Harmony and Symmetry
Celestial regularities shaping human culture
Synopsis of scientific contributions
26th Annual Meeting of the
European Society for Astronomy in Culture
Société Européenne pour l’Astronomie dans la Culture
August 27 – September 1, 2018
Graz, Austria
Online edition
Sonja Draxler & Max E. Lippitsch
Editors
i
© 2018 by GWK Graz
Support of this work by the following institutions is gratefully
acknowledged:
University of Graz
Land Steiermark
Stadt Graz
Hypo Bank Steiermark
SEAC
GWK Graz
ERRATUM
In the printed edition of this synopsis, unfortunately a
major error occurred: On p.147 at the beginning of the abstract by Incerti & Iurilli, two paragraphs of another paper
have been erroneously inserted. The correct text is starting
with 1. Short description of the object of study. The erroneous part has been deleted in this digital version.
As the responsible editor I have to apologize for
the erratum and hope that it remains the only grave error
in this volume.
Max E. Lippitsch
Content
Preface
Harmony and Symmetry:.Celestial regularities shaping human culture ……….6
SonjaDraxler, Max E. Lippitsch
Where did astronomy ‘sit’ in ancient Greek and Roman culture? ................. 11
Liba Taub
Planetary Astrology in Early China and the Sāsānian Connection.................. 13
David W Pankenier
Schloss Eggenberg - A Symbolic World .......................................................... 15
Barbara Kaiser
Astronomy and Indigenous Technologies in Africa ........................................ 17
Paul Baki
Celestial regularity as a basis of time-reckoning ........................................... 18
Hermann Hunger
Planetary Harmonies & Celestial Symmetries ................................................ 21
George Latura
Constructed Knowledge? – New insights on visual characteristics of Middle
Neolithic Roundels ......................................................................................... 24
Gordon Fischer, Gerd Graßhoff, Christina Michel, Wolfram Schier
Vršac Circles and Vlajkovac Predial, a possible pair of archeoastronomy related
sites in the South Banat district, Vojevodina province, Serbia ...................... 27
Tamaš Fodor,, Marc Frîncu, Leonard Dorogostaisky
i
Common features of megalithic stone rows in western Switzerland ............. 31
Rita Gautschy
Megalithic Total Solar Eclipses ....................................................................... 33
Göran Henriksson
The Lunar meaning of Avebury and Stonehenge ........................................... 35
Nicholas Kollerstrom
The historical significance of the orientations of the chamber-tombs of Bronze
Age Crete near Mavro Spelio (Black Cave) ..................................................... 38
Mary Blomberg and Göran Henriksson
Games for Cosmos: How the Minoan elite ruled their people by mastering ritual
performance and the cycles of time ............................................................... 41
Marianna P. Ridderstad
A Journey to the Late Bronze Age Minoan Underworld: The Reflection of Sunlight
on the Sea as an Axis Mundi ........................................................................... 43
Ilaria Cristofaro
Exceptional evidence of a prehistoric meteorite impact at the archaeological site
of Stöttham (Chiemgau, SE-Germany) ........................................................... 46
Barbara Rappenglück & Kord Ernstson
A Statistical and Information-Theoretical Analysis of the Motifs on Bronze Age
Golden Hats .................................................................................................... 48
Marc Thuillard
Was the knowledge of the spherical shape of the Earth in roman imperial period
reserved to the elite or was it common knowledge? ..................................... 52
Sara Wanek
Which rule for the order of days in the week in artefacts from Roman times to
1600 ................................................................................................................ 54
Nicoletta Lanciano
The Horologion of Andronikos Kyrrhestes (Athens, Greece): Investigation of its
eight plane sundials ........................................................................................ 56
Panou, E, Liritzis, I. and Preka-Papadema, P.
Introducing skyscapeR, an open-source R package for data reduction,
visualization and analysis in cultural astronomy ............................................ 58
Fabio Silva, A. César González-García, Victor Reijs, Fernando Pimenta, Andrew
Smith
A Virtual Park of Astronomical Instruments................................................... 60
Georg Zotti
“Th’inconstant Moon”: lunar celestial mechanics as a template for ritual
transformations. ............................................................................................ 64
Lionel Sims
Lunar Standstills or Lunastices: a lunatic myth or a moonly reality? ............. 67
A. César González-García, Juan Antonio Belmonte
A Catchy World Model: The Concept(s) of Cosmic Mountain(s) Used by Ancient
Cultures .......................................................................................................... 69
Michael A. Rappenglück
Empowering Sky Imagery ............................................................................... 72
Daniel Brown
Weaving as cosmic instrument: a sublimation of the vertical and the horizontal
....................................................................................................................... 75
Feeney-Beaton Morag Helen
The “ Intihuatana” of Saywite ( Perù): an archaeoastronomical investigation on
the role of time marker of the gnomon ........................................................ 78
Motta Silvia, Adriano Gaspani, Gustavo Corrado, Sixto Benitez, Jose Pino Matos,
Llactapata and the Puzzle of the Two Coricanchas ....................................... 81
J. McKim Malville and Gary Ziegler
A Condor Shaped Stone Pillar that Marked the Equinox 4,000 Years Ago at the
Adean Site of Buena Vista .............................................................................. 84
Robert A. Benfer
Meaning and coincidences. A study into the archeoastronomy of Inka structures
and their ritual significance ............................................................................ 87
José Nicolás Balbi
Astronomical and Geographical Features of Zhoubi Deduced from Mythology
and Gnomonic ................................................................................................ 90
Paul Perez-Enriquez
Calendar meaning of Timber-grave community pottery ornament in accordance
with the Vedic tradition of the sacrifice ......................................................... 92
Andrej Kirillov
Archaeoastronomy of Japan: a short history ................................................. 94
Akira Goto
Solar Returns: From observing the sky to observing birthdays ...................... 96
Astrid B. Leimlehner
The 19-year Luni-solar Cycle of the Odyssey, the Pylos Combat Warrior Seal and
the Antikythera Mechanism ......................................................................... 100
Florence Star Wood
Structure of the sacred space, astronomical orientation and functional evolution of
the rock-cut monument near the village of Lilych, Kyustendil region, Bulgaria 102
Alexey Stoev, Penka Maglova, Vassil Markov, Dimitriya Spasova, Anton Genov
The Hittite Rock Sanctuary of Yazılıkaya: A Lunisolar Calendar from c. 1250 B.C.
...................................................................................................................... 105
Eberhard Zangger, Rita Gautschy
A robust statistical significance test for the orientation of archaeological
structures...................................................................................................... 109
Fabio Silva, A. César González-García
Politics, Harmony and Managing Change in Kepler's Astronomy................. 112
Nicholas Campion
The harmony of J. Kepler. Elliptical form in geometry and music ................ 115
Uliva Velo
Kepler’s calculations of the Creation’s date, compared to Dionysius Exiguus’
Adjustment of Anno Domini ......................................................................... 118
Sepp Rothwangl
The regularities of the celestial forces: the concept of sun and moon in Igbo
world view .................................................................................................... 120
Barth Chukwuezi
Origins of Ka’ba and The Celestial Order ..................................................... 122
Reza Assasi
A New Light on the Central Instrument of the Samarqand Observatory ..... 124
S. Mohammad Mozaffari, Georg Zotti
Numerical, Geometric and Orientation Properties of “Steppe Geoglyphs” in
Kazakhstan ................................................................................................... 129
Nyssanbay Bekbassar
The calendrical period of 13 days as a basis to explain the solar orientation of
architectural structures in Mesoamerica ..................................................... 131
Jesús Galindo Trejo
The use of the Palenque ratio in the Lunar Series as a means to preserve the
legitimacy of the ruling dynasty of the Palenque kingdom .......................... 133
Stanislaw Iwaniszewski
Solar alignments and observational techniques in Mesoamerica ............... 135
Ivan Šprajc
Calender house at Copan? Orientation of structures in the Sepulturas region
..................................................................................................................... 138
Hasso Hohmann
Harmonic Cycles and Symmetric Time Structures in Mesoamerican Architecture
..................................................................................................................... 140
Carlos Eduardo Barrera Atuesta
Tolupan universe: A mesoamerican cosmovision ........................................ 144
J. Mejuto and E. Rodas
The astrological cycle of Schifanoia: the complexity of content through digital
representation ............................................................................................. 147
Manuela Incerti, Stefania Iurilli
Diachronic evolution of the orientation of the early Christian and medieval
churches of Rome ......................................................................................... 150
I. Leone, F. Meddi, S. Gaudenzi, F. Carnevale, V.F. Polcaro
Intellectual transformations during Renaissance - The change of worldview Impacts on the architectural thought and creation in the Czech lands during 16th
and early 17th century. ................................................................................ 152
Nikolaos Ragkos
The orientation of Roman centuriations. Disposition of Christian medieval sacred
buildings inside the Roman centuria situated in Northern Italy............................. 155
Eva Spinazzè
Harmony and symmetry: The Planetarium Babylonicum of MUL.APIN ....... 158
Susanne M Hoffmann, Manfred Krebernik
Ziggurats of Mesopotamia: An Astro-Archaeological Analysis ..................... 159
Vance Tiede
A Cultural Comparison of Dark Sky Constellations ...................................... 163
Steven R. Gullberg, Andrew M. Munro163
On the orientation of Roman cities in the Illyrian coast: a statistical and
comparative study ........................................................................................ 165
Juan Antonio Belmonte, Andrea Rodríguez Antón, A. César González-García
The summer solstice Sun in Lepenski Vir ...................................................... 168
Aleksandra Bajić, Hristivoje Pavlović
"Harmonices Mundi" by Johannes Kepler and Georg Kraft’s prediction for ice
drift on the Neva River in 1732..................................................................... 171
Karine Dilanian
The Gregorian calendar in Austria and Johannes Kepler ............................. 174
Harald Gropp
Astronomical Treasures in Stift Rein ............................................................ 176
Sonja Draxler and Max E. Lippitsch
Round table: The Ontological Turn in Anthropology and Archaeology and Its
Importance for Cultural Astronomy ............................................................. 180
Roslyn M. Frank, Stanislaw Iwaniszewski, Kim Malville, Alejandro Martín López
and Fabio Silva
Archaeoastronomical investigation of Felix Romuliana ............................... 185
Aleksandra Bajić and Milan S. Dimitrijević
Graz and Kepler – working, living, and commemoration ............................. 188
B.P. Besser1, M.Y. Boudjada, M.E. Lippitsch, and S. Draxler
Sky as the cultural landscape ....................................................................... 190
Jadran Kale
The case of the enclosure burials of Bonlez (Belgium): an archaeoastronomical
analysis. ........................................................................................................ 192
Heller Frédéric, Silvia Motta, Adriano Gaspani
'Child of Earth & Starry Sky' – Orphic Gold Lamellae ................................... 194
George Latura
In harmony with the cosmos: Of calendars & priests ............................................ 198
George Latura & Sepp Rothwangl
Eneolithic solar calendar in the Magura cave near the village of Rabisha,
Belogradchik municipality, Bulgaria ............................................................. 200
Penka Maglova, Alexey Stoev and Mina Spasova
The Universe Isn’t Silent: Electroacoustic Ensembles with Life 2.0 ............. 203
Deborah Kala Perkins
Identification of Seris’ Constellations from Memory and Experience ......... 205
Arturo Morales Blanco, Alejandro Aguilar Zeleny, Julio Saucedo Morales, Raul
Perez-Enriquez, and Jesus Galindo Trejo
Building a robust methodology in archaeoastronomy ................................. 208
Raposo-Pulido V., Cerdeño Serrano M.L., Rodriguez Caderot M.G., Baquedano
Beltrán M. I. and Mejuto, J.
Rembrandt and the Telescope ..................................................................... 210
Marilyn Gottlieb-Roberts
A Vulva-like Rock Sculpture at Externsteine/Germany and Fullmoon as Indication
for Sexual Rituals .......................................................................................... 213
Sepp Rothwangl
Development over time and astronomical orientations of the Demir Baba teke
near the village of Sveshtari, Bulgaria .......................................................... 215
Mina Spasova, Alexey Stoev and Penka Maglova
A calendrical interpretation of spirals in Irish megalithic art ....................... 218
Marc Türler
Astronomy in the northern Bronze Age. The ring patterns on the women´s belt
plates astonomically/geometrically analyzed. ............................................. 220
Astrid Wokke
A 17th century "Mountain Calendar" from Zywiec (Poland): an erudite's
invention or a local Mountaineers' tradition? .............................................. 221
Mariusz Ziółkowski, Maciej Sobczyk
Archaeoastronomical stratigraphy: Investigstions on a cisalpine celtic enclosure
...................................................................................................................... 223
Stefano Spagocci and Adriano Gaspani
Preface
Harmony and Symmetry: Celestial regularities shaping human
culture
Culture is impossible without structure, and structure means regularity, the repetition of similar units of social behaviour. Astronomy as
the oldest of natural sciences was always strongly connected with
these regularities in human societies. Astronomical observations
were important for temporal and spatial structuring daily life, providing orientation in a purely practical, but also in its spiritual meaning,
thus connecting natural phenomena with astrological and religious
interpretations of the world. The celestial sphere, regarded as the sky
of astronomy and meteorology, as well as the heaven of divine numina, from the early times of Anaximander and Pythagoras till Copernicus and Kepler was equated with symmetry, harmony, and beauty.
Till today this has been reflected in the structure of cultural creations,
from architectural objects to musical forms. This broad conception of
Astronomy in Culture will form the basis of the conference.
Graz, the capital of Styria and the second-largest city in Austria, is situated on the river Mur about 200 km southwest of Vienna, with a population of about 320.000 residents (in 2017). With 6 universities and
44.000 students Graz is a place of international encounter as well as
intercultural and inter-religious dialogue. Karl-Franzens University is
the oldest university in Graz, founded in 1585 by Archduke Karl II.
Famous scientists were living and working in Graz, for example Johannes Kepler, Ludwig Boltzmann or Erwin Schrödinger.
The UNESCO honoured the city by including in the World Heritage
List the historic centre (1.12.1999) and Eggenberg Palace (1.8.2010),
because of its “diversified and highly comprehensive ensemble of architectural, decorative and landscape examples of the interchanges of influence from many neighbouring regions of Central and Mediterranean
Europe from the Middle Ages until the 18th century”
(http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/931/).
6
Eggenberg Palace is a beautiful example of harmonious architectural
skill: The building, commissioned in 1625 by Prince Hans Ulrich von
Eggenberg, was erected on a rectangular plain in a large garden. It
represents a precisely calculated cosmos: 365 exterior windows, 24
state rooms with 52 doors, a Planet Hall with paintings created by
Hans Adam Weissenkircher showing the seven celestial bodies or the
twelve signs of the zodiac.
This remarkable city is going to host the 26th Annual Conference of
SEAC The venue for this conference is the Meerscheinschlössl, a
charming little baroque manor belonging to the University of Graz. A
first building of 1580 was rebuilt in the 17th century and received its
present form in1708. The festive hall displays a noteworthy fresco in
the ceiling. It is entitled “Victory of the Christian religion over the pagan deities” and this cultural object, featuring all the ancient planetary divinities gazing down on the conference, provides an impressive
connection to astronomy.
The interdisciplinary character of this meeting will fit perfectly with
the surroundings, embracing both science and culture. The more than
80 scientific presentations cover topics ranging from the Neolithic to
modern times proved a fascinating cross section of the relationship
of astronomy and culture. The texts collected in this volume were
fully peer-reviewed to guarantee the scientific quality.
We wish the attendees a pleasant, fruitful, and interesting conference
and a happy stay in Graz.
Sonja Draxler
Max E. Lippitsch
7
Fresco in the ceiling of he Fesive Hall of Meerscheinschlössl
8
Invited presentations
9
10
Where did astronomy ‘sit’ in ancient Greek and
Roman culture?
Liba Taub
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Astronomy has sometimes been called the oldest science. Within ancient Greek culture, the earliest philosophers were credited with astronomical knowledge. Plato (Theaetetus 174 A) relates a story that
Thales (flourished 586 BCE, and generally regarded as the first of the
ancient Greek philosophers) was once walking at night and gazing upward, looking at the stars. Because he was not watching where he was
going, he fell into a hole. However, Thales was also credited with a
very useful astronomical skill, predicting a solar eclipse. In antiquity,
he was credited by a number of later writers with having successfully
predicted an eclipse of the sun which occurred on 28 May 585 BCE.
The earliest extant account of the eclipse is from Herodotus: “On one
occasion [the Medes and the Lydians] had an unexpected battle in the
dark, an event which occurred after five years of indecisive warfare:
the two armies had already engaged, and the fight was in progress,
when day was suddenly turned into night. This change from daylight
to darkness had been foretold to the Ionians by Thales of Miletus, who
fixed the date for it within the limits of the year in which it did, in fact,
take place” (Herodotus 1.74). The combatants saw the eclipse as disapproval of their warfare, and as a warning. They ceased fighting and
a peace agreement was reached between the two kings. Historians
and astronomers are not certain whether or how Thales accomplished this; often he is credited with having had access to some sort
of Near-Eastern data and information about eclipses. Another story
about Thales was shared by Aristotle, who reported (in the Politics 1.1)
that he had cornered the market on olive presses and made a financial killing, through renting them out to others during a particularly good olive
harvest, which he had predicted using his astronomical knowledge.
11
It makes sense to start an account of astronomy and culture with Thales
because much of our understanding of the role of astronomy has come
from—or been attributed to—philosophers, including Plato and Aristotle.
Thales’ astronomical knowledge was seen as having practical benefits,
whilst some of the earliest surviving explanations of astronomical phenomena as well as descriptions of the structure of the cosmos were offered
by later Pre-Socratic philosophers. When considering astronomy in ancient Greece and Rome, there are some basic questions to be addressed:
What is astronomy? What is it for? How does it relate to other types of
knowledge? How does it relate to other parts of culture?
Whilst the earliest philosophers are credited with astronomical work and
discoveries, astronomy was often regarded in antiquity (and later) as a
branch of mathematics, along with arithmetic, geometry and harmonics.
This immediately raises questions about the relationship between philosophy and astronomy. Accordingly, the connections between astronomy
(accounting for the motions of the heavenly bodies using geometrical
models) and cosmology (natural philosophical explanation of the motion
of such bodies) will be addressed. In addition to theoretical astronomy, the
practical uses of the study of the heavens for time-finding, calendar production, weather prognostication (useful for navigation, agriculture, medicine and commerce) and astrological prediction (particularly important
in ancient Rome) will be considered, with reference to archaeological as
well as textual evidence. Finally, one of the ‘uses’ of astronomy was as an
aid or path to personal improvement, advocated, for example, by Plato as
well as the Alexandrian astronomer Claudius Ptolemy. The ethical
value of pursuing astronomy can be understood as a practical benefit.
12
Planetary Astrology in Early China and the
Sāsānian Connection
David W Pankenier
Lehigh University (emeritus), Bethlehem, PA, USA
In the “Treatise on the Celestial Offices” Tianguanshu (ca. 100 BCE) in
Sima Qian’s, Grand Scribe’s Records, Shiji, Sima Qian attempts a theoretical reformulation of the conceptual basis of astral omenology.
Sima Qian advances the earliest account of astrological history; that
is, the idea that from a comprehensive study of past “intersections”
between astral and terrestrial realms it is possible to derive a theory
of celestial interventionism. Here I focus on a motif of that theory, the
role of periodic planetary clusters in astral omenology between Sima
Qian’s own time and the Tang Dynasty (618-907), illustrating how
such omens played a seminal role in dynastic politics. Finally, the
Fig. 1 The planetary scene viewed from Chang’an. Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and
Venus were just a few degrees apart, only Mercury was some distance away. After sunset on October 8, 750, the locations of the planets were: Jupiter 16h 39’ δ –22° 6.7’; Saturn 16h 1’ δ –19° 19’; Mars
15h 59.6’ δ –21° 48’; Venus 16h 5.8’ δ –23° 52’; Mercury 14h 26’ δ –
17° 40’.
13
study explores how Chinese astrological ideology may have intersected in dramatic fashion with a Sāsānian Persian variant on China’s
Inner Asian frontier, at a watershed moment in Tang history, the An
Lushan Rebellion (755-763).
References
Eberhard, W. “Contributions to the Astronomy of the Han Period: Astronomy of the
Later Han Period,” HJAS 1.2 (1936): 194-235.
Eberhard, W. “The Political Function of Astronomy and Astronomers in Han China,”
ed. J.K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago, 1957), pp. 33-70.
Bielenstein, H. (1950), “An Interpretation of the Portents on the Ts’ien-Han-shu,”
BMFEA 22 (1950): 127-143, and “Han Portents and Prognostications,”
BMFEA 56 (1984): 97-112.
Rochberg-Halton, F. “Elements of the Babylonian Contribution to Hellenistic Astrology,” JAOS, 108.1 (1988): 51-62.
14
Schloss Eggenberg - A Symbolic World
Barbara Kaiser
Universalmuseum Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Right up to today, Schloss Eggenberg has been the visible symbol for the
unprecedented rise of a family. For a brief period, this was where regional
and world history were joined as one. The palace owes its name to its famous owner: Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg (1568-1634), who rose
from being the son of a provincial patrician to becoming one of the most
powerful statesmen of his times at the beginning of the 17th century. As
the closest confidant of Emperor Ferdinand II., he steered the political fortunes of the Empire at the start of the Thirty Years War until, in 1625, he
was appointed Governor of Inner Austria, which he ruled as the representative of the Emperor.
In return, and starting from 1625, he had a palace built on the western
edge of Graz as a complex synthesis of the arts. It was intended to offer
legitimacy – of the kind that would be visible far and wide – for this unprecedented rise. Hans Ulrich chose to base the design of his house on the
most important European residences of the time. In this regard, he also
wanted to set new standards in the Habsburg Hereditary Lands. Here, architecture and the interiors combined to offer a symbolic representation
of the universe in a “world edifice” worthy of a scholarly statesman. The
structure is constructed as a gigantic simile, a symbolic effigy of the universe in which the learned owner formulates his idea of an orderly world
in an epoch of chaos and disintegration.
Right down to the smallest detail, the architecture follows a sophisticated
programme: built as an image of the universe, it is characterised by ideas
of cosmic harmony which had been advanced by natural philosophy. In it,
the course of time and celestial mechanics, earthly hierarchy, world
15
Figure 1 Schloss Eggenberg, Planetary Hall (Peter Gradischnigg, 2015)
history as well as the sphere of beliefs and values all have their place,
as do their equivalents such as alchemical and astrological notions of
the structure of the universe.
As a stunning entrance hall to the princely apartments the magnificent Planetary Room (1678-1685) constitutes the centrepiece of this
artistic programme. Paintings of the planets and the zodiac, some
constellations and the elements were forged into a complex visual
programme by the court painter Hans Adam Weissenkircher with the
aim of glorifying the House of Eggenberg. Portrayed here as gods,
members of the dynasty rule over heaven and earth in a self-created
universe. With its sophisticated artistic programme, the Planetary
Room is one of the most impressive examples of early Baroque spatial
art in Central Europe.
References
Barbara KAISER, Schloss Eggenberg. Wien 2006
Barbara KAISER, Paul SCHUSTER, Schloss Eggenberg. Architektur und Ausstattung,
Graz 2016
16
Astronomy and Indigenous Technologies
in Africa
Paul Baki
Department of Physics and Space Science &
Technical University of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
The use of astronomy in shaping the indigenous technological advances amongst select African ethnic groups is discussed with a view
to unravelling the hidden science behind it. We give a survey of various material forms of material culture and how they were used together with sky knowledge for a variety of indigenous knowledge systems.
17
Celestial regularity as a basis of
time-reckoning
Hermann Hunger
Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien, Austria
In Mesopotamia time was measured with the help of celestial regularities. The course of the sun separated day from night. The appearance of the moon combined a number of days to a month. The return
of the seasons led to the concept of the year. Starting from these units,
a calendar was developed which had to overcome the incommensurability of its building blocks. The paper will describe both the practical
side of the calendar and the theoretical schemes intended to explain
its foundation.
18
Oral contributions
19
20
Planetary Harmonies & Celestial Symmetries
George Latura
Independent researcher, Trumbull, USA
Comparative analysis of relevant ancient texts yields the long-held correspondence between celestial Wanderers and musical tones. Another result is a cosmic construct that consists of two intersecting circles whose
diametrically opposite intersections would be seen as heavenly portals.
Can a coherent cosmological view be postulated that encompasses the
music of the Planets and the symmetry of the heavenly intersections?
In the Vision of Er, Plato describes Sirens that sit atop Planetary orbits and
produce a harmony (Republic, 617b). Aristotle, a scholar at Plato’s Academy, notes that the harmony of the moving celestial bodies is a Pythagorean concept (On the Heavens, II, IX). Cicero, who emulated Plato’s writings, connected music to the heavens in his Dream of Scipio, a notion that
Macrobius would explicate in his Commentary on the Dream of Scipio, a
text that was still studied in the 15th century (Figure 1, Somnium
Scipionis). Even in the 1600’s, Kepler’s Harmonices Mundi sought to explain the Planetary orbits in musical terms.
In his cosmological tour-de-force, Plato again writes about the Planets
when the Demiurge constructs the cosmos from two intersecting celestial
circles (Timaeus, 36c). One of the intersecting circles is – according to
Plato – the path of the planets, the ecliptic. This makes the course of the
harmonic Wanderers one of the circles that intersect at opposite locations
in the sky. What might be the other celestial circle?
In De Re Publica’s Dream of Scipio, which emulates the Vision of Er in
Plato’s Republic, Cicero describes two celestial paths: the course of the
Planets and the Milky Way. Cicero’s protagonist, Scipio, meets his virtuous ancestors in the Milky Way, the abode of exalted souls. In his
Commentary on Scipio’s Dream, Macrobius places the heavenly
21
portals at the intersections of the Milky Way and the zodiac, the constellations along the path of the celestial Wanderers.
Writing shortly after Cicero, Manilius gives the correct and precise locations of the intersections of the Milky Way and the Planetary paths, and he
declares that the course of the Wanderers is a visible celestial phenomenon (Astronomica I, 681). Manilius must be writing about the zodiacal
light, which at times envelops planets along the ecliptic. This ethereal sight
is best seen, in temperate climes, at symmetrically opposite seasons of the
year, at the equinoxes (Kelley, Milone, Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy. Springer, 2005, p. 138).
The visible intersections of the Milky Way and the zodiacal light, which are
best seen at the symmetrically opposite equinoxes, suggest the use of this
phenomenon in cultic practice. Aligning with this hypothesis, the Lesser
and Greater Mysteries of Eleusis were celebrated near Athens at opposite
times of the year, in spring and fall (Latura, ‘Plato’s X & Hekate’s Crossroads: Astronomical Links to the Mysteries of Eleusis,’ Proceedings of
SEAC XXI Conference, in Mediterranean Archaeology & Archaeometry,
2014, Vol. 14, Issue 3, p. 37-44).
To conclude, celestial harmonies were linked in antiquity to the Planets, while heavenly symmetries are seen in Plato’s two cosmic circles
that intersect at opposite locations in the sky. One circle is the path of
the Planets, while the other circle was considered the Milky Way for
a thousand years in Latin Europe. In temperate latitudes, the course
of the Wanderers is illuminated by the zodiacal light at the equinoxes,
which provides ancient cosmology with another instance of heavenly
symmetry.
22
Fig: 1. Somnium Scipionis. MS Typ 7 (1469) Houghton Library, Harvard
23
Constructed Knowledge? – New insights on visual
characteristics of Middle Neolithic Roundels
Gordon Fischer, Gerd Graßhoff, Christina Michel, Wolfram Schier
Excellence Cluster TOPOI, Berlin, Germany
Circular enclosures, so-called ‘Kreisgrabenanlagen’ or ‘roundels’ are
a much-discussed archaeological phenomenon of the early 5th millennium BC, occurring between western Hungary and central Germany. Their consistent appearance is characterized by circularity,
concentric v-shaped ditches up to 4 m depth with one or more narrow
entrances or causeways and accompanying palisades around a noticeably empty interior. Although these monuments seem to comply
with a common set of architectural rules, they can be characterized
by a great variability of their formal variants and construction details
which do not seem to follow regional patterns, contradicting current
models of spatial differentiation of material culture and hindering
their overall interpretation. As many of the entrances of the enclosures –often differing in design – seem to be oriented towards astronomical phenomena, most frequently to the cardinal points of the sun
during solstices and / or equinoxes (BECKER 1996, ZOTTI 2008,
SCHLOSSER 2007 etc.), they have been interpreted as solar observatories, calendar buildings, cult or meeting places. However, more recent studies incorporating the real topographical location as well as
the effective visible horizon challenge this perception (ZOTTI und
NEUBAUER 2011, MICHEL in prep.). Since some enclosures are, in
fact, orientated not only towards astronomical phenomena, but also
towards topographic landmarks, it appears that the location of the
roundels was not chosen randomly, but intentionally (SCHIER und
SCHMIDT-KALER 2008, MICHEL et al. 2015). Currently, they are interpreted as multifunctional constructions that were predominately
used for cultic-religious purposes but also served socio-political tasks
(STÄUBLE 2012).
24
Given the short life span of the transcultural “Kreisgraben-phenomenon”, which emerged within a mere 200 years between western Hungary and central Germany, the dynamics of dissemination of the required geometrical-geodetic and astronomical knowledge are yet unknown. Furthermore, their occurrence raises even more questions as
they are not distributed evenly at regular intervals but appear to be
clustered in certain areas, opposing possible interpretations as central places.
Within a newly implemented project, funded by the Excellence Cluster TOPOI, we intend to expand our previous research that dealt with
the spatial and visual characteristics of 29 (MICHEL et al. 2015,
MICHEL in prep.) roundels in Germany. Based on high-resolution digital elevation models, areas possibly orientated towards topographical and astronomical features were systematically investigated using
GIS-based viewsheds and computed skyscapes and a self-developed
Python based routine that incorporates the visible horizon as seen
from the enclosure.
On the basis of random samples from the entire distribution area of
the roundels, we want to examine whether similar topographical and
astronomical orientation of the gates can also be verified in other regions. Then, a limited number of criteria (e.g. design and orientation
of the gates, size, number of ditches etc.) will be selected to assess the
structural variability of the enclosures. By means of suitable multivariate methods like cluster analysis, multidimensional scaling, and
network analysis, these criteria will be used to calculate the degree of
generalized similarity between all samples comparing them with
their respective geographical distances. The evaluation of these two
variables, spatial distance and formal similarity, as well as their cartographic implementation by means of GIS, might be helpful to weigh
between different conceivable models for the transfer of knowledge
and the spread of this architectural concept.
25
Therefore, by comparing physical structures, GIS-based viewsheds
and computed skyscapes of several roundels throughout central Europe, we attempt to understand the route of knowledge transfer as
well as depict possible cultural interactions and communication networks.
26
Vršac Circles and Vlajkovac Predial, a possible
pair of archeoastronomy related sites in the South
Banat district, Vojevodina province, Serbia
Tamaš Fodor,1, Marc Frîncu,2 Leonard Dorogostaisky3
1 Vršac Public Library, Serbia
2 Romanian Society for Cultural Astronomy and West University of Timisoara Romania, Department of Computer Science, Timisoara, Romania
3 Romanian Society for Cultural Astronomy, Romania
In a large area of Central Europe comprising a region going as far as
the border of Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria and
Hungary a class of archaeological structures called Kreisgrabenanlage
(KGA, Neolithic circular ditch system) has been discovered and investigated1. Some are situated in the Transdanubia region part of the
western Pannonian plain and exhibit as some researchers have suggested astronomical features.2
In our study we focus on two archaeological sites situated in the
southeast of the Pannonia region (250 km southeast from Transdanubia), near the Vršac insular group of mountains in Serbia.
The Vršac Circles (Vatin - Bela Bara, Sector 6, Location VIII3, 45°12'37"
N, 21°17'14" E, 73m altitude), is located about 1 km inside the northeast part of a marsh (Veliki Rit, about 250 km2 large). Due to poor soil
quality and the presence of near surface water even in hot summer
periods the area seems unsuited for permanent settlement or to act
as a defensive function. The archaeological site consists of four concentric earthworks with a maximum diameter of 150 m occupying
The current archaeological interpretation is that they were used as a multi-purpose
cult place… They are the oldest known monumental buildings in Europe
(4850/4800–4550/4500 B.C.). Zotti, Neubauer, 2011, p. 349.
2 Pásztor, Barna, 2015, p. 2.
3 Jovanović et alii, 2012, p. 53-54.
1
27
about 1.8 ha.4 The oddity of the placement and the fact that the Vršac
Mountains (Gudurica Peak, 641 m altitude) are the only significant
landscape feature in the region made us consider a possible archaeoastronomical relation between the two. By using Skychart5 and Stellarium6 we identified an alignment between Vršac Circles and Gudurica Peak (12 km to the southeast) at the WSSR in Neolithic. We have
performed a photographic and video survey on December 25, 2017
(5' azimuth difference from actual solstice) at the sunrise moment
from the Vršac Circles. The azimuth difference between the two periods is about 1° (about 2 solar diameters) to the south (winter) and to
the north (summer) for the Neolithic period.
In the second case we have done a reverse engineering starting from
the two highest peaks of Vršac Mountains and attempted to find if
there are any Neolithic sites aligned with the SSSR. By using satellite
images, we have found a circular shape and from an in situ superficial
surface field research we discovered a Neolithic site that we call
Vlajkovac Predial (45° 3'32" N, 21°11'44" E, 2.3 ha). From SkyChart
and Stellarium we found an alignment between Vršac Circles - Vršac
Peak (590 m altitude about 16 km to northeast) at the SSSR in Neolithic. We performed a photographic and video survey on June 21,
2017 at the sunrise moment from the Vlajkovac Predial.
Prospecting at this location was unsystematically done by sampling. In the eastern
part of the central circular formation, with diameter of about 45 m, four
pieces of house paneling were found, which indicates to the possible existence of above-ground facilities. Jovanović et alii, 2012, p. 53.
5 Cartes du Ciel, version 4.0 – 3575 05:35:13, JPL ephemeris DE431 (-13000 →
+17000),
6 Stellarium version 0.15.0, JPL ephemeris DE431,
4
28
Even if the two sites are not from the Neolithic Lengyel cultural area
and are far from the core of the Kreisgrabenanlage world and not yet
archaeologically investigated, in our opinion, the vicinity (60 km
north) of the Parța Vinča sanctuary7 in Romania which also exhibits
equinoctial alignments, could be one of the arguments to support the
hypothesis that Vršac Circles and Vlajkovac Predial could have played
a role in the rituals celebrating the Sun in Neolithic. Of course, future
archaeological research will confirm or infirm this hypothesis.
Bibliography
Jovanović et alii, 2012
Dragan B. Jovanović, Daria Grossman, Branko Mušič, Predrag Novakovič, Revisionary research of the site Vatin - Bela Bara, Proceedings of the Regional Conference Research, Preservation and Presentation of
Banat Heritage: Current State and Long Term Strategy, Vršac, Serbia 17–19
November 2011, Regional Centre for Cultural Heritage of Banat • Concordia,
City Museum of Vršac, 2012, ISBN 978-86-83911-51-6
Pásztor, Barna, 2015
Emília Pásztor, Judit P. Barna, The Astronomical Characteristics of Late Neolithic Circular Enclosures in Light of the Most Recent Research from the Transdanubian Region, Hungarian Archaeoastronomical
7
Lazarovici et alii, 2002
29
Reserch III, Hungarian Archaeology, e-Journal • 2015 Autumn, www.hungarianarchaeology.hu
Zotti, Neubauer, 2011
Georg Zotti, Wolfgang Neubauer, Astronomical aspects of
Kreisgrabenanlagen (Neolithic circular ditch systems) - an interdisciplinary
approach, “Oxford IX” International Symposium on Archaeoastronomy,
Proceedings IAU Symposium No. 278,
Clive L.N. Ruggles, ed. International Astronomical Union 2011
Lazarovici et alii, 2002
Gheorghe Lazarovici, Gheorghe Chis, Tiberiu Oproiu,
Iharka Szűcs-Csillik, Neolithic Shrine at Parta, Konkoly Monographs, Vol. 4,
pp. 7–17, 2002
30
Common features of megalithic stone rows in
western Switzerland
Rita Gautschy
University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Three megalithic long stone rows are well known in western Switzerland: one in Yverdon le Bains (Clendy), one in Lutry (La Possession),
and another in Sion (Chemin de Collines). While the site in Yverdon
was discovered already in the 1870s during water regulation works,
the other two came to light rather recently and excavation as well as
reposition of the stones was done properly. Each monument is special in another sense: in Yverdon we can be relatively sure that all
stones of the final stage of the monument are still there since it was
covered by water for millennia. In Lutry we possess excellent data
concerning stratigraphy and dating of the monument (Burri-Wyser et
al. 2016). Finally, the stone row in Sion can be investigated in connection with its neighbouring chambered tombs and settlement (Moinat
et al. 2007).
I investigated the topographical situation of the above stone rows in
detail and measured their orientation. The corresponding data from
the settlements and tombs were taken from the literature (BurryWyser et al. 2016; Moinat et al. 2007). The most obvious similarity
between the stone rows is their connection with water – two of them
were very close to the boarder of a lake, the one in Sion lies close to
the river Rhône. One of the two alignments in Yverdon follows the
ancient boarder of lake Neuchâtel and points toward one of the
mountain peaks, the Dent du Vaulion. With high probability the orientation of this alignment was motivated by topographical reasons,
not astronomical ones. In Lutry the exact course of the ancient
boarder line of Lake Geneva is less well known than in Yverdon, but
the overall appearance of the monument suggests that the water
should be blocked and kept outside.
31
Analysis of the orientation shows that the stone rows in western Switzerland were preferentially erected close to lakes and rivers in places
where non-restrictive solar irradiation was guaranteed, a feature
they share with palafitte settlements in the vicinity. The general orientation of nearby settlements corresponds to the orientation of the
stone rows. The stone row in Sion dates to the 5th millennium BCE.
The monument in Yverdon can be allocated only roughly between
4500 and 2500 BCE and several building phases are assumed. The
stone row in Lutry was erected between 2570 and 2350 BCE and it
was in use until at least the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (ca.
1500 BCE). The site was abandoned ca. 1200 BCE when forest vegetation increased considerably. Thus, the monuments were built by
different cultural groups and under different environmental circumstances. The combination of all available data (tombs, settlements,
stone rows, orientations, climate data, lake level data) allows for a
tentative scenario of the evolution of society from the Middle Neolithic down to the Bell Beaker Culture in western Switzerland.
References
Burri-Wyser, E., Chevalier, A., Favre, S., Steudler A. (eds.), Destins des mégalithes vaudois, Cahier d’archéologie romande 159, 2016.
Moinat, P., Baudais, D., Brunier C., Les sites de l’avenue Ritz et du chemin des Collines:
deux exemples de nécropole en ville de Sion, 277-296. In: Moinat, P. &
Chambon P. (eds.), Les cistes de Chamblandes et la place des coffres dans
les pratiques funéraires du Néolithique moyen occidental, Cahier d’archéologie romande 110, 2007.
32
Megalithic Total Solar Eclipses
Göran Henriksson
Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
The first calculations of total solar eclipses during the Megalithic period were published in 1989. The computer program was based on
the lunar theory by Carl Schoch (1931). The zone of totality of the solar eclipse in 3337 BC followed the Atlantic coast from the west coast
of Portugal via Carnac in France, across central Denmark and southern Sweden and covered the main distribution area of megalithic passage graves. There was another total solar eclipse, in 3328 BC, that
included the main area of other passage graves. The total zone of the
solar eclipse in 3299 BC covered an area including central Denmark,
three southern provinces of Sweden and the Swedish islands Öland
and Gotland in the Baltic. Almost all Swedish passage graves had been
within the total zones of solar eclipse 3337-3299 BC, in good agreement with the archaeological dating.
In 2011 I decided to eliminate the artificial third order term in
Schoch’s theory and to determine a new second order term that represented the true secular acceleration of the moon’s longitude. The
new second order term, -30.128 ±0.0035 arcseconds/(century)2, was
determined from calculations of 33 total or almost total solar eclipses
back to 3653 BC (Henriksson 2017). After subtraction of the relativistic effect precession of the geodesic, -3.604 "/cy2 (Nordtvedt 1995),
and the acceleration in the Earth-Moon inertial system, -25.856
±0.003 "/cy2, measured by LLR (Chapront 2002), from my new determination of the second order term in longitude, it was even possible
to determine the mass of the graviton according to a theory of massive gravity (Dvali et al. 2003). The oldest total solar eclipse used in
the calibration was depicted on a protoliterate Sumerian cylinder
seal. With the new calibration three other Sumerian cylinder seals
have been identified (Henriksson 2017). It has also been possible to
33
identify seven megalithic depictions of total solar eclipses in Ireland,
France, Spain and Sweden, not included in this calibration.
A very critical solar eclipse took place in 3146 BC and has been depicted
on kerbstone K16 at Knowth as the upper half of a series of concentric circles, the symbol for total solar eclipses on Ireland. This eclipse took place
during the setting of the sun and the lower limb was never eclipsed above
the horizon, but it became as dark as during a totality and the observers
could correctly depict Venus to the left of the sun. This rare event makes it
possible to independently verify the values for the secular lunar and solar
accelerations (ΔT). The total solar eclipse in 3328 BC has been depicted in
the gigantic dolmen in Dombate in Galicia, Spain and in the passage grave
Mane Lud at Carnac, France. The very important total solar eclipse in 3389
BC has been depicted on “The Great fallen Menhir” also at Carnac. Finally,
in southern Sweden there exist depictions of the thin crescent of the upper
limb of the eclipsed solar disk at three places close to the northern limit
for the zone of totality in 3299 BC.
References
Chapront, J., Chapront-Touzé, M., and Francou, G. 2002. A new determination of lunar
orbital parameters, precession constant and tidal acceleration from LLR
measurements. Astron. Astrophys. 387, 700-709 (2002).
Dvali, G., Gruzinov, A., and Zaldarriaga, M. 2003. The Accelerated Universe and the
Moon. Phys. Rev. D, vol. 68, Issue 2, id. 024012.
Henriksson, G. 2017. The acceleration of the Moon and the Universe – the mass of the
Graviton. Advances in Astrophysics, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2017, 184-196.
Nordtvedt, K. 1995. The Relativistic Orbit Observables in Lunar Laser Ranging. ICARUS 114, 51-62.
Schoch, C. 1931. Die säkulare Accelaration des Mondes und der Sonne. Astronomische
Abhandlungen, Ergänzungshefte zu den Astronomischen Nachrichten, Band
8, B2. Kiel.
34
The Lunar meaning of Avebury and Stonehenge
Nicholas Kollerstrom
Astro Industries, London, UK
Britain’s largest megalithic construction, Avebury, has I wish to argue
certain lunar features, notably the two wheels inside it close to each
other and of similar size, of a hundred metres across. There is agreement that the southern of these wheels had 29 stones, from as far
back as John Aubrey’s account, but less agreement that the northern
wheel had 27 stones, which is I suggest the most likely estimate. I argue that these represent the two fundamental lunar months, sidereal
27 days and synodic 29 days.
There is a link between Stonehenge and Avebury, 18 miles apart and
which are exactly due North-South of each other (within one or two
degrees) because the arithmetic sum of these two wheels gives the
number of Aubrey holes around the perimeter of Stonehenge, 56,
there being agreement that this was the first step in the construction
of Stonehenge, around five thousand years ago. Avebury was, I argue,
the first to be constructed.
The ring of 29 ½ sarsen stones (one being only half-size) expressed
the synodic lunar month of 29.5 days, this being the first recorded expression of a fraction in human history: numbers which express a beginning of human arithmetic.
In the last phase of Stonehenge at the end of the megalithic era (c.
1400 BC) the so-called ‘X’ and ‘Y’ holes appeared around the Sarsens,
these being two rings of 29 and 20 holes, elliptical in design. These
were an early expression I will argue of a lunar-month calendar alternating 29 and 30 days.
I will call for chalk in-fillings of the 56 Aubrey holes, to make them
visible to tourists; plus, some other marking of stones, of the Y and Y
holes, so that tourists can see for themselves the lunar meaning of this
35
monument –which academics always disdain to mention. Also, one or
two of the giant stones of the northern wheel inside Avebury could
and should be resurrected, which would help to make that ancient
wheel more visible.
Stonehenge is sublime because it integrates solar and lunar meanings
– however this talk will not discuss its great solar focus upon the midwinter sunset and midsummer sunrise, which is in any case wellknown: except to mention that, according to English Heritage dating,
those great trilithons thus solar-oriented are later than the big ring of
29 ½ stones which are lunar. I will comment upon the station-stone
rectangle which is one of the earliest features of Stonehenge and well
described in John North’s book (1997) 'Stonehenge' (image included); this rectangle being aligned to the most northerly Sun and
Moon rise and set directions. Only at this specific latitude do these
directions form a rectangle, any other would have given a parallelogram.
I will argue for some degree of continuity of purpose whereby solar
and lunar meanings have intertwined in these two megalithic monuments over about one and a half millennia. The primary reason for
concern with the lunar month in that early period, would have been
the synchrony that women of childbearing age had in their periods,
the mean female period of that age range being 29-30 days. This was
well argued in Chris Knight’s well-respected anthropological treatise
'Blood Relations' of 1991 (NB, I am there acknowledged in the preface
for astronomical advice): there may not be time to discuss this, but it
might arise in Q&A.
About the author: I was on the RAS (Royal Astronomical Society)
36
'Stonehenge Committee' that produced their 'Stonehenge' leaflet. For
academic publications, see www.dioi.org/kn/index.htm
Stonehenge showing the Aubrey circle ring containing the station-stone rectangle, also the ‘Y’ and ‘X’ rings of holes, around the Sarsen circle.
Source: Robin Heath, with kind permission
References:
Chris Knight, Blood Relations 1991 YUP; John North, Stonehenge, Neolithic man and
the Cosmos 1997; Robin Heath, Sun, Moon and Stonehenge 1998.
37
The historical significance of the orientations of
the chamber-tombs of Bronze Age Crete near
Mavro Spelio (Black Cave)
Mary Blomberg and Göran Henriksson
Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
One of the most important problems of the Late Bronze Age in the
Aegean is the nature of the relationship between the Minoans and the
Mycenaeans. According to the study of Driessen and Macdonald
(1997) there was a severe economic dislocation during the Late Minoan IB ceramic period in Crete (= Late Bronze Age I in the Aegean),
apparently caused first by a tectonic earthquake and shortly afterward by the eruption in Santorini in Late Minoan IA. The result of
these two disasters caused the fragmentation of Minoan Crete and
brought an end to the most highly developed economic system in the
Aegean. It was somewhat resurrected in the following “Mycenaean”
period (LMII). There is some consensus that the Mycenaeans in LMII
were part of the cause ending the Minoan control of Crete. But there
is still fierce debate on this question. Only Dickinson (1994, 304) and
Marinatos (1993, 221) have suggested that there were Mycenaeans
or Mycenaeanised Minoans (second-generation Cretan Mainlanders)
living in Crete as a contributing cause.
Our study of orientations of the chamber-tombs of the two cultures
may shed some light on this problem (Blomberg & Henriksson 2001).
In 1926/1927, E. J. Forsdyke published the remarkable chamber- and
shaft-tombs found in Crete on the upper slopes north of the dry gorge
that cuts down from the Black Cave to the Kairatos River. He dated
them 1700 -1100 BCE (Middle Bronze Age II-Late Bronze Age III in
the Aegean) and, from the series of typical potsherds found in them,
could show that they were in continuous use during those 600 years.
Fifteen of the total of 22 graves have dia-dromoi (entrance passages),
the orientations of which we could measinure on the published
38
drawing in the article with a margin of error estimated to be less than
± 5°. These all had orientations to the west. The orientations that we
have measured of 299 of the 323 other chamber-tombs with diadromoi on Crete, which date from about 2500 to 1100 BCE, were all
aligned to the east, closely within the limits of moonrise. The graves
at Mavro Spelio have never been considered other than as Minoan.
As part of our archaeoastronomical project to investigate Minoan astronomy, (http://minoanastronomy.mikrob.com) we measured a
large number of the cult rooms on the island. These in almost every
case were oriented to sunrise at the equinoxes, the standstills, or the
heliacal rise of a prominent star. There were a few exceptions that
had orientations to the west (Blomberg & Henriksson 2001). These
few are probably to be dated to LMII or later and contained Mycenaean objects. We consider that these western-oriented cult rooms
were built by or for the Mycenaeans. This has caused us to entertain
the possibility that the graves from Mavro Spelio could have belonged
to a large and prosperous Mycenaean colony, well entrenched since
the Middle Bronze Age in Crete. This is a new possibility to explain
the later takeover of the island by the Mycenaeans and could explain
it as a palace revolution of competing elites, one with roots in the Mycenaean colony, but with intermarriages with the Minoans (Minoanised Mycenaeans).
We have now investigated the finds from the graves at Mavro Spelio
and found conformation that they came from Mycenaean graves.
References
Blomberg, M. & Henriksson, G. 2001 Differences in Minoan and Mycenaean orientations in Crete. In Astronomy, Cosmology and Landscape. Proceedings of the
SEAC 98 meeting, Dublin, Ireland, September 1998. Ruggles, C., Prendergast, F. and Ray, T. (eds), Bognor Regis, pp. 72-91.
Dickinson. O. T. P. K (1994) The Aegean Bronze Age, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
39
Driessen, J. & Macdonald, C. (1997) The Troubled Island. Minoan Crete before and after
the Santorini eruption, Aegaeum, vol 17, Liège and Austin.
Forsdyke, E. J. (1926/1927) The Mavro Spelio Cemetery at Knossos, Annual of the
British School at Athens, Vol. 28, pp. 243-296
Marinatos, Nanno (1993) Minoan religion: ritual, image, and symbol, Columbia, University of South Carolina Press.
40
Games for Cosmos: How the Minoan elite ruled
their people by mastering ritual performance and
the cycles of time
Marianna P. Ridderstad
University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Games and gaming in ancient cultures often had also ritual, as well as
profane, purposes and connotations (Rappenglück 2018). Examination of Minoan games, game boars and artistic representations of
games show that this was likely the case also in the Minoan culture.
While many small game boards were probably used in a profane context, especially the largest and most elaborate palatial game boards
may have been used in rituals as well.
The Minoan palaces, villas and sanctuaries were oriented towards important annual astronomical events (Henriksson & Blomberg 2011,
and references therein). Moreover, depictions of the sun, the moon,
and stars were frequent in Minoan art (Ridderstad 2009). Even seemingly profane objects like the Minoan kernoi or game boards include
celestial symbolism (Hillbom 2005; Ridderstad 2010). Especially the
largest game boards and those that have been found in a palatial context can be connected to astronomical symbolism.
In the palaces, the astronomically-themed game boards became to be
used in a sacred landscape including the palaces and their surrounding astronomical setting, which formed a concrete visual expression
of Minoan cosmovision and acted as the background for individual
religious experiences, probably including divination via gaming. On
the other hand, this connection of the games to the rituals and prestige of the palaces also explains why the celestial and calendrical
themes were preferred in the Minoan game boards in general.
The relation of Minoan game boards to astronomy, religion and ritual
thus provides a setting where the celestial symbolism of the game
41
boards becomes understandable as a concrete manifestation of the
Minoan cosmovision. Examination of this connection provides insight
into the Minoan ritual life, led by the religious elite, who were able to
use their calendrical knowledge and the cosmological connections of
the games in their quest for power.
References:
Henriksson, G. and Blomberg, M. (2011). The evidence from Knossos on the Minoan
calendar. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 11(1): 59-68.
Hillbom, N. (2005). Minoan Games and Game Boards. PhD thesis, University of Lund,
Lund.
Rappenglück, M. (2018). Cosmic Players - Simulating, Understanding and Communicating Astronomical Phenomena and Processes by Games. In: From Alexandria to Al-Iskandariya: Astronomy and Culture in the Ancient Mediterranean and Beyond, Proceedings of SEAC 2009, eds. M. A. Rappenglück, B.
Rappenglück and N. Campion. British Archaeological Reports, in press.
Ridderstad, M. (2009). Evidence of Minoan Astronomy and Calendrical Practices.
Available at: https://arxiv.org/pdf/0910.4801
Ridderstad, M. (2010). Lunisolar Calendrical Symbolism on the Phaistos Disk. Anistoriton 12: In Situ no. 2.
42
A Journey to the Late Bronze Age Minoan
Underworld: The Reflection of Sunlight on
the Sea as an Axis Mundi
Ilaria Cristofaro
Sophia Centre for the Study of Cosmology in Culture, Lampeter, UK
Around the times of sunrise and sunset, the sun’s reflection on a large
body of water, such as a sea, appears as an elongated gold band, also
called a ‘glitter path’. For the first time, this research explores this intangible manifestation of light from an archaeological perspective, focusing on the Late Bronze Age culture present on the Greek island of
Crete. The analysis of secondary literature highlighted the potentiality that exploring this topic may have to enhance the comprehension
of Minoan cosmology. Indeed, a significant role of the sun in Minoan
religion was argued by Arthur Evans, whereas the importance of the
sea as a chthonic realm is attested by the presence of marine elements
in funerary context, with the octopus the most frequent motif. In particular, Lucy Goodison and Nanno Marinatos suggested that the deceased was believed to follow the sun during the journey across the
sea-underworld. The observations gathered during the phenomenological fieldwork, carried in Crete for three months, revealed that the
elongated sunlight reflection on sea has the qualities of a natural manifestation of the cosmological concept of the axis mundi, echoing the
liminal convergence of opposing realities. By comparing Late Minoan
III funerary iconography with the fieldwork results, this study developed an interpretation of the Minoan eschatological beliefs creating
analogies between the cultural and the natural world. In particular,
the hybrid form of the octopus-plant motif was analysed: the discussion focused on the octopus role as tree of life, on the axial syntaxes
of the decoration, on the transformation of the octopus in a rosette
with tentacles, and on the liminal character of the motif. The multivocality of the psychopomp octopus symbol may reveal, in its
43
transformation into a flower and a water pillar, an affinity of shapes
and qualities with the glitter path. A polarity of forces appeared manifested in the metamorphosis of the octopus, which seems to embody
a complementarity of opposite meanings, at the same moment representing death and renewal. A solar eschatology can be deduced in a
Minoan world where life and death seem to procreate each other: the
vision of the glitter path across the chthonic sea might have been regarded as the luminous roadway toward afterlife regeneration. The
vision of a solar axis mundi on sea might have acquired a cult role
related to the sun worship, which explain the interchangeability of
the sun with trees and pillars in Minoan-Egyptian religious syncretism, as discussed by Evans. Franz Cumont’ ‘solar attraction theory’,
based upon the beliefs that sunlight could transport the souls to the
afterlife, is argued to be applicable to Minoan eschatology, and vice
versa, the finding of the glitter path as an axis mundi may give hints
to unveil the origins of Cumont’s theory. Indeed, there are reasons to
believe that the idea of the glitter path as an axis mundi may be applied in future research in other cultural contexts where mythologies
tell about a tree of life made of gold to access other states of existence.
Similarly, cults employing an iconography of sacred pillars surmounted by a winged disk, obelisks, and solar columns, might have
been fostered by the vision of the glitter path. The sea-, land- and skyscapes are reflected in the material culture: a narrative of the Late
Bronze Age Cretans’ cosmology was inspired by participating within
the local natural world.
References
Cumont, Franz, Lux Perpetua (Paris: Librairie orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1949)
Evans, Arthur, The Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult and its Mediterranean Relations
(London: Macmillan, 1901).
44
Goodison, Lucy, Death, women, and the sun: symbolism of regeneration in early Aegean
religion, Bulletin Institute of Classical Studies, Supplement 53 (London: Institute of Classical Studies, 1989).
Marinatos, Nanno, Minoan Religion and Ritual (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993).
45
Exceptional evidence of a prehistoric meteorite
impact at the archaeological site of Stöttham
(Chiemgau, SE-Germany)
Barbara Rappenglück & Kord Ernstson
INFIS, Gilching, Germany & Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Germany
Archaeological excavations at the village of Stöttham (SE-Germany,
close to the eastern shore of the lake Chiemsee) in 2007/2008 had
revealed settlement indications from the Neolithic up to the Roman
period. The origin of a thick stony layer being part of the archaeological stratigraphy was highly disputed: one group of researchers described it at a normal colluvium (1), while other scientists argued that
the layer testifies to a prehistoric meteorite impact (2) which has otherwise been documented in the region and is named the Chiemgau
Impact (3). Meanwhile the site has been overbuilt, but the archaeological findings are well-preserved.
Within the last 10 years the knowledge of materials which can be encountered in the region and which can be attributed to the mentioned
meteorite impact has remarkably been broadened (4-6). This new information triggered first-time more detailed examinations of some
findings from the Stöttham site, which before had been put aside as
objects of minor interest: pieces of slag coexisting with rock. The microscopic analysis of thin sections of the samples revealed typical
shock metamorphism in quartz (e.g. planar deformations structures),
which is classified as proof of a meteorite impact (7), and a complex
caking of the rock with the metallic residues (copper, iron).
The presentation will discuss the archaeological and geological context of these findings and the significance of the results for (a) confirming that the Stöttham site had been affected by a meteorite impact
event; (b) for the dating of the Chiemgau Impact.
46
References:
(1) Völkel, J., Murray, A., Leopold, M., Hürkamp, K. (2012) Colluvial filling of a glacial
bypass channel near the Chiemsee (Stöttham) and its function as geoarchive. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie (Annals of Geomorphology), 56(3),
371-386.
(2) Ernstson, K., Sideris, C., Liritzis, I., Neumair, A. (2012) The Chiemgau meteorite
impact signature of the Stöttham archaeological site (Southeast Germany).
Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 12 (2), 249-259.
(3) Ernstson, K., Mayer, W., Neumair, A., Rappenglück, B., Rappenglück, M.A.,
Sudhaus, D., Zeller, K.W. (2010) The Chiemgau crater strewn field: evidence
of a Holocene large impact in southeast Bavaria, Germany. Journal of Siberian Federal University, Engineering & Technology, 1 (3) 72-103.
(4) Hiltl, M., Bauer, F., Ernstson, K., Mayer, W., Neumair, A., & Rappenglück, M. A.
(2011) SEM and TEM analyses of minerals xifengite, gupeiite, Fe2Si (hapkeite?), titanium Carbide (TiC) and cubic moissanite (SiC) from the subsoil
in the Alpine Foreland: Are they cosmochemical? 42nd Lunar and Planetary
Science Conference, Abstract #1391.
(5) Rappenglück, M. A., Bauer, F., Hiltl, M, Neumair, A., & K. Ernstson, K. (2013) Calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions in iron silicide (xifengite, gupeiite, hapkeite) matter: Evidence of a cosmic origin. Meteo¬ritics & Planetary Science,
48(S1), (76th Annual Meeting of the Meteoritical Society), Abstract #5055.
(6) Rappenglück, M. A., Bauer, F., Ernstson, K., & Hiltl, M. (2014) Meteorite impact on
a micrometer scale: Iron silicide, carbide and CAI minerals from the
Chiemgau impact event (Germany). Proceedings of Problems and Perspectives of Modern Mineralogy (Yushkin Memorial Seminar – 2014), Syktyvkar, 106–107.
(7) French, B. M., Koeberl, C. (2010) The convincing identification of terrestrial meteorite impact structures: What works, what doesn’t, and why. Earth-Science Reviews, 98, 123–170.
47
A Statistical and Information-Theoretical Analysis
of the Motifs on Bronze Age Golden Hats
Marc Thuillard
Independent researcher, Uetikon am See, Switzerland
Several artefacts from the Bronze Age have been interpreted as ceremonial hats. The most famous of these artefacts are the so-called
Golden Hats exhibited in Berlin and the Avanton Golden Hat at the
‘Musée d’ Archéologie Nationale’ in St-Germain-en-Laye, both dated
from the late Bronze Age (Menghin 2010). Two other hats are known:
the Schifferstadt and the Ezelsdorf-Buch Golden Hats. The surface of
the hats is decorated with motifs arranged in horizontal bands. In several articles and a monograph, Menghin developed the idea that the
motifs are coding for a calendar related to the Metonic cycle. In order
to synchronize a lunar calendar of 12 synodic months to the solar
year, one extra month has to be added every 2 to 3 years. Menghin
suggested a scheme on how to use the Golden Hats to correct for the
difference between the average length of a lunar (synodic) month and
a solar month using the Metonic cycle. This scheme was rebuked
(Fuls, 2007) due to a lack of statistical support. In other words,
Menghin’s interpretation is one among many equally probable explanations of the motifs. Menghin’s second suggestion, namely that the
motifs on the Golden Hats code for numbers related to the Metonic
cycle has neither been challenged nor statistically tested yet. This article deals therefore with the following question. Is the interpretation
of the markings as coding for numbers related to lunar and solar cycles a statistically acceptable hypothesis? Our approach combines a
statistical to an information theoretical approach. Simply expressed,
all processing rules up to a given complexity are tested and included
in the statistics. After attributing a value to each motif, one may consider applying simple processing rules to the different motifs. The
simplest non-trivial processing rule consists of summing the motifs‘
48
values on each zone (processing rule R0). More complex rules may be
thought of. In order to avoid the significance chasing pitfall, the processing rules are classified according to their complexity. The first difficulty with that approach is that our modern ideas about complexity
were unknown in Bronze Age. Complexity theory may nevertheless
be used to find out what might be perceived as simple today and possibly also during Bronze Age. Another difficulty is that there is no single definition of complexity. Kolmogorov’s complexity or time complexity do not apply well to inter-disciplinary studies. A different
measure of the complexity is used in this study. The complexity of a
processing rule is defined as the sum of the number of independent
parameters (Kline, 1991; Wells, 2012) and of the number of different
operators.
The addition is the simplest operation among the 4 basic operations
on integers. Using a single addition operator, one has the processing
rule R1: ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 with 𝑥𝑖 the value of the ith zone and ‘n’ the number of
zones (The output corresponds to the sum of all values).
A slightly more complex processing rule consists of using the addition
operator together with one independent parameter ‘k’.
R2a: ∑k𝑖=1 x(i); R2b: ∑ni=(k+1) x(i) (The two outputs correspond to the
sum on two subsets of adjacent zones). For symmetry reasons, the
two rules are equivalent and cannot be considered separately.
Two parameters are used at the next complexity level.
𝑘
2
R3:. ∑𝑖=𝑘
x(i) (The output corresponds to the sum of the values be1
tween the k1th and the k2th zone)
Using these processing rules, one obtains numbers that can be compared to the list L of integer multiples of synodic months and solar
months (up to 35 years) of equal duration with an error below ±1.6
days.
49
Using a randomization procedure on the number, value and order of
the motifs, a probability P of obtaining at least as many matches in the
randomized version as in the Golden Hats was estimated with a
Monte-Carlo approach. The statistical analysis of the motifs on the
Golden Hats shows a clear over-representation of number in the list
L. The small probability P for the 3 largest hats (P= 0.105 % ± 0.003
%) supports the hypothesis that the motifs on all but the Schifferstadt
Golden Hat code for numbers related to the synchronization of lunar
and solar cycles.
References
Fuls, A. (2007). Astronomic-statistical Analysis of Circular Motifs on Golden Hats
(Bronze Age). Astronomische Nachrichten 328, 696.
Kline, S. J. (1991). A numerical index for the complexity of systems: The concept and
some implications. In Proceeding of 1990 Conference, Association for Computing Machinery on Managing Complexity and Modeling Reality, New York,
ACM Press.
Menghin: W. (2010). Der Berliner Goldhut. Macht, Magie und Mathematik in der Bronzezeit. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin – Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz. Die
Sammlungen des Museums für Vor- und Frühgeschichte. 2. Schnell und Steiner, Regensburg,
Wells, J. (2012). Complexity and sustainability (Vol. 26). Routledge.
50
a)
b)
Figure 1.a) Avanton Golden Hat (© RMN-Grand Palais (Musée d’Archéologie
Nationale) / Jean-Gilles Berizzi); b) Detail: the main motif consists
of a buckle with two concentric rings. The number of rings gives the
value of the motif.
51
Was the knowledge of the spherical shape of the
Earth in roman imperial period reserved to the
elite or was it common knowledge?
Sara Wanek
University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Ancient astronomers were aware of the spherical shape of the Earth.
Amongst others this can be seen in the written records by Claudius
Ptolemy dating back in the 2nd century, broadly known as the
Almagest. This contribution will examine, if it was an exclusive
knowledge, reserved only to the scientific elite, or if it was known by
the many.
There are no written sources about the general knowledge of the
roman civilization. Furthermore, an educational ideal cannot be
assumed for the broad public in the Roman Empire. That is why the
material culture has to be consulted for approaching this problem.
For the evaluation of the ancient finds iconographical interpretations
and proper analogies are used.
To carry out the examination suitable and representative
archaeological objects have to be selected. Because of their large
dissemination within the whole empire, sundials provide significant
evidence for the transfer of knowledge. This is particularly the case
for the cognition of the lines of latitude, which are fundamental for
designing a correct transportable or fixed sundial. It is a fact that
suggests, that the Earth was not thought to be flat, but round. Besides
the representations of celestial spheres seem to allow the
presumption of the knowledge of the spherical shape of the Earth.
Speaking of celestial spheres, there are two distinctive examples that
have to be mentioned. A detailed marble one is carried by the Atlas
Farnese, the other one is the celestial sphere of Mainz (Germany).
Nevertheless, these two objects have to be related to the upper class
52
and are not representative for the general public. A similar situation
can be found in Boscoreale, where a sphere with lines – probably a
globe – was used as a wall painting. Additionally, the iconography of
the sphere expands into the imperial representation. A silver cup,
again found in Boscoreale, shows Augustus accompanied by Vicotria
with a sphere in his hand. This is the symbol and iconography for
universal control over space and time. These images start to appear
on coinage as well. Often Victoria is shown on a globe, which is mostly
a simple sphere or a sphere with crossed lines. Images on coins were
intended for the whole empire and designed for all people. They
worked as propaganda for the emperor and for this reason the
iconography hand to be understood by everyone. Only images that
could have been easily and universally recognized have been used for
coins.
The appearances of globes and celestial spheres, mostly shown as
simple spheres or with crossed lines, in imperial representation and
propaganda for the emperor, seem to significantly support the
assumption, that the spherical shape of the Earth was know by the
vast public at least in roman imperial time. The widespread usage of
the iconography on different finds meant for a large public requires
that the image of the round Earth was easily understood by everyone.
References:
E. Künzl, Himmelsgloben und Sternkarten. Astronomie und Astrologie in Vorzeit und
Altertum (Stuttgart 2005)
R. J. A. Talbert, Roman Portable Sundials. The Empire in Your Hand (Oxford 2017)
E. Winter, Zeitzeichen. Zur Entwicklung und Verwendung antiker Zeitmesser (Berlin
2013)
53
Which rule for the order of days in the week in artefacts from Roman times to 1600
Nicoletta Lanciano
Dipartimento di matematica "G.Castelnuovo", Università "La Sapienza",
Roma, Italia
I show some artefacts in a critical way, from the Roman period up to
1600, where there are 7 planetary Gods of Mediterranean culture (the
Moon and the Sun, with Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) related to the days of the week, and the enigmatic question of their order. What Mesopotamian peoples and Jewish knew of the 7 planets
when the time unit of the week was established?
What rule does the planets order so that the day of the Sun is followed
by the day of the Moon and then by that of Mars and then of Mercury,
of Jupiter, of Venus and then of Saturn? This order is not directly related with the duration of their period of revolution among the fixed
stars, it is not an order of brightness or supposed distance. To find
out, we must instead suppose a 24-hour day that is repeated cyclically
in a day after another, in which each hour is dedicated to one of the
seven planetary bodies and in which every day takes its name from
the planetary body of his first hour. In this way, thanks to the relation
24: 7 = 3 with the remainder of 3, we obtain, from 24 hours marked
on a circle, and the order of the planets from the slowest to the fastest,
a 7-pointed star with a harmonious and cyclic spatial arrangement.
The artefacts studied are calendars painted or engraved on marble
tables from Roman times (Rome, Anzio, Pompeii - It), mosaics on the
ground (Italica- Seville-E), bas-reliefs and then Planetary tables published in medieval texts and two artifacts of 1600, as complementary
astronomical apparatus in monumental catoptric sundials in Rome.
54
The type of hours is analysed from time to time, if they are equal or
temporary, if they are Italian, Babylonian or French, used in the various artefacts and in the various tables presented.
Moreover, in the different languages the names of the 7 planets assume different names that hide or reveal their mythical origin and the
relationship with the names of the planets. In the Italian language, for
example, the days from Lunedi to Venerdi (Monday to Friday) refer
to the gods of Greek-Latin mythology, Sabato (Saturday) is linked to
Jewish culture and Domenica (Sunday) to Christian religious culture.
The scan of the time unit between the day and the month is also presented, similar but not equal for duration to the week of 7 days, which
preceded it in the Roman world: nundinae.
The iconic artifacts and representations studied have been the starting point for didactic laboratory actions, both for the construction of
original dynamic models and for bodily and rhythmic actions.
References
“Eureka! – il genio degli antichi” a cura di Eugenio Lo Sardo, Electa Napoli, 2005
“Rivoluzione Augusto – L’imperatore che riscrisse il tempo e la città”, a cura di Rita
Paris, Silvia Bruni, Miria Roghi, Electa editrice, 2014
Strumenti per i giardini del cielo”, N.Lanciano, Spaggiari-Junior, III edizione 2017
55
The Horologion of Andronikos Kyrrhestes
(Athens, Greece): Investigation of its
eight plane sundials
Panou, E.1, Liritzis, I.1 and Preka-Papadema, P.2
University of the Aegean, Department of Mediterranean Studies,
Lab. of Archaeometry, Rhodes, Greece
2 National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Department of Physics, Section of
Astrophysics, Astronomy and Mechanics, Athens, Greece
1
The Horologion of Andronikos Kyrrhestes (official name of the monument),
is a structure about 14 m tall and 8 m in diameter. It is an octagonal building, which incorporates a cylindrical structure on the south side. At the top
of the eight vertical walls is a vaulted ceiling depicting the sky. Engraved
lines on the exterior of the eight sides of the edifice show that there once
existed this number of sundials.
The Horologion is an astronomical and cultural monument of great importance. According to recent research, it was built around 100 B.C.
(Kienast, 2013; Panou, 2016). The plan view of the octagonal base of the
building demonstrates the astronomical use of the monument.
On the floor there are curved grooves, straight channels and circular holes
indicating the former existence of a hydraulic mechanism. In the upper
part of its exterior surface is a frieze with eight personified wind deities,
one on each of the sides (Noble & Price, 1968).
The Andronikos’ sundial in the centre of Athens, at the footstep of Acropolis, also called the Tower of the Winds, is a unique cultural monument of
astronomical significance standing as such for over 2000 years.
In our presentation in situ measurements and proper mathematical
relationships are used to confirm a) the position of the eight (8) gnomons (rods or styles) of presumed shape, and, b) the casted shadow
onto the flat plate of these sundials.
56
Indeed, as the sun appears to move across the sky, the shadow aligns with
different hour-lines and curves, which are marked on the dial to indicate
the time of day and the season throughout the year. The style is the timetelling edge of the eight gnomons of the monument. The gnomons cast a
broad shadow; the shadow of the style shows the time. The gnomon may
be a rod, wire, or elaborately decorated metal casting. The style is parallel
to the axis of the earth’s rotation for the sundial to be accurate throughout
the year. The style's angle from horizontal is equal to the sundial's geographical latitude of its position in Athens (Latitude 37° 58′ 27″ N, longitude 23° 43′ 37″ E).
Recently, the Tower of the Winds or Horologion of Andronikos has
been included in the Category of Astronomical Heritage: tangible immovable web portal for UNESCO’s Astronomy and World Heritage Initiative, supported by the International Working Group on Astronomy and
World Heritage and by the International Astronomical Union through
its Commission C4 on World Heritage and Astronomy (Liritzis & Panou,
2017-18)
References:
Kienast, J.Η. (2013). The Tower of the Winds in Athens. The Australian Archaeological
Institute at Athens (AAIA) Bulletin. 9, 20–29.
Panou, E. (2016) Time measurements and related astronomical instruments in Greek
antiquity: The Horologion of Andronikos Kyrrhestes (Tower of Winds) and
other ancient sundials. Proposals and applications of educational activities
for teaching related terms in education. Ph.D. Dissertation, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Physics Department, Greece (in Greek).
Noble, N.J. and Solla Price, D.J. (1968). The Water Clock in the Tower of the
Winds. American Journal of Archaeology, 72(4), 345–355 (plates 111-118
with photographs
Liritzis, I., & Panou, E. (2017-18) In: https://www3.astronomicalheritage.net/index.php/show-entity?identity=90&idsubentity=1
57
Introducing skyscapeR, an open-source R package
for data reduction, visualization and analysis in
cultural astronomy
Fabio Silva, A. César González-García, Victor Reijs,
Fernando Pimenta and Andrew Smith
University of Wales Trinity Saint David, UK
This talk will introduce skyscapeR, an open source R package for data
reduction, visualization and analysis in skyscape archaeology, archaeoastronomy and cultural astronomy, which is being developed
by the authors. The package aims to be a transparent and peer-reviewed set of robust quantitative methods, while retaining simplicity
of use and free access.
In its present, nascent, state it includes functions to transform from
horizontal to equatorial coordinates, automatically reduce compass
and theodolite (sun-sight) field measurements, create or download
horizon profiles and plot them, overlay visible paths of common celestial objects over horizon profiles, create azimuth polar plots, create
declination curvigrams, run significance tests on curvigrams and calculate stellar phases and seasonality. However, the goal is for it to be
further extended as a community-effort.
The package has been developed in the R language for statistical computing (R Core Team 2017), which is a freely available programming
language of wide currency in the fields of statistics and data science,
as well as in the digital humanities and social sciences, including archaeology. The current version of the package is available freely
(Silva, 2017) at https://github.com/f-silva-archaeo/skyscapeR and
via the official Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN):
https://cran.rstudio.com/web/packages/skyscapeR
The purpose of this package is not to be just another tool in our field,
but to spearhead the development of a community-built standard for
58
quantitative analysis of fieldwork data. It is therefore intended to be
fully open, implementing methods that have been fully peer-reviewed, and include both simple-to-use functions with standardized
parameter values – ready to be used in undergraduate courses, for
example – as well as more advanced features that allow top-quality
research to be produced. This talk will present and introduce the
package to attendees, as well as open up to debate future directions
and possible collaborations with other SEAC members.
References
R Core Team, 2017. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org
59
A Virtual Park of Astronomical Instruments
Georg Zotti
Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and
Virtual Archaeology, Vienna, Austria
Historical written sources and illustrations have preserved valuable
information about astronomical instrumentation going back to Antiquity. Ptolemy has described a few instruments like the armillary
sphere or the parallactic rule, and from the early Islam science several
treatises on instrumentation which extend Ptolemy’s, but also introduced new instruments are known. Most of these instruments are no
longer in use, and practically all original instruments have been lost.
Others, like mural quadrants, still can be seen in historical observatories. Many of the existing texts are flawed with copying errors or lack
details in describing their construction and use. How can we best replay and see how they were operated, short of building a physical instrument?
A game engine like Unity3D [Unity 2018] is usable for creating computer games and other interactive virtual worlds. We can create virtual 3D models of past astronomical instruments and interact with
them using common PC interfaces like keyboard and mouse. However, the sky in game engines usually lacks astronomical data [Zotti
2014].
In the last years the open-source desktop planetarium Stellarium
[Stellarium 2018] has gained capabilities for rendering 3D models of
buildings in their landscapes complete with shadows to study the orientation of human-made constructions with alleged astronomical
connections [Zotti 2016a, 2016b]. However, the models are not interactive.
Recent extensions to Stellarium [Zotti et al., 2017] opened the way
towards interfacing both programs (at least on Windows), so that the
60
sky background for Unity can be delivered by Stellarium. This allows
replaying measurements with old instruments recorded in historical
sources in a high-quality game engine with all its possibilities for interaction or enhancing the scenes with animation, informative text or
sound, visualized with the high quality sky simulation of Stellarium.
There are two ways of interfacing Unity3D with a running instance of
Stellarium: in both, Stellarium is controlled by its remote control interface to set date, time, geographic location, or activate various visualisations (grids, constellation figures …). One mode allows to create
“skybox textures”, 6 screenshots which cover the entire sky and are
used as static background. This mode is perfect for creating concrete
“snapshots” of the sky. However, its Spout output [Spout 2018] even
allows rendering the sky background into the live scene with only
minimal delay, which means the natural appearance of the moving
sky can be combined with the moving virtual instruments, and any
relevant astronomical data can be delivered by Stellarium. Both
modes require a reasonably modern PC. On the other hand, it should
be possible to modify the skybox variant to load one of several precreated skybox sets for presenting this interactive scene online in a
web browser with Unity’s WebGL capabilities.
As a proof of concept, I have assembled several models published previously into a Unity application which resembles a park landscape
with several visitor stations:
61
•
The “Vienna Sterngarten”, a modern public sky observing
place in Vienna. The model is available in Stellarium’s Scenery3D plugin. It does not contain moving parts, but Unity can
be used to describe and highlight parts as the virtual user is
walking around.
• Several instruments from a treatise by al-Wābkanawī on the
instruments of the second phase at Marāgha (around
1300AD) [Mozaffari and Zotti 2012]. Some of these show a
striking similarity to instruments later used by Georg von
Peuerbach or Tycho Brahe.
• (More instruments may follow by the time of presentation).
The visitor can walk around in this landscape like in any modern firstperson adventure game. When close to an instrument, a short text
gives relevant information about it and also gives instructions for interaction. The user can click on the movable parts of the instruments
to move them. A special switch allows attaching the observer’s eye to
the alhidade in each instrument to “look through” and into the sky
which is delivered by Stellarium. To switch features in Stellarium (e.g. time
speed, grids, constellations), some of its usual hotkeys have also been implemented in the Unity scene, which calls Stellarium via its remote62
control interface. Depending on the instrument’s capabilities, the measurement results (usually altitude and if available, also azimuth angles) are
also displayed on screen. From this the visitor can learn what these instruments could achieve, and how to do that.
Of course, interaction with mouse and keyboard is somewhat short of a
true hands-on experience, but can still give an approximate insight and
good illustration of how early astronomers gained their observational
data. As a valuable side effect for historians of science, the construction of
virtual instruments also can help to identify problematic texts which may
have been garbled by copying errors [Mozaffari and Zotti 2012].
References:
S. Mohammad Mozaffari, Georg Zotti (2012). Ghāzān Khān’s Astronomical Innovations at Marāgha Observatory. Journal of the American Oriental Society,
132(3):395–425, July–September 2012.
Georg Zotti (2014). Towards Serious Gaming for Archaeoastronomical Simulation.
Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 14(3):271–281, 2014.
Georg Zotti (2016a). Archaeoastronomical simulations in a desktop planetarium. In
Wolfgang Börner, editor, CHNT20: Conference on Cultural Heritage and
New Technologies, Proceedings CHNT2015, volume 20. Stadtarchäologie
Wien, October 2016.
Georg Zotti (2016b). Open-Source Virtual Archaeoastronomy. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 16(4):17–24, 2016.
Georg Zotti, Florian Schaukowitsch, and Michael Wimmer (2017). The Skyscape Planetarium. In Liz Henty, Bernadette Brady, Darrely Gunzburg, Frank Prendergast, and Fabio Silva, editors, The Marriage of Astronomy and Culture: Theory and Method in the Study of Cultural Astronomy (Papers from the 2016
SEAC Conference), volume 21 of Culture and Cosmos, pages 269-281, Culture and Cosmos & Sophia Centre Press. Lampeter, Ceredigion, Wales, 2017.
Spout (2018). http://spout.zeal.co (Visited 2018-01-25).
Stellarium (2018). http://stellarium.org (Visited 2018-01-25).
Unity3D (2018). http://unity3d.com (Visited 2018-01-22).
63
“Th’inconstant Moon”: lunar celestial mechanics
as a template for ritual transformations.
Lionel Sims
University of East London, London, UK
Recently three different researchers in cultural astronomy have independently suggested that Neolithic/EBA monument building cultures
in the British Isles were wedded to a dualistic lunar-solar cosmology
(Fisher 2018 in press, Higginbottom 2013, Sims & Fisher 2018 in
press). All three models posit ritual alternation between reversed horizons and reversed lunar standstill/solstice alignments. It has been
earlier suggested that such systems emerged as a socio-political reversal of synodic lunar phased rituals in early hunting bride-service
societies to sidereal and solstice phased rituals in pastoral bride-price
societies (Model 1; see Sims 2006). This model posits that whereas
early upper Palaeolithic rituals were optimally timed to coincide with
monthly lunar phases, by the Neolithic these have been displaced, reversed and confiscated to the 9/10 yearly alternation of the lunar
standstills at the solstices. This model contrasts with the standard
model which suggests a slow accumulation of astronomical discoveries with the changing technological capabilities from foraging to agriculture (Model 2; see Parker Pearson 2012). If Model 1 is valid, then
we would expect supporting and overlapping evidence to be found in
other case studies and in other knowledge sets relevant to the period
and cultures. If Model 2 is valid, then we would expect an early engagement with solar time reckoning.
From the point of view of cultural astronomy, we would expect a pool
of scholarship consistent with the suggested Model 1 for a long run
undermining of early Palaeolithic/Mesolithic synodic lunar phased
ritual systems. Such evidence exists for lunar phased rituals in the
Palaeolithic (Marshack 1972, Rappenglück 2015) and for intermediate solarised/synodic lunar systems in the Magdalenian (Sims &
64
Otero 2016) to the emergence of the sidereal reversed Moons of solarised lunar standstills by at least the Neolithic (widely attested in
the archaeoastronomy literature). This is consistent with the findings
of the recent three independently claimed dual cosmologies in the
British Isles Neolithic and supportive of Model 1 but not Model 2.
From the point of view of inter-disciplinary method, we would expect
other cognate disciplines to converge and triangulate around a similar set of assumptions and findings for Model 1. Witzel (2012), using
the historical comparative method in mythology, has reconstructed
an initial sub-Saharan African transformational mythological template originating about 100 thousand years ago from which he suggests all the world’s myths emanate. While this claim is consistent
with the assumptions of Model 1 he also suggests that the earliest ‘astronomical’ components of these foundational myths were rooted in
solstice rituals – a claim closer to Model 2 than Model 1. While Model
2 assumes beginning with simplicity in ‘astronomical’ lore and moving to a later complexity of scientific knowledge, Model 1 assumes beginning with complexity and moving to a confiscating simplification
and substitution of lunar properties. Model 1 therefore expects cryptic and coded lunar motifs inserted within apparently solar myths as
part of the confiscating agenda for a solarising dynamic in ritual
transformations. Alternatively, Model 2 expects the gradual accumulation of a store of astronomical knowledge.
As part of a wider project to evaluate these alternative models, this
paper investigates whether the myth of Core/Persephone shares any
isomorphic properties with the celestial mechanics of the Sun and the
Moon.
References
Fisher, D. A. 2018 (in press). Stone Rows of the Preselli Hills. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry.
65
Higginbottom, G. 2013. ‘The world begins, the world ends here’ at https://www.academia.edu/22473630 [3/1/2017].
Marshack, A. 1972. The Roots of Civilisation. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Parker Pearson, M. 2012, Stonehenge, London: Schudter.
66
Lunar Standstills or Lunastices: a lunatic myth or
a moonly reality?
A. César González-García1, Juan Antonio Belmonte2
1. Instituto de Ciencias del Patrimonio, Incipit-CSIC, Santiago de Compostela
2. Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias & Universidad de Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
There has been a lot of fuss in recent times regarding the importance
of lunar standstills (see e.g. the entry on Lunar Alignments at the
Handb. Archaeoastr. Ethnoastr., González-García 2015, or the recent
JSA Forum on Lunar Standstills on this matter; Sims 2016), or even
on their existence and importance in prehistory or Antiquity
(Schaeffer 2017).
Any lunar alignment is difficult to prove even if in several cases the
moon seems the best explanation to the data (da Silva 2004, González-García et al. 2007, Pimenta et al. 2009, Silva & Pimenta 2012). In
particular, it is true that the lunastice or the lunar standstill is an elusive and difficult to understand concept, and it is possible that different researchers are using these concepts to mean various things,
which makes difficult a common agreement on the significance or not
of these terms.In particular, in the SEAC XXV Conference in Santiago,
Bradley Schaeffer (2017) advocated for the disappearance of this terminology as he vindicated that there are no significant alignments
that may prove the intentionality of such phenomena, also that they
had ‘zero utility’ (sic) as they do not serve to pinpoint any particular
moment in a calendar and finally that there is no indication in the ancient literature of the awareness of people in Antiquity regarding the
extreme positions of the moon.
In the present talk, we want to address these caveats. First, we propose a new definition of standstill or lunastice to try avoiding confusion with the terminology. Second, we would like to highlight some
individual cases of sites where orientations towards standstills are
indubitably important given the lunar nature of the deities worshiped
67
there, like the ziggurat of Ur (related to the lunar god Nanna; Iraq)
and the temple at Sheikh Ibada (devoted to the moon god Thoth;
Egypt) Third, in those cases where other data is not available (like
the ethno-historic sources indicating the lunar character of the divinities mentioned above) the statistical argument seems relevant, in
particular in the case of the Recumbent Stone Circles in Scotland
(Ruggles 1999) or certain Mayan cities in the Yucatan (Šprajc 2016),
but we would like to add a new study case in the Supe Valley (Peru).
Finally, we would like to present an updated review on relevant ancient scripts where there might be indications on the awareness of
the extreme positions of the moon, contrary to what Schaeffer has recently claimed.
References
M. da Silva CM (2004) “The spring full moon”. JHA 35:475–478
A. C. González-García, L. Costa-Ferrer, J.A. Belmonte (2007) “Solarists vs. lunatics: modelling
patterns in megalithic astronomy”. In: Zedda M, Belmonte JA (eds) Light and shadows in cultural astronomy. Stampa, Cagliari, pp 23–30
A.C. González-García (2015) “Lunar Alignments – Identification and Analysis” in C.L.N. Ruggles (ed.) Handb. Archaeoastron. Ethnoastron. NY Springer. 493-506
F. Pimenta, L. Tirapicos, A. Smith (2009) “A Bayesian approach to the orientations of Central
Alentejo megalithic enclosures”. Archaeoastron.: J. Astron. Culture 22:1–20
C.L.N. Ruggles (1999) Astronomy in prehistoric Britain and Ireland. Yale Univ Press, London
B. Schaeffer (2017) “The Utter Failure of the Lunar Standstill Myth in Archaeoastronomy” in INSAP X – Oxford XI – SEAC XXC The Road to the Stars, edited by
González-García, A.C.; Martín-Rodilla, P. y Belmonte, J.A. (Santiago de Compostela, 2017), pp: 172
F. Silva, F. Pimenta (2012) “The crossover of the sun and the moon”. JHA 43:191–208
L. Sims (2016), “What is the Minor Standstill of the Moon?”, J.f Skyscape Archaeol.
2 (1) 67-78
I. Šprajc (2016) “Lunar alignments in Mesoamerican architecture”, Anthropological
Notebooks 22, 61–85.
68
A Catchy World Model: The Concept(s) of Cosmic
Mountain(s) Used by Ancient Cultures
Michael A. Rappenglück
Adult Education Center and Observatory Gilching, Germany
Since prehistory symbols, myths, rituals, tangible structures like certain natural mountains and mountainous ridges or artificial earthen
mounds, (stepped) pyramids, cultic buildings, city plans, and symbolic objects had been dedicated to the idea of the world mountain.
Some people had developed very detailed concepts, including a complex of interrelated cosmological, cosmogonic, psychological, sociological, and religious motives.
Often genesis started with the primordial mound emerging or being
brought up by creator animals from the chaotic waters and shaping
an island. Being a point of origin, the primordial mound occasionally
was associated to the world’s navel, to the mons pubis, or to the phallus. Very important was the World Mountain’s 3D- shape and internal
structure, which allowed the visualization of an elaborated cosmology. The model of the cosmic mountain denotes centricity, verticality
(axiality), the maximum height and depth, cardinality, and different
strata of the world’s framework. The sides (or corners) and levels of
the mountain are assigned to directions, the four source and streams,
winds, mythical continents and seas, colors, sounds, certain objects,
animals, plants, social classes, tutelary spirits, and divinities. Sun,
Moon, planets, stars, and the Milky Way are encircling the mountain.
The pole star and / or circumpolar asterisms are positioned above.
The sun is thought to nest as a solar bird on the summit or moving
there as a sun wheel. The openings (gates) in the mountain, through
which Sun, Moon, and stars rise, set or pass, are considered by some
cultures. The areas spotlighted by Sun and Moon were important, too.
Special groups of minor mountains, aligned to a central major one,
were important in myths and for time-reckoning as well as
69
orientation: twin mountains, two mountains of sunrise and sunset,
four mountains, a mountain range, and a ring of mountains. Mountains were used as a kind of a gigantic sun dial. The summit is considered to be the place of immortality and transcendence. There and at
the mountainsides the immortality herb grows. The World Mountain
is the source of heavenly life-giving essence, flowing through it and
vivifying the numerous beings existing at the mountainsides and in
the interior cavities. Some people located the World Cave within or
beneath the world-mountain. Both embody a place beyond normal
space-time, the origin of life and renewal. The cave as the mountain’s
‘heart’ was considered to contain prototypal entities, treasures (minerals, medical herbs, etc.), the heavenly bodies of the otherworld, and
timeless knowledge. The World Mountain model connects cosmological with transcendental ideas, illustrated by the topics of the glass
(ice, crystal) mountain as well as in burial mounds and temples. The
mountaintop and the cave within the mountain are associated to a
human’s body and a final spiritual state. On the summit the ruler’s
palace and throne are placed. Sacred mountains, often a symbol of the
cosmic mountain, had been and still are today centers of pilgrimage,
70
circumambulations, rituals, oracles, and power visions. The study discusses varieties and similarities of the topic with respect to geographical locations, periods, cultural properties, and astronomical aspects.
The methodology is interdisciplinary, using comparative mythology,
ritual studies, archaeological records, geological and geographical
facts, and socio-anthropological considerations.
References:
Bernbaum, Edwin (1997), Sacred Mountains of the World. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Hahn, Thomas H. (1988), The Standard Taoist Mountain and Related Features of Religious Geography. Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie 4: 145-156.
MacCulloch, J. A. (1930), ‘Mountains, Mountain Gods’, In: Encyclopaedia of Religion
and Ethics VIII (Hastings, ed.), p. 863, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
Snodgrass, Adrian (1985), The Symbolism of the Stupa. New York, Ithaca: Cornell
University.
71
Empowering Sky Imagery
Daniel Brown,
Nottingham Trent University, School of Science and Technology, UK
Images of the sky at night have been a source of inspiration. To understand this inspiration the concept of skyscapes has become more
important (Silva 2015). A Skyscape is a general manifestation of astronomy that can in one interpretation be explored as sky framed by
land that is full of meaning and includes a deep personal attachment.
As such, exploration (as carried out by D Brown with A Souto, D
Brown 2016a, Mukundu 2016) of the sublime as well as art theoretical analysis of the dialectic of Site versus Non-Site (as carried out by
D Brown and D Harty, Brown 2016b) offers a strong incentive to not
only develop powerful public engagement images but also inform researchers in the field of skyscape archaeology. Therefore, these images convey a powerful message of awe and wonder and anchor the
celestial within an accessible, terrestrial context. They are a rich
source of inspiration for artists and scientists alike, and can also convey educational messages in the context of light pollution. Ultimately,
they establish a contemporary case study of western culture communicating with skyscape thereby offering a vital route to interpreting skyscapes in any epoch and by any culture or people.
This presentation will be analysing the already existing, rich image
database of the Insight Astronomy Photographer of the Year (IAPY)
award, which is run annually by Royal Museums Greenwich, focussing on the 2015 and 2016 rounds. This competition is open to all and
allows photographers from around the world to submit their astronomy pictures under certain category. In recent years the category ‘sky
and people’ has seen an additional category added: ‘skyscapes’. Not
only has the competition gained enormous popularity it has also
demonstrated how (in this case mostly) western culture has rediscovered humans in their sky imagery. Especially the use of skyscape
72
as a category is hinting on a rich source to explore skyscape experiences captured in imagery. We present research carried out using
these images as primary sources to investigate the question: "How
can imagery of skyscapes inspire to create awe and wonder?" In a first
instance imagery was analysed to establish initial definitions of skyscapes and develop a semi structured questionnaire. Visitors to the
IAPY exhibition in Greenwich were then interviewed and our team
also documented their own impressions and experiences of the exhibition space. We also gathered comments from the awarding panel on
their criteria for selection and establishing new categories. The results include word clouds and associations that indicate that not the
actual content of the image is defining of a skyscape but rather its
ability to offer awe, wonder, inspiration and exploration. Our results
also indicate that humans are a defining component in what makes a
skyscape. Especially one response by a participant summarises our
initial finding and is presented in Figure 1) offering possible further
avenues of work to come.
The project outcome will not only allow to use skyscape imagery to
communicate the powerful night sky heritage, it will also offer an exploration on how our contemporary western culture engages with
skyscape. Even though it is clear that what generates awe and wonder
when watching the sky will depend upon the time, place and people,
however the way in which it is created will remain similar given that
humans present with identical phenomenological interfaces to their
environment now and in the past. Here we hope to point out key parameters under which we can reliably discuss versions of prehistoric
skyscape experiences.
73
Figure 1 – One response to our semi structured questionnaire in which a participant
chose to sketch an example of a skyscape rather than write about it. This
could offer an exciting new avenue in exploring skyscape imagery and interpretation for our future project.
References
Brown D. (2016a), Memories unlocked and places explored – Stellarium, Temporality
and skyscapes, Culture and Cosmos, in press.
Brown D. (2016b), Skyscapes of Sacred Spaces - Site Non-Site Exploration through
Stellarium, Culture and Cosmos, submitted.
Mukundu R., Ktorides W., and Brown D. (2016), Skyscapes of Clifton, Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 16, No 4, pp. 33-39.
Silva F. (2015), The Role and Importance of the Sky Archaeology: an introduction in
Fabio Silva (Editor) and Nicholas Campion (Editor), in Skyscape Archaeology, Oxbow.
74
Weaving as cosmic instrument: a sublimation of
the vertical and the horizontal
Feeney-Beaton Morag Helen
University of Wales Trinity Saint David, and the Royal Opera House London, UK
The action of weaving, and the tools necessary for the process to take
place, have in the worldview of many cultures been assigned a cosmological significance often associated with the natural order of the
cosmos. Its prominent position within world mythologies is testament to its symbolic weight, whereby weaving acts as an agent of creation, crucial to the maintenance and preservation of the universe,
undertaken by a pantheon of weaving goddesses from diverse societies. With these cosmological credentials, weaving can be defined by
the mythologies that it has given rise to.
Yet the key to unlocking the cosmological status of weaving can be
sought not so much through its mythological underpinning but within
the making process itself. At the core of weaving’s functional technology is the criss-crossing of the warp and weft threads, dependent as
they are on tension and counter-tension; this readily gives rise to an
essential binary symbolism, a fundamental oppositional polarity naturally epitomizing contrasting dynamics and forces. The weaving
process is built around a quintessential duality, one originating from
the intersection of the warp, (representing verticality, the unchanging, the present, the now), and the weft, (indicative of horizontality,
the passing of time, the ongoing),8 a duality which resonates with the
Platonic notion of being and becoming set out in the Timaeus.9
Through the process of interlacing and intertwining, weaving has the
8 Patricia Araneta, Woman as Loom, the Warp and Weft of Mat and Cloth, Prince’s School
9
of Traditional Arts Lecture, October 2016.
Plato, The Timaeus, 28a-e.
75
capacity to reconcile such polarities and to bind strongly opposing
factors together, forming an integrated textile out of conflicting entities; in a similar way, in musical notation, the strands of horizontal
counterpoint are transformed and qualified by harmonic verticality.
Perhaps the act of synthesis that weaving undertakes accounts for its
fundamental symbolic significance within many cultures, permitting
weaving itself to be justifiably considered, as argued by John Scheid
and Jesper Svenbro, ‘the union of opposites’.10
Accordingly, the intrinsic symmetry and internal cohesive balance
that weaving and the woven textile possess allow for the cosmological aspects surrounding the craft to be more easily perceived. This
paper will hope to discuss areas where weaving has a symbolic affinity with both the wider cosmos and with human life, the macro and
the micro. As an act of creation, the activity of weaving could be said
to symbolically emulate the original act of creation. Indeed, Mircea
Eliade’s theory of a repeated ritual cosmogony11 is pertinent here to
a craft that is founded upon repetition and upon rhythmic cycles,
thereby prompting parallels with not only an ordered and regular
universe, but also an understanding of the cyclical nature of life. Each
repeated woven operation can be regarded as a form of re-enactment,
a narrative that resonates with David Abram’s notion of cyclical time
and his observation wherein ‘what happened once happens again and
again’.12 As a counterpart to this close association of textiles with
10 John Scheid and Jesper Svenbro (trans. Carol Volk), The Craft of Zeus, Myths of Weaving
and Fabric, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, and London,
2001 (originally published in 1994 in French), p.5.
11 Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion, (trans. Willard R.
Trask), Harcourt, Inc., San Diego, New York, London, 1959, p.12.
12 David Abram, The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-thanHuman World, Vintage Books, New York, 1996, p. 170.
76
cosmology, it is possible to construe a symbolic relationship of weaving with humanity, the so-called thread of life, there being, according
to Christopher Tilley, a direct analogy between the logic of creation
and the logic of procreation.13 This paper will investigate how,
through this metaphorical symbiosis of life and cosmos, of the personal and the universal, the craft of weaving is able to facilitate the
process of re-order and resolution by achieving a reconciliation of the
vertical with the horizontal.
13 Christopher Tilley,
Metaphor and Material Culture, Blackwell, Oxford and Malden, MA,
1999, p.57.
77
The “ Intihuatana” of Saywite ( Perù): an
archaeoastronomical investigation on the role of
time marker of the gnomon
(1)Motta Silvia, (2)Adriano Gaspani, (3)Gustavo Corrado,
(4)Sixto Benitez, (5)Jose Pino Matos,
(1,2) I.N.A.F. Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica. OAB-Milano- Italia.
(3,4)Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. 5)Università Universidad
Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima. Peru
In this paper we show the new results of the archaeoastronomical
analysis of the center of religious worship Inca Saywite, an
archaeological site located in the Abancay Province, in the Apurímac
Region of Peru; it is some 100 km west of Cusco. Saywite is regarded
as a center of “sacred space” focusing on the cult of water . There are
several architectural remains: terraces, warehouses, fountains
,channels, carved stones, a double-jamb doorway, and a platform “
ushnu” from where it is possible to see the gnomon.. The complex is
divided into some sectors, but it seems to be organized into two main
districts: the upper ,where a large platform contains the Saywite
monolith, and the lower that includes carved stones, among which
there is the so called “Intihuatana”, that is suggested to have
astronomical purposes.
The best evidence for Inca astronomical practice involves a system of
pillars, mountains, caves, springs which were worshipped and most
of them were connected with the annual cycle of celebration that
tracked the turnings of the sun. Solstices, equinoxes and Zenith were
astronomically significant times and linked to seasons. The timing of
this type of celebration were determined to account for terrestrial
conditions and were linked with very important planting and harvest
festivals.
78
In a previous work we have analyzed this Inca site, taking in account
the ritual, central Inca calendar used for the administration of the
Inca Empire.
The focus of this new work is the study of how the “Intihuatana” of
Saywite worked as time and season marker.
The new data have been collected in situ, in summer 2017, by the
authors. The magnetic measurements have been corrected by the
magnetic declination. Moreover an aerial survey was carried out
using a drone . The 3D model has been created with the
photogrammetry of the drone Phantom Pro4 and the data have been
processed with the software Pix4D. We have analyzed all the records
, obtaining notable results. Subsequently an appropriate statistical
study was carried out in order to check their astronomical
consistency.
The statistical analysis was performed using the most recent
techniques belonging to the theory of the Circular Data that is one of
the most suitable way in the archaeoastronomical data processing.
Statistical test have been applied to verify the confidence level of the
results obtained. The archaeoastronomical analysis of the
“Intihuatana” was carried out with special care trying to find the real
symbolic meaning and using of the carved stone, taking in account the
Inca Sacred symbolism.
Here we summarize the results of our recently accomplished
systematic study and we would suggest that there could be a
79
correlation between the position of the Sun in the Sky and the shadow
projected by the corners of the steps of “Intihuatana” on the ground.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D.S. P. Dearborn and B.S. Bauer, Inca Astronomy and Calendrics, C.L.N. Ruggles (ed.),
Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy,DOI 10.1007/978-14614-6141-8_78,# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Gullberg S, Malville JM (2011) The astronomy of Peruvian Huacas. In: Highlighting
the history of astronomy in the Asia-Pacific region, astrophysics and space
science proceedings, Part 2,pp 85–118
J. McKim Malville, 2009 Animating the Inanimate: Camay and Astronomical Huacas
of Peru. In Astronomy across Cultures, edited by J. A. Rubino-Martin, J. A.
Belmonte, F.Prada, and A. Alberdi, pp. 261–266. Astronomical Society of the
Pacific Conference Series 409.
M. J. Zawaski and j. McK. Malville, An Archaeoastronomical Survey of Major Inca Sites
in Peru, ©0 2 0 0 7 a–2r0c0h8 abey othaes Utnrivoenrsoitym oyf Texas
Press, P.O. Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819
M. Ziołkowski Inca Calender C.L.N. Ruggles (ed.), Handbook of Archaeoastronomy
and Ethnoastronomy,DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_79,# Springer
Science+Business Media New York 2015
80
Llactapata and the Puzzle of
the Two Coricanchas
J. McKim Malville and Gary Ziegler
University of Colorado, Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, Boulder, USA
First located in 1911 by Hiram Bingham, Llactapata, lying some 2
miles southwest of Machu Picchu, eluded rediscovery until 2003.
Bingham had rapidly sketched the major structure of the site which
showed several rooms with a double jamb doorway, characteristic of
the entry into a royal or sacred structure. Beginning with our rediscovery in May 2003, the complexity and size of the Llactapa Archaeological Zone has grown to include more than 130 structures on some
3 km along the Llactapata ridge. The central part of the zone contains
a water temple, an ushnu, and structures surrounding the doublejamb doorway that are remarkably similar to the Coricancha of Cusco
in size and orientation. The corridors behind the double-jamb doorways of the Coricancha and Llactapata include sightlines to the June
solstice sunrise and the rising of the Pleiades.
“The most important and most stumptuous temple of this kingdom was
the one located in the city of Cuzco; this temple was held to be the chief
center or capital of their false relgion and the most venerated sanctuary
that these Indian had. This temple was called Coricancha which means
“house of gold,” because of the incomparable wealth of this metal which
was embedded in the temples’s chapels and wall, its ceiling and altars.”
(Father Bernabe Cobo 1653)
81
Considering the immense importance of the Coricancha in Cusco, it
would be fascinating if a twin structure had been intentionally built
in Llactapata, the two of them serving as opposite ends of the string
of royal estates built by the Inca emperor Pachacuti. Questions that
arise are why would it not have been built in Machu Picchu using better building material; would royal personages have visited Llactapata
regularly for ceremonies considering the difficulty of following the
trail across MP peak? What would have happened to gold plating at
Llactapata, if it was as elaborate as the Coricancha? An assistant in
Llactapata with a mirror a day before June solstice produced a reflection of sunrise visible in the Sacred Plaza 36 minutes before sunrise
at Machu Picchu. If the walls of Llactapata were covered with gold
plate, that event would have been a stupendous sight viewed from the
Intiwatana Pyramid, the Sacred Plaza, or the the elegant Sacistry.
Fig. Llactapata's northeastern wall with double-jamb doorway 2
82
A stone-lined water channel leads out of the double jamb doorway of
Llactapata toward the sacred plaza of Machu Picchu and beyond to
June solstice sunrise. No such channel is evident in the Corichanca,
but the north-eastern wall on Avenida Ahuacpinta contains three
drainage holes. A basin in the courtyard could have provided water
or chicha for offerings to the sun and/or the Pleiades.
We shall compare these two structures in detail, report on new measurements, and describe the results of a recent expedition to the upper
reaches of the Aobamba canyon to map the trail between Machu Picchu and Llactapata.
Bibliography:
Malville, J. M., H. Thomson, and, G. Ziegler, 2004, “El Observatorio de Machu Picchu:
Redescubrimiento de Llactapata y su templo solar”, Revista Andina 39: 1150.
Malville, J.M., H. Thomson, and G. Ziegler, 2006, “The Sun Temple of Llactapata and
the Ceremonial Neighbourhood of Machu Picchu” in Viewing the Sky
Through Past and Present Cultures: Selected Papers from the Oxford VII
Conference on Archaeoastronomy, edited by Todd Bostwick and Bryan
Bates. Pueblo Grande Museum, Phoenix, 327-339.
Zawaski, M., and J. M. Malville, 2010, “An Archaeoastronomical Survey of Major Inca
Sites in Peru” Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture XXI:
20-38, 2010.
Ziegler, G. and J. M. Malville, 2013, Machu Picchu's Sacred Sisters: Choquequirao and
Llactapata: Astronomy, Symbolism and Sacred Geography in the Inca Heartland. Johnson Books: Boulder.
Malville, J. M. 2014,"Astronomy of Inca Royal Estates II: Machu Picchu." In C.L.N. Ruggles (ed.) Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, Springer,
Heidelberg, 879-891.
83
A Condor Shaped Stone Pillar that Marked the
Equinox 4,000 Years Ago at the Adean Site of
Buena Vista
Robert A. Benfer
University of Missouri, Columbia, USA
At 2000 BC, the sun would have risen on the equinox over a stone
pillar in the form of a condor viewed from a temple, the Temple of the
Fox at the site of Buena Vista, Perú (Adkins and Benfer 2008; Benfer
2012. The condor in Andean mythology represents the sky and the
fox, the earth, and thus they are a dual of one another (Benfer et al.
2011). Here I report an equinoctial sunrise over the stone pillar
across two intervening reference points: the pillar, one of a pair, has
been retouched into the head of a condor (Figure). It looks up the
valley but is oriented to the rise of the Milky Way on the zenith. A second reference point from the Temple of the Fox may also represent a
condor. The third is a black cubical rock. Such rocks are also found
also in the first steps in two pyramids. The viewing point is from a
temple, which has an incised fox at the entry.
In 2009, one of our team, Lucio Laura, discovered the stone pair, one
of a pair, that one of two stone pillars we were investigating. It has
been retouched into the form of a condor (Figure), which we named
Apuchin Laura, after it’s discoverer, in Quechua Apuchin is master of
the Apus, the animated mountain peaks. It has parallel flake scars on
the perimeter. Subsequent investigation found that although the very
top of the condor pillar was barely visible from the entryway to the
Temple of the Fox, a very evident black quadrilateral stone attracted
the eye in front of it. Subsequent survey showed that the alignment
from the Temple entryway to the stone, if continued, struck the condor pillar. Black stones are significant in Late Preceramic Buena
Vista. There is a black quadrilateral stone in the center of the first
84
steps up each of two principle pyramids as well as one in the step
down behind a sculpture in a special chamber (Benfer 2012).
Later reconnaissance
found a projecting
stone in the valley
down from the condor.
We noted it as a probable condor, because
such projecting stones
are called condors by
indigenous peoples in
the
Andes
(e.g.,
Sanchéz Garrafa 2008).
We did not measure its
azimuth until later, and
were astonished to
find that it fell within
0.5º of the azimuth to
the Apuchin.
In summary, from the
Temple of the Fox,
there are three points that lie within 0.5º of one another: the stone
projection in the valley, the quadrilateral black rock, and the condor
pillar. The azimuth to the quadrilateral black rock 754m distant with
an elevation of 25º10' azimuth measured is 84º35'. The equinox of
2200 BC, the age of the Temple of the Fox, would have occurred at
83º50' at that elevation, a difference of 45'.
Fig. 3 Figure: Retouched pillar and a pecked eye
The September equinoctial sunset would have been marked by sunrise over the condor rock to the east and sunset over a mountain peak
to the west. Equinoctial alignments have been suggested for
85
othemonumental Peruvian sites. The alignments here are of an order
of magnitude greater precision than those previously reported.
References:
Benfer, Robert A. and Larry R. Adkins. 2008. The Americas Oldest Observatory, Astronomy Magazine (senior author with Larry R. Adkins), 35: 40-43.
Benfer, Robert A. 2012. Monumental Architecture Arising from an Early Astronomical/Religious Complex in Perú, In The Origins of New World Monumentality, R.M. Rosenswig and R. L. Burger, editors, Gainesville, University of Florida Press, p. 313-363.
Benfer, Robert A., Louanna Furbee, and Hugo Ludeña R. 2011. Four-Thousand Years
of the Myth of the Fox in South American Cosmology (senior author with
Louanna Furbee and Hugo Ludeña R., Journal of Cosmology, Vol. 16.
Sánchez, Rudolfo G. and Robert A. Benfer 2012. Revalaciones Simbólicas del
Precerámico, El Antoniano 22: 41-54.
86
Meaning and coincidences. A study into the archeoastronomy of Inka structures and their ritual
significance
José Nicolás Balbi
Colchester Archaeological Group, United Kingdom and Ministry of Education, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
The present work aims to deepen the study of one of the structures
that make up the archaeological site of Shincal, located in the Province of Catamarca, Argentina and relate it to a similar structure in its
kind that we have found in the Inka archaeological site of Sondor,
Peru. The idea that Inka society would replicate its constructions in
several territories and at great distances had already been observed
previously (Hylop, 1990; Farrington, 1999).
The initial question of the Shincal Astronomical orientations in general and its ritual meaning was the subject of our presentation in
2017 at the 25th SEAC conference (Corrado, Pino Matos, Benitez, and
Balbi) and the purpose of this is to extend the studies to new sectors
and structures.
In recent years we have dedicated to the study of one of the structures, called the "Complex 19". For the study of the same we have
done 6 campaigns of study some with Marco Giovanetti team, and
make Archaeology an Astronomy studies. We have invited Jose Luis
Pino Matos from Peru to compare our opinions and our information
and we made two study trips with him, Gustavo Corrado and Sixto
Gimenez Benitez up the Shincal and to the area of Cuzco, to obtain
comparative results and to carry out new studies.
The expeditions were based on carrying out several post-excavation
studies that I begin in Complex 19 from 2016. So far we have shown
87
that the structure is cardinally aligned, in agreement with the Shincal,
with several constructions aligned both cardinally and equinoctially;
that many Shincal structures are copies of the buildings of the Inka
capital and its surroundings; the existence of buildings of previous
cultures. Complex 19 has an eastern-oriented ceremonial staircase,
and between its mountains you can see the aligned structures of the
Shincal center, including the Eastern and Western temples. It is important to bear in mind that all of the Astronomical and landscape
characteristics, such as the relationship with the surrounding mountains and water sources, which constitute the sacred elements in the
genesis of the Inka belief, correspond to "Complex 19". In terms of its
orientation, the Shincal ushnu is oriented towards sunrise at the medium temporal equinox and towards the west at Mount Pissis (Corrado et al., 2014, 2015).
The north-south orientation of the temple and the ceremonial staircase to the east, by themselves would be sufficient elements for your
Astronomical relationships currently accepted as rituals regarding
the Inka question. Also, we discard that it was a military garrison. The
beliefs originated in the first archaeological works played down the
88
importance of the ceremonial possibility of the site and for that reason it was known as "The Watchtower", but this is an already overcome theory
Also we try to demonstrate that C19 is related to a similar structure
in the Sondor complex, in present-day Peru. The centers of power, the
"New Cuzcos" contain Inkan cultural manifestations, but these are not
copies or repetitions of their imperial capital, but they sought to adapt
to particular situations of the conquered territories (P Matos 2004).
This last hypothesis has interesting elements. The construction of the
structure in Sondor has similar architectonical characteristics and its
cardinal alignment and the undoubted relationship with the landscape and Astronomy, which in Sondor is constituted with the orographic chain and a lake, forming again the Inka genesis in the same
way as in the C-19.
References
Criado Boado, F. “Genealogia del Paisaje”. Deia Conference of Prehistory. Archaeological Techniques, Technology and Theory: 1-9. Mallorca, 1998.
Farrington, I. “Ritual Geography, Settlement Patterns and Characterization of the
Provinces of the Inka” Heartland. World Archaeology 23 (3):
Giovannetti, M. “Fiestas y Ritos Inka en El Shincal de Quimivil” Punto de encuentro,
La Plata, 2016
González García A.C. y Belmonte J.A. Guaman Poma de Ayala, F. [1615]. “El primer
nueva c.a
89
Astronomical and Geographical Features of
Zhoubi Deduced from Mythology and Gnomonic
Raul Perez-Enriquez
Universidad de Sonora, Hermosillo, Mexico
A document compiled around 100 BCE, the Zhou bi Suanjing (Zhoubi
now on) has been recognized, in the past, as a mathematical and astronomical document; and, in this framework, its special features
have been analysed [1]. However, its relation with the actual world
has been omitted. Using the gnomonic data of the Zhoubi (gnomon’s
height and its solstices’ shadows), we have found the Latitude (35.33°
N) of the site where observations took place, and the possible Epoch
(2900 BC) when they were made, calculated from them. The former
helped us to locate an actual city (Jining, Shandong, China) for its
identification with the Zhou city; and, the latter allowed us to stablish
a correspondence between cultural and mythological information (I
Ching book and FuXi's trigrams) with the geographical features of
Jining and its surroundings: Both aspects are in harmony through the
Cultural background. In our way, a critical approach to Zhoubi book
has been adopted: the correspondence between a change of one cun
of shadow to a 100 li in distance of the Sun [2]; and, an interesting
hypothesis for the origin of trigrams has been followed [3] and confirmed that they may arise from the observation of the shadow of a
gnomon over an array of fringes drawn in the earth. Our founding’s
have enhanced the special role of gnomonic observations in the history of the millenary Chinese knowledge and the vision of the Zhoubi’s
data as a geographical description of the world, based in an Astronomical model with Flat Earth and a Flat Sky where the Sun, Moon
and stars move around a point called the Pole.
90
Figure 1. FuXi’s Trigrams and their geographical relation
References
[1] Cullen, C. 2010. Astronomy and Mathematics in Ancient China: The ´Zhou Bi Suan
Jing´, Cambridge Books Online.
[2] Perez-Enriquez, R. 2018. The World Description Made in Zhou bi Suanjing Has
Been Revealed. ELEKTRYONE (Accepted to be published in V 6, Issue 1)
[3] LiSe, 2016. From Gui to Gua: the origin of the hexagrams? In Yi Jing, Oracle of the
Sun (https://www.yijing.nl/origins/gui-gua/gui-gua.html)
91
Calendar meaning of Timber-grave community
pottery ornament in accordance with the Vedic
tradition of the sacrifice
Andrej Kirillov
Institute for Physics of Mining Processes of the National Аcademy of Science of
Ukraine, Dnipro, Ukraine
The description of the periodic ornament along the corolla of a pot
belonging to the era of Timber-grave community is presented. Unlike
traditional twelve months calendar interpretation of such artifacts,
the ornament and the signs are offered to be interpreted as an example of a ten-month calendar divided into five seasons. Such a calendar
existed in the early stages of the Vedic society and in ancient Greece
and Rome as it well known from the history. The signs capture key
points of seasons, so they can be interpreted in accordance with description of the constellations in Hesiod's poem "Works and Days".
Variation of month duration is represented as the length of the sides
of ornament’s triangles. The creation of the pot and the ornament can
Fig. 4 Drawing of the pot and unfolding the ornament (artist A. Usachuk)
92
be attributed to about XII BC and the calendar contains information
about the duration of daylight at latitude 36ºN, as shown with the aid
of astronomical planetarium Redshift-4.
In the Vedic tradition, the year was linked to the ritual sacrifice of a
horse "asvamedha" and to the altar built for the sacred fire. The altar
was composed by a quantity of the bricks and layers that symbolized
the structure and the duration of the year. The grouping of sacrificial
animals to combination 20 18 = 360 defines the duration of the year
and corresponds to the numbers contained in the periodic structure
of the pot ornament.
References
Кirillov А.К. Calendar meaning of Timber-grave community pottery ornament in the
light of the Vedic tradition of the sacrifices // Astronomical methods of research of archeoastronomical objects of the mountain range "Sunduki" and
other historical sites: Second All-Russian Field Seminar on Arheoastronomy
/ Novosibirsk, 2017. - P.125-138 (in Rushian)
Tilak B.G. Аrctic home in the Vedas, / Publishers Messrs. Tilak Bros Gaikwar Wada
Poona City, 1903. – 457 p.
Malamoud C. Cuire Le Monde: Rite et pensée dans l'Inde ancienne. - Editions de La
Découverte, 2016. -439 p.
Dumont Р.-Е., The Horse-Sacrifice in the Taittirīya-Brāhmaṇa: The Eighth and Ninth
Prapāṭhakas of the Third Kāṇḍa of the Taittirīya-Brāhmaṇa with Translation // Proc. of American Philosophical Society. – 1948. – Vol. 92, No. 6. – Р.
447-503.
Hannah R. The roles of observational astronomy in ancient Greece // Scientific culture. – 2015. -Vol. 1, No 2 . – Р. 47-56.
93
Archaeoastronomy of Japan: a short history
Akira Goto
Nanzan University, Nagoya, Japan
The information of archaeoastronomy in Japan has been limited to
the international audience (cf. Sago et al 1986). But this does not
mean that archaeoastronomy has never been attempted in Japan. On
the contrary, this paper shows that a variety of archaeoastronomical
researches have been done in Japan.
After the modernization of Japan, 1868, modern academic disciplines have
been introduced to Japan from Europe and U.S.A.. In archaeology as well,
Western scholars occupied a leading position at this period, and there
were archaeoastronomical studies at this period.
William Gowland, an English man who served as a metallurgical engineer, was also an archaeologist and visited archaeological sites
throughout Japan in this holidays. He was a pioneer of scientific research of archaeological sites, using surveying equipment and photography. He was particularly interested in Kofun (burial mounds or
tumuli), and pointed out that the orientation of burial chamber was
often astronomically decided (1877, 1899). Interestingly enough, his
study on Stonehenge using Japanese custom as an ethnological analogy (Gowland 1902) was promptly cited by Norman Locker as an example of the remnant of ancient sun-worship (Locker 1906) .
After Gowland, another English medical doctor, N. Munro did archaeological research and pointed out the possible astronomical significance of stone circle of the Jomon Period in Hokkaido (1911). After
these studies, some Japanese archaeologists pursued archaeo-aastronomical studies: the discussions had been largely focused on the burial orientation in Jomon shellmounds, the alignment of stone circle of
the Jomon Period, and the orientation of Kofun.
94
In the process of professionalization of archaeology after W.W.II.,
however, the archaeoastronomical interests tend to be diminished
except for a few researchers (e.g. Hideo Fujimoto in Hokkaido studies,
Hiroshi Tsude in Kofun studies, etc) in the last 50 years. Only recently, the interest in archaeoastronomy has been revived by Yoshitaka Hojo (2017) and by myself (Goto 2017).
In additon to the burial orientation, stone circles of the Jomon Period,
and the orientation of Kofun, the discussion has been recently enlarged to other problems, such as, the landscape (and/or skyscape) of
the settlements of Jomon and Yayoi Periods.
In this paper, I will discuss a unique history of archaeoastronomy in
Japan with some reference to that in Europe.
References
Gowland, William 1897 “The dolmens and burial mounds in Japan,”Archaeologia IV:
439-524.
1899 “The dolmens of Japan and their builders,” Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society 3(IV): 128-183.
1902 “Recent excavations at Stonhenge.” Archaeologica LVIII: 37-118.
Goto, Akira 2017 The Archaeology of Astronomy: an Introduction to Arhaeoastronomy. Tokyo: Doseisha. (in Japanese)
Hojo, Yoshitaka 2017 The Orientatin of Kofun and the Sun. Tokyo: Doseisha (in Japanese)
Locker, Norman 1906 Stonehenge and Other British Stone Monuments Archaeologically Considered. London: Macmillan.
Munro, Neil G. 1911 Prehistoric Japan. Yokohama.[New York: Johnson Reprint, 1971]
Sago, Tsutomu, O. Yamada and Lyle B.Brost
95
Solar Returns: From observing the sky to observing birthdays
Astrid B. Leimlehner
Independent Scholar Linz, Austria
This paper explores the social role and the individual meaning of
birthdays which are, astronomically speaking, solar returns and thus
a cosmic regularity.
Theoretical background
Catherine Bell, writing about rituals, states that ‘[s]ome occasions
are reckoned according to the Solar calendar and therefore occur on
the same date every year’ which applies to birthdays. 14 Birthdays
thus can be seen as ‘calendrical rites’ giving socially meaningful
definitions to the passage of time, creating an ‘ever renewing cycle’.15
In 1952, the anthropologists Ralph and Adelin Linton highlighted that
birthday celebrations happened only after humans had learned to
record time and had developed a calendar.16 Mesopotamian and
Egyptian kings and nobles gave birthday feasts while lower classes
did not know their birthdays. Birth records were kept only for royal
children for casting horoscopes in order to find out their destinies.17
Ancient Greeks, the authors wrote, celebrated the gods’ birthdays
monthly assuming relationships between deities and humans born on
the same day. The authors claimed that the custom of birthday cakes
with candles goes back to observing Artemis’ birthday by placing
14
Catherine Bell, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), [hereafter Bell, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions], p.
102.
15
Bell, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions, p.102.
16
Ralph Linton and Adelin Linton, The Lore Of Birthdays (Detroit: Omnigraphics, 1998 [1952]), [hereafter Linton and Linton, The Lore Of Birthdays], p.
x.
17
Linton and Linton, The Lore Of Birthdays, p.x and pp.3-14.
96
round honey cakes with tapers on her altar.18 Parke confirms this cult,
but not the connection to contemporary practices.19 The authors further stated that to commemorate Plato’s birthday, new students
joined the Athenian academy on the seventh day of the month.20
In 1992, Kathryn Argetsinger found in birthday poems of the first century BCE that, next to public birthdays (of temples, cities and emperors) Romans marked private birthdays with gift giving, banquets and
religious rituals.21 At an altar, decorated with flowers and a holy fire,
the celebrant, wearing a white robe, offered incense, wine and honey
cakes to his/her personal spirit, called genius (for men) and Juno natalis (for women).22 Family and friends were present or even involved
in the ritual action or, if unable to attend, performed a ritual independently for the celebrant’s spirit.23 Romans also felt obliged to celebrate a patron’s birthday to express gratitude and respect. For some,
Argetsinger says, a friend’s or patron’s birthday was equally or even
more important than their own.24 Its observance defined and expressed the celebrant’s position and relationships within the social
network.25 Rituals on private patrons’ birthdays, she concludes,
18
Linton and Linton, The Lore Of Birthdays, p. 18.
‘cakes with circles of candles were offered to Artemis as moon goddess’, Herbert W. Parke, Festivals Of The Athenians (London: Thames and Hudson, 1977),
p.189.
20
Linton and Linton, The Lore Of Birthdays, p. 8.
21
Kathryn Argetsinger, 'Birthday Rituals: Friends and Patrons in Roman Poetry
and Cult', Classical Antiquity, 11, 2, 1992), pp. 175-193, [hereafter Argetsinger,
Birthday Rituals], pp.175-6.
22
Argetsinger, Birthday Rituals, pp. 182-184.
23
Argetsinger, Birthday Rituals, p.182 and p.179.
24
Argetsinger, Birthday Rituals, p.179.
25
Argetsinger, Birthday Rituals, p.193.
19
97
formed the basis for establishing public birthday celebrations for emperors as patrons and protectors of the Roman people.26
The Research Project
Two men and four women, aged between 35 and 65, three British and
three Austrian citizens, volunteered in giving semi-structured interviews. For data protection reasons they are identified by a P (participant) plus serial numbers in the order of the interviews.
P3, the exception among the participants, does not celebrate his own
birthday as it has no meaning for him, but helps others to celebrate
theirs.
Further results suggest that the participants’ birthday celebrations
are socially meaningful ritual-like actions defining and strengthening
social relationships. Regular customs are taking this day off and a special meal with family and/or friends, a basic genre of ritual action defining a social community. For five participants, a birthday cake is a
special treat that they like to have every year. A festive table is not
important to the British, but very much to the Austrian participants.
Their descriptions (flowers, candles, cake) resemble the Roman ritual
altars. Receiving congratulations and good wishes, especially as a return of the favour, is important to five participants as these express
feelings of closeness and affection.
For most participants, birthdays are celebrations of life. They want
this day to stand out from others, thus mark it as non-profane time
(e.g. no work), but do not give it the meaning of sacred time like in
late republican Rome. The birthday viewed as a personal holiday implies that the participants have a qualitative and cyclical perception
26
Argetsinger, Birthday Rituals, p.193.
98
of time.27 The idea that birthdays have a different meaning depending
on a linear or cyclical perception of time might lead to further research.
By celebrating collective rituals like Christmas and Easter, Brady
says, we co-create the seasonal cycle. Birthday celebrations have
seemingly a similar function on an individual level. As calendrical rituals they create the individual’s ‘ever renewing cycle’.
References
Argetsinger, Kathryn, 'Birthday Rituals: Friends and Patrons in Roman Poetry and
Cult', Classical Antiquity, 11, 2, 1992), pp. 175-193.
Bell, Catherine, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1997).
Brady, Bernadette, Astrology, A Place In Chaos (Bournemouth: The Wessex Astrologer, 2006).
Linton, Ralph, and Adelin Linton, The Lore Of Birthdays (Detroit: Omnigraphics, 1998
[1952]).
Parke, Herbert W., Festivals Of The Athenians (London: Thames and Hudson, 1977).
Zerubavel, Eviatar, Hidden Rhythms. Schedules And Calendars In Social Life (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1981).
Zerubavel, Eviatar, Seven Day Circle: The History And Meaning Of The Week (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).
27
Zerubavel, Hidden Rhythms, pp.101-137 and Eviatar Zerubavel, The Seven Day
Circle: The History And Meaning Of The Week (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1985), pp.83-86.
99
The 19-year Luni-solar Cycle of the Odyssey, the
Pylos Combat Warrior Seal and the Antikythera
Mechanism
Florence Star Wood
Independent Scholar, Bolton, UK
Nearly three millennia have passed since Homer (c. 745-700 BC) sat under the
clear skies of ancient Greece and wove threads of time-honoured myths about
the Trojan War and the adventures of Odysseus into the Iliad and the Odyssey.
In the long distant past, Homer was considered to be an astronomer as well as
a story-teller as shown in Heraclitus’s Fragments (535-475BC), ‘Homer the astronomer, considered wisest of all Greeks.1 The pre-literate Greeks required a
method for preserving crucial astronomical and time-keeping for the organisation of their lives.
The Iliad sets out the fundamentals of astronomy: identification of stars and
constellations, an earth-centred universe, movement of the heavens, and an
awareness of Precession of the Equinoxes, and knowledge of astronomy assimilated through the centuries before Homer’s times.2 However, the astronomical
content of the Odyssey is quite different from that of the Iliad. The scholar Gilbert
Murray was aware that the Odyssey is ‘myth ..… it is a matter of the solar and
lunar calendar.’ 3 Murray did not elaborate the point.
The luni-solar calendar of the Odyssey is found by recognizing that the moon is
the ‘tally stick of time.’4 The calendar is divided into a 29 or 30 day months, 12
or13 month years, 45- 50 month ‘Olympiads’, 99 month Venus rhythms, 4 x 235
Callippic cycles and 223 months of the Saros Series. Analysis of the plethora of
numbers embedded in the Odyssey are evidence enough of a lunar based calendar. Meanwhile, Odysseus’s exploits are metaphorical descriptions of the constellations in which the sun lies during a particular lunation. Combination of
the two yields a luni-solar calendar.
Current investigations include the recently displayed 3.6cm long Pylos
Combat Warrior Agate Seal (1500BC), discovered by archaeologists from
100
the University of Cincinnati, and the Antikythera Mechanism, dated perhaps to the 1st century BC. 700 years earlier than Homer, the Pylos Combat
Warrior Agate Seal depicts a warrior being struck in the throat with a
sword, reminiscent of Achilles overcoming Hector in the Iliad. The minute
details, some not even seen by the naked eye evokes Homer’s astronomical description of the death of Hector. (HSI, (Fig.13, p77). Believed to have
originated some 700 years later than Homer, the Antikythera Mechanism’s complex gearing has been revealed by computer x-rays through a
team from Cardiff University. They have found the synodic month, tropical
years, together with the Metonic, Olympiad, Octaetris and Callippic cycles
as well as the Saros series – all identical to those verbally expressed in lunations embedded in the Odyssey.
Both artefacts reveal craftsmanship and technological skills far beyond
those capabilities we thought possible by the ancient Greeks. The oral tales of the Iliad and the Odyssey, their original purpose long hidden, show a
similar complexity to both artefacts. In the history of ancient Greek civilizations, Homer stands mid-way between the Pylos Combat Warrior Seal
and the Antikythera Mechanism.
References
Kahn, Charles H, The Art & Thought of Heraclitus: An Edition of the Fragments with
Translation and Commentary (Cambridge University Press), 1981, p39
Wood, Florence and Kenneth, Homer’s Secret Iliad, John Murray, 1999, and Homer’s
Secret Odyssey, History Press. Works based on a study of Homer’s epics by
Edna F Leigh, (1916-1991) but greatly extended.
Murray, Gilbert, The Rise of the Greek Epic, Clarendon Press, 1907, 4 th edition, reprint Oxford University Press, 1967, pp 211-12
Krupp, Ed: Heavenly Discourses (Conference): Celebrating Fifty years of Human
Space Flight, Bristol, 2011.
101
Structure of the sacred space, astronomical orientation and functional evolution of the rock-cut
monument near the village of Lilych, Kyustendil
region, Bulgaria
Alexey Stoev1, Penka Maglova1, Vassil Markov2, Dimitriya Spasova2
and Anton Genov2
1Space Research and Technology Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Stara
Zagora Department 2South West University "Neofit Rilski", Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria
Introduction: One of the most interesting rock - cut monuments with
arches on the Bulgarian lands is the rock sanctuary in the Cherkvishte
locality near the village of Lilyach. We have conducted an archaeoastronomical and ethnographic research of this large rock complex. It is
located about 2 km northeast of the village. It is situated on a high
plateau hill, which has an impressive view to the Konyavska Mountain and the Rila and Malashevska Mountains. In the late 19th century
here was built a church dedicated to Saint George, which inherited an
older Christian temple. The church was renovated in 1925 and even
today the village festival is held here. The hill is surrounded by a rock
wreath of 5 to 10 meters in height from the east-southeast side. Rock
chapel and group of tunnels, passages and rock niches, considered sacred still in prehistoric times are situated at its southeast part. Several
significant rock cuttings are located at the top of the rocks.
Research: In the system of rock galleries, passages, arches, rocks and
cuttings of the sanctuary orientations located mainly in the east-west
and north-south axes, are mentioned. After the rock chapel, oriented
east - west, we reach a narrow, 7 m long tunnel with a north-south
orientation formed at the base of the eastern part of the sanctuary.
The cross section at the end of the tunnel is in the form of a phallus.
On the eastern part of it is clearly visible the image of a female face
102
Fig. 1. Phallic cross section at the end of the tunnel oriented north-south
and the female face turned to the south.
turned to the south. The tunnel extends to a rock ground. Two separate rock blocks are located to the west of the ground. The base of the
first is shaped as passage arch. Its opening is about 0.30 m in height
and its length is 1.5 m. Orientation of its main axis is towards the sunrise at the point of winter solstice (southeast, accuracy of orientation
is 1о). A large rock arch (about 2.5 m high) with a triangle cross section is formed from the rock block with the passage arch and the main
rock, and occupies a dominant position in the complex. Its main axis
is oriented to the east, to the sunrise point above the local horizon on
the days of equinox. Solar projections in the early morning hours during equinoxes are marked on the floor like circles.
103
The original form of the rock chapel was a small break into the rock
above, covered by stone blocks locked in the crack. The chapel has the
characteristics of a rock cave and can be considered as the Christian
home of the Great Mother-Goddess of Ancient Thrace. The main axis
of the cave is oriented with great accuracy in the direction east-west
(accuracy 1о).
Conclusion: The rock sanctuary we studied in the Cherkvishte locality
near the village of Lilyach is connected with the vernal equinox and
winter solstice. Obviously, it has several cult centers deeply connected with the Great Mother-Goddess and the Sun. The mysterious
cult of the new birth, reincarnation and immortality is preserved until
late in the Bulgarian folk culture in the traditional ritual for treatment
of the female infertility, by ritual passing through the rock arch oriented towards the winter solstice (Markov, 2003).
Solar cult is associated with the male divinity in Thrace, identified
with the Sun, with Dionysus-Sabazius. From the eastern direction
come the rays of the rising in the morning Sun and fall into the rock
arch, symbolizing the womb of the Great Mother-Goddess, identified
with the Earth. This is a kind of natural code of sacred marriage between the supreme male and the supreme female god in Ancient
Thrace. Indicative in this respect are the phallic cross section of the
tunnel oriented north - south and the female face turned to the south
on its eastern part.
References:
Markov, V., Gotsev, A. and Yankov, A., 2003, Sacred space in Ancient Thrace, Neofit
Rilski University Press, Blagoevgrad.
104
The Hittite Rock Sanctuary of Yazılıkaya: A Lunisolar Calendar from c. 1250 B.C.
Eberhard Zangger, Rita Gautschy
Luwian Studies, Zurich, Switzerland
University of Basel, Department of Ancient Civilizations, Basel, Switzerland
Material studied
The Hittite rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya in central Anatolia contains
over ninety rock-cut reliefs of deities, humans, animals, and mythical
figures dating to the second half of the 13th century B.C. (Seeher
2011). The site’s function has thus far remained enigmatic. A few elements indicate astronomical orientations: e.g. one prominent relief of
Great King Tudḫaliya IV only catches sunlight during afternoons
around the summer solstice, while the northern wall of the gatehouse
is oriented towards sunset at the summer solstice.
Goals
Such observations indicate that the Yazılıkaya sanctuary had a practical purpose, probably in connection with astronomical determination of time. For instance, Chambers A and B exhibit reliefs with 12
uniform male gods, possibly indicating the 12 gods of the lunar calendar (and thus the months). This incited the working hypothesis that
the entire sanctuary may have been used to record astronomical observations and to keep track of time in one way or another. Our goal
was to determine whether the sanctuary had a practical purpose associated with astronomy/astrology and keeping track of time.
Methods
For the archaeoastronomical analysis of the rock sanctuary of
Yazılıkaya and its surroundings we used horizon profiles based on
topographic data generated from NASA’s Shuttle Radar Topography
Mission (SRTM) with a resolution of about 90 m, backed by locally
generated horizon panoramas. For the calculation of the position of
the sun and the moon we employed our own computer programs,
105
which use the long-term DE 406 ephemerides of the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (Standish 1998). The position of fixed stars such as Sirius
and the Pleiades were calculated for 1250 B.C. starting from their coordinates in the year 2000 (Perryman et al. 1997). Our computations
take account of the effects of precession, nutation, changes in the
obliquity of the ecliptic in the course of time, and the proper motion
of the stars.
Discussion
We observed that the reliefs in Chamber A form certain groups. The
number of elements in each group is 12, 1, 29, 5 and 19. These numbers – and thus the relief groups – can be correlated to basic astronomical periods:
- Reliefs 1-12 and 13: Number of lunar months per solar year (12+1)
- Relief 13: Intercalary lunar month as well as day 30 of the lunar month
- Reliefs 13 and 14-41: Number of days per lunar month (1+29)
- Reliefs 42-46: Main group, no function as a calendrical tool
- Reliefs 46a-63: 19 solar years
Accordingly, Reliefs 1-12 would reflect lunar months each with a duration of 29 or 30 days. Relief 13 would have been needed for the intercalary month that had to be added every 2-3 years to keep lunar
and solar years in line and to make sure that the months always coincided with the appropriate seasons.
The system recorded in Yazılıkaya may therefore constitute a lunisolar calendar that could have yielded different degrees of precision.
Different astronomical phenomena could have been used
106
107
to determine when an intercalary month is necessary: either the heliacal rising or heliacal setting of a bright star, the illumination effect
of Tudḫaliya’s relief, or a more sophisticated regular intercalation
pattern such as the Octaëteris or the Enneadecaëteris (later known as
the Metonic Cycle).
We conclude that the reliefs in Chamber A are arranged in groups for
the purpose of keeping track of lunar months, the days of a lunar
month, and years. By marking the days and synodic months, the Hittite priests were able to determine when additional months were required to keep lunar and solar years aligned. The sanctuary’s Chamber B was perfectly set up for use as a star clock to tell the time during
the night.
References
Michael A. C. Perryman, L. Lindegren, J. Kovalevsky et al., “The Hipparcos Catalogue”,
Astronomy & Astrophysics 323 (1997): L49–52
Jürgen Seeher, Gods Carved in Stone – The Hittite Rock Sanctuary of Yazılıkaya (Istanbul: Ege Yayιnlarι, 2011).
E. Myles Standish, “JPL Planetary and Lunar Ephemerides, DE405/LE405”, Jet Propulsion Laboratory Interoffice Memorandum 312; F-98-048 (1998),
ftp://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/pub/eph/planets/ioms/de405.iom.pdf
108
A robust statistical significance test for the orientation of archaeological structures
Fabio Silva1,2, A. César González-García3
1 - IPHES, Institut Catalá de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, Tarragona,
Spain and Área de Prehistória, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain.
2 - Faculty of Humanities & Performing Arts, University of Wales Trinity Saint David, Lampeter Campus, Ceredigion, UK
3 - Instituto de Ciencias del Patrimonio, Incipit – CSIC, Santiago de Compostela,
Spain.
For at least the past four decades archaeoastronomical research has
been put under the scrutiny of statistical analyses both by adherents
and detractors. The need to argue for intentionality of any identified
alignments, especially in the absence of independent socio-cultural
evidence or context, has driven archaeoastronomers towards statistical reasoning in an attempt to assess whether or not such alignments could occur by chance alone – that is, to assess their statistical
significance. This, at one point named ‘green’, methodology usually
consists in the surveying of a large number of similar structures and
subsequent quantitative analyses of the gathered data. The concern
for intentionality has been addressed, for example, using the Bernoulli trial equation, which estimates the probability of finding alignments by chance (e.g. Thom 1971, Ruggles 1999). However, this is often intractable to apply to larger datasets that display less homogeneity in orientation and measurement uncertainty. Despite its old
concern with statistical significance, archaeoastronomy hasn’t been
able to fully engage with what is not only the most widely recognised
and established statistical tool but is also the most appropriate to assess statistical significance: null hypothesis testing and the p-values
that result from it (e.g. Wasserstein and Lazar 2016).
This paper will present a methodology that is equally inspired by past
attempts to quantify significance in curvigrams (e.g. González-García
& Belmonte 2011; González-García & Sprajc 2016) and by current
109
advancements in statistical analyses of radiocarbon dates (e.g. Shennan et al 2013, Silva and Vander Linden 2017). The methodology is
based on the explicit comparison of the curvigram derived from the
fieldwork data with the expected curvigrams under the null hypothesis and the characteristics (sample size, uncertainty profile) of the
empirical sample. This is done through a three-stage process where,
firstly, a null hypothesis is chosen and a probability density function
(pdf) that represents it is constructed – for example the null hypothesis of random orientation can be represented by a probability density function that is uniform in azimuth (i.e. all directions are equally
likely to occur by chance). From this pdf a random sample of the same
size as the empirical dataset is retrieved and used to construct a
curvigram using the empirical uncertainty profile. This is repeated a
large number of times so as to construct a confidence interval around
the null model, which is to say the range of curvigram “shapes” expected to be observed under the null hypothesis. Regions of the empirical curvigram that lie outside this confidence interval are statistically significant and this can be quantified using a p-value.
This method is demonstrably robust – e.g. it works for any sample
size – and because it quantifies statistical significance via a p-value, it
has the potential to raise our profile within other fields, such as archaeology and anthropology, that are already conversant with significance testing and p-values. We argue that this is an important development not just for future studies but also to reassess past data collections and related inferences and we will demonstrate it by applying it to a number of already datasets in the literature (e.g. Ruggles
1999).
References
González-García, A. César, Belmonte, Juan A. 2011. Thinking Hattusha: Astronomy
and landscape in the Hittite Lands. Journal for the History of Astronomy xlii:
461-494.
110
González-García, A. César, Sprajc, Ivan 2016. Astronomical significance of architectural orientations in the Maya Lowlands: A statistical approach. Journal of
Archaeological Science: Reports 9: 191-202.
Ruggles, Clive L.N. 1999. Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland. New Haven and
London: Yale University Press.
Shennan, Stephen et al. 2013. Regional population collapse followed initial agriculture booms in mid-Holocene Europe. Nature Communications 4: 2486.
Silva, Fabio and Vander Linden, Marc 2017. Amplitude of travelling front as inferred
from 14C predicts levels of genetic admixture among European early farmers. Scientific Reports 7: 11985.
Thom, Alexander 1971. Megalithic Sites in Britain. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Wasserstein, Ronald L. and Lazar, Nicole A. 2016. The ASA's statement on p-values:
context, process, and purpose. The American Statistician 70(2): 129-133.
111
Politics, Harmony and Managing Change in Kepler's Astronomy.
Nicholas Campion
University of Wales Trinity Saint David, UK
This paper will explore Johannes Kepler’s political astronomy-astrology, honouring Kepler’s position as a former teacher of mathematics
in Graz, the venue for the 2018 SEAC conference.
Material Studied
Kepler’s primary texts, including the Tertius Interveniens, annual
prognostications and horoscopes.
Goal
My goal is to establish a better understanding of Kepler’s work within
17th century culture.
Method
My method is historical/archival
Discussion
Kepler was motivated partly by the desire to establish a more accurate astronomy, one purpose being to solve the problems of political
instability. The Thirty Years War, which devastated parts of central
Europe, broke out in 1618, the same rear as his essential text book on
Copernicanism, the Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, and a year before the Harmonices Mundi. As is well known Kepler provided astrological advice for Albrecht von Wallenstein, the imperial general, and
so the last of Europe’s great military astrologers. Kepler’s relationship with Wallenstein has been systematically misrepresented. In
Caspar’s strangely dismissive judgment, his willingness to consult
‘the stars regarding all his political and martial decisions and transactions’ was evidence that he was ‘caught in astrological delusion’, as
if this was a kind of psychological sickness rather than standard behaviour for the time. Kepler’s relationship with Wallenstein began in
112
1608 when an intermediary obtained a lengthy written analysis (possibly anonymous) of Wallenstein’s birth chart.
Of the astronomers responsible for the astronomical revolution, Kepler’s astrology is the most well known although it is largely ignored
by scholars of his work. Kepler believed that astrology was part of
the divinely ordered cosmos, a means of understanding God’s plan
and marvelling at his works. From 1602 he also produced annual
prognostications, in order to build up a body of empirically-based, reliable astrological rules. He discussed probabilities for the coming
year’s weather, harvests and political developments, steering away
from precise forecasts. Where he did make a definite statement, he
was quick to qualify it. For January 1602 he considered, on the basis
of a prolonged sextile (600 separation) between Mars and Saturn,
that ‘there will be a vehement commotion and a very definite excess
in atmospheric conditions. But’, he added, ‘it is not easy to say how
the excess will be manifested’. A notable example was in his diary for
1618 in which, building his astrological judgement carefully upon
previous examples, he wrote,
My fundamental argument is this: that a Conjunction of Mars and the
Sun takes place next March in Aries, under the influence of which Germany stands; while numerous Conjunctions take place in May in Taurus
near the Plejades; and that we have precedents to show us the effects of
such aspects in definite instances, as in the Peasants’ War in 1525, in
the Revolt in the Netherlands in 1565, and in 1604 in Hungary.
On 23 May 1618, as the Moon was in Taurus, between Mars and Saturn, as identified by Kepler, the defenestration of Prague launched the
Thirty Years War. The making of predictions required Kepler to take
a position in relation to the thorny problem of determinism, whether
the fulfilment of a forecast meant that it was predetermined, and he
was quite clear that the Taurean alignments did not indicate that war
was inevitable. Instead, he advocated a mixture of social reform and
113
tough government to ward off revolution, and strong generalship to
win wars. Kepler wanted to achieve this by a stripped down, simplified astrology.
Conclusion
My paper will argue that Kepler’s understanding of astrology, politics
and fate led him to take up an embryonic social-democratic position,
in which reform is a necessary political action to ward off revolution.
References
Kepler, Johannes, The Harmony of the World, trans. E.J. Aiton, A.M. Duncan, J.V. Field,
(American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1997).
Kepler, Johannes, ‘Astrological Predictions for the Year M.DC.XVII’, trans. John Meeks,
in Greenbaum, Dorian Gieseler (ed.), ‘Kepler’s Astrology’, Culture and Cosmos Vol. 12 no 1 and 2, Spring/Summer and Autumn/Winter 2008, pp. 177198.
114
The harmony of J. Kepler. Elliptical form in geometry and music
Uliva Velo
University of Ferrara, Italy
The German astronomer and scientist Johannes Kepler is well-known
for his innovative reinterpretation of the astronomical structure of
the planetary system. From his first essay Mysterium Cosmographicum (1595) – in which he remains attached to a Platonic vision of the
planetary order, incorporating it within a framework influenced by
the revolutionary discoveries of Nicolaus Copernicus who placed the
sun at the centre of the astronomical system – to the Harmonices
Mundi (1619) Kepler’s ideas developed in a remarkable way. Studying under Tycho Brahe in 1600, from the great Danish scientist he inherited numerous astronomical data that became the foundation on
which he would later formulate his three laws of planetary motion.
In Astronomia Nova (1609) Kepler describes his various attempts to fit the
data collected by Brahe concerning the movement of Mars into the Ptolemaic and Copernican interpretation of the circular orbits of planets,
though without success. The discrepancy between the data and their “traditional” representation led to his assertion and demonstration of the fact
that the planets moved around the sun in elliptical orbits, eccentric to the
sun which is situated on one focus of the ellipse. If this treatise is important
for Kepler’s “formal” interpretation of planetary motion, the Harmonices
Mundi is unique for its treatment of the interdependence of music and astronomy through the common language of geometry. Kepler used music
as a spiritual basis for his scientific theories and to explain the prevailing
harmony of the universe, placing himself in a long-standing tradition
though referring to polyphonic music according to contemporary developments in the musical field.
115
The progress of scientific thought in the course of history has been
marked by crucial turning-points not only in its own discipline, but
also in the perception man has regarding his place in the world. Eliocentric theory, for example, destabilized the centuries-long belief in
the fulcral position of the Earth in the astronomical system as it was
then known.
These evolutionary passages are found in individuals’ various forms
of intellectual expression. In particular, when analyzing their repercussions in architecture and music, the ideas underlying architectural
and musical composition are revealed. It emerges that these have
common roots according to interrelated concepts that are reflected in
either one discipline or the other.
In an analysis of this subject in western civilization it has emerged
that in time the significant idea of this relationship changes and three
fundamental concepts can be identified, in which the interconnection
between measure, number, geometry and time express a tension towards an ideal meaning of the creative act:
• number: an abstract and unchanging entity that qualifies the components of architecture and of music in a continuous relationship
with the metaphysical world;
• form: a concrete concept that defines various canons of architectural and musical composition through the dynamism of figures
used with innovation;
• expression: personalization of the mark/expression that becomes
itself architectural and musical project, according to rules modulated on a contingency basis.
In the case analysed here, the ellipse, already in use in some instances
and later developed exhaustively in the buildings of the baroque period, was an absolute novelty in the scientific field. By means of the
same geometrical figure, architecture and astronomy worked a mutation in the structure and the perception of space, both on the microscopic level of buildings and on the macroscopic level of the solar system. Such an innovation compared to the mentality of the past, which
116
was based on figures like circles and squares, was also incorporated
into music with the development of increasingly complex musical
forms.
The figure of Kepler is important, therefore, not only for his scientific contribution to the history of astronomy, but also for the applicative process
in which he identified geometry as a linking element between astronomy
and music. Indeed, geometry (concrete compared to the pure abstraction
of arithmetic), astronomy (the study of large masses in motion) and polyphonic music (proportion among numbers) are brought together in a combination whose originality is truly fascinating.
The movements of the heavens are nothing other than a perpetual symphony (rational, not vocal) which moves, through dissonances, through
as it were certain suspensions or cadential formulae (through which
men imitate the natural dissonances) towards definite, prescribed cadences… (J. Kepler, Harmonice Mundi, 1619).
References
G. MASI, L’idea barocca. Lezioni sul pensiero del Seicento, CLUEB, Bologna 2000.
V. FASOLO, Sistemi ellittici nell’architettura in <Architettura e arti decorative>, X,
1931, pagg. 309-324.
J. KEPLER, Harmonice Mundi Libri V, Forni Editore, Bologna 1969.
A. M. LOMBARDI, Keplero: semplici leggi per l’armonia dell’universo, collana “I grandi
della scienza”, <Le Scienze>, III, 13, 2000.
117
Kepler’s calculations of the Creation’s date, compared to Dionysius Exiguus’ Adjustment of Anno
Domini
Sepp Rothwangl
Independent Researcher, Wien, Austria
In 1596 Johannes Kepler wrote in his Mysterium Cosmographicum:
“If we equate the year 1595 of the Christian era with the year 5572
(usually the best warrantors count it as 5557) then the creation falls
into an exquisite constellation at the beginning of Aries.” Kepler’s
“best warrantors” is evidently the Protestant reformer Luther, who
dated the creation at exactly the same year. Kepler then calculated a
horoscope of this date, but could not find significance. He draw a different horoscope hereafter, representing the conjunction of creation,
in order to harmonize it with the heliocentric world view of Copernicus, who said that „the Earth initially was at the same starting place
as the other planets.“
In his work “De temporis initio; De mundi aetate” Kepler combined
the seven-day-concept and the fictitious date of Christ’s birth in a similar way as already in 6th century Dionysius Exiguus when “inventing” the Anno Domini yearcount. With this idea, Kepler is closely
aligned with the doctrine of the Great Year. He tries to bring it into
symmetrical harmony with heliocentrism. In an image, he presents
the ideal ephemerides of the planets as they would have been positioned at the creation. This graphical representation readily illustrates his harmonic idea.
Later on, based upon planetary periods, Kepler calculated a different
date of creation of the world some 4000 years before Christ.
118
Kepler’s ideal ephemerides of
the planets at Creation
References:
Kepler, Johannes: Tertius interveniens. Das ist, Warnung an etliche Theologos, Medicos und Philosophos, sonderlich D. Philippum Feselium, dasz sie bey billicher Verwerffung der Sternguckerischen Aberglauben. Franckfurt am
Mäyn, 1610
Kepler, Johannes: De Iesu Christi servatoris nostri vero anno natalitio, consideratio
novissimae sententiae Laurentii Suslygae. Francofurti. 1606
Kepler, Johannes: Prodromus dissertationum cosmographicarum continens mysterium cosmographicum. 1596
Luther, Martin: SUPPUTATIO ANNORUM MUNDI. Vuittembergae. 1544
Calatay de, Godefroid (1996) Annus Platonicus. A Study of World Cycles in
Greek, Latin and Arabic Sources. Universite Catholique de Louvain. Institut
Orientaliste. Peeters Press Louvain - Paris.
Rothwangl, Sepp. THE CALCULATION OF DOOMSDAY BASED ON ANNO DOMINI. Scientific Culture. Journal of Applied Science & Technology to Cultural Issues.
Vol. 1.2.
Rothwangl, Sepp: The Scythian Dionysius Exiguus and His Invention of Anno Domini.
Proceedings of the Second International Symposium Blagoevgrad, Neofit
Rilski University Press, 2016
119
The regularities of the celestial forces: the concept of sun and moon in Igbo world view
Barth Chukwuezi
Dept of sociology/Anthropology, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria
Since human existence, the celestial forces especially the sun, moon,
stars, sky, rainbow etc have had an overbearing influence on humans,
In-fact human social structure and social organization in many traditional societies are informed by the knowledge of the celestial forces,
Chukwuezi (2006) has discussed how cosmic forces impinge on human organization in a paper delivered at the African Astronomy Conference in Ghana. The regularities of the sun and moon in Igbo existence has very wide concept in Igbo world view which informs the various social structure and social organization of the Igbo society. The
Igbo are a cultural ethnic group found in eastern part of Nigeria and
have come to identify the regularities of the sun and moon in their
world view which inform their varying forms of social structure and
social organization encouraging various activities. The Igbo world
view is the basic concept of ideologies and activities which influences
Igbo orientation in their existential world which gives meaning to the
various forms of social structure and social organization. It is seen as
the various way the Igbo configure their existence in both physical
and spiritual context which affects their various levels of social organization.
The sun rises regularly in the east and sets in the west. The moon
equally appears at certain periods of the month. The sun has various
male attributes so also the moon. The sun is a life force, giver of light
and vitality which orders the affairs of human. The sun is seen as a
male god with so much vitality and energy and it commands a lot of
awe and respect. The moon has some special attributes as well which
gives meaning to certain forms of existence in Igbo society. These
120
attributes of the sun and the moon which are morphological, social –
cultural and spiritual in nature will be discussed.
The paper will explore the various underlying facets and spiritual correlation of Igbo world view and social organization informed by socio
cultural attributes of the sun and moon.
References
Chukwuezi B. Cosmic Forces and the structure and social organization: Igbo Land. J
Halltroke stall (eds) cultural
Astronomy of Africa Springer Books Netherlands.
121
Origins of Ka’ba and The Celestial Order
Reza Assasi
Centennial College, Toronto, Canada
Ka’ba, Islam’s most sacred building located in Mecca, takes its name
from the geometrical form of its structure. In Arabic language it literally means Cube. There are not many reliable historical reports about
the origins of its construction, however, the building had been a significant sacred temple for the pre-Islamic tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. The Islamic narratives date its origin to the time of Adam and
Abraham. Quran calls this place “the ancient house”.
Among the important cities in the Arabian Peninsula and the Red Sea
trade route Mecca is in geographic proximity of the Tropic of Cancer.
Also, it is believed that Ka’ba originally had only four walls with no
roofs. These facts could have played an important role in the construction of this type of structure, which none of its four walls cast
shadow during the summer solstice noon solar zenith passage. The
Islamic narratives also supports this notion where Ka’ba reported to
have a celestial counterpart right above it in the fourth sky, metaphorically representing the Sun’s place in the seven planetary
spheres.
Most of the pre-Islamic pilgrimage rituals taking place in this site
were also adopted by Islam. One of these rituals is tawaf that requires
the pilgrims to perform seven circumambulations around Ka’ba with
three rounds at a fast pace and four rounds at a slow pace, another
strong metaphoric reference to the planetary orbits with an emphasis
on the fourth celestial orbit.
Although there is only one sacred stone (the Black Stone) was kept in
Ka’ba, the Islamic reports mention that Ka’ba hosted 360 idols (probably resembling the solar cycle) that all were destroyed by Muhammad when he conquered Mecca in 629 CE.
122
In this study the author analyzes the first hand and second hand Islamic literature, the related historical reports, the rituals, and the
physical evidence to create a rational framework to demonstrate the
parallels between the original concept of Ka’ba and its rituals with the
astronomical phenomena. Although there is no clear historical statement to address the origins of Ka’ba, almost all available data, including the Islamic narratives, suggest the importance of the celestial order in the foundation of this site and its associated rituals.
Selected bibliography
Armstrong, K. (2002). Islam: A short history, Modern Library
Bayhaqı̄, A. -F. M. H., & Yū sifı̄, M. R. (2005). Tā rı̄kh-i Masʻū dı̄: Bargiriftah az tā rı̄kh-i
Bayhaqı̄ hamrā h bā bargardā n bih Fā rsı̄-i ravā n-i imrū zı̄. Qum: Dā nishgā h-i
Qum.
Ghiasabadi, R. M. Paywand-hayi Kaaba Ba Khane-yi Khorshid, ghiasabadi.com
Thackston, W. M. (2001). Nasir-i Khusraw's Book of travels. Costa Mesa, Calif: Mazda
Publishers.
Zeitlin, I. M. (2007). The historical Muhammad. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press
123
A New Light on the Central Instrument of the Samarqand Observatory
S. Mohammad Mozaffari,1 Georg Zotti2
1
Research Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics of Maragha (RIAAM), Iran
2 Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and
Virtual Archaeology, Vienna, Austria
About the first half of 994 AD, Abū Maḥmūd Ḥāmid b. al-Khiḍr alKhujandī (ca. 945–1000) built a gigantic instrument, the so-called
Fakhrī sextant, exclusively for the measurement of the obliquity of
the ecliptic near Ray (near modern Tehran). It has been described
in a treatise by al-Khujandī himself, in two works by his younger
contemporary, Abū al-Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī (973–1048), as well as in a
13th-century encyclopedia of the astronomical instruments compiled by al-Marrākushī (d. 1262 AD), in which the procedure of its
construction is explained as follows: After marking the meridian
line on the ground, two walls of ~ 10 m height are erected equidistant from it, with a distance of ~ 3.5 m between them. At the top, an
arch is built between them from the south with a round aperture of
radius ~ 20 cm in its apex. Directly below the centre of the aperture,
the ground is excavated ~ 10 m. A prolonged solid hollow iron rod
of ~ 20 m in length is hung by two rings from the horizontal diameter of the aperture; this serves as the radius of the circle, of which
the sextant is an arc, and is rotated within the excavation to make
an arc of one-sixth of a circle. The resulting curved excavation is
made smooth and uniform, covered with wooden planks and equalin-size brass plates forming its upper surface, and then is graduated
to 60° (corresponding to a length of ~ 34.9 cm per degree); the two
degree-divisions that are thought to be the limits of the ecliptic
obliquity are divided into 360 equal subdivisions, each of which
represents 10″ (~ 1 mm in length). On its application, we are told:
When the Sun reaches the meridian circle, its rays shine through the
aperture onto the meridian line, so that the size of the sunbeam is
spread in the shape of a cone which is greater than that of the aperture. An auxiliary device is made in the shape of an armilla, in which
124
the two perpendicular diameters are fixed, and whose size is equal
to that of the sunbeam located on the surface of the sextant. When
the sunbeam falling on the ground approaches the meridian line, this
device is put on it and is moved slowly, as the sunbeam moves, until
the sunbeam meets the meridian line. So, the position of the centre
of the sunbeam in the meridian circle is obtained by it, from which
the meridian altitude of the Sun is known. In practice, the instrument
did no longer work perfectly after a while; as Khujandī informed
Bīrūnī orally about a discrepancy in the sextant, the aperture had
subsided downward by ~ 20 cm. We must assume this was an undesirable, but quite expectable, consequence on account of the two
tall walls being erected just on either side of a deep excavation.
About four centuries later, another model of the Fakhrī sextant has been described in Ghiyāt al-Dīn Jamshīd al-Kāshī’s (ca.
1380–1429) On observational instruments, before he joined Ulugh
Beg (1394–1449) in the Samarqand observatory; it was published
by Kennedy (1961) on the basis of an unillustrated codex preserved
in the University of Leiden (Or. 945). Except for its name, there is
no similarity between the two models. According to al-Kāshī, the
cylindrical stone sextant is ~ 40 m in length (radius) and ~ 2 m in
width, its northern height is ~ 20 m and its southern height ~ 1/2 m,
and it has a canal on its upper surface, 8 cm in width and 2 cm in
depth. Nothing more is told about how to utilize it. It is similar in
size to the remnants of the gigantic stone cylinder of radius ~ 40 m
in the Samarqand observatory, with the exception that analogous to
Khujandī’s description, a part of the latter is buried beneath ground.
Until now, it has been taken for granted among the historians of
medieval astronomy that the instrument was in practice used in the
same way as Khujandī’s model. In the 1980s, E. Piini (1986) imagined that the instrument must have been utilized by means of an
auxiliary device as shown in the Figure (from Piini 1986), but such
an intuitive reconstruction was apparently ignored since then due to
not having any historical background.
125
The recently-considered piece of evidence that casts light on how the
central instrument of the Samarqand observatory worked in reality
can be found just in that very treatise by al-Kāshī. Its three other manuscripts preserved in Tehran are illustrated, in which the Fakhrī sextant is shown with a “parallel implement” movable on “wheels” carrying a long alidade (“perpendicular pillar”) mounted on it which has
two sighting “pinnulas” with tiny holes in their centers. We want to
present a virtual reconstruction of this auxiliary device together with
the central instrument of the Samarqand observatory.
126
References
al-Bīrūnī, Abū al-Ray<.>hān, 1908, <.>Hikāyat al-ālat al-musammāt al-suds al-Fakhrī
[Information on the instrument called the Fakhrī Sextant], Shaykhu, L. (ed.),
al-Maashriq 11, pp. 68–69.
al-Bīrūnī, Abū al-Ray<.>hān, 1967, Ta<.>hdīd nahayāt al-amākin li-ta<.>s<.>hī<.>h
masāfāt al-masākin (Determination of the coordinates of positions for the
correction of distances between cities), Ali, J. (En. tr.), Beirut.
al-Kāshī, Ghiyāth al-Dīn Jamshīd, Sharh-i Ālāt-i Ra<.>sad, MS. S: Iran, Sipahsālār Library, No. 555D, fols. 9v–14v; MS. P: Iran, Library of Parliament, No. 791,
pp. 17–27; M: Malik National Library, No. 3536, pp. 31–39; T: University of
Tehran, No. 159–<.>Hikmat, fols. 115v–116v.
Kennedy, E.S., 1961, “Al-Kāshī’s Treatise on Astronomical Observational Instruments”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 20, pp. 98–108.
Kennedy, E.S., 1973, A commentary upon Bīrūnī’s Kitāb Ta<.>hdīd al-Amākin, Beirut:
American University of Beirut.
al-Khujandī, Abū Ma<.>hmūd <.>Hāmid b. al-Khi<.>dr, Fī tas<.>hī<.>h al-mayl wa
‘ar<.>d al-balad [On the correction of the obliquity of the ecliptic and the
latitude of place], Shaykhu, L. (ed.), al-Maashriq 11, pp. 60–67.
127
al-Marrākushī, Abū ‘Alī al-<.>Hasan b. ‘Alī b. ‘Umar, Jāmi‘ al-mabādī wa’l-ghāyāt fī ‘ilm
al-miqāt (Comprehensive Collection of Principles and Objectives in the Science of Timekeeping), MSS. I: Istanbul, Topkapı Sarayı Museum Library, Ahmet III Collection, no. 3343 (facsimile edition by Sezgin, F., 2 Vols., Frankfurt: Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Goethe
University, 1984); N: Istanbul, Süleymaniye Library, Nuruosmaniye Collection, no. 2902; P1: Tehran, Parliament Library, no. 6573; P2: Tehran, Parliament Library, no. 37234-10.
Piini, Ernest W., 1986, “Ulugh Beg’s Forgotten Observatory”, Sky and Telescope 71,
pp. 542–544.
Repsold, J.A., 1918, “Zur Geschichte der astronomischen Meßwerkzeuge”, Astronomische Nachrichten 206, Cols. 125–138.
Schirmer, O., 1926/1927, “Studien zur Astronomie der Araber”, Sitzungsberichte der
Physikalisch-Medizinischen Sozietät zu Erlangen 58–59, pp. 33–88.
Wiedmann, E., 1910, “Uber den Sextant des al-Chogendi”, Archiv für die Geschichte
der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik 2, pp. 148–151.
128
Numerical, Geometric and Orientation Properties
of “Steppe Geoglyphs” in Kazakhstan
Nyssanbay Bekbassar
Independent Reasercher, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Dozens of mysterious geoglyphs had been discovered in Kazakhstan
by an amateur archaeologist in last decade. Researchers have surveyed sites using satellite images from Google Earth. The press hailed
the find the "Nazca Lines of Kazakhstan".
Though barely noticeable on the ground, the forms take on a dazzling
array of shapes, including huge rings, crosses, circles, squares, lines
and a triskelion, named three-fold swastika, when seen from high
above. They are some of the many intricate designs of the enigmatic
and ancient geoglyphs, formed by man-made mounds, trenches and
shafts - spread across the vast northern steppe of Kazakhstan.
Unlike the famous Nazca lines in Peru, mostly the shapes of the Geoglyphs of Turgai are consist from dotted lines of circular mounds of
earth about 0.2-1.0 meters high and 10 -12 meters wide range in size
from 90 to 435 meters. But archaeologists disagree on the age, purpose, and even the number of the features, which are reaping widespread publicity thanks to dramatic satellite images released recently
by NASA.
An international team, led by Andrey Logvin of Kostanay University,
has studied two of about 60 discovered sites. Since the team could not
find organic material that would provide radiocarbon dates, it used
the optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating technique that
gave ca. 800 BC. So they were built at the beginning of Kazakhstan's
Iron Age.
Main questions are when, why and who constructed these great
earthworks. The purpose of these features is even less clear than their
age. At this point, nobody knows whether the formations have a
129
practical purpose or were solely intended as artistic expression. It is
thought the geoglyphs served religious purposes and might have
been used for funeral ceremonies. They might also have served as
family or tribal symbols, or were a means of marking ownership of
the land or might be related to the migration of the saiga antelope, a
nearly extinct mammal that once was a mainstay prey of Kazakh
hunters.
An interdisciplinary approach is needed to apply for the full investigation of the geometrical earthworks of Kazakhstan. The purpose of
this paper is to analyze the numerical. geometric and orientation
properties of these sprawling structures of the Turgai deflection.
Also, we discuss the possible relationship of these geometric forms
with the cosmological perception in the symbolic culture of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia.
References
Logvin A., et al. (2014) Steppe geoglyphs mark the ancient routes of human migration
across Central Asia: introduction to the research. 20-th Annual Meeting of
the European association of archaeologists: abstract of the oral and poster
presentations (Istanbul, 10–14 September 2014). P. 492.
Motuzaite Matuzeviciute, G., et al. (2015) OSL dates for the ancient geometric earthworks of Kazakhstan. Archaeological Research in Asia Vol. 7, pp 1-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ara.2015.12.001
130
The calendrical period of 13 days as a basis to explain the solar orientation of architectural structures in Mesoamerica
Jesús Galindo Trejo
Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
Over the course of several decades, the solar orientation of architectural structures in Mesoamerica has been investigated (Galindo Trejo,
1994, 2016; Sprajc, 2001, 2003). Although astronomical orientations
have been identified towards the sunrise and the sunset at important
astronomical moments, such as solstices, equinoxes and the days of
the cenital passage of the Sun, the great majority of the orientations
does not correspond to important astronomical moments in the apparent movement of the Sun in the horizons. It is possible to organize
these orientations according to the solar alignment dates. After a direct analysis it turns out that the distribution of these dates seems to
be grouped around certain dates whose main characteristic is that
they differ from the natural pivot of a solstice by a multiple number
of 13 days. It is well known that the 13-day period is an essential element that structures the Mesoamerican calendrical system. Various
proposals have been made to explain the origin of this period. In this
paper we propose an observational origin of 13 where the solar disk
is the protagonist in terms of the easily identifiable space-time interdependence from observation with the naked eye. The only element
that differs from this order is the 73-day period, before and after
some solstice. Note, however, that 73 is fundamental because it closes
the relation of the commensurability of the solar and the ritual
counts: 52x365days= 73x260days. Due to this peculiar way of choosing dates of solar alignment of buildings, and even of urban layout, it
can be affirmed that Mesoamericans orientate towards time and not
so much towards space. It is clearly a way of worshiping the calendar that
131
was considered as a result of the action of the gods, they created time and
organized it for the better functioning of society. This practice of architectural orientation prevailed from the beginning of the pre-classical period,
for several millennia. Even some cities in modern Mexico, founded on prehispanic settlements, still show this solar orientation based on the structure of the Mesoamerican calendar. Numerous examples of Mesoamerican orientations are presented following this pattern of organization.
References
Galindo Trejo, Jesús, Arqueastronomía en la América Antigua, CONACYT and Equipo
Sirius, Madrid, 1994.
Galindo Trejo, Jesús, Calendric-astronomical alignment of architectural structures in
Mesoamerica: an ancestral cultural practice, in Nuria Sanz editor, The role
of Archaeoastronomy in the Maya World. The case of study of the Island of
Cozumel, UNESCO, Paris, 2016, pp. 21-36.
Sprajc, Ivan, Orientaciones astronómicas en la arquitectura prehispánica del centro
de México, Colección Científica 427, INAH, México.
Sprajc, Ivan, The south-of-east skew of Mesoamerican architectural orientation: astronomy and directional symbolism, 51º International Congress of Americanists, Santiago de Chile, 2003, pp. 161-176.
132
The use of the Palenque ratio in the Lunar Series
as a means to preserve the legitimacy of the ruling dynasty of the Palenque kingdom
Stanislaw Iwaniszewski
Escuela Nacional de Antropologia e Historia - Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e
Historia, Mexico City, Mexico
Intercalation – adding a day to a standard lunar month of 29 days –
was practiced among the Maya, to accord the predicted moon to the
observational one. A Maya lunar month extended from the first visibility of the lunar crescent in the western sky (First Moon) to the next
such first visibility, though at some sites and periods, the Maya
counted the lunar month from one conjunction of Sun and Moon to
the next. Throughout most of Mayan history, no pattern in the distribution of intercalary months was detected, it was only in Late Classic
times at Xultun that a regular intercalation cycle of 4784 days was
detected (Saturno et al. 2012a, 2012b). The use of this period at Palenque was already inferred by John E. Teeple (1931) who reconstructed the presence of the lunar equation of 81 moons = 2392 days
in its seventh-century texts. Thanks to the efforts of epigraphers we
know the first sighting of the Moon was referred to as the “arrival,”
and on occasions, Maya scribes used the same expression to denote
the arrival of the rulers to take the throne. In such a way astronomical
phenomena became connected with the political actions of a ruling
elite. The sites with such metaphorical expressions usually adopt Teeple’s uniform system of reckoning moons (Iwaniszewski 2017).
Palenque under the rulership of K’inich Janaab Pakal I, the famous
Maya king ruling from 615 to 683, was slowly recovering from military defeats suffered at the turn of VI and VII centuries. To maintain
the leadership achieved by the ruling family, Pakal’s son, K'inich Kan
Bahlam II, made various attempts to provide dynastic legitimization.
According to Aldana (2007), the invention of the esoteric 819-Day
133
Count (based on multiplications of 7 x 9 x 13) was a means to provide
legitimation for the dynasty by connecting mythological protectors of
the ruling family to its historical rulers.
My research shows that the lunar dates that were calculated to connect historical dates with the mythological ones employed the Palenque formula. Nonetheless, the Lunar Series embedded within historical texts displayed different patterns. It may be expected that successful predictions of the lunar motion represented through the invention of the Palenque ratio encouraged Maya scribes to apply this
formula to the events happening in the remote past. At the same time,
however, it seems to be of reduced relevance for historical events. If
this reading of the use of the Lunar Series at Palenque is correct, then
the invention of the Palenque formula should be interpreted as part
of a broader effort by Kan Bahlam priest-astronomers to preserve the
legitimacy of his ruling family.
References
Iwaniszewski, Stanislaw 2017. The observations of the Moon at Naranjo - new facts
and interpretations. Paper read at the 25th SEAC 25th ISAAC 11th and INSAP 10th Conference held in Santiago de Compostela, September 18-22,
2017.
Saturno, William A. David Stuart, Anthony F. Aveni, Franco Rossi 2012a Ancient Maya
Astronomical Tables from Xultun, Guatemala. Science 336(6082): 714-717.
Saturno, William A, David Stuart, Anthony F. Aveni, Franco Rossi 2012b Supplementary Materials for Ancient Maya Astronomical Tables from Xultun, Guatemala.
Teeple, John E 1931 Maya Astronomy. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.
134
Solar alignments and observational techniques in
Mesoamerica
Ivan Šprajc
Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts,
Ljubljana, Slovenia
Systematic archaeoastronomical research in Mesoamerica has revealed that most of the civic and ceremonial buildings were oriented
to the Sun's positions on the horizon on certain dates, which cluster
in four agriculturally significant periods of the year. Since the dates
recorded by a particular structure tend to be separated by multiples
of 13 or 20 days, which are elementary periods of the Mesoamerican
calendrical system, and considering independent contextual evidence, including ethnographic data, it has been argued that the solar
orientations allowed the use of easily manageable observational calendars intended to facilitate prediction of ritually important dates in
the seasonal cycle (Šprajc 2017).
Many important buildings are aligned both astronomically and to a
prominent horizon feature, suggesting that the places for their construction were carefully selected. Supporting this conclusion is the
fact that, observing from the main temple of an ancient settlement,
prominent mountaintops on the local horizon often mark directions
to sunrises or sunsets on significant dates, frequently recorded by architectural orientations. Given the results of statistical analyses (González-García and Šprajc 2016), it is utterly unlikely that the calendrically significant intervals separating the dates recorded by the most
prominent orientation groups were produced by chance. It is thus
hardly coincidental that, at several sites, prominent mountains also
mark the Sun’s positions on the same dates. Since the intervals were
clearly important, the alignments must have recorded them accurately; this is confirmed by architectural orientations, whenever they
can be measured with sufficient precision, and can also be assumed
135
for mountaintops that were selected as natural markers. Since the
alignments to horizon features can be established with much greater
accuracy than most of architectural orientations, the corresponding
declinations can also be determined quite accurately. In the case of
the Sun, however, the declinations and dates matching an alignment
depend on which position of the solar disk relative to the horizon was
observed; due to the effects of general precession, the period of the
alignment use must also be considered. In order to find out whether
the Sun’s center or its upper or lower limb on the horizon was observed, and to disclose possible time-dependent trends in observational techniques, I have calculated the declinations corresponding to
different Sun’s positions over prominent mountain peaks visible from
a number of sites, and verified which values produce the most accurate intervals.
In a former study (Šprajc 2001) I hypothesized that, during the Preclassic period in central Mexico, the position of the upper limb on the
horizon and along the alignment was relevant for determining the
corresponding date, whereas during the Postclassic the observation
of the whole orb on the horizon became a predominant practice. This
hypothesis has now been reinforced with more comprehensive analyses: the intervals derived from different Sun’s positions were calculated much more precisely, based on reliable ephemeris data for archaeologically indicated periods in the past. After explaining the
methodology, including computing procedures, I will present specific
cases to show that the most accurate intervals composing the observational calendar reconstructed for a site could be achieved only if the
dates corresponding to both architectural orientations and the alignments to horizon prominences were determined by consistently employing a particular observational technique. Based on these findings,
more confident proposals can be made regarding specific topographic features that, by being used as horizon markers, conditioned
136
the location of several important buildings. It will also be shown that
time-dependent and regional variations in observational techniques
may have been related to the characteristics of architecture and different uses of construction elements. Consequently, the results of this
study have obvious implications for understanding the criteria operating in Mesoamerican architectural design and urban planning.
References:
González-García, A. C., & Šprajc, I. (2016). Astronomical significance of architectural
orientations in the Maya Lowlands: A statistical approach. Journal of Archaeological
Science:
Reports
9:
191–202.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.07.020
Šprajc, I. (2001). Orientaciones astronómicas en la arquitectura prehispánica del
centro de México. México: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia.
Šprajc, I. (2017). Astronomy, architecture, and landscape in Prehispanic Mesoamerica.
Journal
of
Archaeological
Research,
1–55.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-017-9109-z
137
Calender house at Copan? Orientation of structures in the Sepulturas region
Hasso Hohmann
Technische Universität Graz, Austria
Copan is one of the most important Late Classic Maya centres, situated in Honduras near the border to Guatemala. Courtyard A of the
Courtyard Group 9N-8 in the so called Sepulturas Region is part of a
domestic zone about 1 km east of the cultural centre. The “House of
the Scribe” was the most important building and decorated with
plenty of sculptures on all facades and rich reliefs inside. It had a corbelled vault, a flat roof and was situated in the south of Courtyard A.
In the North on the opposite side are the remains of the courtyardtemple Structure STR 9N-80. A ball player possibly once lived in
Structure STR 9N-81 on the western side. If the ball was used ceremonially it became a symbol for the sun. The structure had stone
walls and a thatched roof. Structure STR 9N-83 in the East is a building with a domestic function and five rooms. It had a flat beam and
mortar roof. In its western façade it has remains of a long row of small
holes but three entrances interrupt this line.
Alignments
Careful measurements with geodetic instruments revealed that there
are three really amazing phenomena at the two Structures 9N-81 and
9N-83 in the West and in the East of Courtyard A. Parallelism is extremely rare in Maya settlements. The same is true for Axiality between two structures and structure alignments pointing exactly to
the Cardinal Alignments.
1. The two platforms and the structures on top run parallel. Usually
only ball courts consist of two parallel structures. But a ball court
forms a special building unit.
138
2. The two Structures STR 9N-81 and STR 9N-83 each have an axis of
symmetry. One axis joins the other. There is one common axis of
symmetry and this is oriented exactly from East to West. Even the
earliest Structures STR 9N-81SUB and STR 9N-83SUB were already
parallel and had one identical axis running from East to West. This is
extremely rare in Maya settlement patterns.
3. In 1985 the author and Robert Kostka carried out a sun measurement with an adapted theodolite from the Institute for Geodesy and
Photogrammetry of the University of Technology in Graz. It turned
out that each of the stairs, which lead up to the two Structures STR
9N-81 and STR 9N-83, runs exactly in the direction of True North.
Calendar House?
All these phenomena lead to the question as to why the Maya gave
these two structures alignments to True North, to East, West and
South? The scribe also had to document all facts relating to astronomy. The ball player house next to the “House of the Scribe” relates to
the sun. The long row of holes in the façade of Structure STR 9N-83 is
without any visible function. All these astronomical indications lead
the author to the question of whether Structure STR 9N-83 with the
row of holes was once a calendar house? This will be discussed.
139
Harmonic Cycles and Symmetric Time Structures
in Mesoamerican Architecture
Carlos Eduardo Barrera Atuesta
Independent Researcher on Science in Maya Culture, Barcelona, Spain
GOALS:
Construction of symmetric time structures based on dates obtained from
field studies about Mesoamerican astronomical orientations.
METHODS:
Division of time into 65-day structures centered on the winter and summer solstices, identification of dates within the structures, and mathematical analysis applied to the resulting intervals between dates.
MATERIAL STUDIES:
Field records and theoretical studies based on Mesoamerican architectural orientations.
DISCUSSION:
Previous field studies conclude that diverse Mesoamerican architectural structures are oriented towards specific points of the horizon
where the sun rises or sets in dates that tend to be separated from
each other by intervals of 13 or 20 days.
These intervals represent the two main factors of the 260-day Mesoamerican ritual calendar and could be coordinated with their idealized 365-day solar calendar to predict different significant dates of
their active agricultural cycle comprised between the months of February and October.
This method, however, accumulates almost a day of error with respect to
the tropical year after the fourth 365-day period, which ends up translating into 31 days of deviation after 128 repetitions. Therefore, its use would
only be reliable within a limited four-year range.
140
The above conclusion partly (or totally) based on our modern conception of Science, seems to contradict the archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence according to which the ancient Maya easily performed huge computations of time and scheduled their ritual ceremonies for the same specific solar dates.
For this reason, some authors have proposed the existence of an ancient method still unknown to maintain the calendar in accordance
with the solar year. Various hypotheses have tried to explain how this
synchrony could have been achieved but, again, resorting to modern
methods based on the use of "leap years" or "intercalary days" that
do not necessarily reflect the way in which the ancient Mesoamericans conceived time.
How to reconcile then two or more Mesoamerican calendars based on
integer numbers of days with an astronomical calendar based on solar cycles that averaged 365.242275 days in the Classic Maya Period
(250-900 CE)?
The study of ancient Maya codices that record time structures constituted by 65-day intervals has allowed to develop a promising solution
to the problem of synchrony between ritual and solar cycles, respecting the intergrity, continuity and immutability of recognized Maya intervals that are multiples of 116, 117, 260, 360, 364, 365, 520, 584,
585, 780 and 819 days, but also harmonizing and integrating the main
solution models proposed so far to solve this issue.
The attached figure, selected from a set of studies carried out by the
author for Chichen Itza (and other archaeological sites), illustrates
symmetric structures of time integrated by harmonic intervals that
exactly match (or fully comply with) the dates and margins of error
determined by field measurements made by Šprajc and other researchers.
141
These intervals are a function of the Mesoamerican ritual calendar, as
well as of multiple canonical and astronomical cycles that propagate
in time the same agricultural solar dates established by different interpretive models.
142
CONCLUSION:
The dates obtained in field studies about Maya architectural orientations constitute symmetric time structures and could be predicted
theoretically using synchronous Maya cycles.
References:
Lounsbury, Floyd G. 1978 “Maya Numeration, Computation, and Calendrical Astronomy”, Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York: Charles Scribner’s
Sons, XV(S1): 759-818.
Sánchez Nava, Pedro Francisco and Ivan Šprajc 2015 Orientaciones astronómicas
en la arquitectura maya de las tierras bajas. México: Instituto Nacional de
Antropología e Historia.
Šprajc, Ivan 2017 “Astronomy, Architecture, and Landscape in Prehispanic
Mesoamerica”, Journal of Archaeological Research, pp. 1-55.
143
Tolupan universe: A mesoamerican cosmovision
J. Mejuto and E. Rodas
Archaeoastronomy and Cultural Astronomy Department. Space Sciences Faculty.
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Honduras, Honduras – C.A.
Tolupan is one of the Central and Latin American most threatened peoples, from the cultural and human rights point of view. At the moment,
Tolupan culture counts on 20,000 members located in La Montaña de la
Flor, in the border of Yoro and Francisco Morazán departments in Honduras. Less than 5% of these members speak Tol, their original language,
which is in critical danger of disappearing (Moseley, 2010). The analysis
of this language has made it possible to locate this people as one of the
oldest in Central America, setting its ancestors in North America about
5,000 years ago. Scientific cultural studies for this people are very
scarce and based mostly on the point of view of very few researchers
who worked on site in the decade of 50s of the 20th century (Chapman, 1982). Tolupan are nowadays in a clear process of acculturation but
there still remains a cosmovision with deep astronomical roots. By refreshing and comparing the knowledge of the contemporary tolupan
world view to the one their immediate ancestors had, it will serve as
a diachronic study that will measure the acculturation process that
this ethnic group has suffered in relation to time.
The study presented here explores the Tolupan astronomical and cultural heritage through mainly ethnographic, anthropological and linguistic approaches. The study of Tol language words and interviews with
members of the Tolupan community have revealed a structural complexity within its cosmogony and cosmovision that permeates the social structures of the Tolupan culture. Thus, structural Anthropology is also used
to analyse Tolupan cosmogony in order to identify the most relevant
144
astronomical events that could have shaped their believes framework.
Figure 1. Moment of the Lunar Eclipse tolupan ritual (Taken from "Los Hijos
de Toman" documentary, SEDINAFROH, 2013)
Astronomical concepts such as Zenith, Nadir, East and West are very
present in tolupan tradition and shape a world where the creation of the
human beings, the explanation of atmospheric and seismic phenomena, the creation of Sun and Moon are included and explained by the
way in which the Tolupan people see the world through the celestial
space. The eclipses of moon and sun are especially relevant, related
to events in the lives of women and men respectively and associated
with specific rituals (figure 1) in which the whole community participates and interacts with these celestial bodies, their movement in the
celestial vault and the order of the universe. It is also highly interesting and infrequent -for a traditional cosmovision- the explanation of
the existence of meteorites, which indicates that during its history as
a people they have witnessed events of some importance relating to
the fall from the sky of this type of objects.
145
The conclusions that emerged from this study are intended to be used
as the initial steps towards the search of transcultural common
grounds with other mesoamerican contemporary peoples and others
from the past. They could also serve as the foundations of future ethnoastronomical works in the mesoamerican cultural area, traditionally studied from a purely archaeoastronomical point of view, based
on the major cultures that were located in this region, such as the mayas and aztecs. Thus, recovering this astronomical tradition, carried
out for several millennia, will provide other perspectives as to how
the inhabitants of this cultural region developed the cultural aspects
that we see today in modern tolupan population.
References
Moseley, Christopher (ed.). 2010. Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, 3rd edn.
Paris, UNESCO Publishing.
Chapman, Anne. (1982) Los hijos de la muerte: el universo mítico de los Tolupanes.
Instituto Hondureño de Antropología e Historia (IHAH). Boletín de Historia y
Geografía del Bajo Aragón, II, 5: 214-244.
146
The astrological cycle of Schifanoia: the complexity of content through digital representation
Manuela Incerti, Stefania Iurilli
University of Ferrara, Italy
1- Short description of the object of study
The present paper illustrates the results of the research conducted on
Palazzo Schifanoia, whose construction began in 1385. The palace actually hosts the civic museum of the city of Ferrara. Given the importance of the building in the history of architecture and Renaissance art, it attracts every year an important tourist flow. In 1469/70
the famous cycle of Months Salone dei Mesi was made (Varese, 1989;
Bertozzi, 1999, 2002; Settis and Ghiraldini, 2007). Two agreements,
stipulated with the Museums of Ancient Art of Ferrara, supported the
research project.
2- State of the art and main bibliographical references
The current trends see the transformation of museums from a place
of heritage conservation into active subjects in the provision of an accessible culture to a mass audience, thanks to the use of technologies
and new interaction paradigms. This phenomenon first concerned
the scientific museums, among which we recall the Science Museum
of London and the MUSE of Trento. The various forms of interactivity
and immersion increasingly aim at the enjoyment and enhancement
of the visit experience, and not only at education and research. The
use of digital products, static or dynamic, is a central theme in the definition of these communication media (Caraceni, 2012; Gaiani, 2012;
Addison et al., 2013; Torres et al., 2015).
3- Definition of the research methodologies.
The general program, in 4 phases, involved the creation of two models (intended as families of models, in a diachronic sense): the model
of the whole building, and the Salon one. Each model summarizes the
147
data deriving from the previous survey and study work. Due to the
complexity and heterogeneity of the information, the models are configured as multifunctional databases: the design of these "containers",
and the organization of the content, constituted the central phase of
the research project. A subsequent phase involved the interactive relationships between the elements, with the transformation of the
models into a navigable and searchable VR product. Some tests related to the user experience have led to cycles of correction and improvement of products, to ensure the best experience to a heterogeneous audience.
4- Objectives pursued and achieved
The primary aim is to give access to a higher level of knowledge of the
building, difficult to reach through traditional information, written or
verbally narrated. In particular, in the product recently published, the
high-detail model is interactive and navigable on touchscreen during
the visit. It constitutes the basis for augmented reality content, able
to encourage a revitalization of the museum reality of Ferrara in an
actualized key. The experience, taken to a multisensory level, is expanded: this allows describing complex characteristics - the painted
perspectives, for example - relatively quickly. The increase in involvement through the interactive experience lengthens the duration of
the visit, enhancing the interest in the place and its history.
148
149
Diachronic evolution of the orientation of the
early Christian and medieval churches of Rome
I. Leone 1, F. Meddi2, S. Gaudenzi3, F. Carnevale2, V.F. Polcaro3,4,5
1 INAF - national institute for astrophysics, Fiumicino, Italy
2 Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Roma “La Sapienza”, Italy
3 INAF – IAPS, Roma, 4 ACHe, Università di Ferrara, 5 CESAR, Roma
The purpose of this study is to evaluate whether the choice of azimuth
of the axis of early Christian and medieval churches in Rome has
changed over the centuries. A first phase of the survey consisted in
compiling a list of all the churches still existing in Rome built between
the beginning of the fourth century and the late thirteenth century.
To this purpose, the classic Krautheimer study in its 1970 update
(Krautheimer et al., 1970) and Ghizzi's text (1998) were used. Our research produced a total of 92 churches. Of these, geographic coordinates and azimuth were measured using satellite images from Google
Earth. In cases where the original arrangement of the parts was not
evident, checks were carried out from the plants reported in the literature concerning the specific church and inspections. From this
analysis, two distinct distributions of the azimuth of the ancient
churches of Rome are clearly distinguished: one with azimuth from
30° to 150°, the other from 210° to 360°. Furthermore, statistically
significant peaks are observed around 90°, 120°, 240°, 270°, that is,
in directions of evident astronomical significance, as the studies related to the churches of this period in other geographical contexts
seem to indicate (see, for example Hoare & Sweete, 2000; Liritzis &
Vassiliou, 2006; McCluskey, 2000). The existence of two populations
with a substantially opposite orientation that is suggested by the statistics must find its justification in hypothesis based on other objective elements: the first that can be advanced is that of a paradigm shift
with the passing of the centuries. Wishing to verify that this hypothesis has its foundation, the churches were analyzed by subdividing
them by century of construction. From this analysis, it is clear that in
150
the construction of the oldest churches the most established tendency
is to orient the axis with the entrance to the east and the apse to the
west, even if the opposite orientation is noticeably frequent. In the
following centuries there is a settling phase in which all the orientations have more or less the same importance. From the ninth century
onwards the habit of orientating the buildings of worship with the
apse to the east and the entrance to the west was definitively affirmed. This work will present the possible historical motivations of
this temporal evolution.
References
Gizzi, Federico. Le chiese medievali di Roma. Tascabili Economici Newton, 1998.
Hoare Peter G., Caroline S. Sweet, 2000, The orientation of early medieval churches in
England, Journal of Historical Geography, 26 [2] pp. 162–173
Krautheimer, Richard, Spencer Corbett, Volfango Frankl. Corpus basilica rum Christianarum Romae: Le basiliche cristiane antiche di Roma. Vol. 4. Pontificio
istituto di archeologia cristiana, 1970.
Liritzis, Ioannis, Helen Vassiliou, 2006. Further solar alignments of Greek Byzantine
churches, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 6 [3], pp. 7-26
McCluskey, Steve, 2000. Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe, Cambridge, CUP, 60-61.
151
Intellectual transformations during Renaissance The change of worldview - Impacts on the architectural thought and creation in the Czech lands
during 16th and early 17th century.
Nikolaos Ragkos
Department of History, University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
The renaissance history of the Czech lands has been associated with
some of the most important names of the science of astronomy like
Rheticus, Tycho Brahe, and Johannes Kepler, who through their work
during the 16th and beginning of 17th century laid the foundations of
modern astronomy. The trigger for the development of their work
was the publication of Nikolaus Copernicus work entitled «De revolutionibus orbium coelestium». This work was the formalization of
multi annual considerations, of the astronomers of that time, on the
existing interpretative theories for our planetary system. This concern on the well-established for many centuries Aristotelian philosophy and cosmology, it did not preoccupy only specific astronomers or
intellectuals of the era. It was ascertained that there was a network
spread all around Europe where all concerns and new publications
on astronomy were discussed.
These efforts were supported and funded most of the times by the
noblemen and kings, likewise in the Bohemia region. The first where
the emerging social order who framed and supported the kings and
started attending the universities, as habitually did the latter. Within
the universities the spirit of independent research and desire for further progress was already diffuse, where humanistic thought prevailed finally over scholasticism. The science in which this change
was mostly reflected, was astronomy.
At the same time the nobility and Kings financed the construction of
significant architectural projects. Renaissance architecture was
152
influenced by the general interest in the study, interpretation and revival of spiritual and artistic heritage of Greek and Roman antiquity.
During 16th century in Bohemia region the local architecture was
usually associated with the Renaissance style.
The buildings which more reflect this influence are the aristocratic
luxurious residences called ‘chateau’. It was a completely new type of
buildings which appeared in the Czech lands that time. Unlike manor
houses, their layouts have a considerably greater range, reaching
from a rectangular cubic construction, which may be enriched with
corner towers or bay windows, through an angular layout in the
shape of a letter ‘L’ to a closed four-wing layout, usually with a tower
above the entrance, or a ‘castellum’ with cylindrical or polygonal towers in the corners.
Did the evolution of astronomy during this historical period have an
impact on the architecture of the Bohemian region and more specifically on the aforementioned secular type of buildings? The answer to
this question is sought through the investigation of the astronomical
orientation of the chateau’s, as most of them where usually built in
free open space surrounded by landscaped gardens. As it is visible
from the diagram below the majority of the chateau’s seem to be cardinally orientated, while a second densification occurs around the
vernal equinox point - the diagram highlights the east-west axis of the
buildings. Along with these ascertainments, research is being carried
out into whether additional architectural features of these castles,
such as openings and corner towers, imply the knowledge and practice of the science of astronomy.
The list of castles included on the diagram below was compiled according to the list available on the book: "Ilustrovaná Encyklopedie
Českých Zamků" - Illustrated Encyclopedia of Czech castles.
153
References
Pavel Vlček, Ilustrovaná encyklopedie českých zámků. Praha, Libri 1999. ISBN 8085983-61-3.
Zdeněk Horský, Koperník a české země: Soubor studií o renesanční kosmologii a
nové vědě. Pavel Mervart, Praha 2011. ISBN: 978-80-87378-87-8.
154
The orientation of Roman centuriations.
Disposition of Christian medieval sacred buildings
inside the Roman centuria situated in Northern Italy
Eva Spinazzè
University Ca’ Foscari Venice, IUAV Venice, Italy and
University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Studying the disposition of a sacred building, first of all, the morphology of the area on which the architecture is placed must be examined
as well as the local horizon profile: relief, ancient roads, centuriations
and/or rivers crossing the territory, as they could have influenced the
orientation of a Christian building. After considering how the setting
is formed, the Roman road system and the medieval church alignments (major axis and windows) were measured by GPS ground surveys, then cross-referenced with Early Christian and medieval liturgical and astronomical sources as well as scholarly literature. Thus,
sure data come from these georeferenced topographic surveys on
field, carried out on still existing traces of centuriations and on the
medieval sacred buildings, being so strengthened by sources.
Nowadays, in several Italian cities and in the countryside some Roman centuriations are well visible and can be measured. This permits
to get their azimuth and to compare the results with one another. We
will discuss the orientation of some Roman centuriations in Northern
Italy (Aquileia, Sesto al Reghena, Roman Graticolato of Padova, Verona, Lucca, Piacenza) and the disposition of some Christian sacred
buildings of Middle Ages erected inside their Roman centuria.
Roughly can be said that medieval churches founded in a Roman city
sometimes follow the direction of the decumanus. But focusing
deeper on the analyzes, it is evident that in most cases there are substantial differences between the two azimuths (decumanus and axes
of the building): often the decumanus shows an alignment to an astronomical date or Roman calendar, while the church axis indicates an
155
alignment with the rising or setting of the Sun or Moon on a Christian
feast.
Frequently the centuriations were oriented by observing the cyclicity
of the stars as evidenced by the treatises of the Roman land surveyors
(Hygini Gromatici, Constitutio limitum, 21-22. Frontin, De limitibus,
3.12. Les arpenteurs romains, Hygin le gromatique, Frontin 2005) and
by the results of the topographic surveys carried out on still existing
Roman road traces. The foundation rites of a Roman town with the
choice of the site incorporated a deep political and religious meaning.
A significant example can be seen in Verona, whose decumanus is orientated towards the Sunrise during the summer solstice, or in Lucca,
where the ancient tracing corresponded to the Sunrise in the middle
of March, which represented the beginning of the Roman year. The
case of Aquileia, the angular values of its centuriation led approximately to the points where the Sun rose in early May and mid-August
in the 2nd century BC: we are close to April 21st, the day of Natalis
Romae, that is the anniversary of the foundation of Rome. Instead, the
Figure: City of Piacenza, Roman centuriation, orientation of the church St. Donnino, 9th century
2analysed churches built inside a centuria show an alignment with the
156
sunrise or sunset on the horizon mainly on the Patron Saint’s feast to
whom the church was dedicated or on one of the four Virgin’s medieval feasts, i.e: the Annunciation (25th March); Purification (2nd February); Assumption (18th January, 15th August) and Nativity (8th September). We always find the same days, as can be seen in other studies carried out by the author on over two hundred medieval churches.
This shows that in the Middle Ages the ancient custom of scanning the
rising/setting of a celestial body was taken over by the Christians and
adapted to their requirements, namely to their religion, as the Sun
was associated to Jesus Christ and the Moon to the Blessed Virgin.
References:
Les arpenteurs romains, Hygin le gromatique, Frontin, 1. Trans. Jean-Yves Guillaumin,
Les belles lettres, Paris, 2005.
Le Gall Joël, Les Romains et l’orientation solaire, «Mélanges de l’Ecole française de
Rome, Antiquité», 1975, 87, 1, 287-320.
Bosio Luciano, Misurare la terra: centuriazione e coloni nel mondo romano il caso veneto, Modena, 1989.
Montevecchi Giovanna, Negrelli Claudio, Antichi Paesaggi..., IBC, Bologna, 2009.
Spinazzè Eva, Luce ed Orientazione nelle Abbazie Benedettine Altomedioevali e Medioevali nel Veneto, Università Ca’ Foscari Venezia, Magister Thesis in Medieval Archaeology, 2007/2008; published in 2015 with the title Luce e
canto incisi nelle pietre…, Cleup, Padova.
Spinazzè Eva, La luce nell’architettura sacra: spazio e orientazione nelle chiese del XXII secolo tra Romandie e Toscana, Mediaevistik, Peter Lang, Frankfurt
(Ph.D. Thesis, 2013/2014), 2016.
157
Harmony and symmetry: The Planetarium Babylonicum of MUL.APIN
Susanne M Hoffmann, Manfred Krebernik
Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Jena, Germany
It is popularly known that our (Greek) constellations root in several more
ancient cultures. Especially in the zodiac the Babylonian roots are obvious.
There are many speculations about the Babylonian sky, most recently the
book by White1. Aiming on visualizations of the Babylonian sky our collaboration of assyriologists, astronomers, and planetarium people modelled a Babylonian celestial globe based on the information in MUL.APIN.
We plot and connect the data, reconstruct many of the Babylonian constellations and localize them accurately, and so anew the understanding of
transfer from Babylonian to Greek culture.
The problem is, that the identifications of Akkadian words with stars and constellations about one hundred years old and needs to be revised. Our material for this
study is basically the reconstruction of the text of MUL.APIN by Hunger and
Pingree3,4. The method is to read this text again line by line and in its context and
to gather all information on it which is currently available (from modern encyclopedia5) - in both, philological as well as historiographical studies - and evaluate the
astronomical information computationally. Having evaluated the first tablet of
MUL.APIN, we present visualizing the constellations and modelling a Babylonian
globe.
References:
1. White, Gavin: Babylonian Star Lore, 2014.
2. Gössmann, Felix: Planetarium Babylonicum, Rom, 1950
3. Hunger, Hermann and Pingree, David: MUL.APIN – An Astronomical Compendium in
Cuneiform, Archiv für Orientforschung, Beiheft 24, Horn, Austria, 1989
4. Hunger, Hermann & Pingree, David: Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia, Leiden, Boston, Köln, 1999
5. The common lexicons like Reallexikon der Assyriologie, ePSD, CAD
158
Ziggurats of Mesopotamia: An Astro-Archaeological Analysis
Vance Tiede
Astro-Archaeology Surveys, Guilford, CT, USA
Background.
Over the last century, scholars have deciphered cuneiform texts on
mathematics and astronomy (Neugebauer & Sachs 1955) associated
with Mesopotamia’s religious architecture, calendars and iconography (Curatorla 2007). However, no systematic investigation of possible astronomical orientation has been made of Mesopotamia’s
many ziggurats and temples. The availability of geo-referenced/sub-
159
160
meter resolution satellite imagery
now makes such analysis feasible;
despite the region’s ongoing military conflicts pre analysis feasible,
despite the region’s ongoing military conflicts preventing Ground
Truth field survey.
Research Objective.
To determine if Mesopotamian temples and ziggurats were oriented
to rise/set points on the local horizon of astronomical bodies with the
greatest religious significance (cf. Hawkins 1968), viz.: Sun (Shamash), Moon (Sin-Nanna) and Venus (Ishtar).
Methodology.
Published site plans (Heinrich 1982, 1984) and Google Earth satellite
imagery and Digital Elevation Model were analysed to derive horizon
declinations for architectural orientations from Program Stonehenge
(Hawkins 1983). Natural and artificial (e.g., ziggurat stairway top
viewed from stairway base) horizon declinations were matched to
possible astronomical alignments modelled in Starry Night Pro Plus
6 digital planetariums (Figure 1).
The dimensions and observing vectors of Mesopotamian temples and
ziggurats were also analysed for “numerical artefacts” preserved in
the architecture, e.g., integer historical units of measurement and Pythagorean triples.
Discussion.
The preliminary findings regarding astro-orientation in Table 1 are
not only consistent with luni-solar rise/set positions mentioned in
Mesopotamian texts (Neugebauer 1957, 97-119), but also lunar
standstills (cf. Hawkins 1967; Schaeffer 1994, 2007) and possibly
even Venus zenith passage at absolute maximum declination (cf.
Langdon & Fotheringham 1928).
Conclusion.
Remote sensing positive findings warrant future Ground Truth confirmation. Meanwhile, expanding the sample size with remote
161
sensing techniques may deepen our understanding of the origins and
contributions astronomy to our common cultural heritage
References
Curratola, Giovanni (ed.) 2007 The Art and Architecture of Mesopotamia, New York
& London: Abbeville Press.
Hawkins, Gerald S. 1983 “Program Stonehenge,” Mindsteps to the Cosmos, New York:
Harper & Row, 328-330.
1968 “Astro-Archaeology,” Vistas in Astronomy, 10:45-88, Oxford & New
York, Pergamon Press.
1967 “Stonehenge 56 Year Cycle,” Nature 215: 604–605. https://www.nature.com/articles/215604a0
Heinrich, Ernst 1982 Die Tempel und Heiligtü mer im alten Mesopotamien: Typologie, Morphologie und Geschichte, Deutsches Archä ologisches Institut, Berlin: W. de Gruyler.
1984 Palä ste im alten Mesopotamien, Berlin: W. de Gruyler.
Langdon, Stephen and John Knight Fotheringham 1928 The Venus Tablets of AMMIZADUGA: A solution of Babylonian Chronology by Means of the Venus
Observations of the First Dynasty, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
https://archive.org/details/TheVenusTabletsOfAmmizaduga1928
Neugebauer, Otto E. 1957 The Exact Sciences in Antiquity, Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
1955 and A. J. Sachs (eds.) Mathematical cuneform texts. American Oriental
Series, vol. 29. American Oriental Society, New Haven, 1946. Institute for
Advanced Study, Princeton, 1955. Reprint: Sources in the History of Mathematics and the Physical Sciences 5, New York-Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1983.
Schaefer, Bradley E. 2007 “The Utter Failure of the Lunar Standstill Myth in Archaeoastronomy,”
Bull.
AAS,
39:872.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007AAS...211.8201S
1994 and LeRoy E. Doggett “Lunar Crescent Visibility, Icarus, 107:388-403.
162
A Cultural Comparison of Dark Sky
Constellations
Steven R. Gullberg, Andrew M. Munro
University of Oklahoma, USA
Many civilizations have been fascinated with the Milky Way. The
striking appearance of our galaxy in the night sky captivated them
and imagined images became part of certain cosmologies. This will be
examined, with an emphasis on two prominent cultures of the Southern Hemisphere that have embraced dark sky constellations, that of
the Aborigines of Australia and the Incas of Peru. Aspects of astronomy in the two cultures will be compared, with a focus upon the dark
sky constellations seen in the Milky Way.
The Milky Way provided visual inspiration for several themes of Inca
cosmology. Andeans recognized several dark constellations, the
shapes of beings formed by dark clouds in the visible band of the galaxy. These dark spots, amidst the glow of the Milky Way, are formed
by interstellar gas and dust blocking the light from the bright array of
stars behind them. In them were seen great cosmological characters
often meant to influence daily lives.
A dark constellation well-known by Australian aboriginal groups is
the Emu in the Sky. A dark cloud in the Milky Way, presently known
as the Coalsack, forms the head of the emu and its body and legs continue across the adjacent part of the galaxy. A rock art engraving in
Kuringgai Chase National Park depicts a similar emu and the Emu in
the Sky aligns above it during the season for emu egg-laying.
This paper explores the fascination with darkness in the Milky Way,
and through comparisons looks at common themes and inspirations,
as well as other similarities and differences. It examines like reasons
why cultures saw what they did and embraced what they saw in these
dark parts of the galaxy.
163
Selected References:
Clarke, P. A. (2015). Australian aboriginal astronomy and cosmology. In C. L. N. Ruggles, Handbook of archaoastronomy and ethnoastronomy (pp. 2223–2230).
New York, NY: Springer.
Fuller, R. S., Norris, R. P., & Trudgett, M. (2013). The astronomy of the Kamilaroi people and their neighbours. Retrieved from Cornell University Library at
https://arxiv.org/abs/1311.0076.
Gullberg, S. R. (2009). The cosmology of Inca huacas (Doctoral thesis). James Cook
University, Townsville, Australia.
López, A. M., & Benítez, S. G. (2008). The Milky Way and its structuring functions in
the worldview of the Mocoví of Gran Chaco. Archaeologia Baltica, 10, 21-24.
Magli, G. (2004). On the astronomical content of the sacred landscape of Cusco in Inka
times.
Retrieved
from
Cornell
University
Library
at
https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0408037
Magli, G. (2015). Archaeoastronomy: Introduction to the science of stars and stones.
Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
Norris, R. P. (2008a). Emu dreaming. Australian Science, 29(4), 16-19.
Norris, R. P. (2008b). Searching for the astronomy of aboriginal Australians. Archaeologia Baltica, 10, 246-252.
Norris, R. P., & Hamacher, D. W. (2015). Australian aboriginal astronomy – an overview. In C. L. N. Ruggles, Handbook of archaoastronomy and ethnoastronomy (pp. 2215–2222). New York, NY: Springer.
Norris, R. P. (2016). Dawes review 5: Australian aboriginal astronomy and navigation. Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australian (PASA). New
York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/pas.2016.xxx
Staller, J. E., & Stross, B. (2013). Lightning in the Andes and Mesoamerica: Pre-Columbian, colonial, and contemporary perspectives. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Urton, G. (1981). At the crossroads of earth and sky: An Andean cosmology. Austin:
University of Texas Press.
Urton, G. (1997). The social life of numbers: A Quechua ontology of numbers and philosophy of arithmetic. Austin: University of Texas Press.
164
On the orientation of Roman cities in the Illyrian
coast: a statistical and comparative study
Juan Antonio Belmonte1, Andrea Rodríguez Antón1, A. César
González-García2
1. Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias & Universidad de Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
2 Instituto de Ciencias del Patrimonio, Incipit-CSIC, Santiago de Compost., Spain
In this contribution, we present an extension to a new geographic
area of a wide and ambitious project for the study of the role of astronomy in Roman urban layout started a few years ago which has
constituted the recently defended Ph.D Thesis of the second author
(Rodríguez Antón, 2017; Rodríguez Antón et al. 2017-8). The interest
in carrying out this project was motivated by the results extracted
from previous studies on this topic that pointed towards the existence of orientation patterns potentially connected with astronomy
(González-Garcia et al. 2014; González-García and Magli, 2015). The
main aim is to check whether Roman cities present astronomical patterns in their orientations. The origin of this research lies in ideas
about how to properly orientate the main streets of a town, something accounted by a number of ancient writers. In particular, we
mainly focus on the guidelines given by Hyginus Gromaticus (Constitutio, 1) and Frontinus (De Agrimensura, 27), who stated that the
decumanus (one of the two main streets of a Roman city) should follow the path of the sun. On this occasion, new data of ten cities of the
Croatian Adriatic region are presented, from Parentium in Istria to
Narona in Dalmatia (see Figure 1).
165
Figure 1. Roman cities of the Croatian Adriatic coast measured in a fieldwork campaign in the summer of 2016.
The data ranges from old Illyrian cities reorganized in Roman times,
such as Nesactium or Salona, to new Republican or Imperial foundations such as the cities of Parentium (Poreç) or Aspalathos (Split). The
data is analyzed both as a group and individually. By this analysis, we
pretend to extract significant evidences that sustained the astronomical argument and shed more light on Roman ideas about urbanism.
The results, that consider settlements whose building spanned an extended period of time, are not consistent with a random distribution.
Actually, orientation patterns do arise when a certain group of monuments (main temples) r cities is focused, pointing towards a presumably planning according to particular directions within the local land
and skyscape (e.g. Equinox sunrise). However, in a few particular
cases, such as Salona or Iader, previous pre-Roman urbanism or local
166
topography, respectively, may also influence the orientation observed and precludes any firm conclusion in this respect. Besides, in
order to check whether those ancient criteria were really fulfilled,
and also to reinforce the idea of a likely relationship between Roman
city planning and the sky, we have made a comparative analysis with
the results obtained in other regions of the Roman Empire (see e.g.
Rodríguez-Antón et al. 2016). This highlights the integration of important dates of the Roman or pre-Roman calendar into urbanism
and, especially, they stress the necessity to further reinforce this kind
of studies in other provinces of the Empire in order to elucidate what
is behind those patterns in the different regions, including Illyria.
That is, if beliefs or even political ideology were embodied within city
plans in the region.
References
A.C. González-García, A. Rodríguez-Antón and J.A. Belmonte, “The orientation of Roman Towns in Hispania: Preliminary Results”, Mediterranean Archaeology
and Archaeometry xiv (2014), 3, 107-19.
A. C. González-García and G. Magli, “Roman City Planning and Spatial Organization”,
Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Etnoastronomy edited by C. L.N.Ruggles (New York: Springer, 2015), 1643-50
A. Rodríguez-Antón, "Cosmovisión y Urbanismo en la Roma antigua. Orientación de
ciudades y campamentos romanos", P.D Thesis (Universidad de La Laguna,
2017)
A. Rodríguez-Antón, J.A. Belmonte and A.C. González-García, “Romans in the Near
East: the orientation of Roman settlements in present-day Jordan”, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry xvi (2016), 4, 153-60.
A. Rodríguez-Antón; Belmonte J.A.; González-García, A.C. “An archaeo-astronomical
approach to Roman urbanism: orientation of Roman settlements across the
Empire”, MAA (2018), in press; and INSAP X – Oxford XI – SEAC XXC The
Road to the Stars, edited by González-García, A.C.; Martín-Rodilla, P. y Belmonte, J.A. (Santiago de Compostela, 2017), Pp: 170-71
167
The summer solstice Sun in Lepenski Vir
Aleksandra Bajić, Hristivoje Pavlović
Society for research in Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy "Vlašići",
Belgrade, Serbia
Lepenski vir is a prehistoric settlement from the Mesolithic period,
situated on the right bank of the Danube in the Iron Gate Gorge. It
flourished by the end of the seventh millennium BC.
The place was discovered in 1965, in 1972 it was moved about 100 m
northwest from the original position, in order to avoid the submersion by the Danube, after the construction of the dam at Kladovo.
-An interesting phenomenon of the double sunrise (only) in the dawn
of summer solstice can be observed from the new position of the settlement. The first sunrays appear in a narrow notch on the horizon.
Then the Sun “climbs” along the northern slope of the Treskavac hill
for a short time, and then it hides itself behind the northern part of
the flattened top.
Four minutes later, it rises again at the top. Thus, thanks to the struc-
Figure: The first sunrays on June 21st 2017. (Photo by Stanko Kostic).
ture of the natural horizon, one can accurately determine the summer
168
solstice day in a year, which is the starting point for determining a
sort of solar calendar.
Knowing that 8200 years ago, the Earth's axis was significantly more
inclined in respect to the ecliptic than it is inclined today, and the
summer solstice Sun rose more than 1o closer to the North, the phenomenon of the double sunrise could be observed from a certain position located southwise (or lower) than it is today, which leads right
in the direction of the original position of the Mesolithic settlement.
This work is an attempt to demonstrate that the phenomenon of double summer solstice sunrise was observed from the northern part of
the Mesolithic settlement (or from its close vicinity) 8200 years ago,
and that members of this culture were able to create some sort of solar calendar. Although the original location of the settlement is submerged, there is precise technical documentation on its relocation.
This documentation, together with the achievements of modern astrogeodesy and accurate geospatial positioning, enables archaeoastronomical analysis of this site. The declination of the Sun on the summer solstice is equal to the inclination of the Earth's axis and can be
calculated according to the Lascar’s formula. Accurate geographic coordinates together with the elevation of the points of interest on the
site, can be reconstructed according to the existing technical documentation. It is possible to draw the net of geographical WGS/UTM
coordinates on the map of relocation after the accurate GPS positioning of the centre of the relocated settlement. The angular height of the
horizon can be measured, and geographical North determined by astrogeodetic survey from certain points on the present-day bank of the
Danube. The data thus obtained will enable geodetical and astronomical calculations.
This analysis will show that the position of the settlement was deliberately chosen, and that the position of village was precisely measured and conceived, in accordance with the observed astronomical
169
event, the summer solstice sunrise on the flattened top of the Treskavac hill. From the northernmost part of the settlement, the observer
was able to see the double summer solstice sunrise. From the southernmost building in the settlement (the house No. 65), the observer
was able to see the summer solstice Sun rising at the southernmost
point of the flattened top of the same hill.
Treskavac is a volcanic rock and the most prominent structure on the
eastern horizon. The event is very impressive, and the game of light
and shadows reaches the level of hierophany.
References:
Srejović, D. 1969, Lepenski vir, SKZ, Beograd.
Bonsall, C. et al. 2008, Dating burial practices and architecture at Lepenski vir, in C.
Bonsall, et al. (Eds). The Iron Gates in Prehistory (pp. 175-204) (Bar International Series), Oxford, Archaeopress
Čanak-Medić, M. et al. 1970. Projekat za spasavanje Lepenskog vira, Saopštenje VIII
(glasilo Republičkog zavoda za zaštitu spomenika kulture)
170
"Harmonices Mundi" by Johannes Kepler and
Georg Kraft’s prediction for ice drift on the Neva
River in 1732.
Karine Dilanian
Institute for the Study of Cosmology and Astronomy in History, Philosophy and Culture, Moscow, Russia
Johannes Kepler was once a school teacher in Graz, where this SEAC
conference is taking place.
This paper will explore an application of Kepler’s meteorological astrology in 1732.
On July 20, 1732, the Primechaniya Na Sankt-Peterburgskiye Vedomosti magazine published an article ‘About the St. Petersburg Calendar of This 1732’1. The author of the article says that as the storyteller of this calendar undertakes an attempt to make a prediction and
promises his readers that he will answer a question in public: “When
will the ice on the Neva River start to drift this year”. The author
states that he will explain how he made this prediction, with two purposes: first, to reveal it by means of heavenly aspects, and secondly
for some entertainment. And though the second purpose can seem
frivolous, however it gives him a chance to make a message about astrology in general. In addition, he expects assistance from "glorious
Kepler". Although the article was not signed, however Pyotr Pekarsky
(1828 - 1872) in his "History of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in
St. Petersburg" claims that the author was the academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the physicist and the mathematician Georg
Wolfgang Kraft (1701 - 1754), from Wurtemberg2. In the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Kraft worked under the leadership of the
astronomer Joseph-Nicolas De L'Isle (1688 - 1768), the convinced follower of Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton. Nina Nevskaya states
that in the course of preparation of the fellow-astronomers for the
171
observatory in Saint Petersburg, De L'Isle had compiled a list of 405
books, recommended for studying for every fellow of the observatory, among which there were about 20 works of Johannes Kepler3.
Being an astronomer, De l’Isle also had a title of "the court astrologer"
which he had passed to Kraft later4
Kraft starts his article with critical remarks of rather deplorable condition of astrology in his time and explains the reason of such condition; however, in order to support the validity of astrology, he suggests special method for prognostications based on Kepler’s understanding of the power of aspects that are geometrical ratios between
planets. His explanation concerning the general basis of astrology
contains a reasoning concerning consonances that are born in a human soul from the heavenly harmony based on geometry, on an order
and on an appropriate proportion. Kraft continues his explanation,
assimilating musical octave to geometrical proportions, connected
with planetary aspects. He claims that all diseases, burdens or profits,
circumstances of human life as well as his tendencies and abilities are
defined with the help of astrological aspects. Then Kraft passes to meteorological prediction concerning opening of ice on the Neva River
and explains in detail how on the basis of the careful analysis of aspects between planets, he has made a choice for a certain combination, which, according to him, led to ice opening on April 5, 1732.
This study examines Kraft’s method of meteorological prognostication and his statements concerning astrological models of planetary
aspects connected with musical harmony and geometrical ratios and
compares them to Kepler’s principles presented in his works: Harmonices Mundi and Concerning the more certain fundamentals of astrology. The methodology of this research is based on the comparative approach to the study of the historical and literature documents
that are archival sources and philosophical literary work in order to
investigate the general concepts, to analyze their interrelations, to
172
find similarities and differences as well as establishing of dialogic relations with other texts and contexts.
References
1. “O Sankt-Peterburgskom kalendare sego 1732 goda” v Primechaniya na Vedomosti. Chast’ LVIII. V Sankt-Peterburge, 20 iulya 1732 goda. Okonchanie. Pp.
257-262. (“About the St. Petersburg Calendar of This 1732” in Primechania na Vedomosti, Part LVIII, Saint-Petersburg, 20 July, 1732. Pp. 257-262).
2. P.P. Pekarsky, Istoriya Imperatorskoy Academii Nauk v Peterburge, vol. 1, SPb: Imperatorskaya academiya nauk, 1870, p. 465. (P.P. Pekarsky, History of the
Imperial Academy of Sciences in Pe-terburg, vol. 1, SPb: Imperial Academy
of Sciences, 1870, p. 465).
3. N.I. Nevskaya, “I. Kepler I Peterburgskaya Akademia nauk” in Iogann Kepler. Sbornik № 1. Raboty o Keplere v Rossii, Germanii I Avstrii, Saint Petersburg –
Munich, 1994, pp. 9-17, p.12. (N.I. Nevskaya, “Kepler and the Petersburg
Academy of Sciences” in Johannes Kepler. Compendium №1. Proceedings
on Kepler in Russia, Germany and Austria, Saint Petersburg – Munich, 1994,
pp. 9-17, p.12).
4. N.I. Nevskaya, “Kepler I Peterburgskaya astrologiya” in Iogann Kepler. Sbornik №
1. Raboty o Keplere v Rossii, Germanii I Avstrii N.I. Nevskaya, “Kepler and
the Petersburg Academy of Sciences” in Johannes Kepler. Compendium №1.
Proceedings on Kepler in Russia, Germany and Austria, Saint Peters-burg –
Munich, 1994, pp. 18-35, p.21. (N.I. Nevskaya, “Kepler and Peters-burg Astrology” in Johannes Kepler. Compendium №1. Proceedings on Kepler in
Russia, Germany and Austria, Saint Petersburg – Munich, 1994, pp. 18-35,
p.21.
173
The Gregorian calendar in Austria and
Johannes Kepler
Harald Gropp
Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
Johannes Kepler left Tübingen on Wednesday, March 13, 1594 and
arrived in Graz on April 11, on easter Monday. It took him 19 days,
however, not 29 days, as the dates may suggest. In Graz the Gregorian
calendar was introduced in October 1583 by leaving out 10 days, one year
too late concerning the Papal Bull but earlier than in other parts of the
Reich. Kepler came from Protestant Württemberg to Catholic Habsburg.
However, ideas of the reformation had entered parts of Austria, in
particular Styria and its capital Graz. In particular, Kepler entered the
protestant school in Graz as a "Landschaftsmathematiker". In contrast, the
Jesuits had founded a school in Graz which developed into the university
of Graz in 1585. While on the one hand not all of Austria stayed Catholic in
those days, Kepler as a protestant scholar was quite in favour of the
(Catholic) gregorian calendar.
These years of Kepler between 1594 and 1600 in Graz when he had finally
to leave the town are taken as a starting point to investigate in more detail
when and how the Gregorian calendar was introduced in different parts
of Austria and other Catholic regions of Europe, how the existence of two
calendars and quite often different Easter dates influenced the
confessionally divided regions. Moreover, the acceptance or nonacceptance of the Gregorian calendar by protestant scholars will be
discussed, Johann Kepler just being one example. Furthermore, the
question will be addressed how much the confessionally divided
population of Graz blocked or stimulated the scientific and theological
discussions about calendar questions but also about other
astronomical and astrological topics of interest.
174
Johannes Kepler himself was engaged in the calendar discussion,
compare his "Kalendertisch" or his work "Dialogus de Calendario
Gregoriano". Another aspect of interest is the question how much the
Ottomans or Turks are involved in these scientific and theological
discussions, as enemies in the military and/or the religious field as
well as scholarly partners.
Graz was the center of "Innerösterreich", a region including the
today’s Steiermark, Kärnten, parts of Slovenia and Italy. It, played a
prominent role in the propagation of reformational ideas and of the
final counterreformational victory in the region, also in connection
with the beginning of the Slovenian "language building".
When Kepler left Graz on September 30, 1600 neither the calendar discussion
in Europe nor the easter date debate had approached a solution. It needed 100
years until most protestant countries in Europe introduced their corrected
calendar, nearly 200 years for a common Easter date in Western Europe, and
still today the discussion "Towards one date" is going on, probably leading to
the situation where in 2019 we shall three easter dates, the "real astronomical"
one, the Western one and the Eastern orthodox one.
Harmony, symmetry and regularity are challenging aspects of nature which
enabled mankind to study their properties. Certainly, Johannes Kepler was one
of the most influential scholars in this aspect, from the point of view of science
but also from the point of view of religion and theology. It is probably in his six
years in Linz where these aspects can be studied best.
References:
Gropp, Harald: Erhard Weigel (1625-1699) und andere Kalenderreformer.
Kaunzner, Wolfgang: Johannes Kepler, kaiserlicher Astronom und Mathematiker.
List, Martha: Kepler und die Gegenreformation. Sonderdruck Kepler Festschrift. Regensburg, 1971. S. 45-73. Kart.
175
Astronomical Treasures in Stift Rein
Sonja Draxler and Max E. Lippitsch
Karl-Franzens University Graz, Austria
Stift Rein, situated in the north of Graz, is the oldest existing Cisterian
Monastery in the world, founded in 1129. Monks lived and worked
here without interruption for nearly 900 years. In the Great Scriptorium of Rein they wrote and copied manuscripts, and even today the
library holds numerous valuable manuscripts and books. This lecture
gives a brief overview of the most important manuscripts and books
with astronomical content. A few examples will be mentioned in the
abstract.
The oldest manuscript with astronomical content is CodRun 21, a codex from the Great Scriptorium, dated to the 12th century. The main
content is about music and history, but on 185r a short text in hexamters is inserted, titeled Motus astorum and dealing with the constelations. It was used as a mnemoic for names and sequence of the most
important constellations. This proves that astronomy was studied in
Rein from its early times
Another manuscript with astronomical content is the Wurmprecht
calendar, CodRun 204 from 1373. It is a calendar with astronomical
and religious information, as well as pictures of constellations, diagrams to calculate the Easter Date or dates of some solar and lunar
eclipses. This is the oldest calendar in German language.
A fascinating manuscript is CodRun124, a hand-drawn partial copy of
Peter Apian’s Astronomicum Caesareum, one of the most magnificent
books on astronomy ever published1. It contains astronomical drawings and moveable parts of high quality (Figure 1). The book starts
with a star map, followed by volvelles to determine the position of
sun, moon and planets, and to calculate conjunction and opposition
of sun and moon or solar and lunar eclipses. Most of the drawings are
176
coloured, and the volvelles are fully functional with up to six moveable disks. This hand-written Rein copy, however, has no text or explanation in the whole volume. Nothing is known abot the creator of
this copv of Apian’s famours work.
Figure 1: Apian, Astronomicum Caesareum, volvelle on lunar eklipses
CodRun125 is a hand-made ink-drawing of the orbit of the Great
Comet of 1577. The creator of the drawing is not known, but the original is attributed to Paul Fabricius from Vienna. It was this comet that
for the first time infected Johannes Kepler with the fascination
177
ofAstronomy, when his mother took the 6-year old boy to a nearby
hill to observe the heavenly spectaculum.
One book is of interest not only because of its content, but even more
due to the owner. A printed version of Sacrobosco’s well-known “De
sphaera” belonged to archduke Ferdinand, lateron emperor Ferdinand II. He was the ruler, who expelled Johannes Kepler from Graz
and led Europe into the Thirty Years War. The Sacrbosco was part of
his student’s library during his studies at the University of Ingolstadt.
That astronomy was not in the focvs of his intellectual capabilities is
proven by the book: the pages do not exhibit any traces of use by its
owner.
Besides so many interesting books a big calendar table2 (Figure 2) is
on display. This round stone table with a diameter of 137 cm contains
two calendars, the Julian and the Gregorian one. Each one is for the
years 1600 to 1800, covering therefore the range of 200 years, and
giving data for 73 000 days. Creator of this sophisticated work was
Andreas Pleninger3,4 (or Plieninger) in 1607, an organist and stone
etcher from Regensburg.
178
A lot of further astronomical and religious information can be found on
the table. In the centre there is an armillary sphere surrounded by coloured pictures of the gods of the day. For each day, information is provifrf
on sunrise snf length of the day. Pictures illstrate the zodiacal signs and
work of the month and are followed by the length of the months. Going
from the centre outwards there is an eternal calendar for the 365 days
(Fig. 2) of the year. Information is given on rising or setting of special stars,
letters of the day and saints of the day. This circle is followed by a circle of
holes, used to span a thread to the centre to mark the information for a
special day. Beyond the holes run the two calendars, the Julian and the
Gregoria, for the years 1600 to 1800. In both calendars all major Christian
holidays can be found.
Figure 2: Calendar table in Stift Rein
References
Apian Petrus, Astronomicum Caesareum, Ingolstadt 1540; UB Graz SOSA IV 28402
M.E. Lippitsch & S. Draxler, Der Kalendertisch im Stift Rein (2013)
Wastler Joseph, Die Technik der Steinätzung und deren Künstler in der Steiermark
im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert, in: MZK N.F. 13 (1887) I-VI.
P.A.Pötsch & R. Folk, Der astronomische Tisch des Andreas Pleninger aus dem Jahr
1603 (2012)
179
Round table: The Ontological Turn in Anthropology and Archaeology and Its Importance for Cultural Astronomy
Roslyn M. Frank, Stanislaw Iwaniszewski, Kim Malville, Alejandro
Martín López and Fabio Silva
Roslyn M. Frank, Department of Spanish & Portuguese, University of Iowa, USA,
Stanislaw Iwaniszewski, Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia - Instituto
Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City, Mexico; Kim Malville, Department
of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado, USA; Alejandro
Martín López, 1) Sección de Etnología, Instituto de Ciencias Antropológicas,
Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; 2) Consejo
Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina; and Fabio
Silva, Faculty of Humanities & Performing Arts, University of Wales Trinity Saint
David, UK
The session has as its goal a critical exploration of how the conceptual
framework impulsed by the debate around the notion of relational
ontologies can be brought to bear on research being carried out in
Cultural Astronomy. This new relational framework has given
strength to an ontological turn that has been taking place in anthropological and archaeological circles over the past twenty years, impacting both theory and practice. It can be expressed in two ways. One
way is to recognise that other societies, past and present, live in different worlds, that a key element in understanding those societies is
reconstructing their ontology, and that this, therefore, should be a key
aim of research. Another avenue is to recognise the ontological turn
as a theoretical “bomb" that demands a new take on one’s own discipline and a more reflexive attitude concerning one’s own core beliefs—a conceptual reorientation not seen since the postmodernist
turn. As Alberti put it (2016, 174): “the difference between the two
[expressions of the ontological turn] lies in the degree to which an
approach is willing to do ontology to itself, how much critique it is
willing to direct at its own ontological assumptions.” The panel participants will, therefore, also discuss this aspect of the turn and
180
highlight theoretical tools and methods already proposed to tackle
singular instances of this phenomenon.
In addition, they will discuss how this "ontological turn" might be integrated into the toolkit by researchers when dealing with topics in
Cultural Astronomy. This will be done by taking into account the
prepositions that are truly innovative as well as those aspects that
simply represent changes of name or emphasis, and finally the possible limitations of the theoretical framework itself.
The aim of this session is to bring to the attention of researchers in
archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy the ontological interplay between humans, landscape features, astronomical and meteorological
phenomena, animals, plants, things and spirits within particular environments. Ontologies that involve animism, personhood and nonhuman agency challenge the traditional views of Cultural Astronomy
and provide rich resources for bold new interpretations.
The proposed 90-minute session begins with introductory comments
by the panel moderator, followed by a set of brief statements by each
panel member which will highlight different aspects of the topic.
Their commentary, in turn, will serve to orient the round-table discussion that will take place during the second half of the session.
Familiarization with the conceptual reorientation implied by these
ontologies is important not only for those concerned with the realm
of indigenous cosmology, but also for researchers working on European materials. In short, these are issues that cannot be ignored by
archaeo- and ethnoastronomers who aspire to be current with developments in anthropology and archaeology.
References:
Alberti, B. (2016). Archaeologies of ontology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 45,
163-179.
181
Descola, P. (2013). Beyond Nature and Culture. Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press.
Ingold, T. (2004). Beyond biology and culture: The meaning of evolution in a relational world. Social Anthropology, 12, 209-221.
Kohn, Eduardo (2015) Anthropology of Ontologies, Annual Review of Anthropology,
44: 311–27
Pauketet, T. R. (2012). An Archaeology of the Cosmos: Rethinking Agency and Religion in Ancient America. London / New York: Routledge.
Watts, C. (2013). Relational Archaeologies: Humans, Animals, Things. London/New
York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Viveiros de Castro, E. (2015). The Relative Native: Essays in Indigenous Conceptual
Worlds. Chicago: Hau Books.
Wright, Pablo (2016). Perspectivismo amerindio. Notas antropológicas desde una
crítica postcolonial. In Juan Mauricio Renold (Comp.), Religión, Ciencias
Sociales y Humanidades (pp. 139-150). Rosario: Editorial UNR.
182
Poster contributions
183
184
Archaeoastronomical investigation of Felix Romuliana
Aleksandra Bajić and Milan S. Dimitrijević
Society for research in Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy
"Vlašići", Belgrade, Serbia
Astronomical Observatory, Belgrade, Serbia
Felix Romuliana [1] is one of the last examples of roman monumental
architecture, in clear connection with classical roman polytheism. It
consists of a fortification in which there is a residential complex, two
sanctuaries, thermae and a barn, as well as of a sacral-funeral complex on the adjacent hill Magura, about 1 km east of the fortification,
where there are two large tumulus and two mausoleums. Archaeologists believe that the remains of the Emperor Gallery (Galerius Valerius Maximinus Augustus) and his mother Romula were buried
there. In addition to these buildings, on the road leading to Magura
there are remains of the crossroad, where the road to the residential
complex has crossed the road to Magura. Tetrapilon was built at the
intersection. Hundred meters south of Tetrapilon are the remains of
a large rectangular structure, which was only examined by sondage.
It was found that it was richly decorated with a plurality of mosaic
cubes, many of which are gilded, which points to the importance of
the building.
It is known that the Romans conceived their settlements according to cardinal directions and, that Cardo and Decumanus had a very important
place in Roman architecture. It is also known that they determined their
holidays according to astronomical events (risings and sunsets of the Sun
and the stars), as Ovidius wrote in his work Fasti.
This paper is an attempt to find out which holidays were celebrated
in Felix Romuliana and which deities were considered as the protectors of its inhabitants. Iconographic representations, in the form of
sculptures, reliefs or mosaics, point to the celebration of Dionysus and
185
Ariadne, Jupiter, Hercules and Asclepius, and probably Demeter and Hekate. The assumption that their holidays were determined by observing the
Sun and the stars has been checked (after geodetic recording of the horizon) by using RedShift 7 astronomical software. The observation points
are determined according to the rules of Roman architecture. The interrelations between constructions of the sacral and funeral complex were investigated and several astronomically significant directions were found.
The Residential Complex of Felix Romuliana has one main east-west
street, Decumanus Maximus, from the main east gate (Porta Pretoria) of
the older fortification, to the western gate (Porta Decumana). There is no
street in the direction of north-south, therefore missing Cardo Maximus,
and he reason why the main geodetic point of the complex (Groma, Umbilicus) would be on the intersection of these streets. It is therefore assumed
that this main point was located at the highest point of the residential complex, at the western gate of the older fortification (Porta Pretoria). After
the astro-geodetic survey from that point, it was found that the northern
basement of the smaller tumulus on the Magura is exactly in the geographical east, which is also verified on satellite maps (The assumed Groma and
the northern basement of the smaller tumble have exactly the same latitude). A further analysis, using the Red Shift 7 astronomical software,
showed that the buildings on the Magura are in fact precise landmarks on
the horizon, which make it possible to determine the dates of important
holidays, and that those holidays are fully correlated with iconographic
representations, found on archaeological site. Thus, the assumed position
186
of the main geodetic point of the residential complex became much more
probable.
Structures on the Magura (tumuluses) represent precise landmarks on
the horizon for observers from the temples on the site (a smaller temple
in the northern and higher in the southern part of the complex). Observing
the sunrise from the temples, the main holidays could be determined, and
they were the same ones that could be determined by observing from the
Groma.
Locality is interesting for archaeoastronomical analysis for several reasons: the Roman ruler who built it was not of a Roman origin, his father
was Tracanin and his mother Dacian. It turns out that local traditions also
had an influence in the design of his memorial complex; Felix Romuliana
is one of the last places in Europe where is possible to explore the relationship of astronomy with Roman polytheistic religion. Very soon after its
construction, the new religion will carry out the radical desacralization of
the heavens and the celestial bodies. The celestial body will no longer be
Numina Divina, but will become ordinary nuggets of matter in the hands
of the new, only god. Finally, archaeoastronomical analysis can help to define the order of construction of individual buildings in the complex.
References
1. Dragoslav Srejović, Anka Lalović, Felix Romuliana, Belgrade: Center for Arhaeological Research, Faculty of Philosophy, 1995
187
Graz and Kepler – working, living, and commemoration
B.P. Besser1, M.Y. Boudjada1, M.E. Lippitsch2, and S. Draxler2
1
Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria
2 Institute of Physics, Karl-Franzens University of Graz, Austria
Johannes Kepler started his working life in 1594 soon after his study
at the protestant University of Tübingen at the Protestant School in
Graz as professor of mathematics. Additionally his duty was to calculate and prepare for print the yearly calendar/almanac with its prognostics. His first major astronomical opus was the book “Mysterium
Cosmographicum” published 1596 in Tübingen, spreading Kepler’s
ideas about the structure of the solar system as a representation of
the Platonic solids.
During his stay in Graz he also started a family by the marriage of the
Styrian Barbara Müller in 1597. But already in September 1598 he
had to leave the country awhile, were in August 1600 he was expelled
from Styria due to the actions of the counter-reformation under archduke Ferdinand II of Styria.
His last astronomical activity in Graz was the observation and the taking of measurements of the solar eclipse on July 10, 1600. Therefore
he constructed a measurement device and observed the partial
eclipse with the use of a camera obscura.
The poster is also going to show and describe the different monuments and places commemorating Kepler and his activities during his
stay in Graz, including the memorial plaque at the former Protestant
School in the city, the memorial in the municipal park, the monument
near the Kepler bridge across the local river Mur, the Kepler room at
the Kepler High School, and the flour mill of his wfe’s family (Mühlegg
/Mühleck) at Gössendorf near Graz
188
.
Kepler’s wedding portraits (above) and Mühleck (below)
189
Sky as the cultural landscape
Jadran Kale
Dept. of Ethnology and Anthropology, University of Zadar, Zadar, Croatia
Sidereal delineations contradict the rest of human orientations in a wide
variety of physical and abstract landscapes where cardinal directions are
defined by a human body. Above the strictly regulated earth heavens
could shock with kings beneath or behind commoners and animals in a
forefront of heros or gods. Still, there are no democratic or biophilic aspirations in codifying night sky. Reasons for their arrangements are practical and can be followed from autarky to supranational agenda. South
Slavic skylore with the data from The Ethnological Atlas of Yugoslavia
(2500 localities from 1960's-1980's Zagreb project) will be the core of
presentation and comparisons with historical sources and ethnoastronomical studies in an effort to depict cognitive rules for cultural harmonization of a random stellar patchwork.
Perpetual movement had sharply favored animals over plants, and
among humans processions are dominant way of arranging complex
orders. Another approach to celestial harmony has been granted by
symmetries with narrative counterparts opposing each other, a pattern very well known since antiquity. The most complex arrangements were assigned with the winter night sky, convenient to observe
appearances and disappearances and also to combine with landscape
features during seasons of intensive fieldwork in autumn and spring.
Onomastics could help us to decipher characteristics of eponymic
communities, their economies and associated utilitarian and aesthetic senses.
Beside movement, figures of the night sky do not deny gravity like
astronauts. Like humans, their movement is described as „walk“
through the sky, and they do it in a proper orientation regarding their
observers. No figure is described as posing upside down. Commoner
190
may precede a dignitary, but with a reason of pursuit and ethernal
punishment. Earthly order did not vaporize into thin nightly air, its
theleology is self-evident until the last associated benign story or
proverb being told.
Some sky formations are especially keen to carry such symbolics, as
well as mere names as such. Lesser or faint stars could be important
if they respond to a cultural pattern. Goal of this research was to analyse earthly foundations for sidereal cultural building. Cardinal directions were adapted to a different order of „up“ vs. „down“ or „front“
vs. „back“ etc., and directions became vectors with unique position of
the north pole and associated star. Sky does not have a tellurian core or
heart, but world surface can't compete with absolute orientation of the
night sky. From such symbolic points heavens had returned back to the
earth to assist hegemonies, protruding master's face over remote mountains to watch over and warn all over again.
Night sky is not the only cultural landscape that humans were not
able to touch. Aside of taboos concerned with spaces forbidden to approach, there is also seafloor with a number of folk names from preindustrial era useful for fishermen and essential for maritime coral
expeditions. It is possible to extrapolate certain common traits in human dealing with abstract space, with cognitive anthropology reaching for diverse ethnoastronomical knowledge for a number of years
now. Here we shall propose a step towards understanding of culture
of space, thickly weaved with human symbolic devices and procedures, with astronomy in culture as its foundation.
Reference:
Kale, J.: Izvori za etnoastronomiju (Sources for Ethnoastronomy), in: Kučerin
zbornik, ed. by M. Berić and V. Lakić. Šibenik, 1995, pp. 103-120 (in Croatian).
191
The case of the enclosure burials of Bonlez (Belgium): an archaeoastronomical analysis.
Heller frédéric, Silvia Motta, Adriano Gaspani
1 A.Wa.P. Agence Wallonne du Patrimoine, Wavre, Belgium
2,3 I.N.A.F. Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica, Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera,
Milano, Italy
Bonlez, located in Wallonia, at the bottom of a valley, is a Middle
Bronze Age site. Using the LIDAR surveying system, we obtained detailed high-resolution maps. Ultra-high resolution aerial lasing enables a new paradigm in global exploration. Aerial imagery, after relevant georeferencing and georectification, with its increasing resolution and precision, is becoming a useful toPerkinsol in many disciplines, among them in Archaeoastronomy and other studies of ancient civilizations; using satellite images is possible to measure astronomical orientations of structures and sites without visiting the
places. In the site of Bonlez, LiDAR has yielded half a dozen MBA burials, including the “fossile directeur” one with enclosure, similar to the
British and Dutch Bell barrows. Analyzing the high resolution images
we can notice the presence of many “tumulus”, which appear to be
not randomly arranged.
This study survey’s sub-meter resolution LiDar imagery is done in order to identify largely undocumented cultural heritage sites across a
sparsely populated and undevelopedor wooded landscape.
We made measurements “in situ” in autumn and winter 2017. Subsequently an appropriate statistical study was carried out to infer the
distribution function of the astronomical orientations with the aim to
perform an appropriate archaeoastronomical analysis.
Statistical analyses of the orientations of the alignments were also
carried out to determine whether or not the orientations we had
found were due to chance factors. In this paper, we discuss our
192
methods and reveal the possibility of some intentional orientation of
the structures and we propose that there could be an astronomical
intent in building the burials found at Bonlez. Our final aim is to
demonstrate that there are confirmations on the intentional orientation of the mounds and that we can continue with the appropriate
surveys/excavations.
References
Ruggles, C. ”Astronomy in prehistoric Britain and Ireland”, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1999
Heggie, D. Megalithic Science: Ancient Mathematics and Astronomy in North-west
Europe Paperback – Import, 1981
193
'Child of Earth & Starry Sky' – Orphic Gold Lamellae
George Latura
Independent researcher, Trumbull, USA
On Orphic/Bacchic thin gold lamellae found in ancient graves over a
large area of the Greco-Roman world, the initiate repeatedly claims to
be a child of ‘Earth and starry Sky’ (Graf and Johnston, Ritual Texts for
the Afterlife: Orpheus and the Bacchic Gold Tablets, 2013, p. 5–41).
This declaration is reinforced in some instances by the phrase ‘my
race is heavenly’ (p. 7, 17, 41), which suggests a cultic connection to
the heavens.
Is there evidence in ancient texts and numismatics that provides support for a celestial interpretation of Orphic/Bacchic formulae that
prepared initiates for the afterlife?
Some gold lamellae from Magna Graecia include an enigmatic phrase
– ‘A kid I fell into milk’ – which suggests to Torjussen that milk was
seen as a symbol of immortality: ‘A connection between milk and the
stars, heaven, and especially the Milky Way, is confirmed in a number
of written sources from the seventh century BC onwards’ (Stian Torjussen, Metamorphoses of Myth: A Study of the “Orphic” Gold Tablets
and the Derveni Papyrus. Norway: University of Tromso, 2008, p.
147).
Immortality was often linked in ancient mythology to celestial milk
and to the Milky Way. Most commonly, the infant Herakles, fathered
by Zeus with a mortal woman, had to be nursed with divine milk if he
were to attain immortality. Placed at the breast of the sleeping queen
of the gods, the babe is pushed away when Hera awakens and the subsequent spurt of divine milk becomes the Milky Way (Timothy Gantz,
Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, 1993, p.
378).
194
Another version of this myth has Rhea, Zeus’ mother, presenting a
stone wrapped in cloth to her child-swallowing husband Cronos (Saturn). When he tells her to give the infant some milk, she presses her
breast and the resulting flow of milk forms the Milky Way (Robin
Hard, Eratosthenes and Hyginus: Constellation Myths, 2015, p. 133).
The Rhea/baby Zeus version of the Milky Way story reveals an important cultic connection to Crete. In Paradise Earned: The BacchicOrphic Gold Lamellae of Crete (2010), Tzifopoulos narrows his focus
to Orphic gold lamellae found on Crete, and he points to the Cave of
Zeus on Mt. Ida where Rhea hid the divine infant from his fearsome
father. Zeus’ wet-nurse was the nymph Amalthaea, or her goat, who
provided milk for the infant god. In gratitude, Zeus placed the goat in
the heavens as the bright star Capella, a tale told by Aratus (Phaenomena), and centuries later by Ovid (Fasti).
Cultic aspects of this Cretan myth are seen on coins of the Roman Republic (H. Seaby, Roman Silver Coins, Vol. I, [1952] 1989, p. 49), as well
as on coins of the Roman Empire (c. 257 CE) that depict ‘Valerian II as
the infant Jupiter riding on the back of the goat Amalthea,’ (David
Vagi, Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, Volume I: History,
1999, p. 356), with the legend IOVI CRESCENTI (“the growing Jupiter”).
A connection to the heavens is evident in Plato’s celestial openings
that lead to a heavenly afterlife (Republic, X, 614c), and Plato invokes
a saying from the Mysteries: ‘Many carry the thyrsus, but few are Bacchoi’ (Phaedo, 69c). In a fragment from Euripides’ lost play ‘Cretans,’
an initiate from Crete declares himself a Bakkhos, a follower of ‘Zeus
of Ida’ (Gillian Clark, Porphyry: On Abstinence from Killing Animals,
2000, p. 115).
According to Porphyry’s Life of Pythagoras (Kenneth Guthrie, The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library, 1987, p. 126), Pythagoras had
195
been initiated at the Mysteries of Mt. Ida, which would make him a
Bakkhos, a Bacchic initiate. Pythagoras would found cultic practices
in the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia, where several Orphic gold lamellae were found. According to Numenius, Porphyry, and Macrobius, Pythagoras taught that the Milky Way was the original abode of
souls that required milk when they fell into terrestrial bodies. This
would help explain the Orphic phrase ‘A kid I fell into milk’ found on
gold lamellae from Magna Graecia.
The return of the soul to the Milky Way would be described in Cicero’s
‘Dream of Scipio,’ while the soul’s descent from, and re-ascent to, the
Milky Way is elucidated by Macrobius (William Stahl, trans. Commentary on the Dream of Scipio by Macrobius. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, 133-134).
The Orphic gold lamellae with the phrases ‘I am a child of Earth and
starry Sky,’ ‘My race is heavenly,’ and ‘A kid I fell into milk,’ parallel
the heavenly afterlife teachings of Pythagoras, who had been initiated
at Mt. Ida in Crete, and the writings of Cicero, Manilius, Numenius,
Martianus Capella and Macrobius, who linked the celestial afterlife of
souls to the Milky Way.
196
Fig. 3. Orphic/Bacchic gold lamella from Magna Graecia (British Museum)
197
In harmony with the cosmos: Of calendars & priests
George Latura1 & Sepp Rothwangl2
1 Indep.researcher, Trumbull, USA, 2 Indep. Researcher, Wien, Austria
During a recent discussion of ‘Cosmology in Culture’ (Campion, 2017), the
notion came up that astronomy might have been the purview of scientific
thought, while cosmology seemed more the domain of priestly concerns,
at least in the past. McCluskey asked about the role of calculation in this
scheme, which focused attention on calendars and their role in keeping
cultures in harmony with the cosmos. The task of maintaining this harmony was often carried out by the priestly class.
Perhaps the most famous example of a priestly adjustment of the calendar
in order to bring it in harmony with the cosmos was Julius Caesar’s reform
that is still used today around the globe (with minor adjustments by Pope
Gregory III). In 46 BCE, Caesar re-structured the yearly calendar of the Roman world. As Pontifex Maximus, the highest priest of the Roman religion (Hamlyn, 2011), Caesar had the power to move heaven and earth in
order to restore cosmic harmony.
In ancient Athens, the chief priests of Eleusis calculated the intercalations
of the lunar month in order to maintain the alignment of the Lesser Mysteries with Spring (Anthesterion, the month of flowers) and of the Greater
Mysteries with Fall (Boedromion), the two solar seasons of the equinoxes
(Mylonas, 1961). A cultic pre-occupation with the equinox can be traced
across cultures for millennia, as in the most ancient temples of Malta
(Lomsdalen, 2014), in Rome’s Mithraic Mysteries (Ulansey, 1989; Beck,
2006), and even in Mesoamerica, where Montezuma’s Templo Mayor had
priests offering human sacrifice as the Sun rose at the equinox. “Evidently
the priest and worshippers faced to the East to view the sunrise between
the twin temples atop the great pyramid… The extensive plaza fronting
the twin temples atop the Templo Mayor platform would have provided
an excellent vantage point for witnessing the main event that usually took
198
place there. High on the terrace above, a victim, stretched out on his back
over a carved stone and held fast by four assistants, could be seen awaiting
sacrifice to the Aztec sun god. This took place when the High Priest
plunged a flint knife into the victim’s chest and tore out the beating heart,
offering it to the sun, thus ensuring the continuation of the movement of
the solar deity on his course.” – Anthony Aveni, Skywatchers: A Revised
and Updated Version of Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001), p. 238.
Deadly violence could erupt when the priestly prerogative of seasonal calculations was seen to be under threat. Hypatia’s lynching in Alexandria
may have been sparked by her efforts at establishing the date of the equinox for the calculation of Easter. Such usurping hubris may have aroused
murderous intent in the followers of Cyril, bishop of Alexandria (Ari Belenkiy, ‚The Novatian ‘Indifferent Canon’ and Pascha in Alexandria in 414: Hypatia’s Murder Case Reopened.’ Vigiliae Christianae 70. Brill, 2016).
The predictive knowledge of astronomical calculations gave prophetic powers to
those who could make such computations, whether in predicting eclipses, or predictingevenmore dire events,such asthereturnof theSonofMan“likeathiefinthenight”
(Thessalonians, 5:2). The dating system now used worldwide is the ‚Anno Domini’
that the Scythian monk Dionysius Exiguus devised in 525, which may have been related to earlier predictions of the Apocalypse. The priestly role in determining calendars seems to have been taken seriously around the globe.
References
Sepp Rothwangl, ‚The Scythian Dionysius Exiguus and his Invention of Anno
Domini.’ Proceedings of 2016 Symposium ‚Megalithic Monuments and Cult
Practices,’ South-West University, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria)
199
Eneolithic solar calendar in the Magura cave near
the village of Rabisha, Belogradchik municipality,
Bulgaria
Penka Maglova1, Alexey Stoev1 and Mina Spasova2
1Space Research and Technology Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Stara
Zagora Department 2 Institute for the Study of Societies and Knowledge, Bulgarian
Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
Introduction: The Magura Cave is located in Northwestern Bulgaria,
on the southern slope of the Karst ridge, near the village of Rabisha,
17 km northwest of Belogradchik. The cave is one of the largest Bulgarian caves and consists of several large and small halls connected
through galleries and tunnels, with many stalactites, stalagmites and
pillars, and even a small lake. Archaeological remains from the Neolithic to the late Roman period are found as well as Eneolithic paintings on the walls and ceiling of one of the galleries.
Monochrome paintings: The scenes are dedicated to the cult of fertility, and the signs are symbols associated with the magical rituals that
the cave dwellers performed to seek help from deities in the difficult
struggle for survival. The drawings are made with light brown ocher
and bat guano. They are from different periods - Epipaleolithic, Neolithic, Eneolithic (maximum amount of drawings), Bronze and Early
Iron age.
We have compared the symbols and arranged the presented celestial
objects and phenomena, human cult activities, in a logically connected common narrative. The fact that more than 95% of the drawings are symbolic shows abstract thinking of their authors, which
gives them the ability to record different knowledge, including not
very complex philosophical concepts (Maglova, Stoev, Stoeva, 1997).
200
Fig. 1. Monochrome paintings from the Magura cave - anthropomorphic images, symbol signs, and calendar notations.
Reading of the Eneolithic Solar Calendar: In previous studies, it has
been shown that the paintings reflect rituals related to fertility, cult
practices at specific moments of the year, fixed by a well-arranged solar calendar. In this study, the so-called "solar group" drawings are
analyzed, which consists of a series of astronomical symbols dominated by an adorable anthropomorphic Sun. The composition group
is painted in the largest, so-called Sun Hall of the cave.
A scheme is proposed for dividing the paintings into groups, which
gives a basis for creation of calendar within the tropical solar year.
Their gradual reading structured and complicated the calendar by
connecting it to the extreme positions of the sun. The first group consists of the central Sun and the symbols of the four seasons, whose
beginning is connected with equinoxes and solstices. Consequently,
the idea of annual seasons develops in following, smaller time
201
intervals - months. A critical analysis of each symbol representing the
extreme points of the Sun on the ecliptic is made.
The next group includes chess structure images symbolizing the duration of the sidereal period of the Moon - 27 days. The reason for
entering arithmetic and logic symbols (including adding, subtraction,
multiplication by 2, repetition, logical forward/backward movements, understanding of the notion "integrity", calculation of the
length of the year in days - 365) is formulated. In addition, the records
reveal that one symbol has multiple conceptual meanings (the principle of "minimum symbols" - maximum information).
The third group analyzes the radial structure of the anthropomorphic
Sun. The symbol is circular, which means cyclic repeatability, with the
13 rays being interpreted as 13 lunar months - a period close to the
total number of days in the solar tropical year ~ 13.5 sidereal months.
The analysis reveals an interesting fact related to the interchangeability of Earth and Moon, which sometimes are depicted in the paintings in the same way. We can suppose that all the Earth and Moon
symbols are different levels of stylization of the Great Mother-Goddess image.
Conclusions: The investigated Eneolithic solar calendar from the Magura cave is autochthonous by territory and ethnicity. Some symbols
of the Eneolithic solar calendar have a further use in folklore and folk
ceremonies in later epochs.
References
Maglova P., Stoev A., Stoeva M., 1997, Proceedings of the 12-th International Congres
of Speleology, Switzeland, vol. 3, p. 95 – 96.
202
The Universe Isn’t Silent: Electroacoustic Ensembles with Life 2.0
Deborah Kala Perkins
Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley, USA
The universe isn’t silent. It has a sound track, that is played on space
itself, because space can wabble like a drum; it can ring out a kind of
recording throughout the universe of some of the most dramatic
events as they unfold. We are adding to our glorious light understanding of the universe, a sonic composition (Jana Levin).
Ground and space-based gravitational wave observatories are listening to the universe for the ringing wabble of gravitational waves in
space as it squeezes and stretches from colliding black holes; researchers are sonifying the data. The use of radio waves translated
into sound are being used both by research astrophysics in the quest
to detect new distant planetary orbits, and atmospheric compositions
with Kepler Space Telescope data, as well as at the convening of cosmos and culture. Cosmologists are in quest of possible other universes seeking gravitational distortions in radio waves at the very
edges of the perceivable universe. A software program is allowing
blind astronomers to study data, as well as to assist sighted astronomers to discern patterns more readily accessible to the ear than by
sight. Astrophysicists and astrobiologists, working with composers
have developed “Acoustic Astronomy” translating astronomical data,
particularly from radio sources into compositions to both inform and
inspire. Astronomers are sonifying the data from the cosmic microwave background and pulsars to better understand the rhythmic and
harmonic principles of our universe; while ALMA radio observatory,
in Chile has developed a public archived data sound bank, to offer
composers direct access. If we are living in an ocean of sound from
cosmic processes, what might this imply about the nature and significance of each and every life expression on our planet, each unique
203
bio-organism and ecosystem? What might this imply regarding
Earth’s harmonics with potential life and universal dynamics in space
and on other worlds? This presentation will explore possible implications of our resonant immersion in life’s symphonics, and co-creativity in concert with cosmos.
References
Joint ALMA Observatory, Santiago, Chile, ALMA Sounds Project, www.almaobservatory.org/en/announcement/alma-sounds-participates-in-sonard-festival-in-barcelona
Alexander, Robert, PhD., NASA Goddard Space Fellow, “Using the Sun to Make Music”,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kcqiLvHiACQ
Merced, Wanda, “First blind astrophysicist turning large data sets into
sound…”Wanda Diaz Merced: How Can We Hear The Stars? : NPR,
https://www.npr.org/2017/01/20/510612425/how-can-we-hear-thestars;
https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/about/people/Wanda_DiazMerced.html
Camas, Francisco, NASA’s Kepler Mission, An Interactive Musical Composition from
Data, http://www.stellarchoir.com/movie.php
Scudder, Jillian, PhD., “What Does the Sun Sound Like?”
https://www.forbes.com/sites/jillianscudder/2017/02/14/astroquizzical-sun-sound/#5eb0a9026403
204
Identification of Seris’ Constellations from
Memory and Experience
Arturo Morales Blanco, Alejandro Aguilar Zeleny, Julio Saucedo
Morales, Raul Perez-Enriquez, and Jesus Galindo Trejo
Comunidad Comcáac, Hermosillo, Mexico
Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Mexico
Universidad de Sonora, Mexico
Universidad de Sonora, Hermosillo, Mexico
, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico
The Comcáac Community is one of the nine recognized ethnical
groups living in Sonora State in the northwest part of Mexico. Known
under the name of Seri which means “people” in his language, this
community has two main locations in the west coast of Californian
Gulf: Punta Chueca and Desemboque. By oral tradition, the
knowledge of the sky has been transmitted since remote times; a systematic effort oriented to recover the names of Constellations and
their identification in Sonoran skyscape has been made by one of us
(A.M.B.) who is a member of the Seri community. It was 1982, when
he began a course on Cultural Promotion, oriented to give to young
members of original communities, tools for the rescue of their culture
and traditions. Around 1984 and 1985, Arturo received his father’s
teaching about the skyscape of an experimented navigator. Figure 1
describe his first attempt to recover the Seri´s Constellations [1]. In
this presentation, a renewed and complementary work has been done
in order to put this knowledge in a new framework: the use of computational tools such as Stellarium, to rediscover the constellations
[2]. Seri boys receive since childhood, information about constellations for very important issues for the daily life: Orientation in the
dessert and in the sea; breeding seasons of plants, animals and fishes;
beginning of the productive activities; and, transmission of tales and
stories about the ancestors and legends [1]. Located in the range between 29.0° to 30.5° N Latitude, the Seri people could have saw the
205
main group of stars giving them their own interpretation based on
the animals and objects they could see around. The geographical
places such as mountains, Tiburon Island and seashore, have influenced the naming of constellations. There are more than 20 specific
constellations identified. For example, in March, groups of 300 to 400
crabs appear on the sands coinciding with the observation of
ZAAMTH (“Jaiba”) over the western horizon; Seri people identify the
“Jaiba” constellation as a crab with its legs pointing to the horizon.
Using Stellarium, it is possible to make the identification with Betelgeuse, stars of the Orion’s Belt, and nearby stars, appearing at 04march, 19:20 h, near the meridian, and descending over the western
horizon at midnight; and, at 25-sept, 5:45 am, it disappears near the
meridian, due to the twilight, concurrent with the crabs being covered
by sand in the beach. Seris also identify the star that fix the orientation at night as HIIZOOX CAANOJ HIIMATAAX which means “Estrella
que no gira” (Non-revolving star); i.e., Polaris. Another example to
consider is the presence in both skyscapes of the Arrow and Hunter:
this constellation can be associated with Taurus and Capella star (The
Hunter). These and other constellations are described and correlated
with known stars.
Refereces
[1] Morales Blanco, A. 1986. Las Constelaciones Seris y otros temas, Cuadernos de
trabajo No. 1, SEP-Sonora.
[2] Chéreau, F. 2017. Stellarium program.
206
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Arturo’s version of the Seri’s Constellations: a) Skyscape of marchapril; b) Skyscape of September-october. [1]
207
Building a robust methodology in archaeoastronomy
Raposo-Pulido V.(1), Cerdeño Serrano M.L.(2), Rodriguez Caderot
M.G.(3), Baquedano Beltrán M. I.(2) and Mejuto, J.(4)
1Departamento
de Física Aplicada a la Ingeniería Aeronátutica. Universidad
Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
2Departamento de Prehistoria, Historia Antigua y Arqueología. Universidad
Complutense de Madrid, Spain
3Departamento de Física de la Tierra y Astrofísica. Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain
4Archaeoastronomy and Cultural Astronomy Department. Space Sciences Faculty.
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Honduras, Honduras
The Archaeoastronomy is a multidisciplinary research field, whose
objective is to identify the connection between the celestial manifestations and the ancient society, the influence of the cosmos on its behavior and on the development of its activities. For its full development, this discipline requires the collaboration of two scientific fields:
archaeology and physics (astronomy). The study of archaeological
findings, their orientation, location and characteristics (shapes, period, etc.), opens the possibility of establishing a connection with celestial events and consequently with the mentality of that time. However, the most delicate aspects of this discipline reside in the formal
definition of a methodology and rigorous analysis technique, as well
as the correct interpretation of the analyzed data. In this study, focus
on the rock engravings, a new methodology has been developed to
demonstrate as a plausible hypothesis the implication of the topography and the celestial sphere on the representations graven or painted
by the societies of that time. In particular, we have analyzed the rock
engravings placed in Castro (Soria) and Calaceite (Teruel), (Benavente, J. A., 2012) both regions of Spain of great interest due to the
studies developed by the archaeologist Juan Cabré (Cabré, J., 1908) at
the beginning of the 20th century. As a consequence of this research,
the procedure presented is intended to be the start point for a
208
rigorous methodology which can be extended to other archaeoastronomical studies.
REFERENCES
Benavente, J. A., 2012: Cubetas y canalillos Rupestres en asentamientos ibéricos del
Bajo Aragón. Iberos del Ebro, Actas del II Congreso Internacional (AlcañizTivissa, 2011).
Cabré Aguilo, J., 1908: “Hallazgos arqueológicos
209
Rembrandt and the Telescope
Marilyn Gottlieb-Roberts
Independent Artist, Palo Alto CA, USA
Rembrandt’s Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp is an official City of
Amsterdam document. Against a shadowed architectural background a wall hanging dated 1632 testifies “Rembrandt made it” and
officially certifies that the pictured physicians (two belated add-ons
are at top and at far left) participated in Dr. Tulp’s lesson. A cadaver
lies on a bare wood table. An open book is in the painting’s lower
right corner.
In his masterpiece, Early Netherlandish Painting, Erwin Panofsky
sees disguised symbolism in Netherlandish images, and meanings
hidden under realistic surfaces. Thus perplexing details in this painting invite scrutiny. The cadaver of the freshly hanged thief attracts
disproportionate attention through its central placement, visually assertive diagonal, and a disturbing anatomical error in the left forearm.
None of the physicians, however, looks at the cadaver: four look at the
book near his feet; the two add-ons look doltishly at nothing; and the
distinguished Dr. Tulp gazes out-and-beyond. Two other instances of
bold departure from the conventions governing Dutch civic portraits
emphasize the separate natures of imagined and tangible worlds: the
physician to Dr. Tulp’s immediate right (holding a list of the lesson’s
participants) pierces pictorial space by gazing directly at the viewer;
the open book leaning against an imagined right angle simultaneously
leans against the real edges of the painting’s right corner. And Rembrandt’s desire to re-humanize the cadaver is touching: the strange
proportions in the cadaver's right arm may indicate Rembrandt had-with genteel Dr. Tulp’s raised left hand as model--restored the cadaver’s amputated right hand; Rembrandt poignantly tucks the deceased’s penis into a fold of the white linen drape; and he shapes a
navel with the “R” signature remarked upon by some scholars.
210
When the personal, technical, and cultural history of Rembrandt are
taken into account, the Anatomy Lesson is not an isolated incident,
but the product of a historical moment, which leads to questions of
artistic meaning.
The Anatomy Lesson poses a three-part puzzler. First, a punning reveal involving the cadaver, in life a notorious outlaw named Adriaan
Adriaanszoon. The compound microscope appeared first in the Netherlands in the late 1500s, followed in 1608 by the earliest known
working telescopes. Netherlanders credited with this development
include the astronomer Adriaan Adriaanszoon, a coincidence of
names that connects the cadaver to the astronomer—and to the telescope. Next, Rembrandt uses three previously mentioned points—the
imagined man gazing out to the real world; the imagined book leaning
against the real frame; and four physicians preferring a published engraving to actual anatomy—to symbolically frame the separate natures of abstraction and reality. Finally, a prank. The painting’s
211
brightest colors and highest contrast emphasize the cadaver’s dissected left forearm, where the thumb’s position says, “hand in posterior view,” but the tendons argue, “nope, it’s an anterior view.” Academics chortle over Rembrandt’s mistake, but his “mistake” likely
sent his equally frisky peers gleefully running to find a copy of the
Belgian Vesalius’ influential 1543 human anatomy text to see if the
tantalizingly unseen right page Rembrandt painted in Dr. Tulp’s wellthumbed copy of that book reveals an engraving of the anterior view
of forearm tendons. Rembrandt's prank seems a playful interactive
rant that, “abstractions are never to be trusted over the authority of
one’s own eyes.
The Netherlands experienced early awareness of what changed when
microscope and telescope expanded the range of the largest and
smallest things we know; findings above and below that are abstractions. Rembrandt says abstraction has the power to undermine our
affection for the real world.
REFERENCE
Alper, Svetlana (1983) The Art of Describing. Dutch Art in the Seventeenth Century
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
212
A Vulva-like Rock Sculpture at Externsteine/Germany and Fullmoon as Indication for Sexual Rituals
Sepp Rothwangl
Independent Researcher, Wien, Austria
The Externsteine in Kreis Lippe/Germany is a monument with significant astronomical function originating from pre-Christian or prehistorian time. Historical events and religious reliefs suggest that the Extersteine were a sacred district. One of Its most important astronomical components is the so called Sonnenloch (sun hole) orientated towards the rising sun at summer solstice. This circular window is located in the Höhenkammer (high chamber), an apse with an altar at
top of the Turmfels (Rock II). At the base of Turmfels on the Northeast
side is a platform, called Kanzel. A staircase leads up to this platform.
The seven steps of the staircase suggest a symbolic connection to the
seven visible Wanderers in the heavens. At the front of the podium a
vulva-like rock structure is readily identifiable.
The prominent position suggests a function of major importance. This sculpture will be discussed from an anthropological,
astronomical, and calendrical point of view. It seems to designate the
place for gathering at special times. It may be speculated that the sun
hole mentioned above stands for the summer solstice, a date which
however in ancient times could not be found to the day, but was a
trigger to the summer full moon for tribes counting lunar days. According to Knight (1995) for late-Pleistocene tribes: When the moon
had left the night sky would be the time for women-as-wives to withdraw from temporary marriage and seclude themselves. This would
signal to men-as-husbands to prepare and deliver collective hunting services, while the full moon was the signal for the relaxation of
these taboos.
213
Synchronicity of menstruation with the new moon suggests this conclusion. May this poster attract attention to investigate formation and
age of this sculpture, which was previously ignored and unpublished.
References:
Knaus, Hermann: Die periodische Fruchtbarkeit und Unfruchtbarkeit des Weibes.
Verlag Maudrich, Wien. 1935
Die fruchtbaren und unfruchtbaren Tage der Frau und deren richtige Berechnung. Verlag Maudrich. 1953
Knight, Chris: Blood Relations: Menstruation and the Origins of Culture. Yale University Press. 1995
Koneckis-Bienas, Ralf: Der Teufel am Externsten: Ein Forschungsabenteuer. Topp +
Möller. 2015
Geheimnis Externsten. Topp + Möller. 1995
Law, SP.: The regulation of menstrual cycle and its relationship to the moon. Acta
Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1986;65(1):45-8.
Lippek, Wolfgang: Drei vorgeschichtliche astronomische Anlagen im Bereich LippeDetmold: Externsten - Johannissteine - Schau-Hügelgräber. Sonnen Steine
Sterne. 2012
Sims, Lionel: Lighting up dark Moon: ethnographic templates for testing paired alignments on the Sun and the Moon. In:Proc.SEACe 2005, Isili, Sardinia
Schlüter, Wolfgang und Wolfgang Lippek: Die Schlacht - Varuskatastrophe - Plausible
Gründe. Osning Verlag, Bielefeld.2008
Schlosser, Wolfhard: Astronomische Auffälligkeiten an der Externsteinen; erschienen in R. Koneckis (Hrsg.), Geheimnis Externsten, topp+möller. 1995, 8190
Steinrücken, Burkard: Neue Vermessung und neue Analyse der mutmaßlichen astronomischen Peilungen an den Externsteinen. Westfälische Volkssternwarte
und Planetarium Recklinghausen. 2013. http://sternwarte-recklinghausen.de/data/uploads/dateien/pdf/b13_externsteine.pdf
Teudt, Wilhelm: Germanische Heiligtümer: Beiträge zur Aufdeckung der Vorgeschichte, ausgehend von den Externsteinen, den Lippequellen und der Teutoburger. Verlag d. Manufaktur, Jena. 1936
214
Development over time and astronomical orientations of the Demir Baba teke near the village of
Sveshtari, Bulgaria
Mina Spasova1, Alexey Stoev2 and Penka Maglova2
1 Institute for the Study of Societies and Knowledge, Bulgarian Academy of
Sciences, Sofia 2 Space Research and Technology Institute, Bulgarian Academy
of Sciences, Stara Zagora Department, Bulgaria
Introduction: Demir Baba Teke is an Alevi mausoleum (türbe) from
16th century, situated south-west from the village of Sveshtari, Isperih municipity. It is part of the Sboryanovo historical and archaeological reserve and was a sacred place for Thracians, Christians, and
Alevis (kind of unorthodox Muslims). The tomb of the saint of the Alevis is a monumental building with a dome and an antechamber with
an entrance to the east. Demir Baba is the most honoured saint among
the Alevis population of northeastern Bulgaria, and the legends of his
authority and power are countless (Balkanska, 1992). Christians also
accept Demir Baba as their own saint. Today the complex is a cult
place worshipped by Muslims and Christians. According to the collected legends in the region of Demir Baba Teke, in different periods,
there was an ancient Thracian settlement, a monastery and a Bulgarian monastery "St. George".
Archaeoastronomical research: The study of astronomical orientation of Muslim cult complexes from the Middle Ages and their relationship with earlier religious objects is at an early stage. Measurement of the orientation of the main axis of the monument has been
made to verify the hypothesis of "solar orientation" of the earliest
foundations of the building – the Thracian sanctuary.
Azimuth of the main axis of the mausoleum and geographical coordinates of the site have been measured: A=64º10'55'', Latitude
φ=43.739073° and Longitude λ=26.752782°). The height of the sun
above the true horizon is + 7.6º. It is evident that the azimuth is in
215
north-east direction where the sun rises during the summer solstice.
Around the solstice the declination of the sun is equal to the inclination of the ecliptic ε towards the celestial equator, which changes
through the different ages.
Determining the declination of the sun we can determine ε. Thus, using astronomical data we can date the archaeological monument. The
calculations show that the declination of the sun is δ=+23°01'. Comparison with the astronomical calendar shows that the main axis of
the temple is not directed to the summer solstice point on the horizon
and gives us two mirror dates that correspond to the declination we
found. Such a declination the sun may have several days before and a
few days after the solstice. We assume that these dates are related to
significant holidays in Islamic religion. We know that the monument
was built in 1560. The slope of the ecliptic in 1560 is 23º29'47''
Fig. 1. General view of Demir Baba Teke with a Thracian rock altar integrated in the building.
216
(respectively, the declination of the sun during the solstice will also
have the same value) but we obtain δ=+23º01'. This indicates that the
main axis of the cult facility is oriented to sunrise with a full disk (the
size of the solar disk is 30') above the horizon on the day of the summer solstice for that epoch.
A match of the summer solstice with the Ramadan holiday (in the Islamic religion) occurred in 1556 (June 28) and 1557 (June 18) according to the Gregorian calendar. This gives reason to believe that the
main axis of the teke is oriented with an accuracy of ± 1' in one of the
two years towards the sunrise at summer solstice.
Conclusion: Remains of several consecutively built Thracian sanctuaries are excavated in the yard of the Demir Baba teke cult complex.
Associated with the cult towards the rock and the water, the power of
the Great Mother-Goddess and the Sun God, this sanctuary retained
its significance throughout the first millennium BC, through the Roman, early and late Middle Ages, till nowadays. Cult practices and orientations of the ceremonial buildings maintain the legends of the Giant, the Giver of goods, the Iron Father, embodying the transition
from the Bronze to the Iron Age, including astronomical and sacral
knowledge.
References:
Balkanska A., 1992, Thracian sanctuary near Demir Baba Teke, Helis, II, Sofia.
217
A calendrical interpretation of spirals in Irish
megalithic art
Marc Türler
University of Geneva, Versoix, Switzerland
The tumuli of Newgrange and Knowth in Ireland are among the most
monumental heritages of the Neolithic epoch. The megalithic constructions date back to around 3'500 BC, a millenium before the completion of Stonehenge and five centuries before the Egyptian pyramids. Corridors inside the mounds have been shown to be perfectly
aligned such as the sun rays illuminate the interior chambers at the
winter solstice at Newgrange (Ray, T.P., 1989, "The winter solstice
phenomenon at Newgrange, Ireland: accident or design?", Nature
337, 343) and at equinoxes at Knowth (Eogan, G., 1986, "Knowth and
the passage tombs of Ireland", London: Thames and Hudson). Many
of the kerb and interior stones of these passage tombs are richly decorated with petroglyphs (e.g. O'Kelly, M.J., 1982, "Newgrange: Archeology, art and legends", London: Thames and Hudson). Despite several attempts to classify and interpret the engraved signs (e.g. Brennan, M., 1994, "The Stones of Time", Inner Traditions International;
Thomas, N.L., 1988, "Irish Symbols of 3500 BC", Mercier Press), their
meaning remains mostly enigmatic to visitors and archeologists alike.
Spiral motifs are very characteristic for Ireland in general and particularly for these tumuli of the Boyne Valley. We intend to show here
that they could be symbolic representations of the cycles of the Moon
and the Sun. We study and interpret the precise design of five different spiral patterns, which are among the most carefully engraved motifs on prominently placed stones in Newgrange and Knowth. The validity of the proposed calendrical interpretation of these designs is
supported by the identification of five distinct monthly, seasonal or
annual observables - easily accessible to prehistoric naked-eye observers, which seem to be progressively incorporated in increasingly
218
complex spiral patterns. In some cases, the geographic orientation of
the stones and adjacent signs give additional evidence. If our interpretation is correct, it would imply that an elite of the neolithic inhabitants of this northern region linked the observed celestial cycles of
the Moon and the Sun to the passage of seasons, followed them carefully over years, and tried to represent the observables with complex,
cyclical signs. This process from observations to models and their encryption for preservation can be considered as a truly scientific methodology. The association of these calendrical representations with
monumental constructions - thought to be somehow related to death
and the otherworld (Lewis-Williams, D. and Pearce, D., 2005, "Inside
the Neolithic Mind: Consciousness, Cosmos and the Realm of the
Gods", London: Thames and Hudson) - suggests that astronomical cycles could also have had a spiritual meaning. The daily, monthly and
annual solar and lunar cycles could have inspired ideas of an analogue
cycle for life with the possibility of rebirth in this or the otherworld.
219
Astronomy in the northern Bronze Age. The ring
patterns on the women´s belt plates astonomically/geometrically analyzed.
Astrid Wokke
Member of the "Gesellschaft für Archäoastronomie", Gilching, Germany
In the northern Bronze Age some women wore remarkable jewellery:
bronze necklaces and bronze belt plates with ring patterns. In mythologie there are indications that jewellery is not just decoration. In
the first poem of the Edda for instance, the Prophetess sets her necklace and rings in connection to prophecy and magic wisdom.
This poem, "Voluspa", tells the story of the creation of the world as
well as that of its compending cataclysm, the Ragnarok. Hertha von
Dechend, who was professor of the history of science, states that in
this poem the astronomical phenomenon of the precession is described in a mythical way: the poem does not deal with the end of the
world, but instead it deals with the end of a world age. This would
mean, that the jewellery of the Prophetess turns up in an astronomical setting. The question arises, if the "rings" could be understood in
an astronomical way, like the rings of an armillarsphere or the circles
on a planisphere. The jewellery of northern Bronze Age women show
a striking likeness to the jewellery of the Prophetess.
These considerations led me to measure the ring patterns on the
bronze belt plates stereographically, using the drawings of "Die
Funde der älteren Bronzezeit". The results show that declination circles, not only of the solstices but also of the major and minor lunar
standstill seem to underly the circle patterns on the belt plates in a
complex way.
220
A 17th century "Mountain Calendar" from Zywiec
(Poland): an erudite's invention or a local
Mountaineers' tradition?
Mariusz Ziółkowski, Maciej Sobczyk
University of Warsaw, Warszawa, Polska
The city of Żywiec, Polish Carpathian Mountains, at the end of the
17th century. Mayor of Zywiec, Andrzej Komoniecki, writes down his
life's work - a history of the city and its surrounding area, titled
"Chronography or the History of Zywiec". In the foreword, he
describes the geographical surroundings, tells of how the setting sun
changes its place during the year against the backdrop of mountain
peeks. He also recounts several legends concerning these sites. Are
these but the inventions of a cultivated city dweller, or testimony to a
folk tradition dating back to the early Middle Ages, and even perhaps
to the I-II century A.D., when these regions were still populated by
Celtic Cotins? We will attempt to answer this question using
historical, ethnographic and archaeological data.
221
References (a selection)
Chronographia albo dziejopis Żywiecki, w którym rocznie dzieje spraw przeszłych
starodawnych miasta Żywca y pobliskich iego mieysc znayduiąc się [...] z
różnych authorów, pism, wiadomości zebrany y wipisany [...] roku
pańskiego 1704 przez sławnego Andrzeja Komonieckiego wójta na ten czas
żywieckiego
Marco V. García Quintela, A. César González-García "Archaeological Footprints of the
"Celtic Calendar"? "Journal of Skyscape Archaeology. 2017, Vol. 3 Issue 1,
po. 49-78.
Wanda Wyporska "Witchcraft in Early Modern Poland, 1500-1800", Basingstoke :
Palgrave Macmillan. 2013
222
Archaeoastronomical stratigraphy: Investigstions
on a cisalpine celtic enclosure
Stefano Spagocci and Adriano Gaspani
SMS Consulting, Cinisello Balsamo, Italy
The Mt. Avaro Barec is an elliptical enclosure, located in the Bergamo
province (Lombardy, northern Italy). Thanks to previous studies by
Gaspani [1], its inner structures were known to be astronomically
aligned and probably date to the Iron Age but the enclosure proper
was thought to date to the Middle Ages. In June 2017, the structure
was re-measured (by the authors and a team of amateur archaeoastronomers we would like to thank for their contribution) and re-examined from the statistical point of view. The aim of this exercise was
to try to obtain a reliable dating for the artefact while double-checking the previous analysis. The structure was consequently re-measured by establishing a GPS base and referring our compass measurements to such a base. The data were then processed through SkyMap
[2].
The axes of the ellipse turned out to be oriented towards the rising of
Fomalhaut and the setting of Rigel, respectively. Besides the stellar
alignments, we found that the two axes are oriented towards the sunrise on the Belotepnia and Lugi Naissatis and the sunset on the Ambiolcaia and Trinvxtion Samoni Celtic festivals, respectively. We also
found alignments to the extreme positions of the Moon that turned
out to be fundamental for dating the site.
Based upon previous algorithms by Gaspani [3], Spagocci then devised a suite of algorithms aimed at dating an astronomically oriented
structure on the basis of its stellar and/or lunar and/or solar alignments, the details of which are described in a forthcoming publication. Suffice to say here that we define a time bin, centred on the real
time of the alignment under test, in which an ancient astronomer
223
might have spotted the alignment. We then plot, with a suitably chosen sampling rate, the number of alignments of the given kind that
are found in each time bin. The most probable date, of course, is located in the time bin where a maximum is found. We then devised a
procedure for converting such an approximated dating into a most
probable dating with a statistical error. In this phase Bayesian statistics is also employed, in order to assess the archaeological plausibility
of each putative alignment.
On the basis of the above-mentioned analysis, we claim that the whole site
is astronomically significant and underwent two building phases. In the
first phase (510±70 BC), the inner structure was erected and aligned. In
the second phase (320±90 BC), the inner structure was realigned and the
elliptical enclosure erected and aligned, with a procedure Gaspani was
able to clarify, as detailed elsewhere [2]. The randomness probability for
the alignments is 0.5%.
Gaspani was also able to estimate the probable unit of measure used when
dimensioning the structure. It then occurred to the author that such a
measure is suspiciously close to the size of a human step and, since there
is a well-defined relationship between the size of a human's step and
her/his height, it was then possible to estimate the height of the person (a
druid?) who laid out the structure. The height was estimated to be 160±16
cm. Spagocci then remarked that such an height seems to be on the short
side (even considering the epoch) and did a literature survey on the height
of ancient Europeans. It turned out [4] that, on average, h=161±6 cm (for
women) and h=169±6 cm (for men). It was then estimated that, with 75%
confidence, the structure was laid out by a woman. The enclosure, then, is
quite likely to have been aligned by a priestess. This may be proof that
both male and female druids were present in Cisalpine Gaul.
224
In the authors' opinion, the results presented here, besides being remarkable by themselves, might be relevant for the archaeoastronomical science in general. In fact, our methodology allowed us to derive
totally unexpected information on the structure. In particular, we
were able to read the probable archaeological stratification of the site.
In this sense, an archaeoastronomical stratigraphy exercise was performed.
REFERENCES
[1] A. Gaspani, “I Barec del Monte Avaro: Semplici Recinti di Pastori?”, Terra Insubre,
18 (2001)14.
[2] A. Gaspani and S. Spagocci, “Il Barec dei Piani di Monte Avaro”, Terra Insubre,
2018, in press.
[3] S. Cernuti and A. Gaspani, “Introduzione all'Archeoastronomia: Nuove Tecniche
di Analisi dei Dati”, Tassinari, Florence, 2006.
[4] N. Koepke and J. Baten, “The Biological Standard of Living in Europe During the
Last Two Millennia”, European Review of Economic History, 9 (2005) 61.
225
Astronomical observations in the Inca Temple of
Coricancha (Cusco)?
A critical review of the hypothesis.
Centre for Precolumbian Studies, University of Warsaw,
Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology;
1
2
Mariusz Ziółkowski1, Jacek Kościuk2
Fig.1. The Inka worshiping the effigy of the Sun in the temple of Coricancha.
Martín de Murúa, Galvin Manuscript (courtesy of Juan Ossio).
Coricancha (Qurikancha, Qorikancha) was the most important temple
in Cuzco, the capital of Tawantinsuyu, the Inca Empire. The Spanish
Conquistadores had the opportunity to see her, and her legendary
riches, in November 1533, after entering Cuzco. Coricancha was the
place of worship of the most sacred effigies of the Inca cult, including
the figure of the Sun, called Punchao. From this early period, there are
also references, unfortunately not very precise, related to a specific
226
orientation of some elements of the temple, in order to obtain a reflection of the rising (or setting) Sun of on the aforementioned figure
of Punchao. On this source basis, and the analysis of the remains of
the original Inca Coricancha, a number of hypotheses regarding the
possible astronomical function of this temple were formulated. Of
particular importance was the hypothesis of R.T. Zuidema and A. F.
Aveni, according to which observations at Coricancha were the structural skeleton of a specific Inca calendar cycle of 328 days. This article
presents a critical analysis of this hypothesis, based on long-term research and measurements carried out in the Coricancha by the authors of the text.
Basic references
Aveni, Anthony F.
1981
Horizon Astronomy in Incaic Cuzco. In: Archaeoastronomy in the Americas,
edited by Ray A. Williamson, A Ballena Press/Center for Archaeoastronomy
Cooperative Publication, Los Altos – College Park, pp. 305-318
1997
Stairways to the stars: skywatching in three great ancient cultures, J. Wiley,
New York, pp. 305-318.
Bauer, Brian S., and David S.P. Dearborn
1995
Astronomy and Empire in the Ancient Andes. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Béjar Navarro, Raymundo
1990
Arquitectura Inka: El templo del Sol o Qorikancha, Consejo Nacional de
Ciencia y Tecnología, Cuzco.
Duviols, Pierre
1976
Punchao, Ídolo mayor del Coricancha. Historia y tipología, Antropología
Andina, n° 1-2, Cusco, pp. 156-183
Farrington, Ian
2013
Cusco. Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World, University Press of
Florida.
Ladrón de Guevara A., Oscar,
1967
La Restauración del Coricancha y Templo de Santo Domingo, Revista del
Museo e Instituto Arqueológico, no. 21, UNSAAC, Cusco pp. 29-95.
Ziółkowski, Mariusz
2015
Pachap Unancha. El calendario metropolitano del Estado Inca. Ediciones El
Lector – Sociedad Polaca de Estudios Latnoamericanos, Arequipa.
227
Ziółkowski, Mariusz, Jacek Kościuk and Fernando Astete Victoria
2013
Astronomical Observations at Intimachay (Machu Picchu): A new approach
to an Old Problem” In Ancient Cosmologies and Modern Prophets. Proceedings of the 20th Conference of the European Society for Astronomy in Culture, edited by Ivan Sprajc and Peter Pehani, pp. 391 – 404. Slovene Anthropological Society, Ljubljana
Zuidema, R. Tom
1981
Inca Observations of the Solar and Lunar Passages Through Zenith and AntiZenith at Cuzco, [in] Archaeoastronomy in the Americas, edited by Ray A.
Williamson, A Ballena Press/Center for Archaeoastronomy Cooperative
Publication, Los Altos – College Park. pp. 319-342
1982
The sideral lunar calendar of the Inca, in: Archaeoastronomy in the New
World, Aveni A. F. (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge-LondonNew York, pp. 59-107.
2010
El Calendario Inca. Tiempo y Espacio en la Organización Ritual del Cuzco; la
Idea del Pasado, Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú / Fondo Editorial
Pontifi cia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima.
228