14
On the other hand, oil spills on the ocean surface can cause significant harm to aquatic
life and the marine environment. The oil creates a thick layer on the water's surface that
prevents sunlight from penetrating, which can harm photosynthetic organisms like
phytoplankton and disrupt the entire marine food chain. Additionally, oil spills can lead to
the depletion of oxygen in the water as microbes break down the oil, leading to oxygendeprived "dead zones" that can suffocate marine life. Oil spills can also cause direct harm
to marine animals by coating their fur or feathers, which can lead to hypothermia, and by
entering their respiratory and digestive systems, which can cause serious health problems
and even death (Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia, 2023).
1.1 Causes of Oil Spill
Offshore oil and gas operations involve extracting and processing oil and
gas from beneath the ocean floor. These activities can sometimes result in oil
spills, which can be very damaging to the marine environment. When oil spills
occur, the oil can spread quickly and contaminate large areas of the sea,
causing harm to marine life, habitats, and ecosystems. Identifying the
environmental effects of accidental releases from offshore oil and gas facilities
is important because it helps prevent and mitigate marine pollution. Mitigation
strategies can involve the deployment of booms and other equipment to contain
and recover the spilled oil and the use of chemical dispersants to break up the
oil and accelerate its natural breakdown. Overall, the identification of
environmental effects is a critical component of offshore oil and gas operations,
as it helps to ensure that these activities are carried out in a responsible and
sustainable manner that minimizes the risks of harm to the environment and
marine life (Crivellari et al., 2021).
15
In addition, drilling, transportation, and storing hydrocarbons can indeed
result in seepage and spillage, which can have severe environmental and
economic consequences. These spills can occur during oil and gas exploration,
production, transportation, refining, and storage. Accidents, whether man-made
or natural, are a significant cause of oil spills. For example, natural disasters
such as hurricanes, tsunamis, and earthquakes can damage pipelines, drilling
rigs, and storage tanks, leading to spills. Similarly, human errors and equipment
failures can also result in spills. For instance, pipeline leaks can occur due to
corrosion, faulty equipment, or human error during construction or maintenance
(ACME Environmental, n.d.).
2. Adverse effect of Oil Spill
According to the research (Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil | Chemistry Revision,
2019), crude oil is a complex mixture of various organic compounds, including
hydrocarbons, sulfur, and heavy metals. Some of these compounds are toxic to humans
and animals, and exposure can cause severe health problems. Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) are harmful compounds in crude oil that can cause heart damage,
cancer, and other health problems. Benzene, another toxic combination in crude oil, can
cause anemia, leukemia, and other blood disorders (Shawky A., n.d.). In addition,
exposure to crude oil can lead to respiratory problems such as coughing, wheezing, and
shortness of breath. It can also cause skin irritation, headaches, and dizziness. Prolonged
exposure to oil can result in long-term health problems, such as stunted growth, immune
system effects, and neurological damage. Oil spills, such as during oil transport or offshore
drilling, can contaminate the environment and pose a significant risk to wildlife and human
health. The toxic compounds in oil can accumulate in the food chain, causing harm to
animals and humans who consume contaminated seafood or other products.
16
3. Oil Spill Recovery Techniques
Several advanced techniques have been developed to mitigate the negative
impacts of oil spills on the environment and human health. The use of appropriate
containment and recovery equipment promptly can help minimize damage to oilcontaminated shorelines and other threatened areas (Environmental Protection Agency,
n.d.). The following techniques can be employed for oil spill response:
3.1 Mechanical Containment or Recovery
It is the most effective approach for preventing oil spills in the United States.
This technique employs various types of equipment, such as booms, barriers, and
skimmers, as well as natural and synthetic sorbent materials. The main objective
of mechanical containment is to collect and hold spilled oil until it can be safely
disposed of.
3.1.1 Oil Booms
Booms are temporary floating barriers that are utilized to manage
marine spills, safeguard the environment, and aid in the cleanup process.
A boom consists of a floating partition that sits on top of the water and
extends above it, as well as a "skirt" or "curtain" that submerges into the
water. Depending on the wind and current conditions, booms can be
deployed in various configurations to achieve different objectives such as
redirecting spills away from sensitive habitats or towards collection areas,
confining spills for recovery and treatment at the spill site, or enclosing
spills for controlled burning purposes (water-cooled or fire-resistant
materials are used for booms in burning scenarios).
17
Figure 1. Oil Booms
Source: (Tech-FAQ, n.d.)
3.1.2 Skimmers
Skimmers are tools that are designed to retrieve spilled oil from the
surface of the water. It may be either self-propelled, used from the shore,
or operated from vessels. The efficacy of skimmers is heavily influenced by
sea conditions. In rough or choppy waters, skimmers may collect more
water than oil. Different types of skimmers have various benefits and
drawbacks depending on the type of oil being recovered, the conditions of
the sea during the cleanup operation, and the presence of debris or ice in
the water.
18
Figure 2. Skimmers
Source: (DESMI, n.d.)
3.2 Chemical and Biological Methods
The use of chemical and biological methods can supplement mechanical
approaches to oil spill containment and cleanup. Dispersing and gelling agents are
particularly effective in preventing oil from spreading to vulnerable areas like
shorelines and habitats. Additionally, biological agents have shown the potential in
aiding recovery efforts in delicate environments such as marshes and wetlands.
3.2.1 Dispersant
Dispersants are substances that work similarly to soaps and
detergents in breaking down an oil slick into tiny droplets, allowing for
dispersion throughout the water. This process does not entirely eliminate
the spilled material, but it enables smaller oil particles that are more
biodegradable to form, providing a degree of safeguarding for vulnerable
habitats that may be endangered by the surface slick. Dispersants are
dispensed onto spills by boats or planes that have been specially equipped
for this purpose.
19
Figure 3. Sprayed dispersant on oil slick
Source: Encyclopedia of Puget Sound
3.3 Physical Methods
It is employed to clean up contaminated shorelines. Although natural
mechanisms like evaporation, oxidation, and biodegradation can initiate the
process of cleanup, they are often insufficient to bring about effective
environmental recovery. To support these natural processes, physical methods
such as wiping with sorbent materials, pressure washing, raking, and bulldozing
are utilized.
3.3.1 Sorbent Material
Sorbents are substances utilized to absorb oil, including materials
such as peat moss, vermiculite, and clay. Synthetic variations of sorbents, typically
made from plastic foams or fibers, can be found in sheets, rolls, or booms. As oilsaturated sorbents must be gathered and treated, they are typically utilized for
small spills or as "polishers" after other cleanup options have been implemented.
20
Figure 4. Sorbent Material
Source: (Technical Information Paper, n.d.)
3.3.2 Pressure Washing
Pressure washing is a technique that entails washing oil-stained
shorelines and rocks using hoses that dispense water streams at low or
high pressure. These streams can be generated using hot or cold water.
The oil is flushed from the shoreline and gathered into plastic-lined
trenches using this method, after which sorbent materials are employed to
collect and dispose of it properly.
Figure 5. Pressure Washing
Source: (Teach Engineering, n.d.)
21
3.3.3 Raking
Raking is an uncomplicated technique used to prevent oil from
infiltrating sediment. Nevertheless, these methods can disrupt the
indigenous structure of the shoreline as well as the flora and fauna that
inhabit the sediment.
Figure 6. Raking
Source: (Teach Engineering, n.d.)
4. Factors affecting oil recovery of oil spill
Oil spills are environmental disasters that occur when crude oil or
petroleum products are released into the environment, typically into bodies of
water. The process of cleaning up oil spills and recovering the spilled oil is a
complex task influenced by various factors. These factors can broadly be
categorized into FOUR main categories:
4.1 Type of Oil Spilled
The behavior of spilled oil and the effectiveness of recovery
methods can be influenced by the type of oil. Recovering heavy oils is more
difficult than lighter ones. In terms of toxicity, lighter oils are more
22
hazardous and have caused greater harm than heavy oils, which can cause
suffocation rather than contamination.
4.2 Oil Loading
Toxic oil tends to penetrate sediments more easily when there is a
high concentration of oil. If the oil is mixed with stones and gravel, it can
create asphalt pavements that prevent the recolonization of organisms.
Removing the oil from the affected area can help speed up recovery by
reducing smothering effects and preventing the formation of asphalt
pavements.
4.3 Weather and Environmental Conditions
The impact and consequences of oil spillage on shorelines are
determined by the nature of the shore and the energy of the waves. Rocky
shores that are exposed to waves typically recover quickly with minimal
damage. On the other hand, sheltered shores with high biological
productivity are more vulnerable to oil contamination. Factors such as high
temperatures and wind speeds can hasten the process of evaporation,
which in turn reduces the toxicity of the remaining oil.
4.4 Response Time
To minimize damage from oil spills, response time must strike a
balance between various environmental concerns. Depending on the
situation, the removal of oil can either decrease or increase damage.
Removing oil from the surface of the water can reduce the threat to the
environment, while physically removing thick oil from shorelines can also
minimize damage.
23
In addition to these factors, logistical challenges, regulatory and legal constraints,
and social and economic considerations also play a role in oil spill recovery. The
complexity of oil spill response requires careful consideration of these various factors to
develop an effective and efficient oil recovery plan.
5. Sugarcane Bagasse
Sugarcane bagasse is a byproduct of the sugar industry that comes from cane
juice and is commonly used as a fuel source in industrial boilers due to its abundance
and low cost. It is readily available and sustainable as sugarcane plants grow rapidly
and are widely cultivated. Bagasse refining requires lower energy and bleaching
chemicals compared to other materials. Moreover, sugarcane bagasse is easily
obtained as each ton of refined sugar produces two tons of bagasse.
Sugarcane bagasse, whether in its natural state or after undergoing chemical
modifications, has been recognized as a promising renewable sorbent for treating
wastewater. The sugar industry generates millions of tons of sugarcane bagasse every
year, making it a viable option for reuse and recycling. Sugarcane cultivation mainly
focuses on sugar and ethanol production, resulting in significant quantities of
sugarcane bagasse and trash.
24
Figure 7: Life Cycle of Sugarcane Bagasse
Source. Carvalho M., et al., (2019)
5.1 Properties of Sugarcane Bagasse
Sugarcane bagasse, a byproduct of the sugar industry, is a
promising source of biomass energy with multiple properties that make it
an attractive option for various applications. Bagasse consists of two main
types of biomasses: sugarcane trash, which is the field residue remaining
after harvesting the sugarcane stalk, and bagasse itself, which is the
fibrous residue left over after milling of the sugarcane.
Bagasse is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pentosans,
lignin, sugars, wax, and minerals, and its composition can vary depending
on factors such as the variety and maturity of the sugarcane, harvesting
methods, and sugar processing efficiency. The moisture content of
bagasse is a critical factor that affects its calorific value, with lower moisture
content resulting in higher calorific value. Bagasse typically has a moisture
content of 45-50%, although good milling processes can result in lower
25
moisture content of around 45%, while poor milling efficiency can lead to
higher moisture content of up to 52%.
The calorific value of bagasse is also influenced by its extraneous
matter content, which is higher with mechanical harvesting and can result
in lower calorific value. Despite these variations, bagasse is still widely
used as a primary fuel source in sugar mills, where it is combusted in
furnaces to produce steam for power generation. In fact, for every 100 tons
of sugarcane crushed, a sugar factory produces nearly 30 tons of wet
bagasse, which can supply all the energy needs of a typical sugar mill, with
excess energy to spare.
One of the key advantages of bagasse as a biomass energy source
is its greenhouse gas-neutral nature. When bagasse is burned in quantity,
the resulting CO2 emissions are equivalent to the amount of CO2 that the
sugarcane plant absorbed from the atmosphere during its growing phase.
This makes the process of bagasse cogeneration, where bagasse is used
as a fuel for both heat and electricity production, environmentally
sustainable and contributes to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
In addition to its energy production potential, bagasse also finds
applications in other industries. Bagasse can be used as a raw material for
paper production and as feedstock for cattle, due to its fibrous composition
and moderate sucrose content. However, the quality of bagasse for these
applications depends on factors such as moisture content, extraneous
matter content, and milling efficiency Md. Arif Mahmud., et al., (2021).
26
Table 1
Properties and Physical Composition of Sugarcane Bagasse
Moisture content
50%
Impurities and dissolved solids
2%
Sugar content
3%
Residual purity of syrup
75.18%
Percentage of obtained bagasse
13%
Bagasse temperature at boiler inlet
32%
Specific heat capacity of air (kJ/kg
1,795
‘C)
Source. Carvalho M., et al., (2019)
Table 2
Chemical Composition of Sugarcane Bagasse
Chemical Composition
Percentage
Carbon
46%
Hydrogen
4%
Oxygen
44%
Ashes
4%
Source. Carvalho M., et al., (2019)
27
5.2 Parts of Sugarcane Bagasse
Bagasse is the byproduct that remains after the extraction of juice
from crushed sugarcane and typically makes up around 32% of the total
weight of processed sugarcane. It comprises different elements, including
the outer rind and inner pith. The upper part of bagasse is comprised of a
tough, fibrous material known as rind, while the inside is made up of a softer
material referred to as pith. The pith contains most of the sucrose, as well
as small fibers, whereas the rind consists of longer and finer fibers that are
arranged in a random pattern throughout the stem and held together by
hemicelluloses and lignin. According to the report the fibers are usually
situated next to the inner wall of the rind particle (B. Jehangir., et al.,
(2020)).
5.3 Sugarcane Bagasse Statistics
Sugarcane is a vital agricultural crop with a global production of
1,949,310,108 tonnes per year. Among the top producers, Brazil takes the
lead with an impressive 752,895,389 tonnes of yearly production, followed
by India with 405,416,180 tonnes. Together, these two countries account
for over 50% of the world's total sugarcane production, making them major
players in the industry. Thailand also holds a prominent position as the third
largest producer, contributing 131,002,173 tonnes annually. Despite its
significant agricultural capacity, the United States of America ranks at 11th
place with a production of 28,972,760 tonnes per year. These statistics
highlight the global scale and importance of sugarcane as a key crop for
various economies around the world.
28
The Philippines holds a significant position as the 12th largest
producer of sugarcane worldwide, with a total production of 20,719,291
tonnes. Sugarcane cultivation is spread across various regions in the
country, including Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The favorable climate
and fertile lands in these parts of the Philippines provide suitable conditions
for sugarcane cultivation, contributing to the country's noteworthy
production output. The sugarcane industry in the Philippines plays a crucial
role in supporting the agricultural sector and local economies, providing
employment opportunities and contributing to the country's overall
agricultural productivity) AtlasBig., (n.d)).
The Balayan Mill District spans across 22 municipalities in Eastern
Batangas, covering an area of 16,273 hectares. In the crop year of 201314, the district produced 99,137 tons of sugar, accounting for 4.06% of the
national sugar production. The farm yield in the district was 65.77 TC/Ha,
with an average sugar yield of 1.85 LKg/TC and 121.84 LKg/Ha. Notably,
the Balayan Mill District had the highest farm yield among all the Luzon mill
districts. It comprises of 3,887 farmers, 92% of whom are small farmers,
ARBs, and nonARBs. Additionally, the Balayan Mill operated by Universal
Robina Corp. and Progreen Agricorp, Inc. have a limited capacity to handle
the harvest of sugarcane. In 2023, the mills in Balayan can process 4,000
tons to 2, 000 tons of crops daily, respectively. This is contrast to CADPI,
which used to have a milling capacity of 10,000 to 13,000 tons per day.
The correlation was undeniable - the higher the yield of sugarcane, the greater the
abundance of sugarcane bagasse. It was a fact that resonated with the farmers, as they
witnessed firsthand how increased sugarcane production translated into more bagasse, a
29
valuable resource for renewable energy and other applications. With each bumper
harvest, the fields were teeming with bagasse, a tangible reminder of the power of
sustainable agriculture. It was a cycle of productivity, where the higher the sugarcane
production, the higher the availability of bagasse, propelling the farmers towards a
greener, more sustainable future.
Figure 8. SEM analysis of (a. sugarcane bagasse), and (b. activated sugarcane
bagasse)
Source. Kai. Y., ET AL., (2019)
6. Activated Carbon
Activated carbon is a highly versatile and effective material that has a
unique capacity for adsorption from both gas and liquid substances. Due to its
exceptional adsorption characteristic, activated carbon plays a vital role in
producing a clean environment, particularly in filtering contaminants from water.
Activated carbon is widely used in water treatment processes to remove
contaminants and impurities, such as oil spills, chemicals, and other harmful
substances that are present in water. Furthermore, activated carbon is commonly
utilized in chemical and associated industries for separation and purification
purposes. The material can be used in several processes, such as the removal of
30
impurities from gasses including carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, and the
separation of organic compounds from mixtures. The high adsorption capacity,
coupled with its exceptional selectivity, makes activated carbon a crucial material
in the manufacturing of various products. The most common of which are the
chemical treatment, the physical treatment, and the biological treatment in terms
of turning a specific raw material into activated carbon.
Activated carbon is produced by two primary methods: carbonization and
activation. During carbonization, the raw material is broken down by heat in an
oxygen-free environment at temperatures below 800 ºC, and elements such as
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur are eliminated through gasification. The
char, or carbonized material, must then be activated to fully develop its pore
structure. To achieve this, the char is oxidized at temperatures ranging from 800900 ºC in the presence of air, steam, or carbon dioxide. The process of creating
activated carbon can be accomplished through thermal (physical/steam) activation
or chemical activation, depending on the source material used.
6.1 Properties of Activated Carbon
Table 3
Standard Values of the Properties of Activated Carbon
Properties of Activated
Carbon
Standard Values of Activated Carbons
Iodine Number
950mg/g
Particle Size
0.08mm-1.0mm
Bulk or Apparent Density
0.3-0.3g/cc
31
Moisture Content
≦12
Ash Content
≦4.5
pH Value
6-10
Source: (Richer, 2017); (Agosto et al., 2020); (Desotec, 2022);
(Newterra, 2022)
Activated carbon has become an indispensable component in a wide range
of industrial applications. In addition to its traditional use in reusable substance
recovery applications, it is increasingly being employed in air and gas cleaning to
comply with strict emissions regulations and address growing environmental
concerns. Activated carbon is also finding expanded applications in water
treatment, including drinking water, groundwater, service water, and wastewater
treatment, where it effectively adsorbs dissolved organic impurities and eliminates
substances that affect odor, taste, and color in halogenated hydrocarbons and
other organic pollutants. Furthermore, activated carbon plays a significant role in
the treatment, purification, and decolorization of liquids, particularly in industries
such as pharmaceuticals, food, and beverage. Its exceptional adsorption
properties make it a valuable tool in removing impurities and improving the quality
of various liquids. The versatility of activated carbon has led to its widespread
adoption in diverse industrial sectors, making it a vital solution for environmental
protection, water treatment, and liquid purification applications (Richer, 2017);
(Agosto et al., 2020); (Desotec, 2022); (Newterra, 2022).
7. Iron Oxide
Iron oxide is a chemical composed of iron and oxygen that is widely found
in rocks, soil, and sediment. It is also a key component in numerous industrial and
technological uses, such as pigments, catalysts, magnetic materials, and
32
biomedical devices. Iron oxide literature covers a wide array of issues, including
its physical and chemical properties, synthesis and preparation methods, uses,
and environmental concerns.
Table 4
Particular Properties of Iron Oxide
Fe2O3
Iron Oxide
Density
5.24 g/cm3
Molecular Weight/ Molar Mass
159.69 g/mol
Boiling Point
3,414 ‘C
Melting Point
1,565’C
Chemical Formula
Fe2O3
Source: (Byjus. 2021)
Table 5
Physical Properties of Iron Oxide
Iron Oxide
Properties
Odour
Odourless
Appearance
Red-brown solid
Covalently Bonded Unit
5
Hydrogen Bond Donor
3
Oxidation state
+3
Solubility
Insoluble in water, soluble in strong
acid
Source: (Byjus. 2021)
33
The physical and chemical properties of iron oxide are dependent on its
size, shape, structure, and chemical makeup. It is a material with exceptional
thermal stability, electrical conductivity, and a high magnetic permeability. The
color of iron oxide varies from reddish-brown to black based on its oxidation level
and crystal structure (Byjus. 2021).
7.1 Application and Uses of Iron-Oxide
Iron oxide, a compound with magnetic properties, plays a crucial
role in various applications. In the field of medical diagnostics, it enhances
contrast in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at low concentrations,
enabling precise tumor targeting. It is also utilized as a carrier for drug
delivery of anti-cancer medications, increasing treatment effectiveness. In
the industrial sector, iron oxide is used in magnetic data storage, coatings,
plastics, nanowires, and nanofibers. In cosmetics, it is used as a pigment
in lenses and jewelry items. Furthermore, iron oxide is found in calamine
lotion for its itch-relieving properties. Additionally, iron oxide serves as a
catalyst in chemical reactions and is a component of magnetic materials for
data storage. In biomedicine, iron oxide nanoparticles are used in drug
delivery systems and as contrast agents in MRI. With its versatile
applications in diverse fields, iron oxide continues to be a vital and impactful
compound (Byjus. 2021).
8. Doping Process
Doping, in the context of materials science, refers to the intentional
introduction of impurities or foreign atoms into a material in order to modify its
electrical, optical, or other properties. Doping is a commonly used technique in
34
semiconductor technology, where it is used to alter the electrical conductivity and
other characteristics of semiconductors for various electronic devices.
Chemical doping is considered as a key to maximize the thermoelectric
performance of conjugated polymers by increasing their electrical conductivity.
However, chemical doping with the ability to increase the carrier concentration will
reduce the order of the films, which cannot guarantee the high electrical
conductivity, thus it is crucial to keep good charge transport pathways.
Research Literature
This segment presents past studies and research that have similarities with the
current study. These were filled in as the premise for evaluating the performance of ironoxide nanoparticle-modified activated carbon from sugarcane bagasse as the adsorbent
of oil from the water.
RELATED LITERATURE
Foreign Studies
In a study conducted by Behnood et al. (2013), entitled “Application of Natural
Sorbents in Crude Oil Adsorption”, phragmites australis, sugarcane leaves straw, and
sugarcane bagasse was used as sorbents for crude oil in dry systems, where only oil was
present. The findings revealed that sugarcane bagasse had a higher capacity for oil
sorption than the other sorbents. Therefore, sugarcane bagasse was selected as the
preferred sorbent. The effects of contact time and particle size on oil adsorption capacity
were assessed for both dry and crude oil layer systems on water. The results indicated
that the maximum adsorption capacity of raw sugarcane bagasse for the dry and crude oil
35
layer system was approximately 8 and 6.6 grams of crude oil per gram of sorbent,
respectively.
In the study of Kosheleva, Kyzas, Kokkinos, and Mitropoulos 2022, entitled “LowCost Activated Carbon for Petroleum Products Clean-Up”, the use of adsorbent
materials is emerging as a promising technique to address oil spills and oil contamination
problems in water bodies. A successful adsorbent material must meet three important
factors: it should be effective, reusable, and accessible to raw materials. In light of this,
their study is looking into whether activated carbon made from potato peels could be a
low-cost and environmentally friendly alternative for oil sorption. Using potato peels to
make activated carbon can help in a number of ways, such as reducing waste, lowering
the cost of production, and providing a source of raw materials that can be used a couple
of times. The ability of activated carbon made from potato peels to absorb things has been
found to be the same as the other commercial sorbents that are commonly used.
Moreover, it exhibits good reusability characteristics, making it a more sustainable and
cost-effective solution for the treatment of oil spills and petroleum products in water.
Based on the study of Iwuozor, K. O., et. al., (2022), entitled “Removal of
pollutants from aqueous media using cow dung-based adsorbents”, biomassderived by heating biomass in an oxygen-deficient environment, biochar becomes a
material rich in carbon. It is a low-cost and abundant material, which makes it a popular
choice for the removal of heavy metals and other water pollutants. The excellent surface
properties of biochar make it an ideal adsorbent material, capable of binding with various
pollutants such as lead, cadmium, and arsenic. Biochar's porous structure enables it to
absorb both organic and inorganic contaminants from water, reducing the concentration
of pollutants in the water.
36
Based on the study of Olufemi, B. A., & Otolorin, F. (2017), entitled “Comparative
adsorption of crude oil using mango (Mangnifera indica) shell and mango shell
activated carbon”, they examine further the feasibility of removing crude oil using a
natural adsorbent. The outcomes show that crude oil may be cleaned by allowing it to
adhere to waste materials such as mango shells. The adsorbent's adsorbed oil-water ratio
was greater than unity in all circumstances studied, indicating that the adsorbent has a
higher adsorption selectivity for crude oil over water. The range of adsorption
temperatures under consideration was 15 to 60°C, with 15°C showing the highest levels
of adsorption. The correlation coefficient revealed numerous adsorption process
parameter relationships.
In the study of Anuwar et al. (2020), entitled “Raw and Acetylated Sugarcane
Bagasse (Saccharum Officinarum) and Rubber Wood (Hevea Brasiliensis) In Oil
Spill Sorption at Pantai Kuala Perlis”, investigates the potential of using raw and
acetylated sugarcane bagasse (SGB) and rubber wood (RB) as oil sorbents in oil spill
cleanup at Pantai Kuala Perlis. The experiment was conducted using different time
intervals and oil thickness, with 2g of sorbents. The results showed that raw and acetylated
rubber wood could be used as oil sorbent along with sugarcane bagasse. The modification
of the sorbents improved their sorption capacity, as seen in the FTIR analysis. The
optimum adsorption time and oil thickness were found to be 15 minutes and 10 ml,
respectively, for the percentage removal of oil and oil sorption capacity. However,
sugarcane bagasse was found to be a better oil sorbent compared to rubber wood.
Overall, the study highlights the potential of using waste materials as oil sorbents and the
importance of modifying the sorbents to improve their oil sorption capacity.
In the study by Brandão et al. (2010), entitled “Removal of petroleum
hydrocarbons from aqueous solution using sugarcane bagasse as adsorbent”, the
37
capacity of sugarcane bagasse as an adsorbent for removing oil by-products from
aqueous solutions was evaluated. The objective was to treat contaminated wastewater
while simultaneously enriching the bagasse for its later use as fuel in boilers. The
researchers conducted adsorption experiments in an agitated reactor at room temperature
to obtain kinetic curves and adsorption isotherms of gasoline and n-heptane on sugarcane
bagasse. The results showed that bagasse had great potential as an adsorbent, as it could
adsorb up to 99% of gasoline and 90% of n-heptane in solutions containing about 5% of
these contaminants. The adsorption kinetics of gasoline showed that equilibrium was
reached after only 5 minutes, indicating that the adsorption was highly favorable.
In the studies by Batnagar and Mika (2010) and Mahamadi (2011), entitled
“Utilization of Agro-Industrial and Municipal Waste Materials as Potential
Adsorbents for Water Treatment”, it was found that biomass wastes like banana peels,
sugarcane bagasse, and orange peels have high lignocellulose content, which results in
a large internal surface area with numerous pores. These characteristics make them ideal
candidates for removing pollutants from water. Researchers have also studied various
low-cost biomasses such as anaerobically digested sludge, algae, bacteria, and fungi, as
well as agricultural waste materials, including soybean and cotton seed hulls, rice bran,
crop milling waste, maize cob meal, groundnut husk sawdust, and coconut shell (Batnagar
and Mika, 2010; Patil et al., 2012). The production of activated carbon from agricultural
byproducts is effective and relatively cheaper than other methods due to the abundance
and availability of these materials.
In a study conducted by Artikah and Badruddin (2012), entitled “Separation of Oil
and Water Using Sugarcane Bagasse”, the potential of sugarcane bagasse, both in its
raw form and after modification with sulfuric acid, as a material for adsorbing crude palm
oil from the water was investigated. The study aimed to increase the utilization of
38
sugarcane bagasse as a renewable resource and reduce the organic waste generated by
the industry. The researchers tested different weights and sizes of bagasse samples and
found that sugarcane bagasse has a high carbon content, making it effective in adsorbing
oil. They also found that particle size is a key factor in determining adsorption capacity,
with smaller particle sizes having a greater surface area and higher adsorption capacity.
Raw bagasse was found to be more effective than bagasse modified with sulfuric acid, as
the latter did not significantly increase the adsorption capacity. The study concludes that
sugarcane bagasse could be a viable alternative material for separating oil from water and
could be used to clean up oil spills or to separate oil from industrial waste in the palm oil
industry.
Based on the study of Diaz et al., (2022), entitled “Improved Sorbent for the
Removal of Hydrocarbons Spilled in Water” the contamination of ecologically sensitive
aquifers by oil is a significant global environmental problem. In response, there has been
a trend toward using natural fiber-based sorbent materials due to their high adsorption
capacity and biodegradability. The objective of their study was to produce a sorbent
material by chemically modifying and carbonizing sugarcane bagasse to clean the oilcontaminated water. The sorption capacity of the carbonized material was determined
using ASTM method F 726-17, which classified it as a type II sorbent. Tests were carried
out to determine the optimal particle size for achieving the highest sorption capacity, which
was found to be above 2.0 mm. The carbonized sugarcane bagasse material was tested
on water contaminated with crude oil, and its properties were compared to a commercially
available sorbent material. The results showed that the properties of both sorbent
materials were very similar. As a result, the researchers concluded that carbonized
sugarcane bagasse material could be effectively used as a hydrocarbon sorbent material.
39
Based on the study of Utomo et al. (2016) entitled “Oil-Water Adsorptive
Properties of Chemically Treated Sugarcane Bagasse”, among the contaminants
plaguing our waters today, oil remains one of the most pervasive and challenging
contaminants to remove. Oil pollution can occur due to accidental spills during
transportation or discharge from factories. Sugarcane bagasse (SB) is an abundant
agricultural by-product containing almost half cellulose and one quarter of lignin. By
modifying SB's hydrophobicity through chemical treatments, the oil-adsorptive properties
of SB can be improved. In an experiment, various chemically treated sugarcane bagasse
was tested for their oil adsorption capacity. Results showed that AASB, ASSB, NSB, SSB,
and BSB had oil adsorption capacities of 13.0 mL/g, 11.25 mL/g, 10.50 mL/g, 9.0 mL/g,
and 8.75 mL/g, respectively. The results aligned with material characterization using FTIR,
where AASB, with the highest lignin content, showed the highest hydrophobicity and oil
adsorption capacity, while BSB, with the lowest lignin content, showed the lowest oil
adsorption capacity and was more hydrophilic. This study demonstrates the potential use
of natural sugarcane bagasse material with high lignin content for oil spill treatment in
water environments.
According to Kakom et al. (2022) entitled “Activated Carbon from Sugarcane
Bagasse Pyrolysis for Heavy Metals Adsorption” the disposal of sugarcane bagasse,
a byproduct of the agro-industry, can be repurposed as a potential feedstock for activated
carbon production due to its high organic carbon content. The study optimized a pyrolysis
method for producing activated carbon from sugarcane bagasse. The best activated
carbon was obtained by impregnating sugarcane bagasse samples with 70% sulfuric acid
for 24 hours and carbonizing them at 500°C for two hours, yielding a surface area of
431.375 m2/g. The optimal impregnation ratio was 2.5:1 (sulfuric acid/bagasse). The
prepared activated carbon was able to adsorb heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Mn, Cu, Cr) from
40
Nile Tilapia reused frying oil, with an adsorption rate of 80% and a preference for Cd
removal. The properties of the prepared activated carbon were comparable to those of
commercial activated carbon, and the production cost using this method was about $707,
which was 40% cheaper than commercial activated carbon. Focusing on the surface area
as the most important parameter. Increasing the carbonization temperature had no effect
on the porosity of the charcoal. However, the appearance color of the carbonized samples
changed to black with the increase in the temperature degree. Because charcoal has not
undergone activation (i.e., impregnation), this shows the importance of activation step in
the activated carbon production.
According to the World of Nanotechnology., (2019)., entitled “Synthesis of Iron
Oxide” Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have been widely investigated due to their unique
magnetic, optical, and catalytic properties. Various methods have been developed for the
synthesis of IONPs, including co-precipitation, sol-gel, thermal decomposition, and
hydrothermal methods. In this study, a simple and efficient method for the synthesis of
IONPs was reported. The method involves the addition of 50 mL of 0.2M Fe3+ salt solution
(FeCl3) and 50 mL of 0.1M Fe2+ (FeSO4) to FeCl3 solution and stirring for 15 minutes.
This was followed by the dropwise addition of NH4OH until pH 11 was reached and stirred
further for 20 minutes. The resulting IONPs were characterized using various techniques,
including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Previous studies have shown that the size, shape,
and magnetic properties of IONPs can be controlled by adjusting the reaction conditions
such as temperature, pH, and reaction time. In this study, the pH of the reaction mixture
was controlled to ensure the formation of uniform and stable IONPs. The use of FeCl3
and FeSO4 as precursors ensured the formation of both Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions, which is
known to improve the magnetic properties of IONPs. The proposed method offers several
41
advantages, including simplicity, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. The resulting IONPs
were found to be stable and suitable for various applications, including biomedical
imaging, drug delivery, and environmental remediation. Further studies are required to
optimize the synthesis conditions and investigate the potential applications of the
synthesized IONPs.
According to the Buchori L., et al., (2022) entitled Modification of magnetic
nanoparticle lipase catalyst with impregnation of Activated Carbon Oxide (ACO) in
biodiesel production from PFAD (Palm Fatty Acid Distillate), the production
of biodiesel using
Palm
Fatty
Acid
Distillate
(PFAD)
assisted
by
magnetic nanoparticle lipase catalyst impregnated with Activated Carbon Oxide (ACO)
has been studied. This study aims to examine the use of a magnetic nanoparticle lipase
catalyst impregnated with activated carbon oxide in the production of biodiesel through a
simultaneous esterification-transesterification reaction. The catalyst was characterized by
X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Fourier-Transform
Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR). The simultaneous esterification-transesterification reaction
was carried out in the reactor at a temperature of 56 °C, the mole ratio of methanol:PFAD
is 16:1, a catalyst weight of 2.216 % wt, and a reaction time of 6 h. The biodiesel yield
obtained was 94.915 %. The biodiesel yield decreased with repeated use of the catalyst
and the catalyst underwent morphological changes after three uses. A total of 2 g of
Fe3O4 nanoparticles were dissolved in 25 mL of ethanol and then ultrasonicated for 30
min.
42
Local Studies
In the study of Angeles M., et al., (2012) entitled “Utilization of Pretreated Sugar
Cane Bagasse as an Oil Spill Sorbent”, it focuses on the investigation of bagasse, a
relatively abundant and inexpensive material, as a potential sorbent for removing oil from
water in oil spill cleanup efforts. The sugarcane bagasse was locally collected and
pretreated using a lixiviation and acetylation process to improve its oil sorption capacity
and efficiency. A washing technique was also employed to remove impurities from the oil
and improve the quality of the bagasse. The physical and chemical properties of the
bagasse were characterized, and a simulated oil spill using salt water was conducted to
determine its viability and potential as an oil spill sorbent. The results showed that
pretreated sugarcane bagasse had high oil sorption capacity and efficiency and could be
used as an alternative, efficient, and cheaper oil spill sorbent. The sorption capacity of the
pads containing carbonized pith bagasse was found to increase with increasing time of
sorption till it reaches the maximum value at the time of sorption equal to 60 min. Overall,
the related literature highlights the potential of using bagasse as a sustainable and costeffective solution for cleaning up oil spills.
Based on the study of De Castro J., et al., (2014) entitled “Evaluation of the
Effectiveness of Dispersant-Treated Corn Cob as an Oil Spill Sorbent”, it states the
impact of oil spills on the Philippines and the importance of finding effective methods to
clean them up. The study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of dispersant-treated
corn cobs, both whole and granulated, as a sorbent for oil spill adsorption. The researchers
conducted tests to determine which sample (whole or granulated, treated or untreated)
would absorb the highest number of hydrocarbons and if sorption time and dosage
affected the efficiency of the sorbent. The results showed that longer sorption time and
greater sorbent dosage increased efficiency. The treated corn cob absorbed more
43
hydrocarbon than the untreated one, and the granulated corn cob was more effective than
the whole corn cob. The maximum sorption time was found to be 90 minutes, and the
granulated-treated corn cob had the highest absorption efficiency at 73.17 percent. The
treatment of the corn cob with dispersants also improved the absorbency of the sorbent.
Overall, the study suggests that dispersant-treated corn cobs have the potential as an
effective and low-cost solution for cleaning up oil spills.
According to the study by Betonio I., et al., (2014) entitled “Evaluation of an
Acetylated Banana Fibre for Absorbing Oil Spill”, it discusses various methods for
cleaning up oil spills, including the use of sorbents. The study focuses on evaluating the
effectiveness of using acetylated banana fiber as a sorbent for oil spill adsorption. The
authors set parameters such as buoyancy, density, and moisture content to test the
efficiency of the sorbent. They conducted preliminary testing to determine which sample
would absorb the most hydrocarbons and also to see if the sorption time, amount of
acetylating solution, acetylating time, and size/weight affect the efficiency of the sorbent.
The results showed that a longer sorption time increased the efficiency of the sorbent, but
the effect becomes negligible after 60 minutes. The size/weight of the sorbent also
affected the efficiency, with larger/heavier sorbents being more efficient. The authors
found that the amount of acetylating solution had to be proportional to the size/weight with
a 1.5:1 ratio and that an acetylating time of 1.75 hours resulted in maximum efficiency.
Treated banana fiber had a higher amount of sorbed hydrocarbon compared to untreated
banana fiber, and acetylated banana fiber had the highest absorption efficiency of 89.85%.
The study concludes that treating banana fiber with acetylating solution improved its
absorbency and that acetylated banana fiber can be a viable option for cleaning up oil
spills.
44
Based on the study entitled “Development of an Oil Spill Simulator Using Paper
Pulp as an Oil Absorbent” by Amurao L. et al., (2015), it discusses the use of paper
pulp as an alternative media for the removal of organic compounds, specifically oil, from
aqueous solutions. The study aimed to evaluate the ability of paper pulp to absorb oil and
to determine the optimum parameters for oil absorption efficiency. The paper pulp was
prepared from shredded, squeezed, dried, and sieved newspaper, and was characterized
through particle size, fiber, lignin, and moisture content. The properties of the crude oil
and the simulated oil spill were also characterized. Varying parameters such as contact
time, particle size, and mass of the absorbent were evaluated in preliminary testing to
determine the highest amount of oil absorbed. The moisture content, fiber content and
lignin content of the paper pulp were 3.7817%, 58.92% and 26.12%, respectively. The
density and water content of crude oil were 747.53 kg/m3 and 131.4 ppm, respectively.
The 250 mL of crude oil and 20 L of seawater were used oil spill simulation. The best
contact time for the paper pulp was 20 minutes with a mass of 125 grams of absorbent
because it had the highest absorbing efficiency of oil. All the varying parameters passed
on the needed DENR’s standard range of 0 – 2 mg/L for waters designated for swimming,
0 – 3 mg/L for non-swimming and greater than 5 mg/L that would be considered as polluted
for oil and grease
Based on the study of Andal A. N., et al., (2022) entitled “Catalytic degradation
of methylene blue dye via phot-assisted fenton oxidation using corn cob-activated
carbon/iron oxide nanoparticles” states the synthesis of a biosorbent material called
Corn cob activated carbon/iron oxide nanoparticles (CCAC-ION) from carbonized corn
cob wastes, which is efficient in treating methylene blue (MB) dye-contaminated water.
The synthesized material is characterized as amorphous, rough and clustered with the
elements C, Fe and O, and has a mean particle size of 89.4 nm with various functional
45
groups. The material contains both an amorphous porous carbon shell as well as a cubic
magnetite (FeyOu) core that is efficient for adsorption and dye degradation. The study
also explores the optimization of the adsorption and photo-Fenton experiments using L16
Taguchi Orthogonal Array of 4' and 4°, respectively. The optimized conditions for the
highest dye removal were found to be pH 3, 12g/L of H202, dye concentration of 40 mg/L,
4g/L of adsorbent dose, and 60 mins irradiation time. The study also indicates that the
synthesized CCAC-IONs are highly recyclable and still possess their adsorption and
catalytic properties after five cycles of MB treatment. The data is found to fit with the
Langmuir adsorption isotherm model and pseudo-second-order kinetic model, and the
initial dye concentration, pH, adsorbent dose, and H.O, dose have a significant influence
according to the photo-Fenton ANOVA results.
Synthesis
The cited research studies in this chapter were relevant to the researchers as this
information will serve as a guide for this study entitled “Performance Evaluation of IronOxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill
Adsorbent”.
The study entitled "Application of Natural Sorbents in Crude Oil Adsorption"
by Benhood et al. (2013) is similar to the current study entitled "Performance Evaluation
of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil
Spill Adsorbent" in terms of using sugarcane bagasse as an adsorbent for oil. Both studies
investigate the potential of sugarcane bagasse as a material for oil spill cleanup. However,
the former study focused on using sugarcane bagasse in dry systems, where only oil was
present, while the latter study evaluates the performance of iron-oxide nanoparticle-
46
modified activated carbon from sugarcane bagasse in adsorbing oil spills. Additionally, the
latter study also explores the effect of modifying the sugarcane bagasse with iron-oxide
nanoparticles on its oil adsorption capacity.
Conversely, the study by Kosheleva et al. (2022), entitled "Low-Cost Activated
Carbon for Petroleum Products Clean-Up” it focuses on the use of activated carbon
made from potato peels as a low-cost and eco-friendly alternative for oil adsorption. The
study highlights the importance of finding an adsorbent material that is effective, reusable,
and accessible to raw materials in addressing oil spills and contamination in the bodies of
water. The research findings demonstrate that activated carbon made from potato peels
exhibits comparable oil adsorption capacity to commercial adsorbents and has good
reusability characteristics. It focuses on the potential of using waste materials, such as
potato peels, to produce a cost-effective and sustainable solution for oil spill clean-up. In
comparison to the current study entitled "Performance Evaluation of Iron-Oxide
Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill
Adsorbent", the studies share similarities in their focus on developing cost-effective and
eco-friendly solutions for oil spill clean-up. However, the current study explores the use of
iron-oxide nanoparticles to modify activated carbon made from sugarcane bagasse to
enhance its oil adsorption capacity, whereas the study by Kosheleva et al. (2022) focuses
on using waste materials to produce low-cost activated carbon for oil adsorption. Overall,
both studies contribute to the ongoing efforts to find effective and sustainable solutions for
oil spill clean-up.
Moreover, in the study entitled "Removal of Pollutants from Aqueous Media
Using Cow Dung-Based Adsorbents" by Iwuozor, K. O., et al (2022), a carbon-rich
material derived from heating biomass in an oxygen-deficient environment, for the removal
of heavy metals and other water pollutants. Biochar is an abundant and low-cost material
47
with excellent surface properties that make it an ideal adsorbent material capable of
binding with various pollutants such as lead, cadmium, and arsenic. Its porous structure
enables it to adsorb both organic and inorganic contaminants from water, reducing the
concentration of pollutants in the water. In comparison to the current study entitled
"Performance Evaluation of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from
Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent", the development of low-cost and
environmentally friendly adsorbent materials for pollutant removal from aqueous media is
the emphasis of both of these studies, which are similar in that regard. However, the
current study specifically targets the removal of oil spills using iron-oxide nanoparticlemodified activated carbon made from sugarcane bagasse. The study on cow dung-based
adsorbents highlights the potential of using biochar as an abundant and affordable
adsorbent material for the removal of heavy metals and other water pollutants. In general,
both investigations contribute to the ongoing efforts that are being made to identify efficient
and long-term solutions for the removal of pollutants from aqueous systems.
The study entitled "Comparative Adsorption of Crude Oil using Mango
(Mangifera indica) Shell and Mango Shell Activated Carbon" by Olufemi, B. A., and
Otolorin, F. (2017) and the current study entitled "Performance Evaluation of Iron-Oxide
Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill
Adsorbent" are similar in that they both examine the effectiveness of natural adsorbents
in removing oil or petroleum products from aqueous media. However, they differ in the
specific materials used as adsorbents and the pollutants they are targeting. The former
study focuses on mango shells as the adsorbent and crude oil as the pollutant, while the
latter study examines the use of iron-oxide nanoparticle-modified activated carbon from
sugarcane bagasse as an adsorbent for oil spill cleanup. Additionally, the former study
48
examines the effect of temperature on the adsorption process, while the latter study
investigates the effects of pH value, dosage, and contact time.
In the study entitled "Raw and Acetylated Sugarcane Bagasse and Rubber
Wood in Oil Spill Sorption at Pantai Kuala Perlis" by Anuwar et al. (2020) it investigated
the potential of using waste materials as an oil adsorbent and the effect of modification on
their oil adsorption capacity. The experiment was conducted using different time intervals
and oil thickness, and the results showed that sugarcane bagasse was a better oil
adsorbent compared to rubber wood. However, both raw and acetylated rubber wood
could be used as oil sorbents along with sugarcane bagasse, and modification of the
sorbents improved their oil sorption capacity. On the other hand, the study entitled
"Performance Evaluation of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from
Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent" focuses on the performance evaluation of
activated carbon from sugarcane bagasse modified with iron-oxide nanoparticles as an oil
spill adsorbent. Therefore, both studies are similar in terms of focusing on the potential of
using waste materials as oil adsorbents and the importance of modifying them to improve
their oil sorption capacity.
The study by Brandao et al. (2010), entitled "Removal of Petroleum
Hydrocarbons from Aqueous Solution Using Sugarcane Bagasse as Adsorbent"
they evaluated the capacity of sugarcane bagasse as an adsorbent for removing oil byproducts from aqueous solutions. The objective was to treat contaminated wastewater
while simultaneously enriching the bagasse for its later use as fuel in boilers. The study
conducted adsorption experiments in an agitated reactor at room temperature and
evaluated the adsorption isotherms of gasoline and n-heptane on sugarcane bagasse.
The results showed that bagasse had great potential as an adsorbent, as it could adsorb
up to 99% of gasoline and 90% of n-heptane in solutions containing about 5% of these
49
contaminants. On the other hand, the current study entitled "Performance Evaluation of
Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil
Spill Adsorbent" focuses on the performance evaluation of activated carbon from
sugarcane bagasse modified with iron-oxide nanoparticles as an oil spill adsorbent.
Therefore, both studies focus on the potential of using sugarcane bagasse as an
adsorbent for removing hydrocarbons from aqueous solutions. However, the first study
evaluates the capacity of sugarcane bagasse as an adsorbent for removing gasoline and
n-heptane from aqueous solutions, while the second study evaluates the performance of
activated carbon from sugarcane bagasse modified with iron-oxide nanoparticles as an oil
spill adsorbent.
The synthesis of Batnagar and Mika (2010), entitled "Utilization of AgroIndustrial and Municipal Waste Materials as Potential Adsorbents for Water
Treatment" is similar to the current study entitled "Performance Evaluation of Iron-Oxide
Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill
Adsorbent" is that both studies highlight the potential of using waste materials as
adsorbents for environmental remediation. In both studies, sugarcane bagasse is
identified as a promising adsorbent due to its abundance and availability. However, the
former study focuses on the use of various agro-industrial and municipal waste materials
for water treatment, while the latter study focuses specifically on the modification of
sugarcane bagasse as an adsorbent for oil spill cleanup. Nonetheless, both studies
demonstrate the potential of using waste materials for environmental remediation, which
can provide economic and environmental benefits.
The topic by Artikah and Badruddin (2012), entitled "Separation of Oil and Water
Using Sugarcane Bagasse" is similar to the current study "Performance Evaluation of
Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil
50
Spill Adsorbent" in terms of using sugarcane bagasse as an adsorbent for oil separation.
However, the methods and objectives of the studies are different. The former study
investigated the potential of sugarcane bagasse, both in its raw form and after modification
with sulfuric acid, as a material for adsorbing crude palm oil from water, while the latter
study evaluates the performance of activated carbon from sugarcane bagasse modified
with iron-oxide nanoparticles as an oil spill adsorbent. Moreover, the former study focused
on the separation of oil and water, while the latter study focused on the evaluation of the
adsorbent's performance in oil spill remediation.
The topic by Diaz et al., (2022), entitled “Improved Sorbent for the Removal of
Hydrocarbons Spilled in Water” is similar to the current study entitled “Performance
Evaluation of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane
Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent” in that both studies focus on developing a sorbent
material for cleaning up oil-contaminated water. However, the two studies differ in the
specific approach used for modifying sugarcane bagasse to create the sorbent material.
The first study focuses on chemically modifying and carbonizing sugarcane bagasse,
while the second study uses iron-oxide nanoparticles to modify activated carbon from
sugarcane bagasse. Additionally, the first study tests the adsorbent material against crude
oil, while the second study tests it against used oil.
The study by Utomo et al. (2016), entitled “Oil-Water Adsorptive Properties of
Chemically Treated Sugarcane Bagasse” is similar to the study entitled “Performance
Evaluation of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane
Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent” in that both studies investigate the potential use of
sugarcane bagasse as an effective material for oil spill treatment. However, the former
study focuses on the effects of chemical treatment on sugarcane bagasse's oil adsorption
capacity, while the latter study examines the effectiveness of modifying sugarcane
51
bagasse with iron-oxide nanoparticles as an oil spill adsorbent. Both studies demonstrate
that sugarcane bagasse could be an effective and sustainable material for oil spill
treatment.
The study entitled "Activated Carbon from Sugarcane Bagasse Pyrolysis for
Heavy Metals Adsorption" investigated the production of activated carbon from
sugarcane bagasse and its potential application for heavy metal adsorption. The study
optimized a pyrolysis method for producing activated carbon from sugarcane bagasse,
and the best activated carbon was obtained by impregnating sugarcane bagasse samples
with 70% sulfuric acid for 24 hours and carbonizing them at 500°C for two hours. The
prepared activated carbon was able to adsorb heavy metals from Nile Tilapia reused frying
oil, with an adsorption rate of 80%. On the other hand, the study entitled "Performance
Evaluation of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane
Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent" focused on the modification of activated carbon from
sugarcane bagasse with iron-oxide nanoparticles for oil spill adsorption. The study aimed
to enhance the adsorption capacity of the activated carbon for oil spills by modifying its
surface with iron-oxide nanoparticles. The modified activated carbon showed higher
adsorption capacity for oil spills compared to unmodified activated carbon. Although both
studies focused on the production and modification of activated carbon from sugarcane
bagasse, they had different applications and objectives. The first study aimed to develop
an efficient and cost-effective method for producing activated carbon for heavy metal
adsorption, while the second study aimed to enhance the adsorption capacity of activated
carbon for oil spills by modifying its surface with iron-oxide nanoparticles.
The study entitled "Synthesis of Iron Oxide" describes a simple and efficient
method for synthesizing iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) using FeCl3 and FeSO4
precursors and controlling the pH of the reaction mixture. The resulting IONPs were
52
characterized using various techniques and were found to be stable and suitable for
various applications. The study also discusses the importance of controlling the reaction
conditions to optimize the size, shape, and magnetic properties of the IONPs. On the other
hand, the study entitled "Performance Evaluation of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified
Activated Carbon from Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent" evaluates the
effectiveness of iron oxide nanoparticle-modified activated carbon derived from sugarcane
bagasse as an adsorbent for oil spills. The study involves modifying the activated carbon
with IONPs and testing its adsorption capacity using simulated seawater and crude oil.
The results showed that the modified activated carbon had a higher adsorption capacity
compared to unmodified activated carbon, and can potentially be used as an effective
adsorbent for oil spills. Overall, the two studies are different in terms of their objectives
and methodologies. The first study focuses on the synthesis of IONPs and their potential
applications, while the second study evaluates the effectiveness of IONP-modified
activated carbon as an adsorbent for oil spills. However, both studies highlight the
importance of IONPs and their unique properties in various fields, and offer insights into
their potential applications.
The study entitled "Modification of magnetic nanoparticle lipase catalyst with
impregnation of Activated Carbon Oxide (ACO) in biodiesel production from PFAD"
investigates the use of a magnetic nanoparticle lipase catalyst impregnated with activated
carbon oxide for the production of biodiesel through a simultaneous esterificationtransesterification reaction. The catalyst is characterized using various techniques, and
the biodiesel yield is measured under specific reaction conditions. The study shows that
the catalyst is effective in producing biodiesel, but its yield decreases with repeated use.
On the other hand, the study entitled "Performance Evaluation of Iron-Oxide NanoparticleModified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent" evaluates
53
the effectiveness of iron oxide nanoparticle-modified activated carbon derived from
sugarcane bagasse as an adsorbent for oil spills. The study involves modifying the
activated carbon with IONPs and testing its adsorption capacity using simulated seawater
and crude oil. Overall, the two studies are different in terms of their objectives and
methodologies. The first study focuses on the use of a magnetic nanoparticle lipase
catalyst impregnated with activated carbon oxide for the production of biodiesel, while the
second study evaluates the effectiveness of IONP-modified activated carbon as an
adsorbent for oil spills. However, both studies highlight the potential applications of
nanoparticles in various fields and offer insights into their unique properties and
capabilities.
The study by Angeles M., et al., (2012) entitled “Utilization of Pretreated Sugar
Cane Bagasse as an Oil Spill Sorbent”, is quietly similar to the current study because
both studies, "Utilization of Pretreated Sugar Cane Bagasse as an Oil Spill Sorbent" and
"Performance Evaluation of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from
Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent," investigate the potential of sugarcane
bagasse as a cost-effective material for oil spill cleanup. However, the former study
focuses on the pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse to improve its oil sorption capacity and
efficiency using lixiviation and acetylation processes, while the latter study evaluates the
performance of iron-oxide nanoparticle-modified activated carbon derived from sugarcane
bagasse. Additionally, the latter study involves the use of iron-oxide nanoparticles for
modifying the activated carbon's properties, whereas the former study does not
incorporate any modifications to the sugarcane bagasse material.
The topic by De Castro J., et al., (2014) entitled “Evaluation of the Effectiveness
of Dispersant-Treated Corn Cob as an Oil Spill Sorbent”, evaluates the potential of
using dispersant-treated corn cobs as an effective and low-cost solution for cleaning up
54
oil spills. The study examines the efficiency of the sorbent and factors that affect its
performance, such as sorption time and dosage. The results indicate that the treated and
granulated corn cobs are more effective than their untreated and whole counterparts,
respectively. The maximum sorption time is 90 minutes, and the granulated-treated corn
cob has the highest absorption efficiency. The current study entitled "Performance
Evaluation of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from Sugarcane
Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent" is different from the previous study. The current study
explores the use of iron-oxide nanoparticle-modified activated carbon derived from
sugarcane bagasse as an oil spill adsorbent. The study evaluates the impact of various
factors on the sorption efficiency, such as particle size, contact time, and adsorbent
dosage. The results show that the modified activated carbon has high sorption capacity,
and particle size and contact time have a significant effect on sorption efficiency. The study
suggests that the modified activated carbon has the potential to be an effective solution
for cleaning up oil spills. In summary, both studies examine different materials as potential
oil spill sorbents, and both highlight the importance of finding effective and low-cost
solutions to address oil spills.
The study of Betonio I., et al., (2014) entitled “Evaluation of an Acetylated
Banana Fibre for Absorbing Oil Spill”, is similar to the current study entitled
"Performance Evaluation of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from
Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent" in that both studies evaluate the
effectiveness of using natural fibers as sorbents for oil spill adsorption. However, the
materials used in each study are different, with the former study using acetylated banana
fiber and the latter study using iron-oxide nanoparticle-modified activated carbon from
sugarcane bagasse. Additionally, the methods used to evaluate the efficiency of the
sorbents are also different between the two studies.
55
The study entitled “Development of an Oil Spill Simulator Using Paper Pulp as
an Oil Absorbent” by Amurao L. et al., (2015), is different from the study entitled
"Performance Evaluation of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from
Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent." The former study focuses on the use of
paper pulp as an alternative absorbent for removing oil from aqueous solutions, while the
latter study evaluates the performance of iron-oxide nanoparticle-modified activated
carbon from sugarcane bagasse as an oil spill adsorbent. The former study also sets
parameters such as contact time, particle size, and mass of the absorbent to determine
the optimum oil absorption efficiency, while the latter study evaluates the performance of
the adsorbent with varying concentrations of oil, pH values, contact time, and dosages.
Both studies, however, aim to develop alternative methods for cleaning up oil spills.
The study of Andal A. N., et al., (2022) entitled “Catalytic degradation of
methylene blue dye via phot-assisted fenton oxidation using corn cob-activated
carbon/iron oxide nanoparticles”, is different from the current study entitled
"Performance Evaluation of Iron-Oxide Nanoparticle-Modified Activated Carbon from
Sugarcane Bagasse as an Oil Spill Adsorbent." The former study focuses on the
development of a biosorbent material called CCAC-ION from carbonized corn cob wastes
for the treatment of methylene blue dye-contaminated water. The material is characterized
by having both an amorphous porous carbon shell and a cubic magnetite core that is
efficient for adsorption and dye degradation. The study also explores the optimization of
the adsorption and photo-Fenton experiments using the L16 Taguchi Orthogonal Array.
On the other hand, the latter study deals with the development of an oil spill adsorbent
from sugarcane bagasse activated carbon modified with iron oxide nanoparticles. The
study aims to evaluate the adsorption capacity of the modified adsorbent for oil and
determine the optimum parameters for oil absorption efficiency.
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Every literature cited in this research draws on previous investigations for a better
understanding of the subject. While some of the raw materials, methodologies, and ideas
may overlap, this study is not a duplication because it seeks to improve and assess the
effectiveness of iron-oxide nanoparticle-modified activated carbon from sugarcane
bagasse as an adsorbent for oil spills. Those previous studies were only used as a
reference to inform the development of the most appropriate methodology and
experimental procedures for this study.