Developmental Psychology
Heredity, Pre-natal, Childbirth
Definition of Terms
o Fertilization – also known as conception, is the
process by which sperm and ovum (sex cells)
combine to create a single cell called zygote,
which then duplicates itself again and again by
cell division.
o Ovulation – rupture of mature follicle in either
ovary and expulsion of its ovum which occurs
every month until menopause
o Dizygotic Twins – also known as Fraternal
Twins
 Two separate eggs being fertilized by two
different sperms
 Can be same or different sex
 May have genetic basis
o Monozygotic Twins – resulted from the
cleaving of one fertilized egg and are generally
genetically identical
o Heredity – genetic transmission of heritable
characteristics from parents to offspring
o Deoxyribonucleic Acid – long, spiraling ladder
whose steps are made of pairs of chemical units
called bases
 Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine
o Chromosomes – coils of DNA of smaller
segments called genes
o Mitosis – cell division of non-sex cells
o Meiosis – cell division of sex cells
o Mutation – mistake in copying genetic code
which creates permanent alteration in genetic
material
o Autosomes – not affiliated to sexual expression
o Sex Chromosomes – 23rd pair which indicates
the baby’s sex (XX, female: XY, male)
o Alleles – produce alternative expressions of
characteristics
o Homozygous – if two alleles are the same
o Heterozygous – if two alleles are different
o Dominant – allele that is always expressed or
shows up as a trait in that person
o Recessive – usually doesn’t show unless paired
with another recessive trait
Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018)
Polygenetic Inheritance – interaction of
several genes
o Phenotype – observable characteristics
o Genotype – underlying genetic makeup
o Epigenesis – environment can influence when
and which genes turn on and off
 Refers to chemical molecules attached to a
gene that alter the way a cell “reads” the
gene’s DNA
 Cells are susceptible to epigenetic
modification during critical periods such as
puberty and pregnancy
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Name
Description
Treatment
Extra copy of
Down
Surgery,
chromosome
Syndrome
SPED
21
Extra
X
Klinefelter
Hormone
Chromosome
Syndrome
Therapy
(XXY)
Abnormality in SPED,
Fragile
X
X chromosome Speech
Syndrome
causes ID
Therapy
Missing
X
Turner
Hormone
chromosome
Syndrome
Therapy
for females
Extra
Y No
XXY Syndrome
chromosome
treatment
Gene-Linked Abnormalities
Cystic Fibrosis
Overproductio Physical
n of mucus in Therapy
the lungs and
digestive tract
Diabetes
Does
not Insulin
produce
enough insulin
Hemophilia
Delayed blood Blood
clotting
transfusions
Huntington’s
CNS
deteriorates
producing
problem
in
muscles
and
mental decline
o
Developmental Psychology
Heredity, Pre-natal, Childbirth
Phenylketonuri
a
Sickle-Cell
Anemia
Spina Bifida
Tay-Sachs
Disease
Anencephaly
Polycystic
Kidney Disease
Alpha
antitrypsin
Deficiency
Alpha
Thalassemia
Beta
Thalassemia
(Cooley’s
Anemia)
Duchenne
Muscular
Dystrophy
o
o
o
Build up of Special Diet
Phenylalanine
in the body
Limits
body Penicillin,
oxygen supply Antibiotics,
Pain
Reliever
Incompletely
Surgery
closed spinal
canal
Accumulation
Medication,
of lipids in the Special Diet
NS
Absence
of No
brain tissue
treatment
Enlarged
Kidney
Kidneys
Transplant
Cirrhosis of the No
liver in early treatment
infancy
Severe Anemia; Frequent
nearly all die Blood
soon after birth Transfusion
Severe Anemia; Blood
fatal
in Transfusion
adolescence or s
Young
adulthood
Males
with No
muscle
treatment
weakness,
minor mental
retardation
Carriers – carry one bad copy of recessive gene
and one good one
Genotype-Environment Interaction – effects
of similar environment conditions on genetically
different individuals
Genotype-Environment
Correlation
–
environment
often
reinforces
genetic
differences
Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018)
a. Passive Correlations: parents tend to
provide environment that encourages the
development of that trait
b. Reactive or Evocative: children with
differing genetic makeups evoke different
reactions from others, other people react to
the children’s genetic makeup
c. Active: actively selects or create experiences
consistent with their genetic tendencies
 Niche-Picking – tendency to seek out
environments compatible with one’s
genotype
o Nonshared Environmental Effects – result
from the unique environment in which each
child in a family grows up
o Infertility – inability to conceive a child
o In Vitro Fertilization – eggs and sperm are
combined in a laboratory dish
Prenatal Diagnostic Tests
1. Ultrasound Sonography – high frequency
sound waves are directed into the pregnant
woman’s abdomen
 No risk to the woman or fetus
 Detect abnormalities, no. of fetuses, and sex
2. Fetal MRI – uses powerful magnet and radio
images to generate detailed images of the
body’s organs and structures
3. Chorionic Villus Sampling – small sample of
placenta is removed
 Small risk of limb deformity
4. Amniocentesis – sample of amniotic fluid is
withdrawn and tested for chromosomal and
metabolic disorders
5. Maternal Blood Screening – identifies
pregnancies that have an elevated risk for birth
defects
Prenatal Development
o Gestation – period between conception and
birth
 Between 37 and 41 weeks
Developmental Psychology
Heredity, Pre-natal, Childbirth
Gestational Age: dated from the first day of
an expectant mother’s last menstrual cycle
Stages of Prenatal Development
o Cephalocaudal Principle – development
proceeds from head to the lower extremities
o Proximodistal – development proceeds from
the center to outer parts of the body
Early Signs and Symptoms of Pregnancy
Tender, Swollen breasts or nipples
Fatigue
Slight bleeding or cramping
Food Cravings
Nausea with or without vomiting
Frequent Urination
Frequent, Mild Headaches
Constipation
Mood Swings
Faintness and Dizziness
Raised Basal Body Temperature
Germinal Stage
o From fertilization to about 2 weeks of
gestational age
o Zygote enters into cell division (mitosis) while
making its way to the fallopian tube
o Differentiation – specialization of the cells to
perform various tasks
o Blastocyst – fluid-filled sphere which floats
freely in the uterus until 6th day after fertilization
then it implants itself in the uterine wall
o Trophoblast – outer layer of cells that later
provides nutrition and support for the embryo
o Ectoderm – outer layer (becomes outer layers of
skin, nails, hair, teeth, sensory organs, and the
nervous system)
o Endoderm – inner layer (becomes digestive
system)
o Mesoderm – middle layer (becomes inner layers
of skin, muscles, skeleton, and excretory and
circulatory systems)
o Amniotic Sacs – encloses the developing
embryo, protecting it and giving it a room and
grow

Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018)
Placenta – allows oxygen, nourishment, and
wastes to pass between mother and embryo
o Umbilical Cord – connects the embryo to the
placenta
Embryonic Period
o From 2 to 8 weeks (First 2 monts)
o Major body systems (respiratory, digestive, and
nervous
system)
develop
known
as
Organogenesis
o Critical Period – most vulnerable to destructive
influences
o Spontaneous Abortion (Miscarriage) –
expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that is
unable to survive outside the womb
o Stillbirth – miscarriage occurred after 20 weeks
of gestation (approx. 5 months)
o Males are more likely to be spontaneously
aborted or to be stillborn
Fetal Period
o From 8 weeks to Birth
o Appearance of the first bone cells
o Final stage of gestation
o Grows rapidly to about 20x its previous length
o Finishing touches
o Breathe, kick, turn, etc.
o Facial expressions of pain at 36 weeks
o Responds to mother’s voice
o Fetuses know when they approach the near end
of the pregnancy
o Grasping reflex
o 6 months or more fetuses can survive outside
the womb
o 24-37 months babies need help in breathing
Environmental Influences
o Teratogen – environmental agent that can
interfere with normal prenatal development
o Teratology – field of study that investigates the
causes of birth defects
Nutrition Maternal Weight
o Women of normal weight are less likely to have
birth complications
o
Developmental Psychology
Heredity, Pre-natal, Childbirth
Overweight women have risk of having longer
deliveries, need more health care services,
gestational diabetes, cesarean delivery, birth
defects etc.
o Omega-E, DHA, Folic Acid for the development
of nervous system
Malnutrition
o Results to fetal growth restriction and low birth
weight
Physical Activity and Work
o Moderate exercise is recommended to reduce
back pain, risks for gestational diabetes and etc.
Drug Intake
o Thalidomide – caused stunted limbs, facial
deformities, and defective organs
o Another set of drugs that are harmful for
pregnant
women:
Antibiotics,
certain
Barbiturates, Opiates, Acutane
o Opioids are associated with small babies, fetal
death, preterm labor, and aspiration of
meconium
o Babies born with drug-addicted mothers tend to
experience withdrawal once they are born and
no longer receive drugs
o Neonate Abstinence Syndrome – sleep
disturbance, tremors, difficulty regulating the
body, irritability, crying and etc.
o Fetal Alcohol Syndrome – characterized by a
combination of retarded growth, face and body
malformations, and disorders of the central
nervous system
o Maternal smoking was identified to be the most
important factor for low-birth weight babies
o Tobacco also increases the risks of miscarriage,
growth retardation, stillbirth, SIDS, etc.
o Caffeine has slightly increased risk for
miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight
babies
o Rubella almost certain to cause deafness and
heart defects to babies
o Toxoplasmosis – caused by parasite in the
bodies of cattle, sheep, and pigs, and in the
o
Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018)
intestinal tracts of cats that causes fetal brain
damage, severely impaired eyesight, seizures,
miscarriage, etc.
o Diabetic mothers are most likely to have babies
that have heart and neural tube defects
Maternal Anxiety, Stress, and Depression
o Stress and anxiety has been associated with
more irritable and active temperament in
newborns
o Chronic stress can result in preterm delivery
o Depression may cause premature birth or
developmental delays
Maternal Age
o Chance of miscarriage or stillbirth rises with
maternal age
o Adolescent Mothers tend to have premature or
underweight babies
Outside environmental Hazards
o Includes air pollution, radiation, chemicals
o Fetal exposure to low level of environmental
toxins may result to asthma, allergies, lupus
o X-Rays could triple the risk of having full-term,
low-birth weight babies
Paternal Factors
o Exposure to lead, marijuana, tobacco, radiation,
pesticides, etc may result in abnormal or poor
quality sperm
o Babies who fathers had diagnostic x-rays within
the year prior to conception or had a high lead
exposure at work tends to have low birth weight
and slowed fetal growth
o Older fathers may be significant source of birth
defects due to damaged or deteriorated sperm
such as dwarfism, schizophrenia, bipolar
disorder, ASD
Prenatal Care
o Prenatal cell-free DNA Scans – fetal DNA is
extracted from the mother’s blood and tested
for early detection of genetic problems
Birth Process
o Labor – process of giving birth
Developmental Psychology
Heredity, Pre-natal, Childbirth
Parturition – series of uterine, cervical, and
other changes which begins 2 weeks before the
delivery
o Braxton-Hicks
Contractions
–
false
contractions
o Real labor contractions are more frequent,
rhythmic, and painful, and they increase in
frequency and intensity
Stages of Birth
First Stage (Dilation of the Cervix)
Longest stage
Contractions are 15 to 20 mins apart
Cervix opened about 10cm
For first born, it can last for 6-12 hrs, then shorter
for the next children
Second Stage (Descent and Emergence of the
Baby)
Baby’s head starts to move through the cervix
Baby is coming out
Approx. 45 mins to hr
Third Stage (Expulsion of the Placenta)
Afterbirth
Placenta, Umbilical cord, and other membranes
detached and expelled
Shortest stage
o
Midwifery – profession that provides health
care to women during pregnancy, birth, and
even postpartum period
o Doula – caregiver who provides continuous
physical, emotional, and educational support for
the mother before, during, and after childbirth
Methods of Childbirth
o Electronic Fetal Monitoring – used to track the
fetus’ heartbeat during labor and delivery and to
indicate how the fetal heart is responding to the
stress of uterine contractions
 can provide valuable information in highrisk deliveries
 extremely high false-positive rate
o Three kinds of drugs are used for labor:
a. Analgesia – pain reliever such as
tranquilizers, barbiturates, and narcotics
o
o
o
o
o
o
Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018)
b. Anesthesia – used in the late first stage labor
and during delivery to block sensation in an
area of the body or to block consciousness
 Epidural Block – regional anesthesia that
blocks the lower part of the body
 Pudendal Block – vaginal anesthesia
c. Oxytocin – hormone that promotes
contraction (Pitocin)
Natural Childbirth – method that aims to
reduce the mother’s pain by decreasing her fear
by providing information about childbirth and
teaching her and her partner to use breathing
methods and relaxation techniques during
delivery
Bradley Method – husbands as coaches,
relation for easier birth and prenatal nutrition
and exercise
Prepared Childbirth or Lamaze method –
special breathing technique to control pushing
in the final stages of labor
Vaginal Delivery – usual childbirth
o Benefits: surge of hormones that clear the
lungs and excess fluid, mobilize stored fuel to
nourish cells, and send blood to the heart
and brain
Cesarean Delivery – baby is removed from the
mother’s uterus through an incision made in her
abdomen
 Performed if the baby is lying crosswise,
if the baby’s head is too large,
complications, or if the mother is
bleeding internally
 Not recommended prior to 39 weeks of
gestation unless there is an indication of
fetal lung maturity
 Breech Position – baby’s buttocks are
the first part to emerge from the vagina
which can cause respiratory problems
 Complications:
bleeding,
infection,
damage to pelvic organs, post-operative
pains, riskier future pregnancies
Developmental Psychology
Heredity, Pre-natal, Childbirth
Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018)
Newborn Screening for Medical Conditions check for rare genetic, hormone-related, and
metabolic conditions that can cause serious
health problems
o Boys tend to be slightly longer and heavier than
girls
o First born weigh less that laterborns
o Fontanels – where the bones of the skull don’t
meet
o Lanugo – fuzzy prenatal hair
o Vernix Caseosa – oily protection against
infection that dries within the first few days
o Anoxia – lack of oxygen
o Hypoxia – reduced oxygen supply
o Anoxia or Hypoxia may occur during delivery as
a result of repeated compression of the placenta
and umbilical cord that could leave permanent
brain damage, mental retardation, behavior
problems or even death
o Meconium – stringy, greenish-black waste
matter formed in the fetal intestinal tract
o Neonatal Jaundice – skin and eyeballs look
yellow caused by immaturity of the liver
Pre-term and Low Birth Weight Infants
o Low Birth Weight Infants – weigh less than 5
pounds and 8 ounces at birth
 Very Low birth Weight – less than 3 pounds
4 ounces
 Extremely Low Birth – less than 2 pounds
o Pre-term Infants – born three weeks or more
before pregnancy reach full term (before the
completion of 37 weeks of gestation)
o Small for Date Infants (Small for Gestational
Age Infants) – those whose birth weight is
below normal when the length of pregnancy is
considered
o Progestin – might help in reducing preterm
birth
o Extremely Preterm – born less than 28 weeks
gestation
o Very Preterm – less than 33 weeks
o
Assessing the Newborn
o APGAR Scale – widely used to assess the health
of newborns at 1-5 mins after birth
7-10, condition is good
5, developmental difficulties
3 or below, emergency and the baby might
not survive
 9-10 score, risk of developing ADHD in
childhood
o Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment
Scale – performed within 24-36 hrs after birth to
assess neurological development, reflexes, and
reactions
o Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network
Neurobehavioral Scale – assessment of the
newborn’s behavior, neurological and stress
response, and regulatory capacities



Developmental Psychology
Heredity, Pre-natal, Childbirth
Kangaroo Care – involves skin-to-skin contact
in which the baby, wearing only diaper, is held
upright against the parent’s bare chest to help
stabilize the preterm’s heartbeat, temp, and
breathing
o One condition commonly faced by preterm
babies is Respiratory Distress Syndrome
wherein there is a lack of surfactant (lungcoating substance) that keeps air sacs from
collapsing
o Postmature Babies – tend to be long and this
because they have kept growing in the womb
but have had an insufficient blood supply
toward the end of gestation
o Sudden Infant Death Syndrome – crib death;
sudden death of an infant under age 1 which
cause of death remains unexplained
Postpartum Period
o Period after childbirth
o Lasts for about 6 weeks or until the mother’s
body has completed the adjustment and
returned to nearly prepregnant state
Physical Adjustment
o Loss of sleep that the primary caregiver
experiences during this period
o Sudden and dramatic hormone production
o Estrogen and progesterone levels drop steeply
and remain low until the ovaries start producing
again
Emotional and Psychological Adjustment
o Emotional fluctuations are common
o Postpartum Blues – 2-3 days after birth they
feel depressed, anxious, and upset
o Postpartum Depression – involves a major
depressive episode that typically occurs about
four weeks after delivery or at least a two-week
period of having trouble coping with their daily
task
o Postpartum Depression could affect how the
mother interacts with her infant
o Fathers may also experience depression or they
may feel replaced by the baby
o
Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018)
Bonding
o Formation of connection, especially a physical
bond between parents and the newborn in the
period shortly after birth
o Newborn MUST have close contact with the
mother in the first few days of like to develop
optimally is NOT true
End - amsl