Paléorient
Early pottery kilns in the Middle East
Andrea Hansen Streily
Abstract
In this paper a current overview of the development of Neolithic and Chalcolithic pottery kilns in the Middle East is given in order
to initiate further, more detailed kiln studies. In the context of early pyrotechnology several issues concerning technical,
economic and social aspects of kiln construction and operation are addressed.
Résumé
L' évolution des fours de potiers au Proche-Orient pendant le Néolithique et le Chalcolithique est présentée dans le but de
susciter des études plus fines des fours. Dans le contexte des débuts de la pyrotechnologie sont posées différentes questions
portant sur les aspects techniques, économiques et sociaux de la construction et de l'utilisation des fours de potier.
Citer ce document / Cite this document :
Hansen Streily Andrea. Early pottery kilns in the Middle East. In: Paléorient, 2000, vol. 26, n°2. La pyrotechnologie à ses
débuts. Evolution des premières industries faisant usage du feu. pp. 69-81;
doi : https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.2000.4711
https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_2000_num_26_2_4711
Fichier pdf généré le 28/06/2022
Early Pottery Kilns
in
the Middle East
A. Hansen Streily
Abstract : In this paper a current overview of the development of Neolithic and Chalcolithic pottery kilns in the Middle East is given
in order to initiate further, more detailed kiln studies. In the context of early pyrotechnology several issues concerning technical,
economic and social aspects of kiln construction and operation are addressed.
Résumé : L' évolution des fours de potiers au Proche-Orient pendant le Néolithique et le Chalcolithique est présentée dans le but de
susciter des études plus fines des fours. Dans le contexte des débuts de la pyrotechnologie sont posées différentes questions portant
sur les aspects techniques, économiques et sociaux de la construction et de l'utilisation des fours de potier.
Key- Words : Pottery kilns, Firing temperatures, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Middle East, Pottery production.
Mots Clefs : Fours de potiers, Températures de cuisson, Néolithique, Chalcolithique, Moyen-Orient, Organisation de la production de poterie.
Paléorient, vol. 26/2, p. 69-81 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2001
4. Rye, 1981 25; Rice, 1987 162; Sheehy, 1988; Bernbeck, 1994
:
255.
5. Rye, 1981 98-100.
6. Moorey, 1994 150.
:
:
1. Moorey, 1994: 141-166.
2. Rye, 1981 24-25, 105-110; Hamer F. und Hamer J., 1990.
3. Drews, 1978-1979: 33-35.
:
Research on early pottery production in the Middle East
has primarily focused on the study of pottery whereas pottery
kilns and other installations of potters' workshops received
less attention1. This can be explained by the abundance of
pottery on the one hand, and the scarcity and elusive character
of workshop remains as well as the resulting problems of their
identification on the other hand.
The firing of pottery is the fundamental invention in
ceramic technology. Through firing at temperatures between
500 °C and 700 °C - depending on the type of clay - soft clay
is irreversibly transformed into a hard, durable, waterproof
and fire-resistant material 2. The introduction of pottery kilns
- defined as fixed fire installations with a more or less closed
kiln chamber - is a significant step towards controlling the
firing process3. Compared to open fires and firing
installations with a removable cover of non-combustible insulating
material, it requires much more efforts and technical expertise
to build and maintain a pottery kiln. Because fuel is usually
the raw material most difficult to be obtained, fuel
consumption is a decisive factor in pottery production. Fuel
consumption is higher in complex kiln structures, because the inner
surfaces heat up during firing4. The fuel/ clay ratio is
especially unfavourable in small kilns where the thermal loss rate
is estimated at 30-40 percent. However, the crucial
advantages of kiln firing are the even heat distribution and the way it
keeps of thermal energy which produces a homogeneous
firing result5. Therefore not only high firing temperatures
(1 000 °C to 1 300 °C) can be achieved but also the
temperature rise and the firing atmosphere (oxidizing or reducing) can
be regulated ; this leads to a reduction of the loss rate. This
explains why "kiln technology was vital to the full emergence
of pottery" 6 and can be regarded as an indispensable
prerequisite for specialization and mass production in ceramic
manufacture.
:
INTRODUCTION
Manuscrit reçu le 13 novembre, accepté le 14 décembre 2000
A. Hansen Streily
70
In their study on pottery kilns in the Ancient Orient
G. Delcroix and J.-L. Huot7 propose a typology based on two
main technical criteria : (1) the relationship between fuel,
draught and vessels, and (2) the position of the combustion
chamber which can either been built above the ground level
or dug into the ground. They distinguish six types of pottery
kilns related by a scheme of technological progress implying
a chronological development. Types I-III are built at ground
level ; types I and IIB are single-chamber kilns and types IIA
and III double-chamber ones. Types IV- VI are underground
double-chamber kilns.
The position of the combustion chamber is not only a
technical feature ; it also raises a building problem that concerns
insulation and stabilization which can be solved in different
ways. Delcroix and Huot reject morphological features like
the shape of the kiln chambers and the support of the grate as
typological criteria. It is certainly true that in many kiln
typologies of various historical periods too much attention has
been paid to morphological criteria. Nevertheless beside the
technical features that are characteristic, the proportions of all
the structural parts of a pottery kiln are relevant to its
function8. Therefore a typology of pottery kilns based on the
archaeological evidence has to consider technical and
morphological features classifying the former as primary
typological criteria and the latter as secondary ones9.
Pottery kiln typology has been criticized for equating
technological improvement from simple to complex structures
with an evolutionary model implying a chronological
sequence 10. A classification based on typology is a valuable
method for kiln studies since typologies do not necessarily
have to be diachronic. The complexity of fire installations
depends on the organizational level of pottery production and
can also vary according to the type of pottery to be produced.
Thus, the possibility of the simultaneous occurrence of simple
and complex kiln types has always to be kept in mind11.
The aim of this paper is not to propose a new typology,
this is the reason why kiln types are described in general
terms. Looking at the history of Neolithic and Chalcolithic
pottery kilns in the Middle East several questions concerning
technical, economic and social aspects of kiln construction
and operation arise. One technical issue is, for example, in
:
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7. Delcroix et Huot, 1972 ; see also the comments by Majidzadeh,
1975-1977 218-219.
8. Winter, 1978 40-42.
9. See for example the typology of Bronze Age pottery kilns in the
Aegean Hansen Streily, 2000 98-117.
10. Moorey, 1994 144.
11. Majidzadeh, 1975-1977: 220; Moorey, 1994: 144.
what way complex kiln technology and higher firing
temperatures are related. Did a reciprocal influence of technical
innovations between various crafts exist which had an impact on
kiln design ? Or, did pottery kilns derive from earlier
domestic and other industrial kilns ? What was the social and
economic context of early kiln operations ? How was pottery
production organized ? Did a division of labour exist ?
The study of pottery kilns is affected by various
restrictions related to publication, the limited excavation areas and/
or their poor preservation. While the lower part of the kiln
with the combustion chamber is generally more or less intact,
the superstructure, in most cases, has either collapsed or has
totally disappeared due to later levelling of the kiln area. Very
rare examples of kiln walls are preserved and are still
standing high enough to show the original height and the way the
kiln chamber is roofed. Furthermore the superstructure of a
pottery kiln could have been removed and built again with
every new firing. Functional analysis of the various domestic
and industrial kilns must be based not only on building
features but also on diagnostic finds. Regarding pottery kilns either
slag or wasters are indicative, but for different reasons they
are often lacking. To find a pottery kiln which had collapsed
during a firing with all vessels still in situ is a rare case. In
addition to their fragmentary preservation many kiln sites are
not published in detail. Without information on their
characteristic features critical assessment of kiln function is
impossible. In those cases I generally follow the functional
interpretation proposed by the excavators.
POTTERY KILNS IN THE MIDDLE EAST
Since the publication of Delcroix and Huot' s paper not
only the total number of excavated pottery kilns has increased
but the archaeological evidence especially for the Neolithic
and Chalcolithic period has been largely enriched 12. Today in
the context of early pyrotechnology, the attempt to bring
together what is known about Neolithic and Chalcolithic pottery
kilns seems justified in order to initiate more detailed kiln
studies. In this paper 89 kilns from 15 sites of Iran, Iraq and
Syria are discussed 13 (fig. 1). These absolute numbers clearly
show that we only know a small and very fragmentary part of
the thousands of kilns that must have been used from the
seventh to fifth millennia ВС in the Middle East.
12. Majidzadeh, 1975-1977; Alizadeh, 1985; Molist, 1986.
13. This does not claim to be a complete number.
Paléorient, vol. 26/2, p. 69-81 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2001
Early Pottery Kilns in the Middle East
71
л :
Telul eth-Thalathat
Yarim*Tepe3 \* Tepe
TellGawra
Arpachiyah
Fig. 1 : Map of Mesopotamia showing sites mentioned in the text.
from the baking chamber is built of clay. According to the
collapsed parts of the upper walls a domed kiln chamber can
be reconstructed. In level V, three round updraught kilns two of them situated next to each other - are reported 17. One
two-storey pottery kiln is described in more detail. The
combustion chamber (diameter 0,75 m) is dug into the ground to a
depth of 0,40 m. It is covered by a grate made of clay with
35-40 flues. As the walls, partly preserved, incline inwards it
suggests that the baking chamber was originally domed. At
Yarim Tepe I in levels V and IV characterized by Standard-
14. In this article I use a broad chronological order according to periods
5-9 in ASPRO (Hours et al., 1994 18).
15. Merpert and Munchaev, 1993 104. Unfortunately no information
on constructive features nor any measurements or figures are given.
16. Merpert and Munchaev, 1973a 6, pi. 3.3 and 1973b 102, pi. 40c.
17. Merpert and Munchaev, 1971 11 and 1973b 102, pi. 37;
Merpert et ai, 1978 28.
Paléorient, vol. 26/2. p. 69-81 © CNRS EDITIONS 2001
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The earliest evidence of pottery kilns is the ones belonging
to the Hassuna-cultme in Northern Mesopotamia l4. At Yarim
Tepe I, level X, in a context where "Coarse Hassuna la" and
"Archaic Hassuna" pottery is present, N. Merpert and
R. Munchaev mention a double-chamber updraught pottery
kiln with a grate15. In level VII, containing essentially
Archaic Hassuna pottery (Hassuna Ic-II) a double-chamber
updraught pottery kiln has been unearthed ; its round
combustion chamber is dug into the ground16. The grate (diameter
1,30 m) with ca. 50 flues separating the combustion chamber
A. Hansen Streily
72
\
PISE WALLS
\
Fig. 2 : Tell es-Sawwan, level IIIB. Plan of pottery kiln. (ABU ASSOOF, 1971 : fig. 5).
Fig. 4 : Tell Abada, level III. Plan and section of single-chamber
updraught kiln (scale 1 : 40). (JASIM, 1985 : fig. 33 no. 3).
:
:
18. Merpert and Munchaev, 1971 11 and 1973b 96-97, pi. 36.
19. Abu As-Soof, 1971 4, pis 1, 5-7, 12, 13.
:
Hassuna pottery the continuous use of the same production
area is testified by kiln locations. In level IV in this area at
least 13 round kilns (diameters up to 2 m) have been
unearthed 18. Since they are partly overlapping, it is obvious that
not all the kilns were used at the same time. The kilns are
:
Fig. 3 : Tell Songor A. Plan and section of two-storey kiln. (KAMADA
and OHTSU, 1996 : fig. 5).
situated outside the houses in an open courtyard showing
dense concentrations in specific areas. Some kilns are doublechamber updraught kilns with perforated grates; others, due
to their state of preservation, can be reconstructed either as
single-chamber or as double-chamber updraught kilns.
Around the kilns round pits are scattered filled with ashes and
charcoal. In level IV, there is the first evidence of an
"industrial quarter" dedicated to a craft involving pyrotechnological
processes. Since nearby wasters are reported, most likely the
kilns can be interpreted as pottery kilns.
Pottery kilns of the Samarra-culture have been found at
several sites along the middle course of the Tigris and in the
Hamrin as well. At Tell es-Sawwan in level IIIB, three
pottery kilns are situated in a courtyard ; one of them replaces an
earlier one at the same spot 19. One oval kiln (length 2 m) is
surrounded by a mudbrick enclosure (fig. 2). It has a clay
floor and the walls are built of pisé. As no indication for a
separation of the combustion chamber and the baking
chamber has been found, this structure must be regarded as singlechamber updraught kiln. At Tell Songor A, the underground
combustion chamber and parts of the perforated grate of a
Paléorient, vol. 26/2, p. 69-81 © CNRS EDITIONS 2001
Early Pottery Kilns in the Middle East
73
A—
A'
Fig. 5 : Tell Abada, level III. Plan and section of two-storey kiln (scale I : 40). (JASIM, 1985 : fig. 31 no. I).
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Paléorient. vol. 26/2. p. 69-81 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2001
:
23. Tite and Maniatis, 1975.
24. Noll, 1991.
25. Bernbeck, 1994 256-257, table 93 contrary Moorey, 1994 151.
:
20. Kamada and Ohtsu, 1996 60-63, figs 1, 3, pis 5, 6.
21. Jasim, 1985 53-54, figs 10, 11, 31, 32a, 33 (nos 1-3) and 1989
85-86.
22. Jasim, 1985 87, fig. 91.
: :
The appearance of pottery kilns in this period corresponds
to the remarkably high firing temperatures of 850-1 050 °C up
to 1 050-1 150 °C of the Samarra-pottery which can only be
achieved in a closed kiln chamber23. For Hassuna-pottery,
firing temperatures above 850 °C have been measured 24.
R. Bernbeck calculated the volumes of kiln chambers of some
of the pottery kilns mentioned above stating an obvious
difference of kiln sizes between Hassuna- and S amarra-culture25.
He interprets the much larger size of Samarra-kilns (average
size 2,1 m3) in comparison with the Hassuna-kilns (average
size 0,37 m3) as an indicator of a more efficient organisation
of pottery production. This proposal requires further
differentiation after the excavation of the more recently found pottery
kiln at Tell Songor A which has a volume of 0,52 m3. This
is much closer in size to Hassuna- than to Samarra-kilns
(according to Bernbeck, further arguments for the special
:
round two-storey kiln (diameter ca. 1 m) are preserved20
(fig. 3). A rare feature is the long stoking-channel (L. 0,80 m),
the floor of which is sloping down towards the combustion
chamber. At Tell Abada, level III, three pottery kilns are
situated in open areas next to the buildings located in the
western part and in the centre of the tell21. Large quantities of
sherds and debris were found nearby. Two round updraught
kilns (diameter 1,65-1,70 m) are built of mudbrick or pisé
above or just slightly below the ground level (fig. 4). The
single-chamber kilns were originally covered by a dome. A
rectangular two-storey kiln (2,25 x 1,70 m) presents mudbrick walls above the ground level (fig. 5). The grate is
supported by the vaulted combustion chamber. Plano-convex
gypsum discs (diameter 0,10-0,40 m) that were probably used
as turning devices and large quantities of red ochre also point
towards pottery manufacture22.
74
A. Hansen Streily
(У
Fig. 7 : Tell Abada, level II. Plan and section of single-chamber
downdraught kiln (scale I : 40). (JASIM, 1985 : fig. 35b no. 5).
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30. Dollfus et Hesse, 1977 15-16, figs 1, 11, pi. If (locus 1029).
31. Contrary Majidzadeh, 1975-1977 218-219.
32. Merpert and Munchaev, 1973b : 112 and 1987 23, fig. 10; Merpert et al., 1981 25, figs 1, 2.
33. Mallowan and Rose, 1935 16-17, 175, figs 3, 5c, pi. 21d.
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Bernbeck, 1995 34-35, fig. 2,8.
Jasim, 1985 53-54, figs 13, 34, 35 (nos 4-6) and 1989 79-85.
See above Tell Abada, level III kiln no. 3.
Jasim, 1985 54.
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26.
27.
28.
29.
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knowledge of potters are fixed rules in decoration and the
potters' marks on Samarra-pottery 26.
Pottery kilns are also known from several Ha/a/- sites in
Northern Mesopotamia, from the Hajji Mohammed/ 'Ub aid 2level at Tell Abada in Central Mesopotamia and from Jaffarabad, level 6, in the Susiana Plain in Iran.
At Tell Abada, level II, three pottery kilns of various types
and sizes are situated in open areas between the buildings of
the settlement27. A round updraught kiln (diameter 1,75 m)
has a single, domed chamber28 (fig. 6). The walls standing on
the ground are built of pisé. Another kiln is a rectangular
single-chamber downdraught one (1,10 x 0,50 m) the floor of
which is slightly sunk into the ground (fig. 7). In its backwall
a vent hole is preserved. Inside, a large rectangular bench is
built in order to protect the pots from direct contact with the
fire. S. Jasim29 suggests a multi-purpose function for this kiln
:
Fig. 6 : Tell Abada, level II. Plan and section of single-chamber updraught kiln (scale I : 40). (JASIM, 1985 : fig. 34 no. 4).
that was used either for firing pottery or for food preparation.
Due to its poor state of preservation the third kiln can not be
classified.
At Jaffarabad, level 6, a round updraught kiln (diameter
1 m) has been found30 (fig. 8). The combustion chamber is
completely dug into the ground. One layer of the mudbrick
wall of the baking chamber is preserved at ground level. The
kiln was fired through a sloping stoking-channel to the south
with two small tongues on both sides of the entrance to the
combustion chamber forming a kind of barrier. The inner
surfaces are plastered with a thick layer of clay. Since the walls
get wider towards the bottom of the combustion chamber
G. Dollfus and A. Hesse reconstruct a domed
superstructure31. Collapsed fragments of very long mudbricks with
transversal elements and trapezoid cross-section originally
belonging to the grate were found in the combustion chamber
indicating a two-storey kiln.
At Yarim Tepe II, Halaf period (level VIII) a round
double-chamber updraught kiln (diameter 1,85-1,98 m) was
found which replaces an earlier level IX kiln 32 (fig. 9). The
walls of the underground combustion chamber are lined with
clay. The kiln was fired through a stoke-hole (0,40 x 0,40 x
0,18 m) in the south wall. The grate which is built of clay has
an outer ring of six flues (diameter 0,15 m) and a larger one in
the middle (diameter 0,40 m). The upper storey is completely
lost. At Tell Arpachiyah, in level TT-6, next to a large
building in the centre of the settlement an oval, updraught kiln
(ca. 1,60 x 1,20m) has been unearthed33. A stoke-hole in the
south wall leads to the combustion chamber which is sunk
Paléorient, vol. 26/2, p. 69-81 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2001
Early Pottery Kilns in the Middle East
75
Fig. 8 : Jaffarabad, level 6. Plan and section of double-chamber updraught kiln. (DOLLFUS and HESSE, 1977 : fig. 1).
Fig. 9 : Yarim Tepe II, level VIII. Plan and section of two-storey kiln. (AUZADEH, 1985 : fig. 4).
Paléoríent, vol. 26/2. p. 69-81 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2001
35. Moorey, 1994 151.
36. Buccelatt et al., 1991 44-45, figs 5, 6.
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34. Yoffee, 1993 263.
in the Hamrin 35. At Tell Ziyada in the Khabur in the
transitional Halaf- 'Ubaid levels (phase A7) a single-chamber
updraught pottery kiln has been found filled with overfired
and incompletely fired vessels still in situ36 (fig. 10).
Obviously, the kiln was abandoned during the firing. It is a
large domed mudbrick structure (diameter 2,80 m) built
above the ground and reinforced outside by an additional
mudbrick wall (ca. 6x4 m). The kiln was fired through a
vaulted stoking-channel also built of mudbricks. At the back,
:
into the ground. The walls are lined with clay. A
tongue-shaped wall, also plastered with clay, divides the combustion
chamber in two parts. It probably served as support for the
lost grate. The nearby building was named "potter's
workshop" by the excavators because a lot of polychrome Halaf
pottery, tools and other workshop remains have been found
inside. However, on the basis of other finds, N. Yoffee
proposes to see in this building the house of a local ruler where a
potter's and a stone worker's workshop were located34.
Another pottery kiln of the Halaf-period is reported at Tell Hassan
76
A. Hansen Streily
Possible reconstruction
of Transitional Halaf-Ubaid
pottery kiln in Area A
A air flues
В raised floor
С shelf
D reinforcement wall
E firebox
Fig. 10 : Tell Ziyada, phase A7. Reconstruction of single-chamber updraught kiln. (BUCCELLATI, BUIA and REIMERS, 1991 : fig. 6).
:
Nissen, 1989 248-249.
Tobler, 1950 41, pis 17, 42a.
See above Yarim Tepe II, level VIII.
Alizadeh, 1985 43.
Fuji, 1981 182-183, pi. 20i.
: :
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
:
Moorey, 1994: 152-153.
Tite and Maniatis, 1975.
Nissen, 1990 48.
Tite and Maniatis, 1975.
Nissen, 1990: 49-51, 66-67.
:
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
change in the organization of the working process towards a
growing division of labour, craft specialization and increasing
production 42.
Pottery kilns of the 'Ubaid 3-period have been excavated
at several northern and southern Mesopotamian sites and at
Jaffarabad in the Susiana Plain as well. At Tepe Gawra, level
XVI, three kilns are situated in an open court close to a large
building complex in the Northern part of the settlement43.
One of them is described in detail. The combustion chamber
of the round updraught kiln (diameter 0,85 m) is dug in the
ground while the baking chamber (diameter 1,10 m) is built
of mudbrick walls above ground level. The two storeys of the
kiln are separated by a perforated grate with an outer ring of
eleven small flues and a large one in the centre44. As the
walls of the upper chamber slightly incline inwards, the
excavator reconstructed a dome. At Telul eth-Thalathat more than
twenty pottery kilns and firing pits were unearthed45. Two
different kiln types occur : single-chamber downdraught kilns
and two-storey kilns with grate. All kilns are round in plan.
At Tell Songor B, level I, eight pottery kilns are densely
grouped on the southern slope while three isolated kilns are spread
further north 46. With the exception of one kiln, only the dug
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half of the floor is raised and plastered with pebbles and mud.
Under the pebble plaster an air flue serves for ventilation.
Studies on Halaf-pottery which is distinguished by its high
technical quality and polychrome painted decoration
emphasize the sophisticated skills and technical knowledge of the
potters including a remarkable control of the firing process 37.
Halaf-pottery was fired at temperatures of 850-1 050 °C
probably under oxidizing conditions38. But although potters of
the Halaf-culture have been specialists, pottery production
does not seem to have been based on the principle of division
of labour 39.
'Ubaid pottery is widely distributed from Northern to
Southern Mesopotamia, Syria, Eastern Anatolia and as far as to
the Mediterranean coast of Cilicia and the Arabian coast of
the Persian gulf. It is a uniform pottery style fired at
consistently high temperatures of 1050-1 150 °C in a reducing
atmosphere 40. The 'Ubaid pottery, in contrast with the Halaf
one, is decorated with simpler patterns such as bands, wavy
lines and festoons. H.J. Nissen convincingly argued that the
predominance of circular patterns reflects the use of a pivoted
turntable ("tournette") used for the painting process41. The
adoption of the turntable in the 'Ubaid period might indicate a
Paléorient, vol. 26/2, p. 69-81 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2001
Early Pottery Kilns in the Middle East
77
Fig. 12 : Tell Abada, level I. Plan and section of single-chamber kiln
(scale 1 : 40). (JASIM, 1985 : fig. 40c no. 17).
Fig. 11 : Tell Abada, level I. Settlement plan with kiln locations
indicated by a star. (STEIN, 1996 : fig. 3,3).
:
out pits of the underground combustion chambers are
preserved. The majority of eight kilns are small round structures
(diameter ca. 1 m) ; only two oval examples are larger (2 x
1 m). The state of preservation of these kilns does not allow a
clear typological classification. They can either be
reconstructed as simple pit kilns, as single-chamber updraught kilns or
as the remains of two-storey kilns. Among them a round
double-chamber updraught kiln (diameter 1,50 m) has been
found with a grate perforated by 17 flues still in place.
The best evidence comes from Tell Abada, level I, where
16 kilns of various types are located in the open space
between the buildings47 (fig. 11). Some of them are isolated but
mostly they form clusters of three up to five kilns. Two of
these clusters are surrounded by walls. Three types of kilns
can be distinguished (1) oval single-chamber kilns (fig. 12),
(2) round two-storey kilns (figs 13-15), and (3) a kiln with a
ventilation system of six connected vent holes leading outside
to a larger one; its closest parallel is a kiln found at Tepe
Sialk level 111,1, but its function is still uncertain48. A cluster
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of four round two-storey kilns is enclosed by a wall 49. The
combustion chambers of those kilns which are built above the
ground are separated from the baking chamber by perforated
grates (fig. 14). Since in level I the combustion chambers of
the other two-storey kilns are entirely dug into the ground, the
wall enclosure had possibly an insulating and wind protecting
function. Three other round two- storey kilns with perforated
grate which are isolated are distinguished by an underground
combustion chamber (figs 13 and 14). They were fired either
through a stoke-hole at ground-level steeply sloping down to
the combustion chamber or through a firing pit dug outside, in
front of the combustion chamber. Four oval single-chamber
kilns have been found (fig. 12) : only the bottoms of their kiln
chambers which are more or less sunk below the ground are
preserved. S. Jasim assumed a temporary superstructure. Two
channels supplied the settlement with water which is also a
basic requirement for pottery production50.
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Paléorient, vol. 26/2, p. 69-81 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2001
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49. See above Tell es-Sawwan, level IIIB.
50. Jasim, 1985 32-33, figs 25, 27, pi. 6.
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47. Jasim, 1985 53-54, figs 25, 35-40 and 1989 86-89. The general
plan of level I (Jasim, 1985 fig. 25) indicates 16 kilns, whereas only 12 kilns
are published with plans (Jasim, 1985 figs 35a, 36-40) and described in the
text.
48. Ghirshman, 1938 36, figs 5, 6. Another interpretation is proposed
by Delcroix et Ниот, 1972 48-50, fig. 4; Moorey, 1994 154.
Fig. 13 : Tell Abada, level I. Plan and section of two-storey kiln
(scale 1 : 40). (JASIM, 1985 : fig. 39b no. 13).
A. Hansen Streily
78
:
:
;
53. Majidzadeh, 1989.
54. Langsdorff and McCown, 1942 6-7, figs 4-6 Delcroix et
Ниот, 1972 52, fig. 4; Majidzadeh, 1975-1977 213-214, fig. 2,2.
:
51. Stein, 1996 28-29, figs 3,2 and 3,3.
52. Dollfus et Hesse, 1977 29-31, figs 7, 8, 12, pi. lc (loci 748, 559).
:
might be the remains of a collapsed dome or of the grate of
the kiln. Slag and wasters confirm the function of pottery kiln.
Another smaller round kiln presumably built later is situated
next to it.
In Iran, on the Central Plateau in the northern part of the
settlement of Tepe Ghabristan (level IX) two coppersmiths'
and three potters' workshops are grouped along the main
road53. The best preserved potter's workshop consists of two
workrooms and a rectangular single-chamber kiln (2,20 x
1,80 m). Its mudbrick walls are built against the outer wall of
the workroom. A stone palette and a large stone mortar both
with traces of ochre and a vessel of specific shape that were
found in the kiln chamber and in the workrooms might be
witnesses of pottery manufacture. A round double-chamber
updraught kiln (diameter 1,80 m) with a long sloping stokingchannel is part of a later potter' s workshop. The combustion
chamber is entirely sunk into the ground. The walls are lined
with clay. In the middle of the combustion chamber a column
(height 0,80 m) served as support for the grate.
In the 'Ubaid 4-period on the Iranian Plateau, at Tall-iBakun, level I, two round double-chamber updraught kilns
(diameters 1,20m and 2 m) are reported54. The pisé wall of
one of them still standing to its original height that is
indicated by the smoothed border of the open baking chamber. The
perforated grate is supported by a tongue-shaped wall. The
:
The even spatial distribution of kilns throughout the part of
the settlement which has been exposed and their
concentration in several distinct areas indicate independent
workshops51. The comparatively small sizes of the kilns may also
be taken as an argument for a decentralized pottery
production. The differentiation between the potters' workshops is
expressed by the great variety of kilns that range from simple
to sophisticated kiln types. The concentration of kilns in
specific areas throughout the site and the occurrence of elaborate
kiln types with complex technical features point towards craft
specialization.
At Jaffarabad, in level 3m-n, two round single-chamber
updraught pottery kilns are close one to the other 52. The pit of
the circular combustion chamber (diameter 1,80 m) of one
kiln is preserved. It is lined with a clayplaster and filled with
sherds, ash and charcoal, collapsed mudbricks including
perforated slabs. Many slags and wasters found in and around the
kiln confirm that it was a pottery kiln. The second kiln
(diameter 1,60 m) is built of mudbrick walls the inner surfaces of
which are plastered with clay. An inner and an outer wall can
be distinguished, the inner one being made just inside the
outer wall apparently in order to replace it. The kiln chamber
is sunk into the ground to a depth of 0,30 m. It was fired
through a short stoking-channel located in the east wall. In the
kiln chamber a compact layer of mudbricks was found which
: :
Fig. 15 : Tell Abada, level 1. Plan and section of double-chamber
updraught kiln (scale 1 : 40). JASIM, 1985 : fig. 38 no. 9).
:
Fig. 14 : Tell Abada, level I. Plan and section of two-storey kiln
(scale 1 : 40). (JASIM, 1985 : fig. 35a no. 11).
Paléorient, vol. 26/2, p. 69-81 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2001
Early Pottery Kilns in the Middle East
79
Fig. 16 : Tell el 'Oueili, level I. Plan and section of two-storey kiln. (HUOT et al., 1978 : fig. 12).
CONCLUSIONS
:
To date, in the Middle East the earliest known pottery kiln
is the one found at Yarim Tepe level X ; it can be dated to the
second half of the 7th millennium ВС. During the 6th
mil ennium ВС, an increasing number of kilns appear in Northern
and Central Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian pottery kilns, from
the very beginning onwards, reveal complex constructions
with elaborate structural features56. Two factors should be
considered (1) Kiln technology is based on pyrotechnological experience in firing clay objects in camp fires and in firing
other materials such as limestone or gypsum to produce
plaster. (2) The obviously rapid adaptation of pottery kilns is
related to the emergence of pottery in the second half of the 7th
millennium ВС and its wide use during the 6th millennium
ВС 57. The emergence of pottery does not only presume a
:
:
55. Ниот et al., 1978 206-207, figs 12, 21.
56. Moorey, 1994: 144.
Paléorient. vol. 26/2. p. 69-81 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2001
cific knowledge in ceramic technology but can be considered
as a result of the need for containers with certain qualities.
Thus, the adaptation of a technical innovation - in this case
pottery kilns - is not necessary simultaneous with its
invention mainly depends on being accepted as an aid for solving
certain problems 58.
Regarding the design of early pottery kilns it can be stated
that the range of kiln types is comparatively small. Updraught
kilns are prevailing both as single- and double-chamber kilns.
Single-chamber kilns, from the technological viewpoint,
represent a simple version : both fuel and pottery are in direct
contact in the same reaction vessel during firing. This might
have led to unevenly fired material occasionally. Doublechamber kilns are an advanced construction, as fuel was
separated from the charged pottery without doubt, a better quality
control on the pottery was possible in this way. Amazing in
any respect was the range of temperatures achieved in these
kilns. Single-chamber downdraught kilns only occur at Tell
Abada in level II and in Telul eth-Thalathat. Though the type
of the two-storey pottery kilns is widespread, it shows
considerable variety in detail. Kilns are mostly round or oval in
plan ; few rectangular structures occur as well. Prominent
features are the long stoking-channels of the kilns at Tell Songor
A and at Tell Ziyada. While at Tell Songor A the stokingchannel may be caused by specific environmental conditions,
at Tell Ziyada it can be explained by the large volume of the
kiln chamber (inner diameter 2,80 m) which required a rein57. Le MtÈRE et Picon, 1999.
58. The same is true for the introduction of the pivoted turntable in
'Ubaid pottery production as H.J. Nissen (1990 66-67) has shown.
:
kiln was fired through a stoking channel sloping down to the
combustion chamber. In southern Mesopotamia, at Tell el
'Oueili, level I, four pottery kilns have been exposed on the
surface, only one of them being excavated55 (fig. 16). It is a
round double-chamber updraught kiln (diameter 1,60 m). The
perforated grate which covers the underground combustion
chamber is suspended; this might explain its remarkably
thickness (0,40 m). Dispersed wasters are reported.
80
A. Hansen Streily
These limited conclusions which can be drawn underline
the need for further research in this field and should be a call
for detailed publications of pottery kilns. Concerning
functional analysis it should be necessary to include the study of
pottery kilns in the context of all the fire installations found in
one site before applying a wider approach61. Since diagnostic
finds are often lacking, here also subtle typology may solve at
least some problems. Looking at early pottery kilns in the
Middle East this papers tried to give an idea of the potters'
pyrotechnical experience and expertise. Further research on
fire installations and the connected complex pyrotechnological processes is required in order to gain a full understanding.
AKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank Dr. Andreas Hauptmann, Bochum, and one of the
anonymous reviewers of Paléorient for their useful comments and
suggestions.
Andrea HANSEN STREILY
Ostring 26
D - 44787 Bochum
Germany
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