal
and
this
seal.
175
12.4
Artificial
People
LEARNING
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
Over
another
you
land
to:
define
the
races
term
(selective
use
examples
to
explain
•
explain
differs
selection
how
from
have
–
artificial
natural
races
extinct
endangered.
trying
to
selection
selection.
•
humans
•
animals
•
the
possible
of
useful
and
as
as
are
have
People
save
as
least
ten
livestock.
of
Across
livestock
selection
is
and
the
crop
one
thousand
world
there
plants
responsible
for
year
adapted
the
to
are
many
to
local
considerable
occurred
to
species,
such
as
sheep,
goats,
cattle,
maize.
choose
or
a
plants
that
generation;
many
are
many
of
feature
(or
showing
show
the
trait)
this
to
trait
are
culled,
improve
are
improvement
rest
selective
they
are
alleles
for
This
selective
selection.
are
now
of
the
in
chosen
this
eaten
breeding
may
or
trait
not
for
breeding
are
used
used
continue
for
for
to
breed
the
breeding.
is
called
agent,
Humans
individuals
survive
Land
have
not
decide
to
artificial
the
as
environment
which
breed
selection
and
features
pass
on
to
it
as
is
many
it
humans
is
with
improve
their
and
who
natural
which
alleles.
these
races
been
replaced
in
many
places
by
commercial
sources
such
as
modern
in
research
high-yielding
varieties
of
maize,
wheat
and
future
Scientists
institutes
have
developed
these.
programmes.
Breeds
12.4.1
a
East
African
cattle
ticks
and
very
are
Zebu
resistant
(parasitic
eye
They
b
to
animals)
diseases.
can
survive
small
water.
176
at
from
selection:
process
rice.
Figure
have
offspring
varieties,
breeding
for
seed
KNOW?
land
become
varieties
and
generations.
Many
bred
Artificial
that
rice
artificial
This
YOU
animals
kept
occurs
next
DID
kept
have
how
In
artificial
and
farmers
breeding)
wheat,
•
crops
time
artificial
changes
selection
that
and
conditions.
•
grown
OUTCOMES
years.
At
have
selection
thick
to
breeds.
cattle
from
Africa,
Mozambique)
prone
of
cattle
(South
have
on
amounts
Nguni
of
southern
Swaziland,
are
ticks
They
and
have
of
skins
diseases
high
Africa
Zululand
tolerant
pigmented
adapted
calf
the
and
than
to
c
and
heat,
are
less
other
production.
local
Ankole
on
conditions
cattle
poor
from
quality
quantities
of
Uganda
food
water.
and
can
survive
limited
Crossing
varieties
yielding
existing
(Figure
Jersey
cattle,
hybridisation
For
some
can
and
features,
important
their
genes.
daughters.
go
varieties
12.4.1).
on
Inbreeding
can
be
passed
on
breeds
hip
of
joint
the
dog
to
the
a
cattle
males
are
is
do
a
long
of
may
from
the
properly
by
This
from
in
a
the
they
are
to
but
high
as
EXAM
Do
contribute
performance
so
that
between
food
by
of
our
crop
security.
very
few
pathogens
Varieties
genes.
with
e.g.
breed
ing
being
gene
tic
Many
failure
of
the
is
T
able
12.4.1
T
able
a
makes
in
to
more
Natural
and
the
wide
some
scale
forms
differences
artificial
of
of
to
is
from
(see
indivi
dual
s
natural
each
by
engine
ering
involv
es
usin
g
risk
a
to
other
plant
few)
into
(see
over
Natural
Selective
The
agent
although
may
be
in
one
Humans,
factor
plant
important,
of
traits
QUESTIONS
selection
e.g.
and
farmers,
1
animal
Define
the
term
artificial
selection
breeders
State
four
features
of
predation
livestock
Type
of
12.5
).
that
2
e.g.
cells
them.
Artificial
environment
very
the
one
selection
selection
total
one
from
time.
SUMMARY
Feature
labora
tory
trans
fer
gene
s
organi
sm
anoth
er
to
selection
selection
species
between
big
and
togeth
er;
10.2).
artificial
the
a
infection
famine
and
aspects
which
gene
tic
Artifi
cial
them
proced
ures
differ
susceptible
natural
similar
summarises
12.4.1
of
one
or
example,
them
possibility
is
change
for
uniform,
artifi
cial
involv
es
selectin
g
lameness.
genetically
wheat,
between
selection
there
are
of
This
the
Differences
Artificial
plants
with
engine
ering
.
they
(or
Many
confu
se
selectio
n
of
closely
alleles
variation.
inbreeding,
not
selectio
n
recessive
in
TIP
breeding.
dead.
reduction
leading
known
males
breeding
of
is
new
from
selective
the
superior
harmful
effects
of
many
bred
feature
checking
selective
and
were
cattle.
show
after
result
produces
Jamaica
programme
not
collected
descendants
develop
by
features
in
Zebu
chosen
danger
This
suffer
and
followed
daughters
individuals.
to
is
Males
related
combine
Holsteins
Sperm
siring
to
Hope
Adaptations
to
the
Useful
that
breeders
have
characteristics
improved.
selected
conditions
in
the
for
humans,
e.g.
fast
3
environment
at
a
growth,
high
Most
herd
particular
time
docile
of
All
traits
One,
or
a
few
traits,
herd
selected
disease
Generally
slower
Faster
can
in
a
Some
are
hornless.
of
The
decides
to
breed
more
resistance
hornless
Speed
cattle
horns.
e.g.
farmer
traits
the
have
temperament
the
Number
of
yield,
–
improvement
occur
in
this
several
cattle.
could
selective
be
Explain
achieved
how
by
breeding.
generations
4
A
plant
breeder
improve
KEY
Artificial
selection
performance
of
is
carried
livestock
out
and
by
crop
humans
to
improve
Humans
choose
individuals
tested
State
three
these
bean
that
features
show
the
to
improve,
feature
as
such
as
parents.
yield,
The
and
for
improvement
and
those
that
be
selective
select
the
are
used
used
for
for
breeding
breeding.
This
the
plants
of
that
next
continues
generation.
for
many
improved
by
breeding.
Describe
the
steps
the
desired
Others
would
follow
are
to
not
features
offspring
exhibit
breeder
feature
to
pinto
plants.
b
are
of
the
could
2
wants
yield
beans.
POINTS
a
1
the
improve
one
of
these
generations.
features.
177
12.5
Genetic
DNA
LEARNING
is
the
genetic
the
end
should
be
of
this
able
topic
develop
you
define
the
terms
engineering,
and
genetic
describe
(DNA)
Genetic
therapy
all
organisms.
genetic
in
the
to
conditions,
forensics
examine
ways
We
and
modify
have
exploited
treat
and
compare
relationships
species
our
cure
the
between
genetically,
genetic
genes
of
disorders,
different
them.
Genes
can
species,
involves
be
such
moving
transferred
as
bacteria
genes
from
to
one
from
one
species
plants,
and
to
from
organism
a
to
completely
an
individual
genetic
is
used
one
new
species
to
another
individual
of
the
same
species.
This
can
be
to
done
introduce
of
develop
engineering
another.
testing
of
engineering
for
to
genetic
gene
how
DNA
evidence
to
different
•
of
tests
analyse
to:
species
•
material
OUTCOMES
knowledge
At
technology
traits
by
simply
firing
a
gene
into
a
cell,
or
the
gene
can
be
placed
to
into
a
vector
that
‘carries’
it
into
a
cell.
Examples
of
vectors
are
organisms
viruses
•
use
examples
to
discuss
and
small
genetic
of
DNA
joining
up
DNA
from
DNA.
two
or
genetically
modified
All
cell
different
containing
and
other
used
from
slaughtered
Bacterium
DNA
produced
organisms
is
recombinant
called
DNA
have
to
pigs
for
be
treated
and
the
medicines
cattle,
meat
with
insulin
which
trade.
were
People
were
insulin
with
gene
in
its
ring
of
DNA
worried
for
Insulin
of
gene
DNA
cut
by
Ring
an
of
of
DNA
bacterium
taken
and
out
the
people
or
made
open
by
an
diseases
insulin
scientists
with
diabetes
would
humans.
Figure
inserted
exceed
identified
They
responsible
gene
animals
the
and
were
supply.
gene
In
that
that
at
risk
the
the
of
demand
1970s,
codes
transferred
the
piece
for
of
insulin
DNA
enzyme
laborator y
Insulin
from
split
in
enzyme,
that
DNA
getting
in
plasmids.
(GM).
diabetics
obtained
out
more
Organisms
Insulin
with
as
engineering.
been
Human
known
disadvantages
recombinant
of
loops
the
by
advantages
and
for
12.5.1
coding
shows
insulin
how
(gene)
this
is
to
done.
bacteria.
Bacteria
with
(splic
recombinant
DNA
divide
to
produce
bacteria.
insulin-producing
many
more
ed)
into
ring
another
of
bacterial
DNA
by
enzyme
the
nutrients
human
DNA
ring
with
insulin
it
is
taken
up
by
and
insulin.
conditions
Human
bacteria
they
insulin,
need
are
to
produced
given
produce
like
this,
gene
became
in
The
available
in
1982.
bacterium
Many
into
other
medicines
human
modified
always
diseases
bacteria.
very
good
and
are
chemicals
made
However,
at
using
bacteria
producing
for
research
genetically
are
human
not
proteins,
Bacterium
multiplies
so
yeasts
and
certain
mammalian
cells
are
also
rapidly
modified
of
human
produces
•
a
•
12.5.1
This
process
was
carried
of
protein
human
178
insulin.
other
these
that
out
in
the
1970s
to
clots
for
industrial
production
substances.
medicines
prevents
are:
vaccines
bacteria
that
could
(see
thrombin
from
forming
for
6.4)
influenza
and
for
protection
from
make
cervical
genetically-modified
and
ways
insulin
blood
Figure
similar
medicines
Examples
Bacteria
in
cancer
produce
•
factor
8
to
treat
haemophiliacs
(see
11.7).
Gene
therapy
–
genetic
engineering
is
also
used
in
gene
therapy.
DID
This
involves
therapy
the
has
retina.
putting
been
There
a
dominant
used
are
to
treat
medical
allele
forms
trials
in
into
of
human
cells.
leukaemia
progress
to
and
use
YOU
KNOW?
Gene
a
disorder
gene
of
therapy
to
The
form
beta
of
GM
carotene
is
rice
that
called
makes
Golden
TM
treat
or
cure
other
genetic
disorders,
such
as
cystic
rice
fibrosis.
in
Genetic
modification
Examples
cotton,
of
features
maize
and
–
that
many
have
tobacco,
crops
been
are
put
genetically
into
crops,
herbicide
resistance,
so
pest
as
•
drought
so
weed
insect
killers
can
be
used
while
the
crop
•
improved
so
pests
are
killed
when
they
eat
the
nutritional
of
rice
to
crops
will
qualities,
reduce
example
and
a
animals
sheep
type
of
and
the
fish
have
goats
that
grow
such
where
as
there
increasing
is
little
Genetic
engineering
process
of
number
of
children
the
vitamin
with
moving
also
that
grows
been
genetically
produce
very
human
testing
–
identify
mutations
genetic
diseases.
gene
in
(DNA)
people
from
and
putting
these
This
diseases.
can
T
ests
help
are
can
think
reduce
also
GM
bacteria,
captive
modified,
proteins
in
for
useful
their
milk
animals
ago,
cheetahs
bottleneck’
zoos
they
Cheetahs
in
the
are
as
DNA
not
Social,
nearly
few
of
too
are
zoos
an
be
they
the
used
to
and
carried
might
number
ensure
wildlife
a
and
extinct.
to
breeding
genetically
ethical
endangered
became
survived
give
pair
•
are
some
Chemicals
larger
of
the
be
of
out
to
GM
crops
with
carriers
of
children
that
parks
of
species.
They
rise
and
different
available
quantities,
quantity
of
collected
a
in
to
went
the
does
not
About
for
There
lead
human
from
plasma
90 000
blood
or
is
tested
of
a
protein
Medicines,
the
e.g.
growing
insulin,
can
a
‘genetic
alive
to
today.
ensure
5
In
are
Food
crops
social,
ethical
implications
that
(DNA)
identifying
alleles
for
run
testing
the
genetic
in
and
of
is
used
mutant
disorders
families.
can
be
goat
in
produced
can
its
QUESTIONS
technology:
in
produce
milk
in
a
the
year
1
much
as
the
genetic
same
can
Define
and
be
following
terms:
engineering,
vector
plasmid
donations.
be
produced
in
large
quantities
to
meet
Describe
in
the
genetic
roles
of
enzymes
engineering.
demand.
have
better
resistance
to
pests,
so
not
as
Discuss
the
advantages
are
and
many
disadvantages
pesticides
are
development.
engineering.
Genetic
for
3
•
in
implications
genetic
GM
livestock
features
to
2
•
as
years
that
quantities
example,
such
born
10 000
through
cheetahs
cheetahs
ecological
tiny
and
produce
breeding
similar
.
implications
available
yeasts
cells
chemicals
SUMMARY
Here
organism
another.
insulin.
genetic
inbreeding.
in
A
ecological
between
one
it
blindness.
4
with
the
quickly.
tests
who
is
genetic
rainfall
3
Genetic
this
CD.
POINTS
mammalian
Domesticated
about
the
crop
2
content
on
is
material
resistance,
more
soya,
1
resistance,
is
14
are:
growing
•
There
modified.
such
KEY
•
.
question
of
genetic
used.
engineering.
•
Herbicide
resistance
could
pass
from
crops
to
weeds
so
that
they
4
become
‘superweeds’
that
farmers
cannot
a
What
is
the
breeding
•
GM
microbes
could
escape
from
laboratories
and
factories
GM
technology
gives
huge
advantage
to
the
companies
and
Discuss
market
GM
crops;
this
discriminates
against
who
cannot
afford
Knowledge
their
to
life
have
from
and
life
genetic
their
or
advantages
testing
for
of
human
them.
tests
children’s
health
the
small
genetic
•
individuals?
disadvantages
DNA
farmers
related
that
and
develop
of
from
dangerous.
b
•
cheetahs
and
closely
become
danger
control.
helps
lives.
insurance,
if
It
people
could
that
make
also
decisions
affect
information
about
people’s
was
ability
sickle
disorders
cell
such
anaemia
Huntington’s
as
and
disorder.
disclosed.
179
Unit
SECTION
1
The
12
1:
best
Practice
Multiple-choice
definition
of
a
exam
questions
species
is
6
Humans
many
A
a
group
of
closely
related
organisms
that
interbreed
have
changed
organisms.
the
Which
environment
of
the
of
following
is
organisms
not
B
questions
to
give
an
example
of
natural
selection
influenced
fertile
by
human
activities?
offspring
2
C
organisms
that
live
D
organisms
that
look
Which
is
not
an
variation
in
A
body
mass
B
foot
C
height
D
blood
in
the
same
A
adaptive
radiation
B
antibiotic
C
melanism
D
insecticide
of
Anolis
lizards
habitat
resistance
of
tuberculosis
bacteria
alike
example
of
in
peppered
moths
continuous
resistance
in
mosquitoes
humans?
7
Which
of
the
following
may
result
in
speciation?
3
length
Jamaican
A
inbreeding
B
codominance
C
discontinuous
D
geographical
group
Hope
cattle
A
artificial
B
environmental
C
natural
were
developed
Human
genetic
reproductive
Transferring
improve
example
isolation
genes
its
from
specific
for
bacteria
nutritional
into
content
is
rice
an
gene
mutation
B
gene
therapy
C
genetic
9
gene
In
cells
and
would
tissues.
not
Which
make
a
of
suitable
the
target
A
epithelial
B
muscle
C
red
D
liver
cells
in
the
airways
cells
A
blood
genetic
captive
variation
breeding
cells
species
seeds
of
bird
programmes
species,
genetic
the
eaten
feeds
on
diameter
by
this
mean
diameter
beaks
of
of
of
seeds.
a
A
species.
the
large
scientist
Over
seeds
has
number
ten
of
years
the
increased.
The
for
variation
these
birds
have
also
increased
in
size.
is
Which
maintained
cells
engineering
endangered
A
expressed
therapy?
measures
5
often
of
A
D
are
selection
following
to
disorders
variation
in
4
isolation
selection
8
D
variation
by
of
the
following
is
responsible
for
this?
by
breeding
between
distantly
individuals
B
hybridisation
C
inbreeding
between
between
species
closely
A
artificial
selection
B
ecological
C
geographical
D
natural
related
related
isolation
isolation
selection
individuals
10
D
180
storing
frozen
embryos
Which
about
of
the
gene
following
is
a
correct
statement
mutation?
A
It
is
the
only
B
It
is
always
C
It
is
very
D
It
changes
form
of
new
genetic
variation
harmful
common
the
number
of
chromosomes
SECTION
11
A
2:
student
species
of
Short
answer
questions
was
investigating
Ilex.
He
variation
measured
the
in
a
lengths
The
of
results
are
Colour
leaves
in
from
one
plant
and
recorded
the
shown
in
the
of
moths
Number
Number
released
recaught
results
millimetres:
pale,
60
60
64
65
65
82
82
83
83
84
65
67
71
73
75
87
88
89
90
93
75
77
77
77
79
93
93
95
100
108
speckled
black
c
i
Suggest
i
Calculate
the
range
the
of
lengths
the
number
of
shortest
longest
Divide
the
for
the
results.
likely
results
of
if
the
the
two
same
varieties
been
released
in
an
area
of
from
length.
range
36
moths
with
high
atmospheric
(1)
concentrations
ii
100
by
length
woodland
the
82
explanation
Suggest
had
subtracting
an
100
(3)
ii
a
table.
30
in to
cla sses,
of
sulfur
dioxide
and
e.g.
soot.
60–69 mm,
70–79 mm,
etc.
iii
how
many
leaves
th ere
are
in
Explain
Use
the
resu lts
to
why
the
melanic
moth
is
not
each
a
class.
(2)
Record
draw
different
species
from
the
speckled
a
moth.
histogram
the
iii
to
show
th e
varia tion
leaves.
Explain
leaves
Total
(6)
why
is
an
variation
example
in
of
length
of
12
continuous
variation.
There
variety
speckled
wings
b
A
of
is
wings.
with
i
A
second
as
crossed
and
all
When
of
both
genetic
All
the
these
has
has
melanic
moths
of
moths
Moths
moths
the
groups
B,
AB
a
speckled
in
and
the
marks
ABO
O.
of
the
offspring
first
b
(4)
varieties
were
child
A
and
has
a
I
blood
diagram
B
,
I
O
and
group
to
I
,
for
gene,
show
the
draw
how
this
is
The
(5)
ABO
the
blood
of
group
system
dominance
genotypes
explain
why
this
Explain
why
the
is
of
and
the
is
an
codominance.
children
to
so.
(5)
had
wings.
both
groups
Each
group.
symbols,
the
genetic
Use
why:
cross
blood
possible.
crossed
explain
have
children.
blood
of
example
to
who
four
the
alleles
varieties.
offspring
of
A,
A
two
were
couple
have
Using
c
is
ii
blood
are
different
black
had
A
B
pale,
variety.
the
offspring
diagrams
speckled
moth
variety
the
the
black-winged
were
Use
peppered
known
student
varieties
four
they
25
(3)
the
wings.
and
are
system;
a
One
(2)
in
present
an
example
ABO
of
blood
group
discontinuous
system
variation
in
(2)
the
offspring
of
the
second
cross.
(4)
d
Equal
numbers
of
both
varieties
were
State
is
into
woodland
made
up
of
trees
three
ways
in
which
genetic
with
produced
among
offspring.
in
mottled
background.
trap
was
moths
as
lichens
used
to
making
After
catch
possible.
a
as
pale
two
many
(3)
bark
Total
covered
variation
released
15
marks
coloured
weeks
of
a
moth
these
Further
and
on
practice
examples
the
questions
can
be
found
accompanying
CD.
181
13
How
to
13.1
take
Paper
Paper
LEARNING
the
end
should
1
of
know
this
topic,
how
75
analyse
words
1
of
you
looking
and
key
That’s
not
for
is
some
questions
more
key
five
MCQs
must
plant
Unit
9.
It
is
remember
quite
the
that
in
occur
leading
up
Writing
out
to
after
like
EXAM
one,
choose
notes
The
as
be
helps
with
In
section
from
on
how
across
in
the
the
to
answer
syllabus.
T
est
yourself
multiple-choice
There
are
sections
many
on
the
CD.
test
(MCQs)
your
recall
are
is
genetic
the
parents
of
knowledge
draw
all
a
ts
if
write
and
your
you
put
answers
skill
your
and
at
answers
you
on
a
processes
occur
the
The
male
divides
3
A
4
The
which
the
pollen
nucleus
female
tube
by
a
carpel
after
mitosis.
male
nucleus
sequence
do
is
released
from
the
pollen
tube
and
fuses
gamete.
grows
down
travels
these
why
each
of
was
out
Read
the
Before
of
you
the
down
events
style
the
to
reach
pollen
the
micropyle.
tube.
occur?
→
last
A
1
2
3
4
B
2
4
1
3
C
3
4
2
1
D
2
1
3
4
you
the
(*)
are
sheet.
sure
to
of
your
right
by
the
sure
Do
that
Which
very
the
choice,
answer.
side
of
not
you
carefully
the
of
read
If
the
following
shade
than
first
look
not
and
four
of
come
to
the
If
you
answers.
be
sure
answer,
back
appropriate
one.
cause
the
again
sure
the
answer
changes
at
question
are
question
more
your
then
the
you
answer
shade
erase
and
to
it
space
change
you
put
later.
on
your
the
mind
thoroughly.
expiration
(breathing
occur?
the
Diaphragm
Internal
muscle
muscles
intercostal
Volume
thorax
of
Pressure
thorax
A
contracts
contracts
decreases
increases
B
contracts
relaxes
increases
decreases
C
relaxes
relaxes
increases
decreases
D
relaxes
contracts
decreases
increases
If
to
genotypes
see
the
probabilities.
182
in
the
square
will
make
chosen
out)
children.
you
question
asterisk
2
the
with
possible
children,
within
righ t
starting
Punnett
the
four
2
make
ending
of
examination
possible
geno
types
phenotypes
phenotypes
four
complete.
zygote
have
and
has
what
answ
ers
diagram
the
the
inco rr
ect.
3,
the
3,
question
decid
ed
FOCUS
question
is
The
answer
any
this
first
have
your
self
paren
o ther
STUDY
of
1
In
1
When
show
each
time.
part
an
you
thinking
sheet.
following
with
answ
er
o thers
the
with
lasts
answer
dispersal.
co rrec
t?
In
need
questions
Each
one.
answer
this.
ques
tion
the
Paper
to
pollination
sequence
you
ask
woul
d
of
The
seconds
of
TIP
When
which
In
seed
the
revision
questions
the
in
questions
Paper
pollination
your
you
75
difficult
sequence
1
of
questions.
have
reproduction
special
events
you
FOCUS
Flowering
in
if
topics
multiple-choice
comprehension.
to
means
ideas.
The
is
multiple-choice
long
advice
using
Multiple-choice
STUDY
60
which
to:
multiple-choice
questions
minutes,
question.
There
•
consists
exam
OUTCOMES
for
At
the
Questions
like
information
key
try
word
to
out.
3
this
to
here
is
look
Figure
be
confusing
through.
It
expiration.
remember
Then
can
sift
what
for
the
13.1.1
is
because
best
Next
to
look
at
happens
to
row
matches
shows
that
the
there
read
these
the
the
column
four
items
your
inheritance
of
is
so
much
question
first.
headings
when
you
The
and
breathe
answer.
albinism
in
a
Key
family.
Male
The
family
is
probability
expecting
that
this
their
child
third
will
child.
inherit
What
is
–
normal
skin
colour
the
Female
–
normal
Female
with
skin
colour
albinism?
albinism
?
A
0
%
(none)
B
25
%
(1
in
4)
C
50
%
(1
in
2)
D
100
Figure
This
Do
on
%
question
not
the
exam
(all)
requires
guess;
13.1.1
work
paper
it
you
out
so
to
work
logically
you
can
be
out
by
the
genotypes
writing
sure
of
out
the
a
of
the
genetic
parents.
diagram
EXAM
T
his
4
State
the
name
of
the
blood
vessel
that
TIP
answer.
transports
ques
tion
impo
rtant
blood
to
the
coronary
hepatic
D
pulmonary
is
a
nam
es
have
only
these
read
portal
vessels.
to
two
names.
revis
e
read
carry
Only
are
the
very
do
question
that
not
to
carefully.
oxygenated
is
to
a
vein.
the
question
have
right
Three
blood.
T
wo
of
T
wo
of
tests
work
these
of
them
answer,
if
your
carry
do
are
have
blood
not
of
out
vessels
them
you
recall
anything
the
Which
of
Less
hepatic
to
the
know
but
arteries,
the
it
in
these
tten
transpiration
rainwater
C
More
nutrients
D
There
are
more
questions
If
you
is
the
your
and
are
not
best
that
for
is
not
may
runs
are
a
consequence
decrease
off
lost
the
liver.
All
of
EXAM
of
100%
you
TIP
no t
the
the
an
causing
for
an
flooding.
and
with
‘not’
in
the
‘best’
careful
certain
based
could
on
look
and
‘most’
in
plants.
question.
them.
that
they
are
not
at
Also
look
shee t
equa
l
answ
soil.
animals
look
the
answ
ers
answ
er
.
on
er
These
are
Do
patte
rn
the
predict
no t
num
ber
(A,
they
to
B,
do
sequ
ence
C
no t
(e.g.
out
expect
of
and
each
D)
fo llo
w
ABBA
,
e tc.).
quite
reading.
of
an
answer,
what
at
the
you
can
other
then
find
what
remember.
answers
and
you
After
think
making
decide
why
you
STUDY
think
have
deforestation?
rainfall.
land
from
habitats
MCQs
have
require
answer
choice,
to
them
.
ABCA
BC,
common
6
you
immediately
a
carefully
if
their
and
for
blood
Unit
you
Do
following
More
very
the
but
again.
B
Look
of
See
answ
er
A
how
know
names
here,
of
5
to
artery
You
one
clues
fo rgo
vein
straightforward
blood
do
artery
C
This
of
hepatic
is
artery
vessels
.
B
it
liver.
the
A
show
s
oxygenated
FOCUS
correct.
The
answers
here
D
5
to
the
questions
are:
,B
4
,B
3
,D
2
,C
1
183
13.2
Paper
2
Structured
analysis
Paper
LEARNING
the
end
should
of
know
this
topic,
how
analyse
data
•
analyse
structured
First
questions
of
are
LINK
plenty
of
the
types
of
in
examples
question
On
is
55.
all
questions
You
read
seeds
minutes.
Section
question
for
should
the
your
in
store
produced
in
students
15
marks
spend
whole
of
with
A
in
Paper
total
each.
about
each
a
The
60–70
question
of
25
2
consists
total
mark
minutes
before
marks
of
on
you
and
for
this
start
this
section.
writing
taking
120
starch
the
and
seeds
to
investigated
seeds
and
protein.
break
the
During
down
activity
dividing
them
germination,
these
of
stores.
amylase
into
six
enzymes
in
the
batches,
bean
A
to
seeds
F.
The
of
seeds
and
10
analysis
answers.
Some
by
book
hours
questions.
Bean
these
2
data
structured
section
any
are
for
structured
two
you
to:
•
There
lasts
questions
OUTCOMES
one
At
2
data
were
soaked
in
water
for
24
hours.
this
marks
on
CD.
After
kept
24
hours,
the
batches
of
seeds
were
placed
on
damp
paper
and
warm.
After
a
further
24
hours,
the
seeds
in
batch
A
were
ground
up
with
3
a
pestle
and
mortar
and
45 cm
of
distilled
water.
The
water
was
3
filtered
to
make
an
extract
containing
enzymes
in
solution.
40 cm
of
3
the
extract
was
added
to
40 cm
of
a
1%
starch
solution.
The
mixture
3
EXAM
was
placed
in
a
water
bath
at
30 °C.
Samples
of
0.5 cm
were
taken
TIP
3
from
As
you
read
ques
tion
that
it
is
the
paragr
aphs
,
high
ligh t
anyt
hing
impo
rtant
This
as
if
the
abou
t
in
test
was
repeated
the
and
tested
with
2 cm
iodine
with
the
other
batches
(B
to
F)
at
24
students
recorded
is
negative
result.
t
in
=
time
They
how
long
calculated
it
took
the
for
relative
iodine
solution
enzyme
activity
to
give
as
1000/ t;
a
seconds.
The
students’
results
are
in
the
table.
germ
ination
9).
(Uni
ts
T
here
will
instru
ction
s
practic
al
caref
ully
intervals
to
Batch
wo rk
.
Time
taken
result
abou
t
if
Read
you
a
negative
Relative
with
iodine
enzyme
solution/seconds
activity
A
1
as
for
be
time/days
some
second
storag
e
enzy
mes
and
30
intervals.
Germination
5
at
tubes.
looks
ques
tion
energ
y
seeds,
and
It
mixture
in
procedure
hour
The
unde
rstand
.
this
solution
870
1.15
210
4.76
240
4.17
420
2.38
were
B
goin
g
to
do
2
the
practic
al .
C
3
D
4
E
5
930
F
6
960
a
State
two
variables
that
the
1.04
students
have
kept
constant.
(2
b
i
Calculate
the
relative
enzyme
activity
for
Batch
marks)
E
(1
184
mark)
ii
Draw
a
graph
germination
to
show
how
enzyme
activity
varies
time.
(5
with
marks)
EXAM
c
TIP
Name
T
ables
i
the
enzyme
responsible
for
the
breakdown
of
the
product
of
the
data
(1
mark)
(1
mark)
diffi
cult
Read
ii
of
starch
reaction.
the
to
Describe
what
happens
to
the
product
of
the
n
germination
of
the
seeds.
(3
what
Explain
the
changes
in
the
activity
of
the
enzyme
is
in
marks)
hand
e
first.
co lum
n
germination.
(4
and
the
in
students
investigated
enzyme
the
took
the
using
seeds
effect
the
that
of
same
had
soaked
temperature
procedure.
on
The
for
two
the
are
in
the
varia
ble,
this
germ
ination
days
activity
results
lef t-
find
marks)
which
the
the
to
during
inde
pend
ent
Next,
T
hen
reaction
read
during
be
co lum
head
ings
d
can
unde
rstand
.
case
is
time.
of
shown
graph.
12
ytivitca
10
8
emyzne
6
evitaleR
4
2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Temperature/°C
Figure
f
13.2.1
Suggest
extract
why
the
using
students
seeds
that
chose
had
to
been
make
their
enzyme
germinating
for
two
days.
g
i
(1
Describe
enzyme
ii
Explain
the
effect
of
temperature
on
the
activity
extract.
the
results.
mark)
of
the
(3
marks)
(4
marks)
EXAM
All
2
a
Copy
C
H
6
and
O
12
complete
+
_____
the
→
chemical
_____
+
equation
_____
+
for
respiration.
energy
b
List
the
products
of
anaerobic
respiration
in
Describe
the
structure
of
the
gaseous
exchange
by
e
(2
Describe
the
the
features
alveoli
Describe
of
briefly
the
of
gaseous
human
three
exchange
surfaces
lung.
effects
of
smoking
the
to
these
questions
are
on
the
marks)
of
a
marks)
to pic
are
and
no
cann
ot
in
the
your
of
two
ques
tion
in
ques
tion
are
respi
ratio
n.
of
on
choic
e
this
this
the
–
negl
ect
sylla
bus
so
type
paper
you
any
to pic
durin
g
revisi
on.
marks)
body.
(3
Answers
the
T
here
of
shown
(4
on
marks)
surface
fish.
d
on
and
(3
ques
tions
structu
red
released
plants
humans.
c
the
6
(3
TIP
marks)
CD.
185
13.3
Paper
2
essay
Section
LEARNING
B
in
the
end
should
of
know
this
how
topic,
about
plan
and
essay
you
write
answers
to
is
a
LINK
these
types
book
on
plenty
and
the
of
of
examples
questions
also
in
good
you
questions
questions.
are
On
in
your
of
this
marks
work
on
think
of
When
if
you
ques
tions
clues
.
fo r
In
and
write
in
hints
write
ideas
your
any
the
to
key
in
think
words
in
in
form
you
of
a
continuous
convey
if
so,
your
B,
rest
should
read
want
your
them
spend
it
is
include.
When
the
You
will
you
page
are
want
labelled
each
Write
(see
you
may
questions
starts
question.
what
You
sure
2
these
down.
diagram
decided
Paper
to
else.
usually
the
of
subconscious
through
that
of
B
through
something
prose.
make
you
Often
spider
have
read
write
word
the
Section
what
include,
Section
in
you
doing
command
answer,
If
about
are
to
start
the
titles
A.
information.
you
When
writing
essay
Section
the
things
the
be
your
to
at
while
points.
annotated
as
you
that
brief
8)
or
going
to
and
a
a
to
include
a
annotate
it
ideas.
of
essay
with
think
questions
comments
about
and
in
the
that
plan
book,
show
your
but
you
the
here
sort
are
of
three
things
to
answers.
A
girl
touches
a
hot
object
and
withdraws
her
hand
very
you
abou
t
See
you
a
Unit
a
Describe
b
Explain
how
this
action
is
coordinated.
(6
marks)
8
how
the
structure
of
the
elbow
joint
allows
the
shou
ld
movement
of
the
hand
to
occur
easily.
importance
of
locomotion
(5
marks)
animals. (4
marks)
answ
er
.
Discuss
the
diagram
the
hot
use
a
the
simple
and
object
is
diagram
reflex
use
it
in
from
your
coordinated
in
8.4?
by
answering
You
answer
the
part
to
for
could
show
nervous
1b.
You
make
how
a
system.
cannot
simple
the
flow
response
You
could
answer
the
TIP
questions
Essa
y
ques
tions
differe
nt
from
7
could
varie
ty
186
You
question.
Essays
also
and
structured
marks.
quickly.
EXAM
7
15
‘quick
ly’
to
c
compulsory
of
1,
chart
Unit
each
to
recall
ready
plenty
Remember
is
look
start
to
could
helps
c
cover
on
total
look
ques
tion
‘ with
draw
s
actio
n.
in
and
are
more
the
1
big
the
use
read
alwa
ys
objec
t’,
reflex
will
are
begin
that
to
problem
bullet
There
shou
ld
three
a
TIP
When
are
of
has
answering
highlighting
This
of
idea
appropriate
diagram
hand
’
consists
minutes
time
a
question
write,
‘ho t
2
question
start
you
again,
list
fo r
Paper
you
need
plan.
CD.
EXAM
questions
Each
25–30
before
may
There
–
to:
It
•
B
OUTCOMES
questions.
At
Section
Unit
and
of
8.
2
to pics
:
b
alone,
you
should
write
prose
as
a
Describe
the
the
changes
menstrual
that
occur
in
the
ovary
and
cycle.
the
(6
uterus
marks)
from
b
Explain
the
roles
of
hormones
in
controlling
the
from
menstrual
fo r
cycle.
units
,
well.
a
during
8,
diagrams
may
ideas
come
with
(5
marks)
(4
marks)
a
no t
c
Discuss
the
ways
in
which
the
spread
of
sexually
just
transmitted
infections
(STIs)
is
controlled.
Before
you
start
writing
part
b
make
a
list
of
the
hormones
that
you
STUDY
know
control
answer
since
the
you
menstrual
can
write
cycle.
about
Now
the
you
roles
have
of
a
plan
each
for
writing
hormone
in
turn.
Question
carbon
3
The
element
carbon
is
in
all
biologically
important
FOCUS
the
absorb
carbon
in
the
form
of
carbon
dioxide
and
use
a
raw
material
in
Outline
the
b
Discuss
how
process
of
photosynthesis.
(6
humans
are
dependent
on
the
activities
plants.
4
a
how
decomposers
carbon
dioxide.
Explain
why
are
involved
in
the
(4
large
multicellular
animals
need
a
in
outline,
the
circulatory
system
of
a
the
principles
communicable
involved
diseases
using
in
controlling
the
(4
•
•
is
some
Make
sure
that
have
written.
Look
at
the
enough
not
•
advice
too
While
to
Use
•
Do
you
mark
writing
write
the
your
legibly
allocation
answer
your
good
so
and
question
answers
the
the
Paper
examiner
space
and
in
marks)
basic
of
marks)
gain
available
the
marks
and
what
you
means
steps
short
are
different
this
shou
ld
raw
to
•
When
the
give
the
source
refer
with
of
the
proces
s
and
to
the
materi
al ,
ligh t
which
water
,
is
the
energ
y.
write
available
but
writing,
keep
looking
back
at
the
question
and
stick
EXAM
TIP
yourself:
do
not
say
the
same
idea
in
two
or
more
of
Rem
embe
r
to
plan
ts?
think
ways.
later
ally:
use
revision
is
sentences.
repeat
Always
in
pho tos
ynth
esis
and
read
This
notes
useful.
Activ
ities
•
could
carbon
TIP
Outli
ne
2:
can
answer.
revision
are
EXAM
point
not
You
the
much.
you
the
•
to
on
of
marks)
spread
vaccines.
in
o ther
Here
bacteria.
part
diagrams
of
Explain
as
marks)
human.
(6
c
part
such
of
transport
(5
Describe,
and
this
where
marks)
recycling
system.
b
of
(5
Explain
the
decomposers
marks)
cycle
c
the
only
photosynthesis.
draw
a
about
but
it
fungi
as
is
compounds.
involving
Plants
3c
cycle,
the
correct
scientific
terms;
remember
the
words
in
your
glossary.
you
have
abou
t
food.
shou
ld
finished,
read
questions
are
your
answer
and
check
it
this
be
is
no t
Wha
t
in
this
just
else
answ
er?
answers
question
Answers
to
these
on
the
CD.
EXAM
T
here
that
TIP
are
two
describ
e
phrase
s
the
hum
an
circu
latory
syste
m: do
uble
circu
lation
circu
lation
.
the
basic
answ
er
and
closed
T
hese
give
struc
ture
to
of
you
your
4b
187
Index
biological
A
abiotic
factors/biotic
factors,
ecology
biomass,
biotic
14–15
digested
small
food
aerobic
alleles
of
factors/abiotic
webs
19
numbers
factors,
16–17
ecology
respiration
(ATP)
28
inheritance
164
genetics
85
blood
vessels
cells
164–5
linkage
biodiversity
167
20
32–3
32
planting
33
coordination
91
glucose,
brain
162–3
tree
sex
32
pesticides
blood
bodies,
155
fertilisers
91
transport
74
pollution
inheritance
blindness,
commensalism,
138–9
immunity
74–5
colour
90–1
disease
45
codominance,
conservation
control
blood
68–9
cells
triphosphate
agriculture,
albinism,
birth
68–9
intestine
transport,
adenosine
food
14–15
absorption
active
control,
pyramids
animal
homeostasis
147
systems
irritability
86–7
reflexes
making
42–3
120–1
114–15
121
cross-pollination
142
120–1
D
amnion,
sexual
reproduction
138–9
breathing
78–9
decomposers
anaerobic
respiration
74–5
C
animal
cells
38–9,
42,
food
carbon
anti-diuretic
hormone
(ADH)
dioxide,
greenhouse
effect
resistance,
natural
waste
17,
19
management
24–5
107
30–1
antibiotic
webs
43
deficiency
diseases,
nutrition
72–3
selection
carnivores
16–17
deforestation,
human
activities
173
catalysts,
apical
meristems,
plant
growth
cell
arteries
division
artificial
selection
64–5
meiosis;
impact
mitosis
dengue
27
fever
reproduction
148,
149
147
transport
sexual
45
insulin
146,
147,
178
177
38–9,
42,
43
diet,
disease
147
134
bodies
also
42–3
diffusion
reproduction
diffusion
mitosis
146,
176–7
selection
animal
asexual
diabetes
38–45
active
natural
see
see
86–7
cells
vs
enzymes
133
156–7,
44
cells
44
161
leaf
structure
52–3
gas
exchange
76–7
assimilation
microbes
digested
food
40–1
organisation
liver
osmosis
intestine
nutrition
48,
digestive
system
38–9,
structure
B
bacteria
diet
Benedict’s
testing
substances
waste
62–3
conservation
10–11
photosynthesis
16–17
chromosome
16–17
chromosomes
food
webs
diploid
organisms
mutualism
21
symbiosis
75
10–11
substances
52,
55
mutation
171
causes
diet
154–61
154,
154,
system,
155
146–7
fever
malaria
86–9
147
plants
effect
150
34,
148,
mosquitoes
150–1
149
148–9
149
sexually
greenhouse
149
147
HIV/AIDS
biodiversity
148,
147
gonorrhoea
155
humans
146
146–7
exercise
166
organisms,
change,
30–1
154,
91
diabetes
10–11
climate
chromosomes
146–51
dengue
50
determination
classifying
number,
categories
52–3
number
circulatory
12–13
diploid
63
63
blood
56–7
50,
number
haploid
sex
20
20
teeth
control
structure
photosynthesis
18–19
62–7
62–7
functions
30–1
52–3
nutrition
flow
habitats
food
enzymes
disease
structure
chains
sampling
effect
chlorophyll
leaf
14–15
parasitism
digestion
44–5
chloroplasts
20
32–3
identifying
69
63
155
food
energy
bile
membranes
testing,
mineral
organisms
commensalism
68–9
assimilation
(chlorofluorocarbons),
leaf
24–5
10–23
classifying
52–3
60–1
63
waste,
management
cell
greenhouse
chemical
system
biodegradable
ecology
food
60–1
digestive
biodiversity
CFCs
70–1
solution,
42–3,
42–3
38–9
transport,
40
balanced
absorption
49
specialised
188
43
44–5
68–9
plant
autotrophic
biogas
84–5
69
small
bile,
transport
69
(STIs)
transmitted
150–1
infections
Index
sickle
cell
anaemia
treatment
vectors
yellow
DNA
(SCA)
food
energy
148–9
fever
154–5,
148,
food
149
genetic
testing
genetic
179
127
178
food
non-medicinal
solution
testing
greenhouse
effect,
climate
change
30–1
60–1
growth
60–1
132–3
meristems
germination
lateral
webs
133
132–3
meristems
measuring
18–19
17,
60–1
74–5
150
apical
decomposers
testing
50
gonorrhoea
60–1
biodiversity
127
testing
60–1
sucrose
126
respiration
16–17
nutrition
chemical
starch
technology
medicinal
also
Benedict’s
178–9
126–7
abuse
flow
substances
photosynthesis
16–17
substances
see
156
technology
drug
food
chains
biodiversity
genetic
drugs
164–5
146–7
133
133
19
H
predators/prey
18–19
E
habitats
forest
resources,
human
activities
ecology
conservation
impact
abiotic
factors/biotic
factors
restoration
fungi
biodiversity
effectors,
egestion
sampling
energy
irritability
reproduction
pyramids
of
138–9
numbers
16–17
16–17
chains
16–17
factors
62–7
how
excretion
exercise,
to
the
102–7
species
175
122–5
genetic
123
124–5
HIV/AIDS
179
(GM),
genetic
blood
179
technology
therapy
growth
178–9
water
179
162–3
34
testing
(GM)
179
human
179
fish
stocks
resources
178
genetic
technology
128–9
106
genetics
activities
deforestation
178
147
control
control
homozygous,
genetic
testing,
glucose
temperature
modification
genetics
48–9
genetics
150–1
population
162–3
impact
26–7
27
26
26–7
hydroponics,
plant
mineral
nutrition
56–7
179
125
154,
homeostasis
genetic
genetic
124
reflex
171
modification
medicines
nutrition
heterozygous,
technology
167
16–17
heterotrophic
genetic
linkage
chromosomes
88–9
herbivores
154–5
insulin
glaucoma
pupil
therapy,
gene
147
accommodation
defects
gene
genetic
182–7
heart
77
mutation
sex
number,
155
76–7
50,
haploid
28–9
76–9
technology
take
disease
extinction,
eye
66–7
64–5
pollution
134–5
78–9
gene
genes
affecting
properties
exam,
exchange
plants
64–5
digestion
reproduction
disposal,
diffusion
enzymes
catalysts
garbage
sexual
breathing
biodiversity
14–15
haemophilia,
gas
33
12–13
34–5
G
gametes,
sexual
growth
soil
115
flow
food
population
29
103
embryo,
energy,
pollution
methods
40
14–15
future,
ecotourism,
32–3
27
14–15
162–7
I
see
also
inheritance
F
identifying
alleles
162–3
142–3
immunity
heterozygous
humans
implantation,
conservation
stocks,
human
135,
activities
industry,
sex
determination
sex
linkage
see
genetics
codominance
132–3,
142,
sickle
eye
defect
164–5
143
142–3
reproduction
164
162–3
140–2
glaucoma,
sexual
genetics
albinism
germination
foetus,
also
166–7
142–3
dispersal
28
164–5
166
140–3
genotypes,
seed
pollution
inheritance
pollination
reproduction
162–3
26
fertilisation
sexual
136–9
164–5
impact
phenotypes
flowers
92–3
162–3
32
inheritance
fish
91,
162–3
138–9
homozygous
fertilisers,
biodiversity
10–11
genotypes
flowers
organisms,
162–3
fertilisation
cell
anaemia
(SCA)
164–5
124
138–9
insulin
glucose
follicle
stimulating
hormone
(FSH),
diabetes
blood
menstrual
cycle
glucose,
136–7
homeostasis
genetic
conversion
146,
147,
178
147
technology
178
50
189
Index
integrated
waste
invertebrate
management
responses,
25
irritability
mosquitoes,
movement
animals/plants
118–19
joints/muscles
irritability
coordination
invertebrate
plant
disease
responses
receptors
skeleton
114–15
responses
118–19
114–17
muscles,
115
108–9
155,
reproduction
conservation
genetics
134
32
162–3
phloem
storage
110–11
164–7
98–9
translocation
photosynthesis
mutation
mutation
sexual
phenotypes,
110–11
108–9
chromosome
gene
penis,
pesticides,
movement
mutation
148–9
108–11
171
chlorophyll
171
98–9
50–5
50,
chloroplasts
52,
55
50
J
lung
joints,
movement
cancer
81
glucose
50
110–11
natural
selection
sickle
cell
types
171
172–3
anaemia
leaf
(SCA)
165
structure
light
52–3
54–5
K
keys,
classifying
organisms
mutualism,
kidneys
starch
54
10–11
biodiversity
21
placenta,
sexual
reproduction
138–9
104–7
nephrons
plant
cells
38–9,
plant
responses,
42–3,
52–3
104–7
N
pressure
filtration
irritability
114–17
106
natural
selection
172–3
plants,
antibiotic
resistance
disease
149
173
pollination,
flowers
140–2
L
vs
artificial
selection
177
pollution
lateral
meristems,
plant
growth
133
mutation
172–3
see
leaf
structure
28–9
also
waste
struggle
for
existence
172–3
agriculture
chlorophyll
28
52–3
variation
172–3
ecotourism
chloroplasts
kidneys
104–7
garbage
photosynthesis
28
52–3
nicotine,
smoking
80–1
marine
to
environment
29
6–9
nitrate
ions,
plant
mineral
nutrition
population
ligaments,
28–9
120–1
industry
how
disposal
52–3
nerves
stomata
29
52–3
nephrons,
learn,
management
52–3
movement
growth
26,
34–5
110–11
56–7
challenges
light,
photosynthesis
non-biodegradable
waste,
assimilation
lung
cancer
affecting
69
management
24–5
HIV/AIDS
drugs
34
127
projections
hormone
(LH),
35
menstrual
nutrients,
balanced
diet
70–1
predators/prey,
cycle
see
also
filtration,
progesterone,
autotrophic
magnesium
ions,
plant
diet
134,
diseases
protists
nutrition
drugs
technology
mineral
biomass
and
50–5
nutrition
56–7
Q
178
saprophytic
nutrition
49
quadrats,
sampling
habitats
12–13
158–61
types
mitosis
numbers,
16–17
126
genetic
155,
of
energy
29
plant
medicines,
135
72–3
photosynthesis
medicinal
136–7
41
pyramids
pollution
cycle
reproduction
48–9
72–3
environment,
sexual
72–3
149
malnutrition
menstrual
gland,
70–1
56–7
heterotrophic
malnutrition
vs
18–19
106
49
prostate
deficiency
148,
nutrition
mineral
balanced
nutrition
kidneys
food…
M
meiosis
webs
48–57
pressure
marine
food
136–7
nutrition
malaria
35
34–5
81
non-medicinal
luteinising
solutions
waste
factors
liver,
and
54–5
48–9
161
R
variation
160–1
O
menstrual
cycle
receptors,
obesity
metabolism
recycling,
73
greenhouse
effect
cells
menstrual
cycle
136–7
16–17
cells
coordination
44–5
pupil
reflex
121
125
nutrition
ovaries
chlorophyll
reproduction
humans
cycle
136–7
asexual
reproduction;
sexual
70–1
sexual
plants
see
56–7
menstrual
reproduction
135
reproduction
56–7
ovulation,
mitosis
24–5
reflexes
40–1
osmosis,
mineral
115
management
30–1
omnivores
microbes,
waste
102–3
oestrogen,
methane,
irritability
136–7
155,
menstrual
cycle
136–7
resources,
human
activities
impact
156–7
26–7
vs
meiosis
161
P
respiration
zygotes
parasitism,
biodiversity
20
restoration
190
74–5
138
methods,
habitats
33
Index
small
S
sampling
habitats,
saprophytic
biodiversity
nutrition
intestine,
smoking
49
absorption/
assimilation
12–13
menstrual
68–9
sexual
cycle
136–7
reproduction
135
80–1
V
seed
dispersal,
flowers
soil,
142–3
habitats
14–15
vaccination
selection
see
artificial
selection;
vagina,
natural
extinction
selection
sexual
breeding
species
176–7
formation
174–5
fluid,
sexual
food
reproduction
substances
testing
photosynthesis
135
50,
determination,
sex
linkage,
genetics
166
stomata
disease
reproduction
animals/plants
134–5
86–7
99
viruses
see
also
asexual
phloem
reproduction
41
98–9
vitamins
amnion
birth
struggle
138–9
control
70
storage
166–7
veins
sexual
134
148–9
51–3
vegetarians
genetics
172–3
reproduction
54
vectors,
sex
selection
60–1
sexual
134,
160–1
starch
142
natural
seminal
135
170–1
meiosis
self-pollination
reproduction
175
variation
selective
93
species
for
existence,
selection
138–9
70–2
natural
172–3
W
embryo
fertilisation
foetus
sucrose,
138–9
survival
138–9
food
testing
60–1
waste
(excretion)
waste
management
biodiversity
24–5
20
see
gametes
102–7
114–15
symbiosis,
138–9
substances
also
pollution
134–5
biodegradable
waste/non-
T
implantation
135,
136–9
biodegradable
teeth
meiosis
decomposers
temperature
ovaries
24–5
24–5
control
135
integrated
homeostasis
penis
waste
63
158–61
25
128–9
134
recycling
human
placenta
skin
128–9
138–9
water
tendons,
prostate
gland
134,
fluid
134,
movement
control,
homeostasis
106
110–11
135
testes,
seminal
24–5
sexual
reproduction
134,
135
135
X
translocation,
testes
134,
phloem
98–9
135
xylem,
transpiration
uterus
factors
vagina
affecting
94–5
96–7
135
Y
plant
variation
adaptations
97
134
yellow
transport
zygotes
134,
138,
transmitted
body,
sexual
reproduction
136,
84–101
139
137
animals/plants
sexually
transpiration
94–7
135
infections
84–5
(STIs)
yellow
blood
fever
148,
149
85
150–1
cell
sickle
cell
anaemia
(SCA),
membranes
44–5
Z
inheritance
circulatory
system
86–9
zygotes
164–5
diffusion
84–5
flowers
skeleton
humans
functions
movement
human
sexual
108–9
tree
skin,
86–93
planting,
conservation
142
reproduction
134,
138,
139
33
108–9
128–9
U
functions
128
urinary
temperature
control
system
104–7
128–9
uterus
191
Acknowledgements
The
authors
0.1.1
and
Jacques
Science
Photo
School;
1.5.2
1.6.3
1.6.6c
Images/Kim
2.5.2
Dr
Cattlin/Alamy;
Morley
Read/Science
Photo
Photo
Library;
1.6.1
Photo
Library;
2.1.1
1.2.1
Stuart
Wesson
Library;
1.6.6b
1.6.5
Dr
iStockphoto;
2.1.2
Getty
Images/Bernhard
Nigel
Cattlin/Alamy;
Photo
Unlimited,
Fosbery;
4.1.2
4.2.1
Nigel
4.5.1
Dr
5.10.2
Photo
Photo
Richard
6.5.2
Caro/Alamy;
6.6.3
Getty/Visuals
Library;
Imaging
Shutterstock;
Richard
9.6.3
Fotolia;
Awareness
10.2.2
Fotolia;
Library;
Adrian
Solvin
11.6.3
Dr
11.7.1
Science
Alamy;
12.3.1
question
Figure
effort
overlooked
Thanks
are
has
also
been
Wellcome
Jim
Marie
W
.
Dr
12.1.1
12.3.2a
12.4.1b
Inc./Science
Unlimited,
Ian
Dave
adapted
John
from
Photo
12.4.1c
Luttick,
Library;
Heinemann
Library;
Leroy,
Bill
12.3.2b
Allen’s
Coordinated
CD:
9.6.1
);
EAG,
Visual
Images;
Gainey/
Fotolia;
Environmental
10.2.1
Fotolia;
11.2.1
Shutterstock;
Written
SL/Alamy;
Biocosmos/Science
12.2.2b
Wegner/Alamy;
Further
Hill
iStockphoto;
Unlimited/Science
11.2.4
&
Getty/
Clouds
Tim
9.6.4
iStockphoto;
Coster/Alamy;
Petra
Girls’
Visuals
Library;
11.6.1
Francis
8.3.3
Photo
Fosbery;
7.4.2
8.1.6
AFP/Getty
9.6.7
Science
Syred/Science
iStockphoto;
11.1.4
Photo
iStockphoto.
James
Library;
10.1.2
Reschke;
Unlimited/
Library;
Library;
Fosbery;
6.7.1
Richard
Library;
8.8.4
Photo
Gelderblom,
12.2.2a
Watts/Alamy;
Photo
Photo
London;
Photo
Fotolia;
Hans
11.6.4
Shaw/Alamy;
Shutterstock;
and
Inc.;
And
7.2.2
Library;
Library/Alamy;
Getty/Ed
Visuals
www.eagantigua.org
Barksdale/AGSTOCKUSA/Science
Unlimited,
Power
Library;
Science
Library,
Photo
Moore,
Burgess/
Richard
Library;
Library;
Edward
Photo
Photo
6.6.2
Photo
Krist/
Photo
5.8.4
6.3.1
Science
Lambert
Unlimited,
Bob
Jeremy
Lamborn/Alamy;
Grace/Science
10.1.1
10.3.2
6.8.4
Daniel
Dr
Library;
6.4.4
Randy
Photo
Perennou/Science
);
Photo
Cattlin/Science
(website:
Library;
Steve
Library;
Unlimited/Corbis;
Andrew
Library; 5.6.1
5.9.1
Richard
4.3.2
Photo
Werner/Visuals
Examinations;
Inc.;
4.1.1
Unlimited/Science
Syred/Science
Production/
Group
Koster/Corbis;
Bill
Wesson
Photo
Bill
12.3.3
questions,
Unit
Library;
Coster
IN/
Fotolia;
8,
School.
Science:
Higher
Biology
by
R.
Fosbery
1996).
made
to
8.7.1
Nigel
8.1.5
5.1.1
Photo
Donald
Inc.;
Dimijian/Science
Associates/Science
Library;
Library;
6.8.2
Unlimited,
King-Holmes/ICRF/Science
Library;
publisher
due
&
and
Science/Science
9.5.6
Awareness
Photo
International
7.4.1
Photo
Visuals
Library;
iStockphoto;
Mike
Dr
Unlimited,
Cattlin/Visuals
Biophoto
Photo
Hossler
,
Fosbery;
Lisa
&
Chillmaid/Science
Power
iStockphoto;
Mona
Fosbery;
Calentine/Visuals
iStockphoto;
the
of
www.eagantigua.org
11.2.2
been
6.6.4
Richard
Eye
8.1.3
Nuridsany
James
Fred
Wagner/Visuals
7.1.3
iStockphoto;
Amanda
(Pearson
6.7.4
Berrod,
Richard
F
.
5.7.3
Medimage/Science
MedicImage/Alamy;
9.5.4
Claude
Photo
has
Ken
Thierry
(website:
Laurence
7.3.1
7.3.2
Zankl/Visuals
McLean
Dr
Harvey;
Environmental
iStockphoto;
13
Fosbery;
Carol
Herve
3.1.5
Science/Science
Nigel
Library;
Getty
iStockphoto;
Gregory
Library/Alamy;
5.3.1
Hall/Science
Dr
Cambridge
Inc./Scientifica;
Shutterstock;
10.3.1
Robert
Martyn
David
4.5.4
4.3.1
of
Unlimited/Science
SA/Alamy;
Associates/Science
Couchman,
6.8.3
8.1.7
11.1.2
11.5.1
Prof.
Biophoto
Ian
Richard
Davies/Alamy;
12.4.1a
6.4.2
8.6.4
9.6.6
Group
5.8.5
5.8.3
Eye
Photo
4.1.5
Photo
Photo
3.1.1
Inc.;
Girls’
iStockphoto;
2.2.2
2.5.1
iStockphoto;
Psaila/
Allen’s
T
uttle/Science
Egmond/Visuals
Inc.;
4.3.5
Philippe
Burgess/Science
Unlimited,
photographs:
James
1.6.2
iStockphoto;
SA/Alamy;
Photo
Fosbery;
Visuals
BSIP
5.11.4
Fosbery;
EAG,
Shih,
5.7.2
iStockphoto;
7.5.1
9.5.2
Alamy;
Gene
Science
Richard
van
Unlimited,
Fosbery;
Merlin
Abbey/Science
BSIP
iStockphoto;
4.5.6
5.11.3
Fosbery;
8.6.3
4.5.3
5.9.4
Unlimited,
Ltd/Corbis;
Richard
iStockphoto;
Library;
Iwago;
5.1.2
Shutterstock;
Getty/Martin
Richard
Mitsuaki
Fosbery;
Dr
Library;
6.6.1
6.7.3
Photo
6.8.5
&
Michael
4.1.4
Cattlin/Visuals
4.3.3
Unlimited/Corbis;
Library;
3.4.1
Wim
1.2.2
Luttick,
Limberger;
2.6.3
Chapman/Visuals
3.2.5
Fosbery;
5.9.3
Fosbery;
Library;
Photo
5.8.2
iStockphoto;
Science
Richard
Kessel
Library;
6.3.3
Photo
Library;
George
Fosbery;
Richard
Bhargava/Corbis;
Shutterstock;
Kinsman/Science
Richard
Dr
iStockphoto;
Images/Nigel
Photo
Richard
Amit
3.1.4
3.2.4
4.1.3
Photo
Cattlin/Visuals
5.7.1
Science
3.3.5
Getty
Photography/Science
5.5.1
Inc.;
FLPA/Alamy;
iStockphoto;
Corbis;
Library;
reproduce
LaPlace;
John
Jeremy
2.6.2
ISM/Science
and
to
Vilainecrevette/Alamy;
2.4.2
4.5.5
192
Fosbery;
Laurence
permission
iStockphoto;
4.4.2
Every
1.3.2
for
iStockphoto;
Library;
J.
Nigel
following
Richard
Fosbery;
Burgess/Science
Syred/Science
Gschmeissner/Science
and
1.1.1
the
2.6.1
Photo
9.6.5
Dr
thank
2.3.1
Richard
7.2.3
1.5.4
to
Steele;
Fosbery;
5.8.1
Richard
1.6.4
Jeremy
and
Fawcett/Visuals
Inc.;
like
iStockphoto;
Conge,
3.3.2
1.2.3
Fosbery;
1.6.6a
Power
would
Langevin/Sygma/Corbis;
Library;
iStockphoto;
Richard
Library;
publishers
to
will
Clare
trace
be
van
the
pleased
der
copyright
to
make
Willigen
for
holders
the
but
if
necessary
reviewing
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