r
O c u la
D r aw t u b e
-
'
B od y T
u be a
Rac k
Coar s e
N
o se p i e c e
P in ion
Ad j
u s tm e n t
,
M i c r o m e t e r H e ad o f
A dj
Fi n e
u s tm e n t s
Ob j e c t i v e s
g
S ta e _
g
Fi n e
U pp e r I r i s D i ap h r a m
Su b st a e R i n
g
Ad j
Pi llar
g
g
Con d e n ser M ou n t i n
L o w e r Ir i s Di ap h ra m
g
Co n d e n s e r Foc u s i n
M i r r or
M irr or
g
u st m e n t
Pr ism
'
W as h e r
S
I n c li n at i o n Joi n t
Fo r k
M i r r or B ar
Pi llar
H orse Sh oe B ase
Illustrating
the
p arts
of
a compoun d m i croscope
.
( From S tev ens )
.
PHA RMA C E U T IC A L BO T A N Y
BY
‘
HEBER W YO U NG K EN PH G
.
A S S IS T AN T
.
,
A S S O CI A T I ON
,
A IVI
,
MA C OGN OS Y A T T H E M E D I QO— C H T R U RGT C A L
P H A RMA CE U T IC A L A S S OCIA H d N A mEm t A N
P RO F E S S O R OF B OT A N Y A N D P HAR
CO L L E G E ; M E MB E R OF T HE A M E RI CA N
.
’
’
,
F O R T HE A DV A N C E M E N T
OF S CI E N CE, E r e ,
E D IT ED BY
F
.
E
P R O F E S S OR OF
.
ST EWA RT
MA T
A N 'D C HE M IS T RY;
OF
E Rr
A
ME D I C A
M E DIOO
'
,
L
,.
M D
.
D E PA R T
.
,
PH G
ME N T
,
.
S O F P HA RM A C Y
'
OH I 'RU RG I CA L COLLE GE ; A U T HO R
'
CO M P E N D O F P H A RMA CY
ILLU ST RAT E D
P H I L A D E L P HI A
P
’
B LA K I S T O N S S O N
1 0 1 2 W A L N U T S T RE E T
CO
.
PREFA C E
ai m has been to eliminate from this book all tho se topics that
are of minor importance to the student and practitioner of P harmacy
A s apharmacist and teacher the writer feels that the bota n ical prepa
ration for Pharm oc ogn osy and M ateria M edica i n those colleges where
B otany is given f or one year should include mainly the structural and
systematic aspects of the science In the M edico Chir urgical C ollege
of P hiladelphia B otany is taught the fir s t year extending over ap eriod
of r 55 hours T he a u thor has introduced in this concise volume the
important s ubj ect matter of his lectures given to first year students
and has omitted laboratory directions for the obvious reason that fixed
sub j ects for laboratory study are unnecessary It is not a bo ok on
P harmacogno sy howe v er since it do es not describ e how one drug
differs from another of the same group in all of its detail s
P art I is largely devoted to the
T h e work is included in two parts
m o rphology ( gross and minute ) and to a less extent the physiology of
the A ngiosperms P art II deals with the taxo nomy of plants mainly
but not wholly of medicinal value together with the parts used and the
names of the o fficial and non ofii c i al drugs obtained from these
T h e author do es no t claim sole originality for the facts presented
but has consulted many sources of information mention of which will
be fo und in the bibliography of the text
A cknowledgment is here made to his esteemed friends D r Francis
E
Stewart of the M edico C hirurgical C ollege and D r John M
M acfarlane of the U ni v of P enn a for v aluable assistance i n the
reading of the proofs and preparation of the index
T he
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H
P HI LAD E LP H I A
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W
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Y
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FO REWO RD
'
In a monograph entitled A n Ol d System and a N ew Science
published in 1 88 2 I advocated a return to the classification in which
knowledge relating to the M ateria M edica is embraced under the
'
'
general head P h armacology ; in my address as C hairman of the
Sec tion on M ateria M edica P harmacy and T herap eutics delivered at
the f orty sev en th annual m eeting ( 1 8 96 ) of the A merican M edi cal
A ssociation the sam e was again suggested ; and in numerous papers on
th e subj ect since contributed to medical and pharmaceutical societies
and press the same plea was repeated
It is therefore gratifyi n g to
note the adoption of this cla s sification by the N ational C ommittee
R epresenting the B oards and Schools of P harmacy of the U nited
'
S tates for its
P harmaceutical Syllabus
and also to note its i n
co rporation into the N ew Y ork S tate P harmacy L aw and adOpti o y
nc e of
t he B oard of R egents of the Stat e of N e w Y ork for the guida
t eachers of pharmacy in that state
P harmacology in its widest scope embraces the study of dr ugs from
every po ssible po i nt of V iew A s limited to the study of the changes
incited in li v ing organisms by the administration of drugs we have
e xcellent text bo oks by C u sh n ey
So llman and others
B ut these
works dem and for their prop er study more extended education than
required by the national syllabus or the needs of the pharmaceutical
student T he obj ect of the Stewart P harmacologic M anual s is to supply
text books suitable for pharmacists and pharmaceutical colleges and
prepared in accordance with the national syllabus
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S
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C O NT ENT S
P A RT
T
er m i n ology
I
and M or p hology
C HA P T E R I
PA G E S
B OT AN Y I Structural B otany or P lant M orphology
P hysi ologi cal B otany
B otany 4 E con om i c or
3 G e ographi cal
A ppl ie d B otany
6 Syst emati c B otany or
5 G e ologi cal B ot any
Veg e tabl e T axonomy 7 Veg etable E cology
CLASSI FI CAT I ON OF P LAN T S
N a tural Syst em : typ e ;
class ; se ries ; ord er ;
f a mi ly ; g en us ; sp ecies ; ind ivi dual ; varie ty ; ra c e ; hybri d
SU B DIV I S I ON OF T HE VE G E T AB LE K I N G D OM
P hanerog ams ; C ryptogams ;
A ngi osp erms ; G ym nosp erms ; M onocotyl edons ; D i cotyle do n s
VE G E T AB LE CYT OL OGY ( Cellula r S tructure) C eU ; P rotopl asm ; P rotoplasmi c
Cell C o nt ents ; N on P rotoplasmi c Ce ll C ont ents
VE G E T AB LE HI ST OL OGY ( Plant T i ssues) Li st o f T i ssues and D efini ti on s
DI V
I S I ON S OF
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CH A P T E R II
Veg etativ e Organ s : Roots ; P l an t Hai rs ;
S t ems ; an d L eav es
Reproducti v e Organs : Flow ers ; F rui ts ; an d S eeds
T H E ROOT
D efini ti on ; f uncti o ns ; root h ai rs ; root cap ; g enerati v e ti ssu es
di ff e r enc es b e tween root and st e m
CL AS SI FI CAT I ON OF ROOT S A S T o F ORM
P r i mary root ; s e co n d ary roots ;
f orms of roots ; an omalous roots ; adv en ti t i ous roots ; ep iphyti c roots
C LAS SIFI CAT I O N OF P L A N T S A CCORD IN G T o D U RAT I O N OF RO OT
A nn u al
Bienni al ; P erenni al
ROOT H I ST OL OG Y
M onocotyl edon s ; D i cotyl edo ns
T HE B U D
D e fini ti on ; first bud ; sc aly buds ; nak ed buds ; leaf buds ; flowe r
b uds ; mi x ed buds ; bud pos i ti o ns
D efini ti on ; f uncti o ns ; st em s iz e ; di re cti on of g rowth ; elonga ti o n ;
T H E ST E EL
durati on ; abov e ground st ems ; underground st ems ; exo genous ; e ndoge
n ous
A E x ogens: I A nn ual Di cotyls
2
P e r ennial Di cotyls
ST E M H I ST O L OG Y
an d thei r trans i ti o nal ch ang es L enti c els an d T hei r Forma ti on : D e fi
A nnu al T hi ck ening of St e ms : M e thod o f
ni ti on ; structur e ; f u n ct i o n
'
'
annual ring
Bark : D efini tion ; D i stin ction b etween
f orma ti on ;
rm a
cog ni c a
nd C omm e rc ial d e si gna ti o n O f z o ne s ; P E RID E RM
B
Ph a
E ndogem : M onocotyls
P LAN T
ORGAN S
AND
OR G A N I S M S
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2 0— 23
CO N T E N T S
X
PL AN T
H AI RS
T
OR
RI C H OME s
D e fini ti on ; f orms ; f un cti ons
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.
p arts ; C omple t e Leaf ; s essile ; p e tiolat e ;
exstipula t e ; stipulat e ; structur e of blade Leaf Venati on : p arallel
re ti cul at e ; p innately an d p alma t ely v eine d
FO RMS OF LE AV E S
Si mpl e an d C ompoun d
( a) G ene ral O utli ne : ov at e ;
ellipti cal ; Oblong ; obl ique ; orb icular ; p elta te ; fili for m ; obova t e ; O blance
olat e ; cu neat e ; sp a tula te ; a c e rose ; deltoi d ( b ) A p ex : a cute ; a cumi nat e ;
obtus e ; truncat e ; mucrona te ; cusp ida te ; aristate ; e ma rginat e ; re tuse ;
obcordat e ( c ) Base : corda te ; renif orm ; hasta te ; a uricula t e ; sagi tta te
( d ) M argi n : enti re ; s e rra t e ; dent at e ; crenat e ; r ep an d ; sinuat e ; inci se d
runcina te ; lob ed ; clef t ; p art ed ; divide d F orms o f C ompound L eav es
LE AF T E X T U R
M embranous ; succule n t ; scar i ous ; coriac eous
LE A F C O L O R
Va ria tions i n color
LE AF SU RF A CE
G labr0 us ; gl aucous ; p elluci d pu n ct a te ; scabrous ; pub escen t
vi llos e ; seri ci ous ; hi sp id ; tomentos e ; sp inose ; rugos e ; v e rrucos e
e iI ec t of
LE AF D U RA T I O N
r du c ou s ; f ug a c i ous ;
E v ergr een ; d e c i duous ; c a
cli mat e
LE AF IN SE RT I ON
D efini ti on ; radi cal ; c a ul ine ; ramal ; p er f olia t e ; cl asp ing ;
conna te p erf oliat e ; equi tant
s
PH YLLOT A X Y
D efini ti on ; alte rna t e ; opposi te ; v erti cilla t e or whorle d ; f a
c iele d or tu f ted ; law of sp iral a rrang em ent ; leaf rank s
VE RN AT ION D efini ti on ; i nfl ex ed ; condupli cate ; ci rcinate ; pl i cat e ; involut e ;
r evolute
IN F LORE S CE N CE OR A N T H OT A X Y D e terminat e Indeterminat e ; M ixed ; P arts
of I n fl ores ce n c e s Forms o f D e t e rmi n a t e a
n d Ind e t e rm ina t e I nflor esc e n ces
PRE FL ORAT I ON ~
V alvat e ; v exillary ; con torted
T HE FL OWE R
D efini ti on ; floral p arts ; di stingui shing charact eri st i cs ; P e ri
gone
T HE C A LYx
D efini ti on ; p arts ; physi ca
l characteri sti cs ; co nna tion ; kinds
and f orms ; p ersi st enc e ; ad nati on
T HE C O ROLLA
D efini ti on ; physi cal ch aract eri sti cs ; p arts ; f uncti o n s ; f orms
of C oroll a a
n d P e rian th
T HE A N DROE CI U M O R ST AME N SYST E M ~D e fini tl0 n ; structur e ; t erms d enoting
n umb er of stamens i n flower ; t erms denoting connection b etween sta mens ;
te rms den oting posi tion ; te rms denoting attachm ent o f anothe r to fila
m en t ; dehi sc enc e P ollen: descriptio n ; f orms
T HE G Y N O E CI U M O R P I ST IL SYST E M
D e finltl0 n ; G ymnosp ermous a
nd
A ngi osp ermous ; p arts ; th e p i sti l a modified l eaf ; carp el : d eh i sc en c e ;
compound p istil ; an ovul e a tran sf orm e d bud ; posi ti o n of ovules i n ovary ;
G ymnosp ermous a
n d A ng i osp e rmous ovul e s ; structur e of A ng i osp e rmous
ovule ; shap e of ovul e
T H E P LACE N T A
D efini ti on ; pl ac ental arr ang em ent
P O L LI N A T I ON ~ D e fini ti on ; C los e a
n d C ross P ollina t i o n ; t rms applie d to
pl an ts pollinat ed by various age nc i
FO RMAT I O N OF M A LE A N I FE M A L E
FE RT I L I ZAT I ON I N A N G I O SFE RMs
P roc e ; f or m ati on o f embryo and c m lo
sp e rm
T
HE
LE A R
D e fini ti on ; f uncti ons ;
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4 9 50
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C ON T E N T S
modifica tions ; distri bution
FRU I T ST RU CT U RE
P er ic a rp ; exoca rp ; endoc a rp ; ep i carp ; s a rcoca rp ; m eso
c a rp ; putam en ; dehisc enc e
CL ASS IF I CAT I ON O F FRU IT S
Si mpl e ; A ggrega t e ; M ul tipl e ; dry de hi sc en t
dry in d eh i sc ent ; fl e shy ind ehiscent
T HE SE E D
D efini ti on ; structur e app en d ag es
M ODE OF FORM AT I ON OF D I FFE RE N T T YP E S OF A LB U M E N
P e ri sp ermi c ; endo
Sp er rni c ; p eri sp e rmi c a
n d en dosp e rm i c ; exalbumin ous a
n d albumi n o us
s eeds
T HE FR U
IT
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D e fin i ti on ;
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SO S I
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P A RT
T
II
ax onom y
A D e fini ti on C ha ra cters of the M yx omycetes Schi zophyta
A lg a
e F ung i a
n d Li ch ene s
Lif e H istory O f Cl av i ceps purp ur ea
P l ants
of th e group y ieldi ng ofli c i a
l dr ugs
B RYOP HY T A De fl ni ti on C hara ct ers of th e Hepati c aaand M usci Lif e
history of a typ i cal tru e moss
D efini t i on
P T E RID OP HY T A
Ch ara ct ers of th e Lycopo di al es E q ui s e tal e s
an d Fili cal es L if e H i sto ry of atyp i cal f ern P lan ts of the group yield
l drugs
in g Ofli c i a
n d of th ei r
D efl n i ti on
Ch aract ers of th e A ngi osp e r m i aa
SPE RM AT OP HYT A
cl ass es and f ami l ie s y ieldi n g dr u g s T able s of ofii ci al an d unofli c i al
dr ugs w ith the nam es of plants and p arts consti tuting th e dr u g C ha r
ac t ers of th e G ym nosp er m i aand of th e f ami ly y ieldi n g O fli ci al dr ugs
l and uno fficial dr ugs y ield e d by G ym n osp erms
T abl e of O fli c i a
T
A
H L LO P H YT
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54 55
T E XT
—
B OOK
OF
P H A RM A C E U T I CAL B OT A N Y
P A RT
T E RM I N
I
O LO G Y A N D M O RP H O L O G Y
D IVIS IO N S O F
I
.
B OT
A NY
l B ota
ny or P l a
nt M orph ology treats of the various
Structura
organs or parts of a plant as root stem flower fruit etc with their
special forms and modifications It also includes Vege tabl e H istology ,
that p art of structural botany which considers the minute or micro
l structure Of plant tissues and Ve ge ta
b l e Cytology , which treats
scopi c a
n d their contents
O f plant cells a
l Bota
ny explain s how the various parts of the plant
2
P hysi ol ogi ca
perform their work of growth reproduction and the preparation of food
for the support of ani mal life from substances not adapted to that use
l B ota
ny treats of the distribution of plant life on
ph ica
3 G eogra
T h e centre O f distribution for each plant is the habitat or
the glob e
origin al source from which it spreads oft e n over widely distant regions
ny deals with the science from a pr a
c
4 E con om i c or A ppli e d B ota
tical standpoint showing the special adaptation of the vegetable king
dom to the needs Of everyday life
l B ota
n y treats of the pla nts of former ages trac eable
5 G eologi ca
in their fossil remains
ti c B otany or Ve ge ta
ble T a
x onom y considers the classi
6 System a
fic ati on or arrangement of plants i n groups or ranks according to their
res emblances or differences
bl e E c ol ogy treats of plants in relation to th eir
7 Ve g e ta
e nvironment
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CLA S SIFICA T
ION
OF P LA N T S
B y grouping together thos e plants which are in some respects simi
lar and combining these groups with others it is possible to form som e
,
PH
2
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT A N
Y
thing like an orderly system of cla ssification Such a system b ased
'
'
upon natural resemblances is called a n atural sy stem .
T ype s represent general plans of structure
Classes re
A Cl a
ss is formed by special modificati o n of a type
sembling each other are called S eri e s
A n O rder is a group of the same class related by a common
structure
m il y is a group of the same order related by a common
A Fa
structure
A G e nu s i s a still smaller group having the same essential
structure
A S pe ci e s is the smallest group whose structure is constant
l is a unit of organic life forming a complet e animate
A n Ind ivi du a
existence
R aces and varieties are both
A Va
ce
r i e ty is a peculiarity of Ra
sub di v isions of species
A Hyb ri d is a cross breed of two v arieties or species rarely O f two
genera
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SU B DIV ISIO N S OF T ILE
T he
VE G E T
A B LE K IN G D OM
two great sub divisions of the v egetable kingdom are
P ha
n e roga
m s or flowering plants and Cryptoga
m s or fl owerle ss
plants
T h e P hanerogams are further divided into
A n gio spe rm s , characteri z ed by having their seeds enclosed within
a box like covering
Gym n o sperm s , which h a
ve their seeds borne naked ( T hey are
polycotyledonous )
T h e A ngiosperms are classified according to the numb er of their
cotyledons or seed leaves in the emb ryo into :
M ono c otyl e donou s pl a
n ts , which have one cotyledon a
s Indian
Corn an d Ginger and
D ico tyl e donou s plan ts , which have two cotyledons as B urdock
and Ip ecacuanha
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VE G E T
A B LE CYST OLOGY
CE LLULA R S T RU CT U RE
b o dies of all plants are m ade up of one or more units of
ture called cells
T he
.
st r u c
PH
4
AR MA CE U T
IC
A L B OT A N Y
to the position of the cells in which plastids occur and
the work they perform they differ in color v i z :
Le u copla
sts are colorless plastids found in the underground portio n s
of a plant and also in seeds and th e egg cell T heir fun ction is to build
up reserve starch from sugar and other carbohydrates as well as to
change the reserve starch back into sugar when it is needed for the
growth of the plant
sts are plastids found in cells exposed t o light and contai n
Ch loropla
the green pigment chlorophyll
sts are plastids found in c ells independent Of their rela
Chr om opla
tion to light or darkness and contain the yellow o r o range pigment
called c hromophyll
D uring cell di v ision another protoplasmic body appears called a
c e n tr o s o m e
N ON P R OT OP L A S MI C CE LL C O N T E N T S
A S SI MIL A T I ON
I
r ch
S ta
A ccording
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RE SE RV
Inuli n
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E
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S u ga
rs
such as DE X T ROS E LE V U L OSE S ACCH A RO SE
M A N N I T OL
G EN T I A N OS E
Cell sa
p c olor s ( in solution of cell sap )
Alka
lo i ds
Glu co sides
N e utra
l P ri nc ipl e s
Feebly ba
si c substa
n ce s
Ale uron e gr a
i ns
ROS E T T E A G G RE G A T E S
M ON O C L I N I C P R I S M S
lcium O x al ate CRY S T A L F IB RE S
1 0
Ca
RAP H I DE S
M I CR O CRY ST A L S
I r
Cystoli th s
T a
nni n
1 2
Gum s a
nd Muc ila
ge
I3
O ils
I4
I 5 Re si n s
P R OT E OL Y T I C
E n zym e s
D I AS T A SE S
1 6
I N V E RT A S E S
3
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M ALT OSE ,
PL
AN T
P LAN T
T I S SU E S
T
5
ISSUE S
ti s sue is an aggregation of cells of common source structur e
and function in intimate union
A ccording to structure the following tissues a
re found in various
forms of higher plants :
A
,
.
1
.
2
.
3
4
M E RI S T
.
LA T
EM
P A RE N CH YME
CRIB I F ORM
COLL E N CH YME
W OOD Y F IB RE T I SSU E
HAR D B A S T
T R ACH E AR Y T I SS U E
M E D U L L AR Y R A Y S
SCLE R E N CH YME
.
5 E P ID E R MI S
6 E N D ODE RMI S
.
.
7
I CLFE R OU S T I SSU E
OR SI E V E T I SS U E
C ORK
.
A
mass of tissue so united in the plant as to constitute a distinct
u nit i s called a ti ssu e system T hree systems of tissues are commonly
distinguished in high er forms of plants :
.
T
H E E P ID E RM L OR T E G U M E N T
T
H E F U N D ME N T
T
H E F IB ROV
A
A
AR Y S Y S T
EM
AL S Y S T E M
A SCU LA R S Y S T E M
M e ri stem , frequently called emb ryon ic tissue is undi ff erentiated
tissue composed of c ells in the state of rapid di v ision
Pa
r e n chym e or Fu n da
m e nta
l T i s su e is the soft ground tissue of
plants co n sisting of cells about equal i n length breadth and thickness
( iso diametric ) with thin cellulose cell walls enclosin g protoplasm and
a nucleus T hre e important kinds of parenchyme viz : Chlorophyll
pare nchym e containing chloroplasts and found in gre en parts of plants ;
res e rve paren chyme o ccurring in seeds and underground parts O f
plants and containing starch aleurone grains fixed Oils etc ; conducting
parenchyme fou n d distributed in various parts Of plants and servi n g for
th e t ransferral of food
Coll e n ch ym e consists of e longated prismatic cells whose walls are
of cellulose T he angl e s of the cells are thickened with a coll oidal
substance I t is fou n d b ene ath the epide rmis of many pl ants rarely
'
'
alo ngside the endodermis and forms the ribs of stems such as i n
B urdock C araway etc Its function is that of support
'
'
S c l erenchym e or stony tissue is mad e up O f ston e cells vario usly
sh ap e d T hese were formerly pare nchyme cells whos e walls becam e
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P HA RMA CE U T I C
6
A L B OT A N Y
thickened by deposits of ligni n layer within layer until the cells are
A lumen is fou n d within the
O ften nearly filled with this sub s tance
centre of a st o ne cell which is in comm u nication with radial pore canals
leading outward and in communicati o n with the pore canals of adj acent
stone cells Stone cells are distributed in fruits as gritty particles
in b ark s and seeds T hey are supporting structures
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I , From coff ee ; 2 , 3 a
n d 4 , f rom st e m
Stone c ells f rom di f er en t sources
n d 9 , f rom powde r e d st ar ani s e s ee d
nd 6 , f rom t ea l eaf ; 7 , 8 a
O f clov e ; 5 a
( Fr om
S lezens a
f ter M oeller )
FI G
.
2
—
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.
is the outer covering ti ssue O f a plant and is protective
in function Its cells may b e brick shaped polygonal equilateral or
wavy in outline T heir outer walls are cutini z ed ( infiltrated with a
waxy like sub stance called cutin )
A mong the epidermal cells of
leaves and young green stems may b e found numerous pores or stomata
( sing stoma ) surrounded by pairs of crescent shaped cells called guard
c ells
T h e stomata are in direct communication with air chamb ers
b eneath them which in turn are in communication with intercellular
sp aces of the tissue b eneath T he function O f the stomata is to give
water and
ofi watery vapor and take in or give off carbon dioxide
E pide rm i s
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W OOD Y
F I BE R S
7
oxygen In addition to stomata some lea v e s possess groups of water
s tomata which di fl e r from transpiration stomata in that they always
remain Open are circular in outline giv e off water in droplets directly
and lie ove r a quantity of small celled glandular material which is in
con n ection with one or more fibrov asc u lar bu ndle s
E ndode rm i s is
the starch
sheath lay e r of cells constituting
th e in nermost layer of cortex
whose radial walls are more or
less sub erized
Cork o r suberous tissue is com
posed Oi cells Of tabular Shape
whose walls possess sub eri z ed
layers Its cells are mostly filled
with air containing a yellow or
browni sh substance It is de rived
from the phellogen or cork cam
bium which cuts Ofl cork cell s
outwardly Cork tissue is devoid
O f intercellular a
i r spaces
It i s
protecti v e in function
La
ti c i f erou s ti ssue is to be seen
in many groups of plants principal
a
mong which are the A sclepi a
I
FIG 3
E p i dermi s of oak l eaf ; 2
dac e a
e E uphorbiace a
e A pocynac e a
e
ep idermi s of I ri s l eaf both vi ewed f rom
U r ti c ac e m and P apa v erace a
Its th e surf ace ; 3 group of c ell s f rom p etal
e
O f Vi ol a tri color ; 4 two ep i d erm al c ells i n
cells are elongat e d tub ular often cross secti on showing thi ckened outer wall
branched and penetrate all th e diff er en tia ted in to thr ee layers nam ely
an outer Cuti cle cutini z e d laye r ( shade d )
organ s Of plants in which they are and an inner cellul os e l ayer ; 5 and 6
found T hey contain a milky ep i dermal outgrowths i n th e f orm of
scales an d h ai rs ( 3 af ter S tras burger 4
white or colored em ulsion of gum ater S achs and ater de B ary )
f
5 f
r e sins fat wax caoutchouc and
in some cases alkaloids t a
nni ns salts ferments etc
Cri bif orm or S i ev e ti ssue consists of sup e rimposed elongated
tubular thin walled cell s whose transverse walls called S iev e plates ar e
p erfor at e d permi tting O f th e passage Of albuminous subst ances from
one cell to another
Woody Fibre s are elongated thick walled and taper ended li gnefie d
el ements found in the xylem regi o n of the fibrov ascu lar bundle a e com
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8
PH
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
panying the trache a
T h e walls of these fibres Show oblique
e ( ducts )
por e s Woody fibres are the supporting elements of the xylem
rd Bast is composed of elongated spindle shaped thick walled
Ha
elements called b ast fib res T he characteristic thickening Of the walls
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ve ss els f rom the cortex of root Of Scorozonorahisp anic a
as s een u nd er low powe r and B a sm aller porti on un der hi gh power ( Fr om
FI G
A,
S tezens
.
4
—
.
La ti c ife rous
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,
a
f ter S achs )
,
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.
of these fibres is due to deposits of lignin upo n the inner surface of the
cellulose cell wall Like the woody fibres the lumina of th ese contain
air and the fibre walls are provided with oblique pores B ast is the
supporting tissue of the phlo em
.
.
.
M E D U L L A RY R AY S
9
a a ti ssue consists of trach e a
e ( ducts or vessels ) and tracheids
both of which are found i n the xy lem region of the fibrov ascular b undle
and have as their function the conduction of water with mineral salts in
solution from the roots upwar d T h e t rach ea
: or ducts are e longated
slightly li gnefie d tub es with O ccasional cross walls and ha v ing character
i sti c thickenings on their in ner surface
T ra
ch em are classified as :
A N N U L AR with ring like thickenings
SP I R A L with spiral thickenings
RE T I CU L AT E with reticulate thickenings
P OR OU S or P IT T E D with spherical or oblique S lit pores
T
r ch e r y
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A cor n s ca
lam as
A
s ecti on through a portion of a root
At
C orti c al p ar en chym a ; B endod e rmi s ; C p e ri cycl e ; E phloé m F x yl e m
rge tra ch eal tub es whi ch were f orm ed last th e narrow tub es near th e
Y Y a
r e la
p e riphe ry of th e x yle m b eing f orm ed fir st A t th e c en ter of th e root Wi thi n the Ce l e
occ ur thi n walle d p arenchyma
tous p i th c ells (From S ayre
o f va scul ar bundl e s
FI G
.
5
C ross
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a
f ter Fr ank )
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rach e ids are undeveloped ducts havi ng bordered pores and f r e
quently scalariform thickenings
M e d ull ary Rays are b a n ds of parenchymatous cells extending radi
ally from the cortex to the pith ( primary med rays ) or from a part of the
xyl e m to a p art of the p hl oem ( seconda ry m ed rays )
T
.
.
.
.
P H A RM A CE U T I C A L B OT
IO
AN Y
V G , B undl e sh ea th ; L , in t e r
Clos ed bundl e of ste m of Z ea m ays
c ellular Sp ac e ; A , ring f rom an annular tracheal tub e ; SP , Sp i ral tra ch eal tub e ;
M , pi tt ed vess els ; V , sieve tub e s ; S , comp ani on c ells ; CP , crush ed pri ma ry s iev e
tub es ; F , thi n walle d p a renchyma of th e ground or f unda mental tissu e ( Fr om
S ayre
S tra
sburger )
FI G
.
6
—
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ransve rs e se cti on of a conc entric bundle f rom the rh izo m e of I r i s
e ; l
Xyle m surround i ng th e phlo em l T rach ea
protoxyl em ; s s iev e tub es ; g
comp ani on cells of the Internal phlo em port ion (Fr om S ayre af ter V i nes )
FIG
.
7
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PH
I 2
A RM A CE U T
IC
A L B OT A N Y
D
A , pr og re s
Stage s i n t h e d ev elopment Of th e el e m en ts of th e xyl e m
s ive steps i n the dev elbprri ent Oi atr ach eal tub e 1 , Row of procamb ial or camb ial
c ells th at ar e to take p art i n th e f ormati on of a tub e ; 2 , th e sam e a t a later stage
enlarged i n all di mensions; 3 , th e c ells i n 2 have grown larger , thei r c rosste walls
h av e b een dissolved out , and the w all has b ecom e thi c kene d an d p i tted ; 4 , the
walls i n 3 have b e co me mor e thi ckened , th e p i ts hav e an ove rh anging borde r , the
walls hav e b e come li g ni fie d as indi ca te d by the stippling , and finally the protoplasts
have di sapp eare d , an d th e tube i s mat ure an d d ead B , Stag es i n the f orma tion
l or camb ial c ells
T he st eps are th e s a m e a s i n A ,
of tr a ch ei ds f rom proc a mbi a
excepting tha t the cross wallsi rernai n and b ecom e p i tte d C, st eps i n th e d ev elop
m en t of wood fib e rs f rom cambial cells I , Cambial cells ; 2 , th e s am e growth
rger i n all di m en s i on s w i th c ells shoving p a st ea ch oth e r a s th ey elo n ga t e ;
la
FI G
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IO
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l
VA S CU L A R B U N DLE S
FI BRO
Fib rova
scu l a
r B un d l e s
1
3
are groups of fibres vessels and cells cours
ing through the various organs of a plant and ser v ing f or conduction
and s u pport A ccording to the relative
structura l arrangement of their xylem
and phloem masses they may b e classed
a b cd h
as follows
I CL OS E D C O LL AT E RAL consisting
of a mass of xylem lying alongside of a
ma s s of phlo em the xyl em facing to
ward the centre the phloem facing to
ward the exterior Stems of most
M onocotyledo ns and H orsetails
II O P E N C O LL A T E RAL consisting of
a mass Of xylem facing toward the pith
and a mass of phloem facing toward the
exterior and separated from each other
by a cambium Stems and lea v es o f
D icotyledons and ro ot s of D icotyls and
FI G I I
S tages i n the d ev el
Gymnosperms O f secondary growth
O p m e n t O f s ie v e tub e s
comp ani on
III B I COLL AT E R A L characteri z ed cells and p hl o em p aren chym a
A aa
m
nd b T wo rows of proc a
by a x ylem mass b eing b etween an i n bial cells i n c an d d ahas divi ded
;
ner and an outer phl oem mass T here longi tudi nally and c i s to b e come
ani o n cell s ; d a siev e tub e
are two layers of cambium cells one be comp
an d b phloém par enchy ma B c
tween the xylem and inner phloem mass Comp ani on cells and d a b eginning
s
ie
v
e
tub
e
f rom c a
n d d r es pe cti v ely
the other b etween the xylem and outer i n A T h cross walls i n d are
e
phlo em mass S een chiefly in stems of p itt ed ; b phlo em p aren chyma
grow
n
l
a
rg
e
r
th
an
in A
C T he
r
the Cn cn bi tacece
sa me as B wi th th e p i ts i n the cross
I V C ON C E N T RI C characteri z ed by walls of th e siev e tub es b ecom e pe r
f ora
nd th e n ucl ei go ne f ro m
ti ons a
ac e n t ral xylem m a ss surrounded by a
t he
cells composing the tub e
phloem mass or vice v ersa N o cam (Fr om S tevens )
bium present
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la te r stage wi th cell s long er and more pointed and walls b e comi ng thi ckene d and
p i tted ; 4 comple te wood fib e rs wi th walls mor e thi c kene d than i n the pre vi ous stag e
an d li g ni fie d as S hown by the stippling T he protopl asts i n thi s last st age hav e
di sapp eare d an d th e fib e rs are dea d D steps i n th e f orma ti o n of wood par enchyma
I
G roup of c a
m b ri a
l or procamb ial c ells ; 2
f rom ca mb ial or procamb ial cells
th e s am e enlarg e d i n all di men si ons ; 3 th e sam e wi th wall s thi ckene d and p i tte d ;
n d 3 but h e r e th e c ells hav e enl arg e d r a d ially
nd 5 show th e s a m e sta g e s a s 2 a
4 a
or tang en tially mor e th an th ey hav e ve rti cally T h e walls of the s e cells ar e apt to
b e com e li gni fie d but the cells a re longe r li ved than the wood fib ers (From
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S tevens )
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.
PH
I4
A RM A C E U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
( a) Concentri c with xylem central in bundle Seen in stems and
leaves of nearly all ferns and the Lycopodi acece
(b) Concentri c with phloem central in bundle Seen in st ems and
leaves of some M onocotyledon s E x : C alamus
V RADI AL Characteri z ed by a numb er of xylem and phl oem masses
alternatin g with one another S een in the roots of all S p erm atophytes
and P ter i dop hytes
XYLE M is that part of a fib rov asc ular bundle that contains wood
cells and fib res It may also contain trache a
e tracheids seldom sieve
tub es
PHL OE M is that part of a fibrov asc u lar bundl e that contains sieve
tubes phl oem cells and Often bast fib res
ssi fica
ti on of T is su e s A ccording to Fu ncti on A ccording to
Cla
their particular function tissues m ay b e cla s sified as follows
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P ar enchym e ( F u nd am en t a
l ti ssu e)
Xyl em c ells
T r ach ea
e ( ducts)
Phl o em cells
Siev e tub es
.
.
I
.
CON DU CT
T
IN G
I SSU E
.
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II
.
PROT
E CT IV E
T
I SSU E S
E p i d ermi s
C ork
( out er cell walls cutiniz ed)
( sub eri z ed ti ssu e)
.
B ast fibr es
Wood fibr es
S tone c ell s
.
I II
.
M E CHAN I CAL
T
I SSU E S
.
.
PLA N T
An
O RG A N S A N D O RG A N I SM S
a is a part of an organism made up of several tissues and
org n
ca
pable of performing some special work
A n organi sm is a living entity composed of diff erent organs or par t s
with functions which are separat e but mutually dependent and es
l to the life of the individual
senti a
T he organs of flowering plants are either V e g e ta
tive or Reprodu c
tiv e T he vegetative organs of high er plants are P L A N T H A I RS ROO T S
T hey are concerned in the absorption and elab o
S T E M S and LE AV E S
ration of food materials either for ti ssue building or storage
T he reproductive organs of higher plants include those structure s
whose function it is to continue the speci e s v i a the flower fruit and
seed
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T HE
R OOT
I
5
T he
ripen ed seed i s the product of reproductive processes an d the
starting point in the life of all P hanerogams T he living p art Of the
seed i s the em bryo which when developed consists of four parts the
caulicle or rudimentary Stem the lower end of which is the b eginni ng
of the root or r adicl e A t the upper extremity of the stem are two
thicken e d bo dies clos e ly resembling leaves known as cotyledo ns and
b etween thes e a small bud or plumule
T h e function of the cotyledon is to build up nourishment for the
rudimentary plantl e t until it develops true leaves of its own
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T H E ROO T
T he
root is that part of the plant that grows into or toward the
soil that never develops leaves rather rarely produces buds an d
whose growing apex is covered by a cap
T h e functio n s of a root are absorption storage and support
It s
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FI G
.
1 2
Cross
—
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—
s e cti on
of
rootle t
the regi on of the root hai rs
in
(Fr om S i ezens )
.
.
principal function is the abso rption of nutriment and to this end it
generally has branch e s or rootlets covered with root hairs which largely
increase the absorbing Sti rf ace T hes e root hairs are of minute and
simpl e structure b eing mer ely elongations Of the epi derm i s of the root
b ack of th e root cap into slender tub e s with thin walls
T h e tip of each rootlet is protected by a sheath or scale like cover
ing known as the R OO T C A P which not only protects the delicate grow
ing point b ut serves as a m echanical aid in pushing its way through
the soil T he generati v e tissues in the region of the root cap are :
producing fibrov asc ular tissue ; P E R IB L E M producing cortex ;
P LE RO M E
producing epidermis ; and C A L YP T RO G E N producing th e
D E R M A T OG E N
root cap
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6
1
PH
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B E T WE E N
D I FFE RE N C E S
B OT
AN Y
A N D ST E M
RO OT
T he Root
L
.
2
.
T he S tem
D escen ding
axis O f plant
G ro wi ng point sub ap i c al
C o ntains no chlorophyll
Br a
nc h m arr an g ed irr egul arly
D o es n ot b ear l eaves or l eaf rudi
m ents
S tructur e comp ar a tiv ely Simpl e
I
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3
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4
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5
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2
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3
.
4
.
5
.
A scen ding
axi s of plant
G rowi n g po int ap i cal
C hlorophyll som e tim es pr es en t
B r anch es wi th m a th em ati cal r eg ul ari ty
B ears leaves and modi ficati ons
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6
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6
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Structur e
Cl a
ssific a
tion
b e tt er d efined
.
of Roots as to Form s I PRI MARY or F I RS T R OO T a
direct downward growth from the seed which if greatly in excess of the
lateral roots is called the M AI N or T A P RO O T
E x : T araxacum R adish
2
SE CON D A RY R O OT S are produced by the later growths O f the stem
such as are covered with soil and supplied with moist ure B oth pri
mary and secondary roots may b e either fibrous or fleshy
T h e grasses are good examples of plants having fibrous roots
Fle shy roots m a
y be multipl e as tho s e o f the D ahlia O r may assume
simple forms as f ollows :
Fu si for m or sp i ndle sha
fi d like that of the radish or parsnip
N api f or m or tur ni p sha
ped Somewhat globular and b ecoming ab
r u pt ly S lender then terminating in a conical tap root
as the roots of
the turnip
l ha v ing the largest diameter at the b ase th en tapering as
Coni ca
in the M aple
3 A N OM AL OU S ROOT S are of irregular or unusual habits subservi ng
o ther purposes than the normal
4 A DV E N T I T I O U S ROOT S are s uch as occur in ab normal place s o n
the plant E x : R oots dev eloping on B ryophyllurn l eaves
5 E P I P H YT I C R OOT S the roots of epiphytes common to tropica l
forests for example never reach the soil at all but cling to the b ark
of trees and absorb nutriment from the air E x : Roots of V anill a
6 T h e roots of parasitic plants are known as H A U S T O R I A
T hese
penetrate the b ark of plants upon which they find lodgment known
as hosts and absorb nu tri ti O iI s j uices from them T he M i stletoe
Dodder and G er adi aare typical parasites
D ura
tion of Root
P lants are classified according to the duration
of the root as follows :
A N N U A L P L A N T S are her bs with roots containing no nourishment
I
for future use T hey complete their growth pro ducing flower fruit and
seed in a single season then die
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H I S T O LO G Y
RO O T
I
7
B I E N N I AL plants dev elop but one set of org ans the first year and
as in the b eet and turnip etc a large amount of reserve food mat e rial
is sto red in the root for the support of the plant the following season
whe n it flowers fruits and dies
3 P E RE N N I AL P L AN T S live indefinitely as trees
Root Hi stology M ON OCO T YLE DON S
T he histology of mono
cotyledonous roots vari es depending upon relati ons to their surround
ings which may b e aquatic semi aquatic mesophytic or xerophytic
2
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C ross s e cti on of root
(3 2 diam ) A , Roo t
Sarsapa rill a, Mexi can
3
hai rs ; B , cork ; C , p aren chyma Of cortex ; D , endode rmi s ; E , wood p arenchyma
fib ers ; F , wat er tub e ; H , phloém
( P hoto m i crograph ) ( From S ayre )
nd
a
FI G
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In this con n ection we will di scuss only the typ e of greatest p harma
the mesophytic type as seen in its most typical
cogni c impo rtance i e
form in the transverse section of an Onion root
E xami ni ng such a section from periphe ry toward the centre one
not es the following :
E pidermis with thin cuticle
I
Cort ex consisting of broad zone of rounded cells getting larg e r
2
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8
PH
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
and then smaller in calibre T hese store starch and enable sap to pass
through
3 E ndodermis or innermost layer of cells in the cortex with l en
rly thick e ned radial walls
ti c ula
m bi u m a z one of one two or three layers of rounded
4 P eri c a
thin walled actively dividing cells which may give ris e to side rootlets
5 Radial fib rov asc ular bundle which in most monocotyledons
consists Of eight twelve or fifteen alternating patches of phlo em with
radiating xylem arms between P hloem tissu e consists of phloem cells
and sieve tub es X yl em at tips of arms made of spiral trach ea the
first xylem elements to mature Internal to these ar e small pitted
vessels later striking pitted vessels and considerable woo d fib re
6 P ith
D I CO T YLE DON S
T h e typ ical dicotyl root is a tetrarch one four
xylem alternating with four phloem patches T hese roots have an
unlimited p ower of growth
ry Gr owth
A Of P r i m a
A trans section of a dicotyl root in its young growth shows the fol
lowing structure from periphery toward centre
I
E pidermis with cutini z ed outer walls
2
H ypodermis
lly small intercellul ar spaces
3 Cortex with usu a
di a
llv
4 E ndodermis or innermost layer of cells of the cortex with r a
thick ened walls
m bi u m of one to two layers O f actively growing cells which
5 P eri c a
m ay produce side rootlets
6 Radial fibrov asc ula
r bundle of four rarely two or three or fi v e
or Si x phloem patches alternating with as many xylem arms N ot
uncommon to find bast or phloem fibre along outer face Of each p hloem
patch Xylem has spiral trach ea internal to th ese a few pitted vessels
T hen as root ages more pitted vessels also xylem cells and wood
fibres make their appearance
B Of S econdary Gr owth ( M ost Official roots )
A t about six weeks one notes cells di v iding by tangential walls in
the inner curve of phloem patches T his is intrafascicular cambium
A S ingle layer of flattened cells starts to cut Off on its inner side a quan
tity of secondary xylem and pushes out the patches of bast fib res adds
a little secondary phloem on the outer side Secondary xylem finally
fills up the patches b etween the arms T he patche s of b ast fibres get
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PH A RM A C E U T I C A L B OT A N Y
2O
LE A F
develop leaves
FLOW E R B U D S are unexpanded blossoms
M E CE D B U DS contain both flower and foliage
r
x i lla
A s to position buds are either ter m i nal or a
y either located at
the apex of the stem or b ranch or in the axi ls of the l eaves If th ey
occur o n other situations on the stem or upon roots or leaves they are
termed a
If as O ften happens more than o ne b ud
dventi ti ous buds
forms in or near the axi l of the leaf it is called an accessory bud
B U DS
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T
ST
HE
EM
stem is that part of th e plant axi s whi ch b ears leaves or mo di
ti ons of leaves and its branches are usually arran ged with m athe
fica
ma
ti c a
l regularity
T he functions of a stem are to b ear leaves or branches connect
roots with leaves and conduct sap
Wh en the stem rises above ground and is apparent th e plant is
said to b e coalescent
When no stem is visible but o nly flower or leaf stalks the plant is
said to b e acaulescent
Stems vary in Size from scarcely one twenty fif th of an inch in
length as in certain mosses to a remarkabl e height of 40 0 ft upward
T he giant Sequoia Of C alifornia attains the height of 4 2 0 ft
D irecti o n of S tem G r owth
Generally the growth of the stem is
erect V ery frequently it may b e :
A S CE N D IN G or rising obliquely upward
RE CLI N IN G or at first erect but afterward b ending over and trailing
upon the ground E x : R aspb erry
PROCU MBE N T lying wholly upon the ground
DE CU MBE N T when the stem trai ls and th e apex curves upward
E x : Vines of the Cucurbitace a
RE PE N T creeping upon the ground and rooting at the nodes , as the
Strawb erry
Stem E longa
tion
A t the ti p of the ste rn there is found a group of
very actively dividing cells ( meristem ) which is the growing point of
the stem A ll the tissues of the stern are derived from the cells of the
growing point whose activity gives rise in time to three generative
regions which are from without inward :
( I ) D E RMA T OGE N forming epidermis ;
T he
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HE RB A N D T RE E
(2 )
(3 )
21
P E RIB LE M, forming
the cortex ; and
P LE ROM E forming the fibr ov asc ula
r e lements
HE RB A CE O U S dying down to th e ground at
Durati on Of S tem s
the close of the season
A NN U AL an herb whos e li fe terminates with th e season
B IE N N I A L where the stem di es at the end of th e first season the
unde rgrou n d parts perfecti ng themselves and retaining their vitality
to th e next season when seeds are pro duced and the plant dies
completely
P E RE N N I AL when the underground parts retain their vitality
indefinitely
A T WIN IN G stem winds around a sup port
A bov e gr ound Stem s
as the stem of a b ean or M orning Glory
A CU LM is a j ointed stem of the Grasses and S edge s
A CL IMB I N G or scandent stem grows upward by attaching itself
to som e support by means of aerial rootlets tendrils or petiole s
T he S C AP E is a stern rising from the ground and b earing flowers
b ut no leaves as the dandelion violet or bloo d root
A T E N DRI L is a modification of some special organ as of a leaf
stipule or branch capabl e of coiling spirally and used by a pl ant in
climbing P res e nt in the Grape P e a etc
A S P I N E or thorn is th e i ndurated termination of a stern tapering to
apoint as the thorns of the H oney L ocus t
re outgrowths of th e b ark only and are seen in the roses
PRI CK L E S a
A S T OL ON is aprostrate bra n ch the end of which on comi ng in con
tact with th e soil takes root so giving rise to a new plant E x : Cur
r ant and Raspb erry
A n U N D E RSHRUB or SU FF RU I T COS E stem is a stem of small si z e and
woody only at the bas e
A S H RU B B Y or FRU IT COS E stem is a woody stem larger than the pre
c e ding and freely branchi ng n ear the ground
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H E RB
AND
T
RE E
is aperennial woody plant of considerable size ( 2 0 ft or m or e
in h e ight ) and havi ng as th e ab ov e ground parts a trunk and a crown of
leafy branches
A n H E RB is a plant whose stem does not become woody and perma
n ent b ut dies , at least down to the ground after flowering
A
T RE E
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3
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PH
2 2
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
A RH I ZO ME is a creeping underground stern
U nd ergrou n d S tem s
more or less scaly sending off roots from its lower surface and stems
from its upper T h e rhi z ome grows horiz ontally v ertically or Oh
Its upper surface is marked
li q u ely b earing a terminal bud at i ts tip
with the scars of the bases of aerial stems O f previous years
T h e T U B E R is a short and excessively thickened underground stem
borne usually at th e end Of a slender creeping branch and having
numerous eyes or buds E x : T ub ers of th e P otato A conite and
Jalap
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FI G
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FI G
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6
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cross se cti on Of v e ry young cornstalk whe r e th e
proca mbi um strands h av e j ust gone ov e r into v ascul ar bundl es For comp arison
wi th Fi g 1 6 (From S tezen s )
P h o to rni crogr a
FI G 1 6
ph of cross s e cti on of corn st alk some wha t O ld er th an
n d n ot i c e th a t th e n umb e r of v a scul a r bundl e s i s
i n Fi g I 5
C omp ar e wi th Fi g I 5 a
approx i mately the sa me i n both and the numb er of ce lls i n the f un da m ental tissue
G rowth i n Fi g I 6 h as b een a ccompli she d by th e enl arge
i s approxi ma tely the sam e
ment of the c ells already pre sent i n Fi g I 5 a E pi de rmi s ; b cortex an d p e ri cycle ;
f un dam en t al or groun d t i ssu e corr espond ing to p i th a
n d m e dull ary rays wi t h
c
c
vascular bundles inte rsp e rs e d through i t (Fr om S tezcns )
FI G
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I
5
P hotomi crogr aph
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is an underground stem excessively thickened and solid
and characteriz ed by the production of b uds from the centre of the
upper surface and rootlets from the lower surface
A B U LB is a very short and scaly stern producing roo ts fr om the
lower face and leaves from the upper
T U N I CA T E D B U LB S are completely co v ered by br o ad scal es which
form concentric coatings E x : Onion Squill D aff odil
T he
CO RM
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H I S T OL OG Y OF
SC AL Y
AN N U A L
D I C OT
YL
ST E M
23
have narrow imbricated scales the outer ones not eu
closing the inner E x : L ily
T U B E R S A N D CORM S are annual
B ulbs and Rhiz omes are perennial
E X OG E N OU S ST E MS a
r e typical
n d E n d og e nou s Stem s
Ex og e nou s a
of Gymnosperms and D icotyledons and can increase m aterially in thick
ness d u e to presence Of a cambium Such stems Show difl erenti ati on
into an outer or cortical region and an inner or central cylinder region
E N D O G E N OU S S T E MS are
typ ical of M onocotyledons
and can n ot increase mate
ri a
lly in thickness due to a
b
senc e of cambium
S uch
stems S how no diff e rentia
tion into cortical and central
regio n s
Hi s tology
of
Annu a
l
Di cotyl S tem
( In both an
nual and peren nial dicotyl
e don ou s stem s
endodermis
and peri c am bi um are rarely
seen since each has b ecome
so similar to cortex through
passag e of food etc )
I
E pidermis Ci l tl nlz e d
FI G I 7
P hotomi crogr aph of c ross s e cti on
wh
e
r
e
c
a
mb
ia
l
o f st em of A ri stolochi a s ipho
with hairs
activi ty i s j ust b eginni ng a E p iderm i s ; b
2
C ortex Composed O f collen chy ma ; c thin wall ed p aren chym a Of th e
ex the innermost cell l a
yer of Whi ch i s th e
three z ones an outer or exo cort
starch S h eath or endodermi s ; d scleren chyma
cort e x whose cells are thl n ring of th e p eri cycle ; 6 thi n walled p ar enchyma
p
ri mary m e dull ary r ay ; g
of th e p eri cycl e ; f
walled and contain Ch10 r0 phlo em h xyl em i interfasci cul ar cambi um
; j
;
;
st s ; a middle or m e di O
medull a or pi th X 2 0 (From S tevens )
pla
cortex consisting Of cells of
i n durated walls giving extrem e pliability and stre ngth an inner or e ndo
cortex a v e ry broad z one of thin and thicked walled parenchym e cells
3 T h e innermost layer of cells of the cortex called th e e n dodermis
( N ot generally distinguishable )
m bi um
( N ot generally di stinguishable )
4 P eri c a
5 Fibro v ascular b undles of Open collateral typ e arra n ged in a
circle with primary m edullary rays b etween the bun dl es
6 P ith
B U LB S
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P H A RM A CE U T I C A L B OT
24
AN Y
Pi t h
FI G
.
I
8
—
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diagram to S how the characte r of the ti ssues and th eir d ispos i tio n
young ste m of the typ i cal di cotyledon typ e (From S tevens )
A
.
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in
a
PE RE N N I
AL
DI COT
YL
ST E M
2
5
Growth of P e r enni al D ic otyl S tem a
nd i ts H i stology
A perennial
dicotyl stern in the first year does not difl er in structure from an annual
B y the clos e of the year a cork cambium ( phellogen ) has originated be
—
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Io
FI G
.
1
9
—
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D iagr am si mil ar to the pre c eding but r epres en ti n g a la ter stage an d
i ng t h e ti ssu e s f orm ed by th e camb i um
( Fr om S tevens )
.
show
.
side the epidermi s In origin of cork cambium one of t wo m ethods :
( a ) e ither the epidermis may divide into an outer layer of cells that re
m ain s epidermis and an inner l ay e r of cells that b ecomes cork cambium
—
.
,
26
PH
ARM A CE U T
I CA L
B OT
AN
Y
or ( b ) the outermost layer of cortex cells underneath the epidermis b e
com es active after b eing passi v e for one year and lays down walls the
inner layer b e coming cork cambium th e outer b ecoming alayer of cork
T h e cork cuts Off water and foo d supplies from epidermis outside and so
epidermis separates and falls Off as stringy layer T he cork cambium
produces cork on its outer face and secondary cortex on its inner
B etween the bundles certain cells Of the primary m edullary rays
b ecome very acti v e and form interfascicular cambium which j oins the
cambium of the fir st formed bundles (intrafascicular cambium ) to form
a compl e te cambium r i ng B y the rapid multiplication of these cam
bial cells new ( secon dary ) xylem is cut Off internally and n ew ( s e condary )
phloem externally pushing inward the fir st form ed or P RO T OX Y LE M
and outward the first form ed or P RO T OP H L O E M thus increasin g the
diam eter Of the stem T he primary m edullary rays are deepened
Cambium may also gi v e rise to secondary m e dullary rays
Som etimes as i n Grape V in es H oneysuckles an d A sclepias instead
O f cork cambium arising from outer cortex cells it may arise at any
point in cortex It is the origin of cork cambium at v arying depths
that cau s es ext ensive sheets Of t ssue to separate Ofl T hat is what
gives the stringy appearance to the stems of climb ers
A t close O f first year n P er enni al D i cotyl S tem we note :
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dev elopm ent of derm atog en or p eribl em i n proc ess Of p eeling
off l a t er on en t ir ely abs en t
C or k ti ssue or p er i d erm
C ork camb i um or ph ellog en
Som etim es z o ne of thi n wall ed cells co ntai ni ng chloroplasts cut O I by
cork camb i um on inner f ace known as ph ellod erm
C ort ex ln p er en nial st em cells of cort ex m a
y u n dergo modi fic a ti o n into
muci lag e c ells into tanni n r e c eptacl es c rystal c ell s sp ir al c ell s e tc
E pi d er m i s
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Fibrov ascul ar
bu ndl es Of Op en collater al typ e whi ch ar e now arr ang ed
into a comp act circl e and b e tween whi ch are f ou n d pr im ary and of ten
s eco ndary m edul l ary ra
ys
From wi thout in ward th e f ollo wing ti ssu es m ak e up f v b u ndl es
P rotophl o em
Hard Bast long t enaci ous b a
s t fibr es
S eco nd ary Phlo em
So f t B ast phlo em cells a
nd siev e tub es
C am bi u m
ac ti v e l ay er giv ing r i s e to s eco ndary phlo em o n out er an d sec
o n da
ry xyl e m o n i nner f a c e a
nd a dd ing to d epth of m e d r a
ys
Seco ndary x yle m
wo o d fibr es p i tte d v ess els tr ach ei ds
P rotox yl em sp i r al tr ach ea
P i th
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28
PH
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
lessen ed and small ducts and
much mechan ical woo dy
fib r e are formed T hus th e
open loosely arranged prod
of the spring growth
u et
abuts on the densely ar
ranged product O f the last
summer and autumn growth
sharp contrast
an d the
marks the periods Of growth
T o th e two di ff e r ent r egio n s
of growth is given the
'
'
term Of annual ring
By
counting th e numb er of
these rings it is possible to
estimate the age of the tree
or b ranch
Ba
B ark or bork is a
rk
term applied to all that por
tion of a woody e xogenous
plant axi s outside Of the
cambium line
In ph arm acogni c work
b ark is divided into three
z ones
thes e from without
inward b eing :
O U T E R B AR K or CO RK
I
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M IDDLE B AR K or COR
I C A L P AR E N C H Y M E
2
T
P art of a cross s e cti o n through
bran ch of Cyti su s labur nu m ( T h e bran ch was
cut f rom th e tree a t the en d of O ctob e r ) From
A to E th e l ast annu al rin g of wood ; f rom A to
B th e sp ring growth wi th l arge tr ach eal tub e s
( T , T , T ) ; b e tw een B and C and D an d D ar e
wood fibers ; b e tween C and D and D and E ,
wood p ar en chym a ; f rom E to F, c anbi u m ; F to
FI G
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2 2
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3
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IN N E R
PH L OE M
B A RK
.
.
-
blo em porti on ; G to H corti cal p aren chyma ;
M me dullary ray Below A the l ast wood
fibers a
nd wood pa
renym af orm e d th e pr ev i ous
yea r (Fr om S ayre af ter H aberlandt )
'
G,
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.
C ommercially ,
b ark is
divided into two zones
which are passing from with
out inward :
,
,
B AR K ( CORK)
2 I N N E R B A R K ( C OR T I C A L
P ARE N C H Y ME A N D P H LO E M)
OU T
I
ER
.
.
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PL
P e ri derm
AN T
H A IR S
29
P eriderm
is a name applied to all th e tissue produced
extern a
lly by the cork cambium (P H E L L O G E N ) T his term appears
often in ph arm acogni c and materi am edica texts
H i stol ogy of T ypi ca
l M ono c otyl Ste m s (E n doge n ous ) Passm g
from e xterior toward centre th e following structures are seen
I
E pidermis whos e cells are cutinized in their outer walls
2
H ypodermis
generally
coll enchymatic
3 Cortex
4 E ndodermis or innermost
l ayer of cortex generally with
greatly sub e rized cell walls
5 A large central z one of
parenchym e matrix in which are
found scattered fib rov asc ular
bundles of the closed collateral
or rar e ly concentric typ e (am
l)
In this latt er typ e
phi v asa
which is typical of Old mono
th e xylem grows
cotyl stems
completely around phloem so
that phloem i s found in the
centre and xylem without and
surrounding it
FI G 2 3
Ci nchon acali s aya C ross s e c
ti on of b ark A C or k cells ; B corti cal
PL A N T H A I RS O R T RI CH O M E S p arenchym a ; C stone cells ; D phloém por
ti on ; E sof t bast ; F ph ellog en formi ng
b ark ; G m e dull ary rays ( T he bla ck line
T h 6 5 6 are o u t grow th S O f f rom G shou ld b e ex t en de d to the p ar ench m a
y
the epidermal cells which have cells b e tween the phloem portions ) H Bast
fibers
From s a
(
y' )
b ecom e greatly elongated and
may b e unice llular or multicellul ar T hey may be of various forms
or club
s i m p le consisting of a singl e row of ce lls ; b ranchi ng ; clavat e
shap e d ; stellate or star shaped ; b arb ed hoOk e d forked etc
T he terminal cell is often mo dified into asecretion sac for gummy
r e sinous or o dorous products Such hairs are called glandu lar E x :
Glandul ar hairs from strob i les of H umulus lupul us
T h e co tton of commerce which is the hairs of the seed of the
cotto n plant Gossypium herb aceum is a good example of S impl e
h airs
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P HA RMA CE U T I C A L
30
B OT
AN
Y
B ra
nched ha
i rs
can b e seen upon the leaves of the common fiel d
Geranium and the Stinging nettle afl ord examples
weed M u llein
of glandular hairs
P lant hairs a
T h e y absorb
re adapted to many di ff erent purpos e s
nourishment i n the form of mo i sture and mineral m att e r in solution
T hose which s e rve as a protection to the plant m ay b e barb ed and
si li c i fie d rendering them unfit for an i mal food
or as in the n e ttl e
charged with an irritating fluid penetrating
the skin when touched inj ecting the poison
into the wound A dense covering of hairs
also prevents the r avages of ins e cts and the
clogging of the stomata by an accum ul a tion
of dust T hey fill an important ofli ce in the
di spersion of seeds and frui ts as wi th their aid
such seeds as thos e of the milkwe ed are read
ily scattered by the wind
T he reproductive organs of many Cr yp
tog a
m s are modified hairs as the sporangia
Of Ferns
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T H E LE AF
FI G
24
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D i fie r
e n
t
ep id ermal out
gr owths I Hook ed hai r
f rom P h ase olus m ultifl or u s ;
2
cli mb ing hai r f rom ste m
of H umul us L up ulus
; 3 rod
lik e wa
x
co atin g f rom th e
st e m of Saccha rum ofli ci
narum ; 4 cli mbing hai r of
L o as a hi spi d a ; 5 stin ging
hai r of U rti ca ur ens (Fi g 3
f orms
( folia) are stem appendages which
have their origin j ust b ack of th e apex of the
stem are regularly arranged upon it and con
sist of expansions of its tissues
T h e functions of a leaf are photosynthesis
assimilation respiration and transpiration
T h e most essential function Of plants is
a
f ter de Bar y; the rem ai nder
the
con
v
ersion
of
inorganic
into
organic
r
o
m
H
a
b
er
l
a
n
d
t
f
)
matter ; this takes place ordinarily i n the green
parts containing chlorophyll and in these when exposed to su nl ight
F oliage is an adaptatio n for increasing the extent of green surface
T h e leaf when complete consists of three parts L AMIN A P E T I OLE
and ST I P U LE S T he lamina or blade is the e xpansion of th e stem into
a more or less delicate framework m ade up of the branching vessels
of th e petiole
T he petiole is the leaf stalk
T h e stipules are leaf like appendag e s
appearing at the base of the petiole
of
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L ea v es
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T HE
LE
AF
31
T he
leaf of the T ulip P oplar or Liriode ndron a ffords a good ex ampl e
of a Com p lete Lea
f
Sometimes the lamina or blade is attached directly to the stem
by its b as e and is then said to b e sess i le If the petiole is present
p eti olate
When leaf stipules are a
bsent the leaf is said to be ex sti p ulate
when present sti p u late
T he petiole is seldom cylindrical in form but usually channelled
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S te re ogra m
l eaf structure Part of a v einl e t i s shown
In tercellul ar Sp a ces ar e Sh ad ed (From S tevens )
of
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on
th e right
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the upper S ide flattened or compressed T h e stipul es are always
in pairs and closely resemble the leaf in structure
T h e blade of the leaf c o nsists of the framework made up of branching
v e ssels of the petiole which are woody tub es per v ading the soft tissue
called mesophyll or leaf parenchyme and serve not only as supp o rts
b ut as v eins to conduct nutritive fluids V eins are ab sent in S imple
lea v es such as many Of the M osses
ti on
FU RCA T E or FORK E D VE N A T I O N is characteristic
Le a
f Ve n a
of many Cryptogam s
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PH
32
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL B OT AN Y
VE N AT I O N is typical of the M onocotyledon s as P alm s
Li li es G ra
ss es etc
RE T I CU L A T E or N E T T E D VE I N S characteri z e the Di cotyledon s as
the P op lar or Oak
FI N N I V E I N E D or FE AT H E R V E I N E D leaves consist of a mid vein
with lateral veinlets extending from mid v ein to margin at frequent
intervals and in a regular manner E x : C alla
PA LMA T E L Y VE I N E D leaves consist of a number of veins o f nearly
the sam e siz e radiating from petiole to margin E x : M aple leaf
ve s SI MP LE L E AV E S are those having a single
T h e Form s of Le a
blade either sessile or petiolate
CO MP O U N D LE AV E S are divided into two or more distinct s u bdi v i
sions called leaflets which may b e either sessile or petiolate
Simple lea v es and the separate blades of compound lea v es are de
scrib ed as to general outline apex b ase m arginal indentations surface
and texture
( a) GE N E RA L O U T LI N E ( form v iewed as a whole without regard to
indentations of margin ) D ependent upon kind of venation
When the lower v eins are longer and larger than the oth e rs the leaf
is Ovate or E gg shaped P arallel v eined leaves are usually linear
long and narrow of nearly equal breadth throughout or lanceolat e like
the linear with the exception that the broadest part is a little b elow the
centre
E L LI P T I CAL somewhat longer than wide with rounded ends and
Sides
E x : L eaf of P ear
OB LON G when longer than broad margins parallel E x : M atico
OB LIQ U E margin longer on one S ide than the other as the H am am eli s
and E lm
O RB I CU LAR circular in shape E x : N asturtium
P E LT AT E or shield shaped having the petiole inserted at the
centre of the lamina E x : the N asturtium P odophyllum
FI LIF ORM or T H RE A D LI K E very long and narrow a
ra
s A sp a
gu s
lea v es
O V A T E broadly elliptical E x : D igit alis Obovate reversely
ovate
OB LAN CE O LA T E reversely lanceolate E x : C himaphila
C U N E A T E shaped like a wedge with th e point b ackward
SP A T U LA T E like a spatula with narrow b a s e an d broad r o unde d
apex E x : U v aU rsi
P AR ALL E L
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M AR G I N
A CE ROS E
OF LE A F
33
or A CI CU L AR tipped with a needle like point as Ju n i per
D E LT OI D when the shape of the Greek letter A a s C henopo di u m
f
A CU T E when the margins form an acute angle
( b) A pex of Le a
at the tip of the leaf
E x : E riodictyon
A CU MI N AT E when the point is longer and more tapering than the
acute E x : P ellitory
O B T U S E blunt or round E x : B uchu
T RU N CA T E abruptly obtus e as if cut square off
M U CR O N A T E terminating in a short soft point
C U S PI D A T E like the last except that the point is long and rigid
A RI S T AT E with the apex terminating in a bri s tle
E MA RG IN A T E n otched
E x : P ilocarpus
RE T U S E with a broad shallow S inus at the apex
OB C ORDA T E inversely heart Shaped
f
E x : L ime
C O RDAT E heart shaped
( c ) B ase Of Lea
E x : Ground I v y
RE N IF O RM kid n ey shaped
H A S T A T E or halbert shaped when the lobes point outward from
the petiole E x : A ristolochia S erpentaria
A U RI CU L AT E having ear like appendage at the base
E x : B indweed
SA G I T T AT E arrow shaped
E N T I RE wh en the m a
f
rgin is an e v en line
( d) M argin of Lea
SE RR A T E with sharp teeth which incline forward like the teeth
of a hand saw E x : P epp ermint
D E N T A T E or toothed with outwardly proj ecting teeth
C hestnut
CRE N A T E or S calloped similar to the preceding forms but with
the teeth much rounded E x : D igitalis Salvia
RE P A N D or U ndul ate margin awa v y line
SI N U A T E when the margin is more distinctly sinuous than the last
I N CI SE D cut by Sharp irregular incisions E x : H awthorn
RU N CIN A T E the pecul iar form of pinnately in cised leaf obser v ed
in the D andelion and som e other Composit a in which the teeth are
recurved
A L OB E D leaf is one in which the indentations extend nearly to the
mid vein or mid rib as it is usually called the segments or sinuses
or both b eing rounded E x : Sassafras
CL E F T is the same as lob ed exc ept that the sinus es are deeper and
commonly acute E x : D andelion
A P A RT E D leaf is one in which the incisions extend nearly to the
mid rib E x : G eranium macul atum
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PH
34
ARM A CE U T
IC
A L B OT A N Y
In the D IV I DE D leaf the incisions extend to the mid rib b ut the
E x : Watercress
s egments are not s talked
If the v enation is pinnate the preceding forms may b e describ ed
as pinnately incised lob ed parted or di v ided If the venation is
radiate then the terms radiately or palmately lob ed incised etc
are employed
T h e transition from Simple to C ompound L ea v es is a very gradual
one so that in many instances it is difficul t to determine whether a
gi v en form is to b e regarded as simple or compound T h e numb er
and arrangement o f the parts of a compound leaf correspond with the
mode of v enation and the same descriptive terms are applied to outline
margin etc as in simple leaves
T hey are
L ea v es are either pinnately or radiately compounded
said to b e abruptly pinnate or paripinnate when the leaf is terminated
by a pair of leaflets ; odd pinnate or imparipinnate when it terminates
with a single leaflet When the leaflets ar e alternately large and small
the leaf is interruptedly pinnate as the P otato leaf When the term
inal leaflet is the largest and the remaining ones diminish in siz e toward
the b ase the f o rm is known as lyrate illustrated in the leaf of the
T urnip
R adiately or palmately compound lea v es have the l eaflets attached
to the apex of the petiole When these are two in numb er th e leaf
is bifoliate or binate ; if three in numb er trifoliate or ternate ; when
four in numb er quadrifoliate etc If each of the leaflets of a palmately
compound leaf di v ides into three the leaf is called bi ternate ; if this
form again divi des a tri ternate leaf results B eyond this point the
l eaf is known as decompound E xample of decompound leaf s e en in
C imicifuga
Le a
f T ex tu r e
L ea v es are de s crib ed as
M E MB RAN O U S when thin and pliable as C oca
SU CCU LE N T when thick and fleshy as A l o es and L i v e F orever
SCARI OU S when dry and scaly
C O RI A CE OU S when thick and leathery as E ucalyptus U v aU rsi and
M agnolia
Le a
f C olor P E T AL OI D whe n of some brilliant color di fferent from
the usual green as the Coleus and B egonia and other plants which are
prized for the b eauty of their foliage rather than their blossoms
Le a
f S urfa
c e A ny plant surface is :
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36
PH
A RM A CE U T
I CA L B OT
AN Y
roots they di ffer greatly as to duration in different latitudes
E vergreen trees are m o st comm o n in the tropics and it is probable
that many of our deciduous trees ha v e b ecome such by adaptation to
the colder climate
T h e point of attachm ent of the leaf to the stem is
Le a
f In se rtion
called the insertion A leaf is :
RA DI CA L when inserted upon an underground stem
C AU LI N E when upon an a erial stern
RA MA L when attached directly to a b ranch
When the base of a sessile leaf is extended completely around the
stem it is P E RFOLI AT E the stern appeari ng to pass through the blade
ly B ellwor t
E x : U r ula
r i aperfoliata or M e a
When a sessile leaf surrounds the stem more or less at the b ase it is
called CL ASP I N G E x : P oppy (P apa v er somniferum )
When the bases of two opposite lea v es are so united as to form
one piece they are called C ON N A T E P E RF OLI A T E as E upatorium or
B oneset
L ea v es are called E Q U I T AN T when they are all radical and succes
si v ely folded on each other as the Iris
xy Phyllotaxy is the study of leaf arrangem ent upon the
Phyllo ta
st em or branch and this may b e either alternate opposite whorled or
verticillate or fascicled It is a general law in the arrangem ent of
leaves and of all other plant appendages that they are spirally disposed
or on a line which winds around the axis like the thread of a screw T he
Spiral line is formed by the union of two motions the circ ul ar and the
longitudinal and its m o st common m odi fic ati On is the circle
In the AL T E RN A T E arrangem ent there is but one leaf produced at
each node
O PP OSIT E when a pair of leaves is de v eloped at each node on oppo
site S ides of the stem E x : M ints L ilac
WH ORLE D or VE RT I CI LL A T E when three or more form a circle about
the stem E x : C anada Lily and Cul ver s root
FA S CI CLE D or T U F T E D when a cluster of leaves is borne from a single
node as in the L arch and P ine
T he spiral arrangement is said to be two ranked when the third l eaf
is over the first as in all Grasses ; three ranked when the fourth is over
the first E x : Sedges T he fiv e ranked arrangem ent is the most
common and in this the sixth leaf is directly o v er the first two turns
b eing made around the stem to reach it E x : Cherry A pple P e ach
L ike
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V E RN A T I ON
37
Oak and Willow etc A s the distance between any two lea v es is two
fif th s of the circumference o f the ste m the fiv e ranked arrangement is
expre ssed by the fractio n 2 / 5 In the eight ranked arrangement the
ninth leaf stands over the fir st an d three turns are required to reach it
hence the fraction
expresses it Of the series of fractions thus ob
ta
i ne d the numerator represents the numb er of turns to complete a
cycle or to reach the leaf which is directly over the fir st ; the denom i
nator the number of perpendicul ar rows on the stem or the n umb er
of l e aves counting along the Spiral from any one to the one directly
above it
Vernati on P RE F OL I A T I ON or VE RN AT I ON relates to the way in
which leaves are disposed in the bud A study of the individual leaf
enables us to distinguish the following forms When the apex i s b ent
inward toward the b ase as in the leaf of the T ul ip T ree it is said to b e
I N F L E X E D or RE C LI N A T E V E RN A T I ON ; if doubled on the midrib so that
the two sides are brought together as in the oak it i s CON DU P LI CAT E ;
when rolled inward from one margin to the other as in the Wild
C herry it is CON V O LU T E ; when rolled from apex to b ase as in F erns it
i s CI R CIN A T E ; when fo lde d or plaited like a fan it is P LI C AT E ; if rolled
inward from each margin as the leaf of the common V iolet I N V OLU T E ;
when rolled outward from each margin as Rumex RE V OLU T E T h e inner
surface is always that which will form the upper surface when expanded
Infl oresce nce or A nth ota
A typical flower consists of four whorls
x y
of leaves modified for the purpose of reproduction and compactly placed
on a stem T he term Inflorescence A nthotaxy is applied to the arrange
m ent of the flowers and their position on the plant both of which are
gov erned by the same law which determines the arrangement of leaves
In
For this reason flower buds are always either terminal or axillary
either case the bud may develop a solitary flower or a compound i n
fl oresc en ce consisting of se v eral flowers
D E T E RMI N AT E C YM OS E D E SCE N D I N G or CE N T RIFU G AL inflorescence
is that form in which the flower bud is terminal and thus determines or
completes the growth of the plant E x : Ricinus communis
IN DE T E RMI N AT E A SCE N DIN G or CE N T RIP E T AL I N FLORE S CE N CE is
that form in which the flower bud s are ax i llary while the terminal bud
co n ti n ues to develop and increase the growth of the plant indefinitely
E x : th e G eranium
M IX E D I N F LO RE SCE N C E is a combination of the other two forms
E x : H orse C h estnut
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38
PH
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
flower stalk is known as the P E D U N C LE and its prolongation the
R A CH I S or axis of the inflore s cence
T he flower stalk of a single flower of an inflorescence is called a
When borne without such support the flower is S E SSI LE
P E DI CE L
A peduncle rising from the gro und is called a SC A PE previously m en
ti on ed under the subj ect of stems
T hese
T he modified lea v es found on peduncles are term ed B RA CT S
vary much the sam e as leaf forms are describ ed in a similar manner
and may b e either green or colored When collected in a whorl at the
b ase of the peduncle they form an I N V O L U CRE the parts of which are
sometimes imbricated or overlapping like shingles T his is generally
T he
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B , A sp ike
T yp es of ra c emos e in flor esc en c e ; A , A r ac e me
FI G 2 8
E , A n umb el
T h e flowe rs ar e r epr e sen t e d by c i rcl e s ;
D , A corymb
flower i s indi c ate d by th e siz e ( From H am aker )
'
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C, A
c a tkin
.
th e age of the
.
green but sometimes petaloid as in the D ogwood T he modified
leaves found on pedicels are called B RA CT E O LA R LE AV E S
T h e SP AT H E is a large bract enveloping the inflorescence and often
colored as in the C alla or membranous as in the D aff odil
In the indeterminate or axillary anthotaxy either flowers are pro
du c e d from base to apex those blossoming first which are lowest down
on the rachis or from margin to centre T h e principal forms of this
type are : A solitary indeterminate is one in which the flowers occur
singly in the axils of the leave s
RA CE ME or simple fl o wer cluster in which the flo w er s on pedicels of
nearly equal length are arranged along an axi s E x : C onvallaria
n d C urrant
Cimicifuga a
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A
C O R YMB , a
V E RT
I CI LLA ST E R
39
short broad cluster difl eri ng from the racem e mainly in
its S horter axis and longer lower pedicels which giv e the cluster a flat
appearance by bringing the individual florets to nearly the sam e l evel
E x : C h e rry
nd
U MB E L which resembles the racem e but has a very Short axis a
the n e arly e qual pedicels radiat e from it like the rays of an umbrella
M any examples of this mode of inflorescence are seen in the order
U m belli fer ce as indicated by the name including A nise F ennel and
other ofli ci al plants
A SP I K E is a cluster of flowers sessil e or nearly so borne on an elon
gated axis T h e M ullein and common P lantain a fford good il lus
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tr a
ti ons
.
T h e C AT
K I N or A ME N T resembles the Spike but differs in that it has
scaly instead of herbaceous bracts as the staminate flowers of the Oak
H a z el Willow etc
T h e HE A D or C AP IT U LU M is like a Spike except that it has the rachis
shortened so as to form a compact cluster of sessile flowers as in the
D andelion M arigold Clo v er and B urdock
T h e ST ROB ILE is a compact flower cluster with large scales conceal
ing the flowers as the inflor e scence of the H op
T h e SP ADIX is a thick fleshy rachis with flowers closely sessile or
embedded on it usually with a Spathe or shea thing bract E x : C alla
A corus C alamus A rum triphyllum
T h e compound racem e particul arly if irregul arly compounded is
call e d a P A N I CLE
D E T E RMI N A T E A N T H O T AX Y is one in which the first flower that opens
is the terminal one on the axis the other s appearing in succession from
apex to base or from centre to margin T he principal varieties are :
T he SOLIT ARY D E T E RMIN AT E in which there is a single flower borne
on the scape as in the A nemone or Wi ndfl ow er and H ydrastis
T h e C YME a flower cluster resemblin g a corymb except that th e
buds develop from center to circumference E x : E l der If the cym e
be rounded as in the Snowball it is a globose cym e
A SCO RP OI D C YME imitates a raceme having the flowers pedicelle d
and arrang e d along a lengthened axis
A G L OM E RU LE i s a cymose inflorescence of any sort which is con
de n se d into a head as the so called head of C ornus fl orid a
A VE RT I CI LL A S T E R is a compact cymose flower cluster which r e
sembles awhorl but really consists of two glom erules situated in the
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PH
40
A RMA CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
axils of opposite leaves Clusters of this kind are seen in C atnip
Ho rehound P eppermint and other plants of the L abiat a
T he
T h e racem e corymb umbel etc are fr e quently compounded
compound racem e or racem e with branched pedi cels is ca ll ed a panicl e
E x : Y ucca and paniculate inflorescence of the oat
A T H YRS U S is a compact panicle of a pyramidal or oblong shap e
E x : Lilac Grape and Rhusgla
bra
A M I X E D A N T H OT AX Y is one in which the determinat e an d i n de ter
minate plans are combined and i llustrations of this are of frequent
o ccurrence
T h e order of flower developm ent is termed ascending when as in
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FIG
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29
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C ymos e i nflor esc enc e s
terminal flower G A simpl e cym e
compou nd cym e ( Fr om H am aker )
F, A
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H, A
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racem e the blossoms open first at the lowest point on th e axis and
continue to the A pex E x : White L ily and m any other plants of the
sam e family In the cym e the developm ent is centrifugal the central
florets opening first while in the corymb it is centripetal or from m argin
to center
ti on
B y prefl or ati on is m eant th e arrang em ent of the
Pre fl ora
floral envelopes in the bud It is to the flower bud what vernation is to
the leaf bud the sam e descriptive term s being largely employed as
co nvolut e involute revolute plicate imbricate et c
In addition to those already defined the following are important
VA LV A T E P RE FLORA T ION in which the m argins m eet but do not over
lap Of this variety the induplicate has its two margins rolled inward
the
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F LO W E R
T HE
41
as in Clematis In th e reduplicate they are turned outward as the
sepals of A lthea
V E XI LLA RY the variety shown in the corolla of the P e a where the
two lower petals are overlapp ed by two lateral ones and the four in
turn overlapped by th e larger upp e r ones
C O N T ORT E D where one m argin is invariably ext erior and the other
interior givi ng the b ud a twisted appearance as in the Oleander and
P hlox
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T
FL O W E R
HE
flower is a shoot which has undergone a m etamorphosis so as to
ser v e as a means for the propagation of the indi v idual
T he
.
A , shows th e r ela ti on s of th e flor al
Diagrams of flor al structur es
FI G 3o
p arts i n a hyp ogyn ous flower B , T he sam e i n a _p erigynous flower C, T h e
s am e i n an ep igyn ous flowe r D , A s tam en E , A Si mple pi sti l i n longi tudi nal
s e c ti on F , T he sam e i n cross se cti on G , T r ansi tonal f orms b e tween tru e p e tals
of two c arp els to f orm a compound
l
e
t
tru
e
st
a
m
e
l
i
ght
u
n
i
o
n
H
S
ns ( ri ght )
n
d
a
,
f
)
(
p i stil I and J , U ni on of carp els more comple te K an d L, Cross s e cti ons of com
pound p isti ls , of three c arp els I n B : a, st am en ; b, p e tal ; c , s ep al ; d, pi sti l ; e ,
re cepta cle ; f , p e di c el I n D : a, anther c ell ; b, conne cti ve ; c , fil am en t I n E a,
sti gma b, style ; 6 , ovules ; d, ovary (Fr om H am aker )
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parts of the flower are SE P A L s P E T A LS ST AM E N S and C A RP E LS
all of which are inserted upon a shorten e d axis call ed the RE C E P T A CL E
or T ORU S T his is usually flat or con v ex but may b e conical and fleshy
as in the S trawb erry ; c o n c av e as in the R ose and Fi g ; or sho w a disc like
m odi fication a
T h e axis of a flow e r cluster if short is
s in the Orange
som etim escal led a common receptacle as in the floral axes of the D ande
T he
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lio n and L ettuc e
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PH
42
A RM A CE U T
Com p lete F lower
A
IC
AL
B OT A N Y
possesses the four whorls of floral organs
arranged upon the torus
l organs and a flower
T h e stam ens and pistils constitut e th e essenti a
is said to b e P erfect when these ar e present and functional
A Regu lar F lower possesses parts of the sam e shape and si z e
It is S ym m etr i c al when the parts of each whorl are of the sam e num
b er or multiples of the sam e numb er
l organs wanti ng
A n I m p erfect F lower shows one set of essen ti a
When either petals or sepals or both are present in m or e than the
'
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usual numb er the flower is said to b e dou ble as the cultivated
A ster Rose and C arnation
If the pistils are present and stamens wanting the flower is called
p i sti llate or female ; if it possesses stam ens but no pistil it is described
as stam i n ate or male ; if both are absent n eu tr al as marginal flowers of
Vi burnum Some plants as the B eg onias and C astor oil b ear both
staminate and pi s tillate flowers and are called M on ceci ou s When
the staminate and pistillate flowers are b orne on diff erent p lants of
the same species they are term ed Di ce ctons as the Sassafras and
Willow
When staminate pistillate and herm aphrodite flowers
are all born e on one plant as on the M aple trees they are
p olygam ou s
T h e P eri gon e
T h e perigone or peri anth is the floral en v elope con
sisting of calyx and corolla ( when present )
When both whorls t e calyx and corolla are present the flower is
said to be dichlamydeous ; if only calyx is present monochlamydeous
T h e Ca
lyx ~T h e C alyx is the outer whorl of modified lea v es
Its
parts are called S epa ls and may be distinct ( C horisepalous from a
Greek word m eaning disj oined ) or more or less united ( Gamosepalous )
T hey are usually green foliaceous or leaf like b ut m ay b e b rilliantl
y
colored hence the term petaloid ( like the petals ) is applied E x
T ulip L ark spur and C olumbine
In a G A MOS E P A L OU S C A L YX when the unio n of sepals is incomplete
the united portion is called the tub e th e free portion the limb the ori
fice of the tube the throat
In form the calyx m ay b e regular or irregular ; regular if its parts are
evenly develop ed and irregular if its parts differ in size and shap e T h e
m ore common forms are tubular resembling a tub e ; rotat e or wh eel
shape ; campanulate or bell shape ; urceo late or urn shape ; hypocrat eri
form or salv er shap e ; bilabi ate or two lipped ; correspo n ding to th e
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PH
44
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
AN Y
B OT
bling each other in form and color as in the T ulip an d Lily the flower
i s called LI LIA CE OU s
A GA LE AT E C OROLL A is one in which the upp er petal is arch ed in the
shap e of a helmet called th e Galea as in A co nit e
T he LI G U L A T E or ST R AP S H AP E D COROLL A is nearly confined to the
fam i ly Composit a
It is usually tub ul ar at the base th e remain der
e
resembling a singl e petal E x : M arigold and A rnica Flowers
LA B I A T E or B i L AB I AT E havi n g two lips the upper composed of two
petals , the lower one of thre e T his form of corolla gives nam e to the
LAB I A T zE , whi le in the fam i ly L E GU MI N OSE
this arrangem ent is
som etim es reversed T he corolla m ay b e e ither ringent or gaping
as in S age or personate when the throat is nearly closed by a
pro j ection of the lo wer lip as in Snapdragon
ROT A T E WH E E L SH APE D when the tub e is short an d the division of
th e limb radiate from it like the spokes of a wheel E x : T h e P otato
blossom
CRAT E RIF ORM SA U CE R SH A P E D like the last e xcept that the m argin
E x : K almia latifolia ( M t L aurel )
i s turned upward or cupped
HYP OCRA T E RIF ORM or SA LV E R SH AP E D ( more corr e ctly hypocrateri
morphous ) when the tube is long and sle n der as in P hlox or T rai ling
A rbutus and abruptly expands into a flat limb
T he nam e is derived
from that of the ancient S alver or hypoc rateri um with the stem or
handle b eneath
When of nearly cylindrical form the corolla is T U B U LAR as in th e
H oneysuckle and Stramonium
FU N N E L FORM ( Infundibuliform ) such as the corolla of th e common
M orning Glory a tub e gradually enlarging from the b ase upward into
an expanded border or lim b
CAMP AN U L A T E or B E L L S H A P E D a tub e whose length is not more
than twi ce the breadth and which expa n ds gradually from base to apex
E x : C anterbury B ell H areb ell
U RCE OL AT E or U RN SHA P E D when the tube is globose in shape and
the limb at right angles to its axis as in the ofli c i al U v aU rsi Chim aphila
and G aultheria
T h e Andrce cium , or S ta
m e n S ystem
T h e Stam ens or m icro
sporophylls are th e m ale organs of reproduction and each complete
stam en consists of a filament or stalk and an anther or pollen sac ,
which is the essential portion and contains apow dery substance call e d
poll en
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T HE
ST
AME N
S
Y ST
EM
45
When few in number stamens are said to b e DE FI N I T E ; when v e ry
num erous and not readily counted they are IN DE FI N IT E T he follow
ing terms are in common use to express their number :
M O N AN DROU S for a fl ower with b ut one stam en
DI A N DR OU S with two stam en s
T RI AN DRO U S with three
T E T RAN D RO U S with fou r
P E N T A N DROU s having five
HE XAN DROU S six
P O L YAN DR OU S an indefinite num ber
A s to insertion they are :
H YP O G YN OU S situated on the receptacle
P E RI G YN OU S on the calyx tub e or disc
E P I G YN O U S on the top of the ovary
GYN AN DRO U S borne upon the pistil as in the Orchids
T he stam ens may be of equal length ; unequal or of di fferent l ength
D I D YN AM O U S when there are two pairs one longer than the other
T E T RAD YN AMOU S thre pairs two of the same l ength the third
e
short e r
T erms denoting connection b e tween s tam ens are
M ON ADE LP H OU S ( i n one brotherhood) coalescence Of the filam ent
i nto a tub e
D I AD E LP H OU S ( in two brotherhoods ) coalescence into two sets
T RI ADE LP H OU S with filaments united into three sets
P OL YADE LP H OU S when the sets are numerous
S YN G E N E SI OU S when the anthers cohere
S tam ens may be E RE CT extending directly upward spread i ng pro
c ee di ng upward and outward ; CO N N IV E N I brought close together a
nd
turned inward ; RE F LE X E D turned downward
T he attachment of the anther to the filament m a
y b e in one Of sev
e ral ways as follows :
IN N A T E attach e d at its base to the apex of the filam en t
A DN AT E adherent throughout its length
VE RS A T I L E when the anther is attached near its center to the top
O f the filam ent so that it swings freely
T he adnate and versatil e are
I N T RO R S E when th ey face inward E X T R O R S E when they face o utward
In order that the pollen m ay be discharged at the proper time th e
anth e r O pen s along a line or sut ure called the line of dehiscence e ither
longitudinal or t ransverse or the poll en escapes through apical or v al
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46
P H A RM
A CE U T
I CA L
B OT
AN
Y
a openings T he p ollen is usually a powdery sub stance which
shows under the m icroscope distinct grains of characteristic forms siz e s
and m arkings Like starch grains each represents a particular source
hence the variety that m ay b e examined is limited only by the number
of kinds of flowers a v ailable for the purpose In order to stu dy poll en
grains take up by m eans of forceps a stam en whose anther is j ust de
hi sci ng or letting free its contents and tap upon a sheet of white paper ;
then examine with a C ompound M icroscop e
T h e following a r e some of the forms of pollen grains :
FOU R SP O RE D AU G H T E R cells hanging togeth er as in the C at T ail
f orming a pollen grain
E L O N G A T E D si m ple pollen grains as in Zost era
D U MB B E L L shaped as the pollen of the P ines
T RI AN G U L AR as in the M exican P rimrose
cem
E C H I N A T E as in the M alv a
SP H E RI C A L as in Geranium
L E N S shaped as in th e L ily
T h e Gyn a
ec i um , or P i stil S yste m
T h e C ARP E L or m egasporophyll
is the female organ of reproduction of flowering plants In the Spruce
P ine etc , it consists of an op en leaf or scale which b ears but does not
enclose the ovu les In angiosperms it forms a closed sac which en v elops
and pr o tects th e ovu les and when compl et e is composed of three parts
the ovary or hollow portion at th e base enclosing the ovu les or r udi m en
tary seeds the s ti gm aor apical portion which recei v es the poll en grains
and the style or connective which unit es these two T h e last is non
essential and when wanting the stigma i s called sessil e T h e carp el
clearly shows its relations to the leaf though greatly changed in form
T he lower portion of a l eaf wh en f olded len gthwise with th e m argins
incur v ed represents the ovar y ; the unfolded surface upon which the
ovul es are borne is th e placenta a prolongation of the tip of the l eaf the
stigm a and the narrow interm ediate portion th e styl e A lea
f thus
ri n
tr a
lled aca
r et
nsfor m ed i nto a
n ovu le bea
T h e carpels
g or gan i s ca
p
of the C olumbine and P e aare m ade up of single carpels
In the latt er
th e young peas occupy a double row along one of the sutures ( seams ) of
the pod T his portion corresponds to the infolded edge of the leaf and
the pod splits O pen along this line called the ventral suture
D ehiscence or th e natural opening of th e carpel to l et free the con
ta
i n ed seeds takes place al s o along the line which correspond s to the
mid rib of the l eaf , the dorsal suture
v ul r
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T HE
CO MP OU N D PI S T
PL
A CE N T A
47
are composed of carpels which ha v e unit ed
to form th em and therefore will ha v e j ust as ma ny cells as carpels
When e ach simple ovary has its placenta or seed~
be a
r i n g line
at
the inner angle the resul ting compound ovary has as m any ax i l e
or central placent a: as there are ca rp els but all m ore or less consoli
dated i nto one T he partitions are called dissepiments and form part
of the walls of the ovary If however the carpels are j oined by their
e dges lik e th e petals Of a gamop e talous corolla there will b e but one
cell and the placenta will b e parietal or on the wall
T he OV U L E S are transform ed bud s destined to b ecom e seeds in t he
m atur e fruit T heir numb er varies from one to hundreds In position
they are erect growing Upward from the base of the ovary as in the
Com posi tze ; ascending turning upward from the side O f the ovary or cell ;
pendulous like the last except that it turns downward ; horiz ontal when
directed straight outward ; suspended hangin g perp endicularly from the
top of the ovary
In Gymnosperm s th e ovules are naked ; in A n giosperms they are
enclosed in a seed v essel
A compl e te angiosp ermous seed o vule c onsist s of a N U CE LLU S or
body ; two coats the outer or P RI MI N E and the inner or SE CU N DI N E ; and
a F U N I CU LU S or stalk Within the nucellus is found the E MB RYO SA C
containing the OV U M or female reproducti v e cell
T h e coats do not completely en v elop the nucellus b ut an opening
at the ap ex called the F O RAME N or MI CROP YL E admits th e pollen tub e
T h e point wh ere the coats are attached to each oth er and to the nucellus
is called the CH AL A ZA T h e H I LU M m arks th e point where the funicul us
is j oined to the o v ule and if attached to the ovule through a part of its
l ength th e adherent portion is called the RA P H E T h e shape of the
ovul e m ay be ORT H O T ROP O U S or straight ; C AMP YLO T R OP OU S b ent or
curved ; A MP H I T ROP OU S partly in v erted ; and AN A T ROP OU S inverted
A campylotropous o v ul e is one
T h e last two forms are most common
whose bo dy is b ent so that the hilum and mi c r opyle are approxim ated
IL S
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T
HE
P L A CE N T
A
placenta is the nutriti v e tissu e connecting the ovules wit h the
wall of the ovary T he vari o us types Of placenta arrangement ( pla
ti on) are grouped according to their relati v e complexity as
c e nt a
follow s :
T he
.
48
PH
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT A N
Y
B asilar 2 Sutural 3 P arietal 4 C entral 5 Free C entral
B asilar pl acentation is well illustrated in the P olygonacem ( Smart
Weed Rhub arb E tc ) in P iper and Jugla ns H ere at the apex of the
axis and in the cent e r Of the ovarian b ase arises a single o vul e from
a small area of placental tissu e
e ( P e a B ean
Sutural placentation is seen in the L eguminos a
H ere each carp el has prolonged along its fused e dges two cord like
placental twigs from which start the funiculi or o v ule stalks
H ere we
P arietal placentati on is seen in Gloxinia Gesn eria E tc
find two or more carpels j oined and placental tissu e running up along
edges of the fused carpels b earing the ovules
C entral or axile placentation is seen in C ampanulace a (Lob eli a )
where the two three or more carpels have folded inward until they
meet in the center and in the process h ave carried the originally
pariet al placenta with them T hi s then may form a c entral sw elling
b earing the ovules over the surface
F r ee C entral placentation o ccurs perfectly in the P rimulace a
In this the c arples simply
P lant aginace a
e and a few other families
cover over or roof in a central placental pillar around which the
ovules are scattered
tion P ollination is the transfer of pollen from anther to
P o lli na
stigma and the consequent germination thereon It is a necessary step
to fertilization
When the pollen is transferred to the stigm a of its own flower the
process is called CLO SE or SE LE P OLLI N AT I ON ; if to a sti gma of another
flower CROS S P OLLIN A T I O N
If fertiliz ation follows th es e processes
are term ed respectively C lose or Self F ertiliz ation and C ross F ertiliza
tion Close F ertilization m eans in tim e ruination to the race and hap
pily is prevented in many cases by ( a ) the stam ens and pisti ls standing
in extraordinary relation to each other ( b ) by the anthers and pistils
m aturing at diff erent tim es ( c) by the pollen in many cases germ i nat
ing better on the stigma of another flower than its own
T he agents which are responsible for cross polli nation are the wind
insects water currents small animals and birds
WI N D P OLLIN AT E D floweri ng plants are called A N E MOP HI L OU S ; their
poll en is dry and powdery flowers inconspicuous and inodorous as in
the P ines Wheat Walnut Hop etc
IN S E CT P OLLIN AT E D P L A N T S are called E N T OMOP H IL OU S
T hese
being dependen t upon the visits of insects for fertilization possess bril
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AT
F E RT I LI Z
li a
n tly
I ON
49
colored corollas have fragrant odors and secrete nectar a sw ee t
liquid very attractiv e to insects which are adapted to this work through
the possession of ap ollen carrying apparatus E x : Orchids
PL A N T S P OLLI N AT E D T H RO U GH T H E A G E N CY OF W AT E R CU RRE N T S
are known as H YDROP H IL OU S T o this class b elong such plants as
liv e under water and which produce flowers at or near the surface Of
the sam e E x : Sparganium
Som e plants a
s the H oneysuckle and N asturtium are fertili z ed by
humming birds
B efore the pollen grain has b een deposited upon the stigm a a series
of eve nts aff ecting both the pollen grain and the embryo sac occur
T h e microspore ( pollen grain ) divides into two cells the MO T H E R a
nd
T U B E CE LL S of th e mal e gam etophyte
T h e nucleus O f th e mother
cell divides to form two generativ e nucl ei T he N U CLE U S of the m ega
spore or embryo sac undergo es division until eight DAU GH T E R N U CLE I
are produced which are separated into the following groups :
( a ) T hree of these nuclei occupy a position at the apex the lower
nucleus of the group being the egg or ovum the other two nuclei b eing
th e S YN E R G I D S or A SSI ST I N G N U CL E I
( b ) A t the opposite end of the sac are three nucl ei known as the
AN T I P O DA L S which apparently ha v e no special function
( c) T h e two remaining nuclei ( P O LA R N U CLE I ) form a group lying
near the centre of th e embryo sac which unite to form a single nucleus
from which after fertilization the endosperm of nourishing material
is derived
T his stage of the embryo sac constitutes the female
gam etophyte
tion A fter the pollen grain reaches the stigma the viscid
Fe rtili z a
moisture of the stigma excites the outgrowth of the male gam etophyte
which bursts through th e coats of the poll e n grain forming apollen
tub e T h e pollen tube carrying within its walls two generativ e an d
one tub e nucleus penetrates through th e loose cells of the styl e until it
reaches th e micropyl e of the ovule then piercing the nucellus it enters
th e embryo sac T h e tip of the tub e breaks and one of the gen e rative
nuclei unites with the egg to form the oospore T he Oospore develops
at onc e into an embryo or plantlet which lies passi v e until th e seed
unde rgoes germination T he other generative nucleus unites with the
previously fused polar nuclei to form the endosperm nucleus which soon
unde rgoes rapid di v ision into a larg e number of nuclei scatt ered about
through the protoplasm of the embryo sac T hese accumulat e proto
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PH
50
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
plasm about them cells walls ar e laid down endosperm resulting
Germinati o n is the b egin ning of growth in a seed or plant T h e con
di ti on s favorable to germination are warm th moisture and presence Of
air
.
,
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,
.
T
FRU I T
HE
fruit consists O f the matured o v ary and cont ents and m ay include
other organs Of the flower ext e rnal to the pistil but connected with it as
in C lematis where the long feathery style renders the fruit b uoyant
and lik e the fruits Of the T histle and D andelion in which th e modified
calyx serves a similar purpos e is easily scatt ered by the wi n d In the
Strawb erry and Q uince th e receptacl e b ecom es thick and succulent
and constitutes the edible portion of the fruit Other modifications
are seen in the hooks or spines by m eans of which certain fruits
compel animals to assist in their dispersion
E x : C ocklebur B ur
dock B idens E tc
D i strib u tion of Fruits a
nd S ee d s
Som e fruits as the co coanut are
transport ed by water currents and are adapted to withstand for a
lon g perio d the action Of salt water A nother O f the peculiar m eans
provided by nature for the dissemination of seeds and fruits is that
shown in the Sandbox T ree the fruit of which is hygroscopic and by
absorption of water bursts the p ericarp with such explosiv e force as to
cause a loud report and to scatter the seeds in every dir e ction B irds
and fruit eating m ammals including man also play a part in th e work
O f distribution
T he
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FRU I T
ST
T h e P E RI C A RP ,
RU C T U R E
or S E E D V E s sE L is the ripened wall of the ovary
and in general the structure of the fruit wall resembl es that of the ovary
but undergoes num erous modification s in the course of de velopment
T h e numb er of cells of the ovary m ay increase or decrease the
external surface m ay change from soft and hairy in the flower to hard
and becom e covered with sharp sti ff prickles as in the D atura
S tramonium or Jam estown we e d
T ransform ations in consistence
m ay take place and the texture of the wall of the ovary m ay b ecome
hard and bony leather y as the rind of the Orange or assum e the forms
s een in the Gourd P each Grape etc
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P HA RM A CE U T I C A L
52
B OT A N Y
j ointed indehiscent legum e called a lom ent breaks up natural ly
into transverse one seeded di v i sions T h e C ochle ais a coiled or spiral
legume E x of Lom ent : C assia fistula
A C AP SU LE is a dry dehiscent fruit of two or mor e united carpels
and shows several forms of dehiscence as in the P oppy C ardamon
etc
T he P YXIS is a modification of the capsule which op en s transversely
the upper half forming a lid as in P ort ul aca or Hyoscyamus
e
A SILIQ U E is a long slender capsul e with two parietal placent a
e
the valves opening from below upward as in the C rucifer a
Dry Ind ehi s c e nt Frui ts ( O ften erroneously regarded as seeds )
T he A K E N E is a dry one chambered indehi scent fruit in which the
pericarp is firm and m ay or may not be united with the seed the style
remaining in many cases as an agent of dissemination and may b e
e A nem one
winged feathery or hooked E x : Frui ts of the C omposit a
and Ranunculus
T h e SA MARA is a winged akene like fruit as in the B irch E lm A sh,
B ox E lder and M aple
T he U T RI CLE is like the akene except that the pericarp is loose and
bladder like E x : Chen opodiu m
A CARY OP SI S or Grain di ffers from the last in having the cell com
rp very thin T his fruit is
pletely filled by the see d and the peric a
more likely than any other to b e mistaken for a seed E x : Wheat
Rice B arley Oat etc
A N U T i s a hard one celled one seeded frui t like the akene but
larger and usually produced from a compound ovary T he nut is
often enclosed in a kind of involucre term ed a C upule as the cup of the
acorn or the leaf l i ke covering of the H a z el nut
A CRE MOCARP is the characteristic fr ui t O f the U mbellifer a
e family
It consists of two inferior akenes or m ericarps separated from each other
by a stalk called a carpophore T he m ericarps separate as soon as the
fruit ripens and are seen to b e longitudinally ribbed with num erous
oil glands between the ribs
Fl eshy Ind ehi sce n t Fru its
T h e D R U P E is a one c a
rpelle d fruit
such as the Plum P
ac h P rune Sabal Rhus etc and calle d stone
f
'
fruit beca use the endocarp or putamen is composed wholly of stone
cells
A n E T E RIO consists of a collection of little drupes on a torus a
s
the Raspb erry
A
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T HE
SE E D
53
B E RRY is fleshy frui t with a thin membranous epicarp and a
succul ent interior in which the seeds are imbedded E x : C apsicum
T omato B elladonna Gr a
p e C urrant etc
T he HE SP E RI DIU M is a variety of the berry and the name is a
pplied
only to memb ers of the Orang e family It is a fleshy frui t with leathery
rind which contains numerous oil glands
T h e P E P O or G OU RD E RU I T
of which the Squash and Gourd are
types is the characteristic fruit of the order C ucur bi tace m fleshy
internally and ha v ing a tough or very hard rind Fruits of thi s
f amily are true berries
T h e P OME is a fleshy frui t the chi e f bulk of whi ch consists Of t h e
adherent torus Q uince A ppl e and P ear ar e examples T h e carpels
constitute the core and the fleshy part is developed from the torus
M u lti pl e Fr uits T he SYCON I U M is a mul tipl e fruit consisting of a
succ ul ent hollow torus enclosed within whi ch ar e akene like bodies
products of many flowers E x : Fi g
T h e SO ROS I S is represented by the M ul berry th e grains of which
are not the ovaries of a single flower as in the B lackb erry but b elong
to as m any separate flowers In the P ine appl e all the parts are blended
into a fleshy j uicy seedless mass and the plant is propagated by
cuttings
T h e ST R OB I L E or C ON E is a scaly mul tipl e frui t consisti ng of a
scale b earing axis each scal e enclosing one or more seeds T he name
e
is applied to the fruit of the Hop and also to the fr uit of the C on i fer a
in which the naked seeds are borne on the upper sur face of the woody
scales
T he
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T
HE
SE E D
T he
seed is the fertilized and matur e d ovul e having the embryo
form ed within it L ik e the ovule it consists of a nucellus or k ernel e u
closed by integum ents and the descriptive terms used are the same
T h e seed Coats corresponding to those of the ov ul e are two in numb er
th e T E S T A and T E G M E N
T he testa or outer seed shell di ffers greatly
in form an d texture If thick and hard it is crustac eous ; if smooth
and glossy it is polished ; if roughened it m ay be pitted furrowed
ha
iry reticulate etc
ppendages whose
T h e testa may Often present outgrowths or seed a
functions are to make the seeds buoyant wh ereby they may b e dis
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5
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PH
54
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT A N Y
seminated by wind currents E xamples of thes e are seen in the M ilk
weed which has a tuft of hairs at one end of the seed called a Com a
and in the Official Strophanthus which has along b ristle like appendage
attached to one e n d of the seed and called an awn T h e wart like
appendage at the hilum or micropyle as in C astor Oil S eed is called
the C aruncle
T h e tegm en or inner coat surrounds th e
nd is generally soft and
nucellus closely a
delicate
B
A third i n tegum ent or accessory seed
an d is
covering
is
occasionally
present
C
called the A RIL E x : E uonymus ( suc
culent)
When such an in t egum ent arises at the
Frc
Secti on o f a
31
grain of wheat A P eri c arps m icropyle of the seed as in the N utm eg it
an d f ee d coats ; B layf r O f is known as a
n ar i llode
c ells i n endosp erm co ntai ni ng
T he N U CE LLU S or K E RN E L COD Sl stS O f
aleurone grains ; C cells of th e
s er
l
mh
tissue containing album en when this sub
i gi g rbfifilfiifijfi
z
stance is present and the embryo A lbu
m en is the n am e given the nutritive matter stored in the seed
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M O DE
OF FO RM A T
IO N
OF D IF FE RE N T
T YP E S O F A L B U M E N
If the egg cell within the embryo sac segm ents and grows into
the embry o and stretching fills up the cavity without food m ate
rial laid down around it it happens that the nutritive mat e rial lin
T his is
gers in the cells of the nucellus pres sing around the embryo
called P er i s p er m i c A lbu m en S een in the P olygonace a
e
In by far the greater numb er of A ngiosper m s the endosperm nu
divid e s and redivides giving rise to
c le u s after double fertili z ation
numerous nucl e i imb edded in th e protoplasm Of the embryo sac out
side oi the developing embryo Gath ering protoplasm about th em
selves and laying down c ell wall s they form the e ndosperm tissue
outside Of the embryo I nto this tissue foo d is passed constituting
th e E nd OSperm i c albumen
e P iperace a
e etc
In the M arantac ea
nutritive mat erial is pass e d
into the nucellar cells causing them to swell up while to one side a
small patch of endosperm tissue accommodates a mo derat e amount
of nourishing substa n ce thus resulting in the f o rmation of abundant
perisperm and a small reduced endosperm
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F ORM
AT
I ON
OF
A LB U ME N
w hich
55
albumen
t red
s o
grow th of
A lbu m i nou s se ed s a
re tho se in which t h e nourishmen t is not stored
the embryo until ger m ination take s place
emb ry o duri ng
‘
t he
.
.
.
P A RT
II
T AK ON
DIV IS ION I
T HALLO P HYT A
—
.
Plants
OMY
consi s ting Of a thallus a body undifferentiated into root
stem or leaf T he group nearest to the beginning of the plant kingdom
presenting f orms howing rudim entary structures which are modified
through di v ision of labor di fferentiation etc in higher groups
,
,
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C
,
SU B DIVI SION I
M YX OM Y CET
—
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,
E S , O R SLIM E
M OLD S
errestrial or aquatic organisms frequently classified as b elonging
to the a nimal kingdom and found commonly on decaying wood lea v es
or humous soil in forests T heir v egetati v e body consists of a n aked
m ass of protoplasm called the plasmodium which has a creeping and
rol ling motion putting ou t an d retracting regions of its body called
pseudopodia
T
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SU B D IVI SI ON II
—
.
SC HIZOP H YT A
T
his group comprises the fission plants whose m emb ers possess
a common m ethod of asexual reproduction whereby the cell cleaves or
splits into two parts each of which then b ecom es a separate and
independent organism
,
.
r
.
CYA N OP H YCE JE
which are som etimes termed blue green alg a
e
T h e v contain
chlorophyll a green pigm ent and phycocyanin a blue pigment a com
bination gi v ing a blue green aspect to the plants of this group
Found
everywhere in fresh and salt water and also on damp logs rocks bark
of trees stone walls etc E x : Oscill atoria Gloeocapsa and N ostoc
P la n ts
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2
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,
SCI II ZO MYCE I E S
’
‘
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—
B A CT
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E RI A
B a ct eria are minute u n icellular vegetable organisms destitute of
chlorophyll T hey ser v e as agents of decay and ferm entatio n an d are
,
.
56
A P P E A R A N CE
OF B A C T E RI A L COL ON I E S
57
fre quently employed in industrial processes A ccordi ng to the vari o us
phenomena they pro duce they m ay be classified as follows : a Zymo
gens producing ferme n tation ; b A erogens producing gas ; c P h o togens
producing light ; ( 1 C hromogens producing color ; e Saproge ns produc
ing putrefaction ; f P athogens producing disea s e
'
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,
P HYSI CAL A P PE ARAN CE
OF
BACT
,
E RI
AL
C OL ON IE S
AN D
IN DIV I DU A L
FORMS
B ecaus e of th eir minut e siz e a sp ace th e siz e of a p i nh ea d m ay hold 8 b illi on
of th e m
th e studen t comm enc es hi s study of b acterial growths i n colonies or c ul
tur es each ki nd poss essing ch ar acteri sti cs by whi ch th ey may b e di stingui sh ed and
—
—
,
di fl er e n ti ate d
.
indiv i du als i n th e colony d ep endi ng upo n th e kind of b act eria under ex
a mi na ti o n m ay b e glob ul ar rod shap ed or sp ir al Bacteria ar e classed accor di ng
to sh ap e as
C OCCI ( singular coccus) glob ul ar or b erry sh ap ed
B A CILLI ( Singul ar b aci ll us ali ttl e rod) rod sh ap ed
SP I RI LL A ( singul ar Spi ri llum) Spi ral or cork scr e w shap ed
S por ulati o n
A l arg e n umb er O f b act er ia poss ess th e power of d ev elop ing i n to
a r esting stag e by a process known as sporula ti on or spor e f orm atio n Sp orula ti on
i s r eg ard ed as a m e thod of r esi st ing u nf avorabl e env i ro nm ent
T hi s i s illu str at ed
by th e anthr ax b acilli whi ch ar e r ea dily kill ed i n twenty minutes by a I O p er cent
solutio n of carboli c aci d an d abl e wh en i n th e spor e co nditi o n to r e si st the s a m e
disinf ectant f or a lo ng p eri od i n a co nc en tr a ti on of 50 per c en t A nd whil e th e
v eg e tativ e f orms Show li ttle mor e r esi stanc e against moi st h ea t than the v e g e tativ e
f orm of oth er b act er ia th e spor es will wi thsta nd th e acti o n o f li v e st ea m f or as lo n g
as te n to tw elv e minutes or mor e
Wh enev er the sp or es are brought i nto f avor able co ndi ti o n f or b act erial growth
as to temp er a tur e moi stur e an d nutri ti on th ey r etur n to th e v eg etati v e f orm and
th en ar e c ap abl e of multipli c ati o n by fissio n i n th e ordi nary way
Repr odu cti on
Bact eria mul tiply and r eproduce themselv es by cl eav ag e or
fissi o n
A young in d iv i du al incr eas es i n siz e up to th e li mi ts of th e a dul t f orm
when by si mpl e cl eavage a t right angl es to th e lo ng axis th e c ell div i des into two
indi vi du als
M orph ology Du e to C le avag e A ccordi ng to li mi ta ti o ns i mpos ed by cl eav ag e
n
di r ectors th e cocci assum e a ch ain app eara n c e or a gr ap e lik e app ear anc e or a
arr ang em ent i n p ack ets or cub es hav ing thr ee di amet ers T his giv es ri s e to th e
ST AP H Y LO CO CCU S ( pl ur al st aphylococci ) f rom a G r eek word r ef erring to th e
sh ap e of a b u nch of grap es
ST RE PT OCOCCU S ( plur al str eptococci) f rom a G r eek word m eani ng ch ain
S h ap e d
S A R CIN A p a ck ag e sh ap ed or cub i cal
f t er cl eav ag e
T h e indiv i dual b act eri a a
F orm of C e ll G rou p s af t e r C l eav a g e
m ay s ep ar at e or coh er e T h e amount of coh esi o n tog eth er wi th th e plane of c le av
ag e d e termi nes th e v arious f orms of the cell groups T hus a mong th e cocci diplo
l ch ar a ct er
or doubl e f orms m ay r es ult g iv ing ri s e to di s ti n ui shing morpholog i c a
T he
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58
P H A RM A CE U T I C A L B OT
AN Y
a mong th e b acilli ch ar acteristi c f orms r esult as singl e in div i duals
and oth ers whi ch f orm chains of v arious l engths
nd Multipli c ati on
T he r ap i di ty wi th whi ch b act er ia
Rapid ity of Gr owth a
grow and multiply i s dep end ent upon sp ecies and env iro nm ent T h e r ap i di ty of
th e growth i s surprising U nder favor abl e co ndi ti o ns th ey m ay elo nga t e and div i de
ev ery 2 0 or 3 0 m i nut es I f th ey should continu e to r eproduce a t thi s r a t e for tw enty
f our hours a singl e indiv i dual wo uld h av e 1 7 m illi o n d esce n d a
nts I f ea ch of th es e
sho uld co ntinue to gr ow a t th e sa me r at e ea ch would h av e i n twenty f o ur hours
mor e 1 7 m illi o n ofl spri ng and then th e numb er s would dev elop b ey o nd co nc ep ti o n
H owev er such m ul tipli ca ti o n i s not possibl e u nd er natural or ev en artificial co ndi
tio ns both on account of la ck of nutri tiv e m a terial and b ec a us e of th e inhib i tio n
of th e gr owth of the b a ct eria by th eir o wn products
I f th ey di d mult iply at th i s
r a te i n a f ew d ays th er e wo uld b e no room i n th e world but b act eria
Ch em i cal Com positi on of Bac ter ia~T h e quanti t a tiv e ch emi cal composi t io n
of b a ct er ia i s subj e ct to wi d e v a
r ia ti o ns d ep enden t upo n th e nutri tiv e m a ter ials
f ur ni sh ed th em
A bout 8 0 to 8 5 p er c ent of the b act erial body i s wat er ; pr o
t ei d
substances co nsti tut e about so to 8 0 p er c ent of th e dr y r esi du e Wh en th se e ar e
i n som e b a ct er ia tr aces of cell ul os e
ex tr acted th er e r em a
i n f ats i n som e cas e s wa
x
app ear and th e r emaind er co nsists of r to 2 p er cent ash
nd prot ein subst anc e s
T h e prot ei ds co nsi st p artly of nucl eo prot ei ds globulins a
di ff ering m aterially from ordi nary prot ei ds T oxi c subst ances k nown as endotoxins
to distingui sh th em f rom b act erial p oi so ns s e cr e ted by c ertain b ac t eria during th e
proc ess of growth also occur
i sti cs
Similarly
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SU B D I VI SION I II
—
.
AL G fE
Low
forms of thallophytes of terrestrial and aquatic distribution
consisting for th e most part of S ingle cells or rows of single cells
j oined end to end to form filaments T hey contain chlorophyll or som e
other pigm ent and so can use the C0 2 and H2 0 in the same manner
as higher plants e g in assim i lating and providi ng for their own
nutrition
.
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CLASS I
CH LO R OP H YCE E
-
.
,
T HE
GRE E N
A L GE
In this group th e cells are observed to possess distinct nucl ei and
bodies whose pores contain an oil like pigment called chlorophyll
the chloroplasts T he following form s are typical : Spirogyra , D iatoms
Pleurococcus V olvox Confer v a and C hara
—
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,
CLA S S IL
-
.
,
PI I /E OP H YCE zE , T
-
HE
B RO W N A L G E
M ostly m arine forms sh owing great diversity in the form of their
vegetative bodies T heir bodies are us ually fixed to som e support in the
.
A LG A
water
Som e
which
forms
-
LI
KE
FU N GI
59
and are often highly difl eren ti ate d both as to form and tissues
reach hundreds of feet in length as for example M acrocystis
grows in the P acific Ocean off the coast of C alifornia Other
typical of the group are E ctocarpus L aminaria and Fu c us
.
,
,
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,
CLA S S T I L
RH ODOP H YC E JE , T
—
.
,
R E D A L G AE
HE
gre atly diversified group comprising the maj ority of marine alg a
e
T heir vegetativ e bodies vary from simple branching filaments through
all gradations to forms differentiated into branching stems holdfasts
T heir color may b e red purple violet or reddish
and leaves
brown and i s due to the presence of phycoerythrin a red pigm ent
A mong this group are classed Chondrus N emalion C orallina etc
C hondrus is the sol e Official alga in the U S P and belongs to the
family Gi garti nac eee
A
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SU B D IVI SIO N I V
—
.
FU N G I
T
his great assemblag e Of thallophytes is characteri z ed by the total
absenc e of chlorophyll an d so its m embers possess no indepen dent
power of m anufacturing food materials such as starches sugars etc
from C 0 2 and H2 0
C onsequently they a
re either parasites depend
i ng for their nourish ment upon other livi ng plants or animals called
hosts ; or saprophyt e s depend ing upon decaying animal or vegetable
m atter in solution Some forms are abl e to live either as saprophyt e s
or par asi tes while others are restricted to either the parasitic or sapro
phytic habit T h e vegetative body O f a fungus is known as a mycelium
It consists of interlacing and branching filaments called hypha
a which
ramify through decaying matter or invade the tissues of li v ing organ
ism s and derive nourishment therefrom In the case of p arasites the
absorbing connections which are m ore or less speciali z ed and de finit e
are called haustoria In the higher forms the hyph a
e become consoli
dated into false ti ssues and assume definite Shapes according to the
Of this character are the fructifying organs which constitute
S pecies
th e above ground parts of P u ff B alls C u p Fungi M ushrooms etc
,
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CLA SS I
—
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PH YCOM YCE T
E S , OR
A LGA
-
LI
KE
,
.
FU N G I
represent a small group Of fungi showing close
a ffi nity with the green alg a
e
T heir mycelium is comp o sed of c oenocytic
T h e P hycomycete s
.
60
PH
A RM A CE U T
IC
A L B OT
Y
AN
hyp hm
which suggests a close relation with the Sipho nales group of
T heir sexual organs are like wise similar in structur e
green alg a
e
.
.
FI G 3 3
.
H orn
-
P orti on
—
.
of
shap e d sclerotium
s i ceps
Cla
pur pu r ea,
b e aring f our stal ked re
ce p t a
c le s
( Fr om S ayr e )
Of
.
s i ceps pu r pu r ea
A Y ou ng
Cla
scl erotium , s , wi th Old sph ac elia, s p T h e
ap ex of th e d ead ovary o f r ye
B U pp e r
p art of A , i n longi tudinal s e ction , showing
sph ac elia, s C T ransv ers e s e cti o n through
th e sphac elia , more hi ghly magnifie d m T h e
myceli um , surrounded wi th th e hyph a
e; b,
b ear i ng conidia ; p conidia f all en off ; w, the
w all of the o v a ry D G e rm ina ting co nidi a
f orming spor idi a,r ( Fr om S a
yre a
f ter B acks )
FI G 3 2
.
.
-
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
FI G
n
.
.
.
.
—
CLA S S
A
.
( Sexu al app ar a tus
—
.
L0 ng i tu di
al s e cti on of are c ept a cl e
,
,
.
.
SU B
34
m agni fied show ing th e
p eri th ec ia (Fr om S ayr e )
,
.
.
OOMY CE T
.
ES
he t erog a mous )
O r d e r I C hytridi al e s E x : S ynchytrium a form parasitic on
seed plant s and forming blister like swellings
O rd e r 2 S aprol e gni al e s Wat er m old s w hich attack fishes frogs
water insects and decaying plants and animals E x : Saprolegnia
—
.
.
,
.
-
.
—
.
.
,
,
.
.
,
.
T HE
61
SA C F U N G I
O r der 3 P eron osporal e s M ildews destructive parasites li v ing
in the tissues of their hosts and effecting pathologic change s E x
A lbugo the bli s ter blight a whit e rust attacking m embers Of the
Cr uc i f er a
: and P hytophthora producing p o tato rot
—
.
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
SU B
-
CL A S S
.
B
ZYG O MY CE T
—
.
ES
( S ex u al app ar a tus shows i sog amy )
O r de r I M uc ora
les , the black molds mostly saprophytic
M ucor M u ce do Rhiz opus nigricans
.
,
Ex
.
.
,
C L A SS I I
—
.
A S C O M YCE T
E S, T HE
SA C FU N G I
M ycelium compo s ed of septate filam ents and life history character
FI G
singl e p eri the ci um of Claz'i ceps
m agnified showing th e con taine d
35
pu r pu r ea
asci
—
.
.
,
(Fr om
.
A
Sa
yre
,
.
)
A sc i con tain
FIG 3 6
i ng th e lon g , sl en de r asco
pores (From S ayre )
—
.
.
.
.
by the appearance of a sac called an ascus in which ascospores are
formed T he largest cl ass of fungi
O rde r I P r oto ascal es , th e yeasts ( Saccharomycetes ) ( position
doubtful )
O r der 2 P e zi zale s or cup fungi E x : P ez i z a and A scobolus
le s the tr ufll e s
O r der 3 T ube ra
le s , the blue and green molds
Ord e r 4 P le ctasca
E x : A spergillus
and P e nicillium
i ze d
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
62
PH
ARM A CE U T
IC
A L B OT A N Y
Ord e r 5 Pyr e nomyc e tal e s , the mildews and black fungi comm on as
T o the black fungi
s uperficial parasites on variou s parts O f plants
di v ision O f this order the E rgot fungus Claviceps purpurea b elongs
.
.
LIFE HI ST
Y
OR
C LAV
OF
.
,
,
P U RP U R E A
I CE P S
hrough the ag ency of winds or in s ects th e Spor es ( a scospor es or co ni dia) of this
org ani sm ar e brought to th e young ov aries Of th e ry e ( S ecale cer eale) T h ey g ermi ~
nat e into lo ng fila ments call ed hypha
e whi ch b eco m i ng en t a ngl e d to f orm a m yce
li um spr ea d ov er th e ov ary ent er i t sup erficially s ecr e te a f erm en t and ca us e
de compos i ti o n of i ts tissu e and th e r esultant f orm atio n of a y ell ow mucus substanc e
c alled ho ney dew whi ch sur rou nds ch ains Of mo nili f orm r eproductiv e bodies k nown
as co ni di a T he ho ney dew a ttra cts certain i n sects whi ch di ssemina te th e di s eas e
to other h ea ds of gr ain
T h e myc elial thr ea ds p enetr a t e d eep er an d d eep er into th e ov ary and soo n f orm
a d ens e ti ssu e whi ch gr a dually co nsum es th e entir e substanc e of th e ov ary and hard
e n s in to a pur pl e som e wh a t curv ed body c all e d a scl e rot i um or Official ergot
th e
r esting stag e of th e f u ngus C lav i ceps
T h e ergot f all s to t h e grou n d and i n th e f ollowing spring sprouts into s ev er al
stalk ed h ea ds E ach ( f rui ting) h ead or ascocarp h as i mb edd ed i n i t s s ur f ac e nu
m er ous fl a
sk sh ap e d inv ag ina ti o ns call e d p er i th e c ia f rom th e b as e s of whi ch s ev er al
s acs or asci d ev elop Wi thin ea ch ascus are d ev elop ed eight fili for m Spor es ( a sco
spor es) whi ch wh en th e ascus ruptur es ar e disch arg ed an d ar e carr ied by th e wind
to oth er fields of gr ain th er e to b egin ov er a n ew life cycle
T
.
,
,
,
,
,
-
—
,
—
.
.
—
,
.
,
.
-
.
,
,
.
,
C L A SS III
B A SI DI O M YCE T
—
.
E S , OR
B A S I DI A
FU N G I
his large class of fungi including the smuts rusts mushrooms
gill and tooth fungi etc is characteri z ed by the occurrence of a basid
ium in the life history A basidium is the swollen end of a hypha
consisting Of one or four cells and gi v ing rise to bra n ches c alled steri g
m ata each of which cuts Off at its tip a spore
T
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
SU B
-
A
A
C L SS
PR O T
—
.
( Basidi um f our c ell ed
—
,
OB
ASI DI O MYCE T
ES
each c ell b earing a Spor e)
Ord e r I U sti l agi n al e s , the smuts D estructive parasit e s which
attack the flowers of v arious c ere als occasionally other parts of thes e
plant s E x : U stilago M aydis the corn smut
O rd e r 2 U r e di n al e s , the rusts E x : P uccin ia g ram i ni s one of
the wheat rusts livi n g i n the i ntercellular spaces O f young wheat
.
.
,
.
.
.
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
64
A
P H RM
A CE U T
IC
AL
AN Y
B OT
are ,like the F ungi divided into several sub groups A perfect
lichen usually consists of a thallus or vegetable apparatus ; apothecia
or organs of f r u c tific ati on and Spermogonia or organs of fertiliz ation
L ichenes
-
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
DIVIS IO N
II
—
.
BRYOP HYT A
howing a b eginning of definite alternation of generation s
i e gam etophyte ( sexual phase ) alternating with sporophyte ( asexual
ph ase of developm ent) in their life history the two phases b eing com
bi n e d in one plant
P lants
.
.
S
,
,
,
.
SU B D IVI SION I
—
.
HE PA T I CZE O R LIV E RWORT S
of aquatic or terrestrial habit whose bo dies consist Of a rather
flat f u r chat e branching thallus or leafy branch which i s dorsiventral
( ha v ing distinct upper and lower surface ) ; the upper surface consists of
se v eral layers of cells containing chlorophyll which gi v es the green
color to the plants ; the lower surface gi v es origin to hair like out
growths oi the epidermal cells ser v ing as absorpti v e parts and called
rhi z oids U pon the dorsal surface of this thalloid bo dy ( the gameto
phyte ) cup like structures are produced called cupul es which contain
special reproducti ve bo dies called gemm a these b eing able to develop
into new gametophytes T he sex organs are of two kinds m ale and
female T h e male organs are termed antheridia the female arche
gonia T he antheridia are more or less club shaped som ewhat stalked
o rgans consisting O f an outer layer of sterile cells investing a mass of
sperm m other cells from which are form ed the spira lly cur v ed bici liate
antherozoids or male sexual cells T h e archego nia are fl ask sh aped
organs consisting of an investing layer of sterile cells surrounding an
axial row of c ells the nec k canal cells ventral canal cells and th e
egg or female sexual cell E v ery cell Of the axial row breaks down
in the process of maturation with the exception of the egg which remains
in th e basal portion B ot h antheridia and archegonia generally arise
on special stalks above the dorsal surface A fter the egg is fertilized
by an anthero z oid the young embryo resulting grows into a Sporo
gonium ( the sporophyte) consisting of a stalk portion partly im bedded
in the archegonium surmounting a sporangium or capsul e in which
spores are produced When mature the capsul e splits Open discharging
the spores T he spores on germination de v elop into a protonema or
filam entous outgrowth which later develops the thallus
P lants
,
,
—
.
-
,
.
,
,
,
.
—
,
.
-
.
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
65
MU SCI OR MO S SE S
nti a
le s , including M archantia and Riccia
O rder I M ar cha
O rder 2 Jungerm an i a
les , the leafy liverworts includi ng P orella
O rder 3 A nth o cerotal e s having th e mo st complex sporophyte gen
e ra
ti o ns am ong liverworts including A nthoceros and M egaceros
.
.
.
,
.
.
,
,
SU B D IVI SIO N
.
,
II
M U SCI OR M OSSE S
—
.
found on the ground o n rocks trees and in running water
T heir life histories consist of two generations gametophyte and sporo
phyt e similar to the li v erworts but diff er from liverworts generally by
the ever present diff erentiation of the gametophyte body into distinct
stem and simple le aves and the formation of the sexual organs at the
end of an axis Of a shoot T hey are either m onoecious when both ki nds
of s e xual organs are borne on the s am e plant or di oe ci ous in which case
t h e antheridia and archegonia a rise on di fferent plants
O rder I Sphag nal e s , or B og M osses including the simple genus
Sphagnum
P ale mosses Of swampy habit whose upper extremities r e
p e at th eir growth periodically whil e their lower portions die away grad
lly a
ua
n d form peat hence their frequent nam e of P eat M osses
O r der 2 A ndr e aa
l es , including the single genus A n dre aa a xero
phytic habit occurring on siliceous rock
O r der 3 Brya
les , or true mosses comprising the most hi ghl y e v ol v ed
typ e Of bryop hytes E x : P olytri c hu m Funaria Hypnum and M inium
P lants
,
.
,
,
,
,
-
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
.
.
LI FE HI S T
ORY or
.
,
,
P OLY T RICH U M C O MMU N E
P oly tri chum
(A
.
,
T Y P I CAL T
R UE
M o ss )
commune i s q ui te commo n i n woods f ormi ng a carp et li k e cov ering
I t i s di oe ci ous th e pl ants b eing of two
on th e grou nd b eneath t all t r ee c anop ies
nd f e m al e
kinds m al e a
B eg inni ng wi th a spor e whi ch h as f all en to th e da mp soil w e n ote i ts b eg inni ng
T hi s
o f growth ( g ermi na ti o n ) a s a gr ee n fil a m en tous body call e d a proto nem a
proto nem a soo n b e com es br anch ed giving ris e to hair li k e outgr owths f rom i ts
lower porti o n c all ed rhi z oi ds and la t er al b uds abov e th es e whi ch grow into l eafy
st ems commo nl y k nown as moss plants ' A t th e tips of som e of th es e l eafy stems
anth eri di a ( m al e s ex u a
l org ans) ar e f orm ed whi l e on oth ers arch ego nia ( f emal e
r e f orm ed
s ex u a
T h es e org ans a
l org ans) a
re surrou nd e d a t th e tips by d eli c a t e
h airy proc ess es call ed p ar aphys es as well as l eav es f or prot ecti o n T h e antheri dia
b ear th e an th eroz oi ds th e arch egoni a th e eggs or ov a as i n th e li v erworts Wh en
an ab u ndanc e of moi stur e i s pr es ent th e anth eroz oi ds ar e li b er a t ed f rom th e anth er
i dia swi m thr ough th e wa ter to an arch ego ni um and d escend th e neck canal one
T hi s compl et es th e s ex u al or g am etophyt e
f ertiliz ing th e egg by uni ting wi th i t
g ener a ti o n T h e f er tili z ed e g no w undergo es di v isi o n u ntil an elo ng ated stalk
b earing upo n i ts summi t a capsul e i s fina
l ly produc ed thi s b eing k nown a
s th e spor o
-
,
.
,
.
,
,
.
—
,
.
.
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
g
.
,
6
66
P HA RMA CE U T I C
A L B OT
AN
Y
go ni um T h e b as e of th e stalk r emains i mb edd ed i n th e b as al porti o n of th e arch e
go ni um a t th e tip of th e l eafy stalk and f orms a f oot or absorb ing proc ess I n
growi ng upward th e Sporogo ni um ruptur es th e neck of th e arch ego ni um and c arr ies
i t upward as th e cov ering of th e capsul e or c alyp tra
T h e c alyp tr a i s thr own off
b ef or e th e Sp or es ar e m a tur e d wi thin th e c aps ul e T he upp er p art of th e caps ul e
b ecom es co nv er t ed into a li d or op er cul um a t th e m argin of whi ch an annulus or
ring of c ells f orms T h e c ells of th e annulus ar e hygroscop i c and exp and at m a tur i ty
thro wing off th e li d and a
T h i s compl et es th e as ex ual
l lowing th e Spor es to es cap e
or sporophyt e g ener ati o n T he Spor es f all ing to th e cla mp soil g er mi na t e into
proto nem a ta thus compl eting th e lif e cy cl e i n which i s s een an altera tio n of g ener a
ti o ns th e two ph as es g ame tophy t e alt er nati ng wi th sp orophyt e
.
.
.
,
.
,
.
.
.
,
,
.
,
D IVI SION lII
—
.
PT E RID OPHYT A
most highly developed cryptogam s showing a distinct alt er
nation oi generations in their life history
T hey di ff er from the
B ryophytes in prese nting independent leafy vascular root b earing
sporophytes
T he
.
-
,
,
,
.
SU B DIVISIO N I
—
.
Small
M OSSE S
L Y COPOD IA LE S OR CLU B
perennial vascular dichotomously branched herb s with stems
thickly covered with awl shaped leaves T he earliest forms of vascular
plants diff ering from ferns in being comparatively simpl e in structure
of sm all size leaves sessile and usually possessing a single vein E xcept
in a few instances the sporangia are borne on leaves crowded together
and forming cones or spikes at the ends of the branches Homosporous
FAMILY I
L Y COP O DI A CE E including the single genus Lycopodium
with widely distributed species T he spores of Lycopodium clavatum
are official
FAMI LY 2
SE L A G I N E LLA CE E in cluding the si n gl e genus Selaginella
with speci es for the greater part tropical P lants Similar in habi t to the
Lyc opodi ace a but showing heterospory
FAMI L Y 3
I S OE T A CE E
in clu di ng the singl e genus Isoetes whose
species are plants with short and tub erous stems giving rise to a tuft of
branching roots b elow and a thick rosette of lo n g sti ff awl shaped
leaves above
H eterosporous
,
-
.
,
.
,
,
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
,
,
.
.
.
,
-
,
.
.
S U B DIVI SI ON I I
—
.
E Q U ISET ALE S
( T he Hors e tails or S couring Rush es)
T he E quisetales ,
commonly known as the Horsetails or Scouring
rushes are perennial plants with hollow cylindrical j ointed and fluted
,
,
FI LI C
67
A LE S
stems sheath like whorls of united leaves and terminal cone like fru e
ti fic a
ti ons
T heir bodies contain large amounts of silicon hence the
nam e sco uring rushes
In som e varieties the fruiting cone is borne on the ordinary stem in
others on a speci al stem of slightly difl erent form
In the latter the
S pores are provided with elaters whi c h b eing hygroscopic coil and u n
coil with increase or decrease i n the amount of moisture present thus
aiding in the ej ection of spores from the sporangia T h e numb er of
species is small and included under one g enus E quisetum
—
-
,
.
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
.
SU B DIVI SION III
-
.
FILI CAL E S
T he
group Filicales is the largest among th e vascular cryptogam s
and includes all the plants commo nl y known as Ferns T he mai n axis
of a typical fern is a creeping underground stem or rhizome which at
its v arious nodes bears rootl ets below and fronds above T hese fronds
are highly developed each be i ng provide d with a petiole like portion
called a stipe which is extended into a lamina usually showing a forked
venation Som e ferns possess lamin a which are lob ed each lob e being
called a pinna If a pinna be further divided its divisions are called
pinnules T he unfolding Of a frond is circinat e and it increases in length
by apical growth On the under surface of the lamin a pinn a o r
pinnul es m ay b e seen small brown patches each of which is call ed a
sorus and usually covered by a m embrane called the indusium E ach
sorus consists of a number of sporangia ( spore cases ) d eveloped from
epiderm a
l cell s
In som e ferns the entire leaf becomes a spore bearing
organ ( sporophyll ) M ost sporangia have a row of cells around the
m arg i n the whole b eing called the annulus E ach cell of the annulus
h as a U shaped thickened cell wall Water is present within these
cells and when it evaporates it pulls the cell wal ls together straightening
the ring and t e aring open the weak S ide T he annulus then recoils
and hurls the spores out of the sporangium U pon coming in contact
with damp earth each spore germinates producing a green septat e
filam ent called a protonema T his later b ecomes a green heart shaped
body called a prothallus It de v elops on its under surface ant h eridia
or m ale organs and archegonia or female organs as well as num erous
rhiz oids Within the antheridia are developed mo ti le sperm whil e
ova are produced within the archegonia T he many ciliat e sperms
escape from the anth eridia of one prothallus during a wet season and
.
.
—
,
.
,
.
,
.
.
,
,
.
,
—
.
.
.
,
-
.
,
.
.
,
-
.
.
,
.
.
68
P HA RM A CE U T I C A L
B OT
AN
Y
moving through the water are drawn by a chemot actic influence to
the archegonia of another proth allus pass down the nec k canals of
these and fu s e with the ova fertiliz ing them T he fert i liz ed egg or
,
.
,
FIG
.
37
—
.
Dryopteri s
fili x
—
ma
s—
Plan t
se cti on through sorus
.
(F rom S ayre )
.
oo spore di v ides and redivides and soon b ecom es di fferentiated into
stem bud first leaf root and foot T he foot obtains nourishm e nt
from the prothallus until the root grows into the soil when it atrophies
and the sporophyte b ecom es independent U nequal growth and divi
,
,
,
.
,
.
69
SP E RM A T OP H Y T A
sion of labor continue until a highly di ff erentiated sporophyte results
'
the m ature fern plant '
,
.
CL AS S
I
.
FILICI N E E
FAMI L Y P OLYP ODIA CE 1E
OR
T
RU E
Sporangia
—
.
( HOMOSP OROU S )
FE RN S
with annulus vertical and
incompl e te
T h e rhi z omes of D ryopteris fili x mas and D ryopteris marginalis
are o fficial in the U S P T he fibrov asc ular bun dles of these are con
centric in typ e b ut difl er from the concentric i v bundles of some mono
cotyledo ns i n that xylem is innermost and phloem surrounds the
xyl em
.
—
.
.
.
.
.
.
CLASS
2
.
H YDROP T
E RI DIN E zE , O R
WA T
ER
( HE T
FE RN S
E R OS P ORO U S
)
ACE E flo a
ting ferns wi th broad floating l eaves and
subm e rged dissect e d leaves which bear sporocarps E x : Salvi nia and
A zolla
FAMIL Y SA LV
IN I
,
.
.
.
DIVIS ION
IV
.
—
S PE RM A T OP HYT A
( P HA N EROGA M IA )
P lants
pro ducing real flowers and se eds
division of the vegetable k i ngdom
T he
.
highest e v olve d
.
SU B D IVISION I
—
.
A N G IOSPE RM I A OR AN GI OSP E RM S
( P lan ts w i th cov er e d s eeds)
C LA S S A
A
class of
—
.
M O N OCOT YL E DON S
A ngi osper m i a characterized
by
the
foll owing
pe c u l
ia
ri ti es :
One cotyledon or seed leaf in the embryo
r
S tems endoge nous with closed collateral or concentric fibrov asc ula
bundles which are scattered
ll el veined
L eaves generally para
Flowers trimerous ( having the parts of each whorl in 3 s or mul tipl e
thereof )
Se condary growth in roots generally absent
M edull ary rays g e n erally absent
.
,
.
.
’
.
.
.
B OT
PHA RMA CE U T I C A L
70
FAMI L Y
.
A RU M FA MILY
P erennial
herbs with
fleshy rhi z omes or corms and long petioled leaves containing an acrid
or pungent j uice Flowers crowded on a spadix which is usually
surrounded by a Spathe Fruit a berry Seeds with large fleshy
embryo
r
A RACE E
ANY
OR
—
,
,
,
.
.
.
.
Official
use d
U np eel ed rhi z om e
B otani cal nam e
A cor ns cala mus
Rhiz om e
Symplocarpus f ati dus
C orm
A r i s am a
Pa
rt
dru g
Cal a mus
U n official
dru g
Skunk cabb ag e
Indian turnip
triphyllum
GRAMIN A CE E OR GRA S S FA MI LY M ostly herbs with
cylindric hollow j ointed stems whose nodes are swollen T h e l eaves
are alternate with long split sheaths and a ligule Flowers g enerally
hermaphroditic and borne i n spikelets making up a spicate inflo rescence
Lowest floral leaves of each spikelet are called glumes which ar e empty
and pa i red Fruit a caryopsi s or grain E mbryo with scutell um
FAMIL Y
2
—
.
.
.
,
.
,
.
,
.
,
.
.
B otani ca
l na
me
Rhizom e
A gropyro n r ep ens
Refined sug ar
S accharum offic i n ar um
and S orghum sp ?
Seed p artially g ermina
te d H ord e um disti chum
and dried
n d sti gm as
S tyl es a
Zeam ays
P art
us
ed
.
M altum
,
PA LME a
ropical or sub tropical
arborescent plants having unbranched trunks which are terminated by a
crown of lea v es in the axils of which the flowers are produced T he
leaves are well developed with pinnate or palmate blades and a fibrous
sheathed clasping petiole Inflorescence lateral with small flowers
Fruit a berry or drupe
F AMI L Y 3
.
OR
P ALM F AMI L Y
T
—
.
—
,
,
.
.
.
.
l dru g
O ffi c ia
P art
Sab al
us e d
B otani c al nam e
S er eno a s errul a t a
Frui t
U noffici al
C oco anut
oil
Carnaub a
wax
A r eca
Fix
ed oi l
Wax f rom l eav es
S eed
nu t
F A MI L Y 4
.
LILI ACE E
LI L Y FAMI LY
OR
nucif er a
Coper ni c ac erif er a
A r eca Ca t echu
C o c os
.
Herbs with regular and
—
.
symm etrical almost always six androus flowers T he perianth is parted
into six segments the calyx and c orolla being alike in color A nthers
introrse Ovary three locular with a single style Fruit a capsul e or
berry
-
.
,
.
-
.
.
.
B OT
P HA RMA CE U T I CA L
Y
AN
GI N G E R FA MI LY T ropical plants
perennial herbs with fleshy rhiz om es and large elliptical pinn ately
veined leaves T he leaf sheaths are folded tightly around each other
so as to give the appearance of a stern Flowers zygomorphic
FAM IL Y 7
ZI N GIB E RACE E
.
OR
—
,
.
.
.
O fficial
rt
Pa
drug
Zingib er
u
B otanical nam e
le
Zingib e r ofli ci na
E l et tar ia r ep ens
s ed
Rhi z om e
r da
m om u m
Ca
Frui t
CL A S S
B
—
.
,
D I COT
YLE DON S
P lants
having the following characteristics
T wo seed leaves ( cotyledons ) in embryo
N etted veined leaves
Open collateral fibrov ascular bundl es radially arranged about pith
E xogenous stems
M edul lary rays present
Cambium
Roots developing s econdary structure
Flowers tetra or pentamerous ( parts of each whorl four or fi v e or
m ul tipl e thereof
—
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
,
.
SU B
-
A
CL S S A
—
.
A RCH I CH LA MY DE E
.
hose di cotyledonous plants in which the petals are dist i nct and
separat e from one another or are enti rely wanti ng T hat group of the
m ydeawhose flowers S how the absence of petals and frequently
A r chi chla
of sepals is called the A petal a T he group whose plants ha v e flowers
sho wing the parts of their corolla (petals ) separat e and di stinct is called
the Chlori petala
T
.
.
.
T h e A pe ta
la
.
F AMI LY
PIPE RA CE E
P E PP E R FAMILY
family of aromatic
herbs and shrubs with j ointed stems opposite verticillate or som e
ti mes alt ernate leaves without sti pules and spiked or racemose flowers
1
.
OR
,
-
.
,
A
,
,
Offic ia
l
dr ug
C ub eb a
P ar t u s e d
U nr ip e f r ui t
U nr ip e f rui t
M a ti co
Leav es
.
B otanical na
me
Pip er C ub eb a
Pip er nigrum
Pip er angusti f oli um
U no ffic ial
Methysti cu m
Pi per m ethys ti c u m
W I LL O W
F
AMI LY
73
B E E CH FAMIL Y ( C upulifer a) A petalous
trees or shrubs having alternate pinnately veined leaves monoecious
flowers the m ale in drooping am ents the female solitary clustered or
in scaly catkins Fruit a one celled one seeded nut T he beech oak
and chestn ut are the principal genera
F AM I L Y
2
FA G A C E /E
.
OR
—
.
,
,
,
,
-
-
.
.
,
.
,
Ofli ci a
l
,
Pa
rt
dr u g
u se
G all a
E x cr escenc e
Cr eosot u m
P roduct
Q u ercus
B a rk
of
B otan i cal nam e
Q u ercus inf ectoria
Fagus f erruginea
Fagus sylv a ti c a e tc
Q u ercus alb a
Cast anea d ent at a
d
di stil lati o n
,
U n offi c ial
Cast anea
L eav es
.
T he
cork of comm erce is Obtained from the bark of Q uercus Sub er
and Q uercus occidentalis plants indigenous to Spain and France
F AMIL Y 3
B E T U L ACE E OR B I RCH FA MI L Y A famil y of trees or
shrubs disti nguished by monoecious flowers wi th sca ly bracts and
astringent r e sinous bark D iffers from Fagace a by superior o v ary
and absence of cupul e T O this famil y belong the ha z elnuts birches
alders the ironwood and the hornbean
.
,
—
.
.
.
.
,
Pa
rt
dr ug
Betul a
,
.
,
Offic ial
O l eum
,
u
sed
B otanical nam e
B etul a l ent a
V ol atil e oil
FA MI L Y 4
JU G LA N DA CE zE A fam i ly of apetalous
with alternate Odd pinnate leaves
th e walnut family
exogenous trees
and mon oecious
flowers the steri l e in catkins the fertil e solitary or in a small cluster
or spike T h e fruit is a dry drupe with a bony nut Shell and a four
lob ed seed It embraces fiv e genera of which Cary ( Hicoria ) and
n d about 3 5 species
J u gla
ns are r epresented in the U nited S tates a
—
.
.
—
-
,
,
—
.
,
.
,
U n offici a
l
Pa
rt
dru g
J ugl ans
Root
us
.
B otani cal nam e
J uglans ciner ea
ed
b ark
WI L LOW FA MIL Y A fam il y of apetalous
the willow family havi ng alternate un divided lea v es
S hrubs or trees
and dioe cious flowers ( one to each bract) in catkins It embraces two
gen e r a S ali x th e willows and P op u lu s the poplars and from 1 8 0
to 3 0 0 species found chiefly in n orthern temperate and frigid regions
ther e being none in A ustralia or the South P aci fic islands
F AM I L Y 5
SA LIC A CE E
.
OR
—
.
—
—
.
—
—
,
,
,
,
,
.
l
Ofi c i a
Sali ci n
dr ug
Pa
rt
G lucosi d e
u se
d
B otani cal nam e
S ev er a
l sp eci es of Sali x a
nd
P opulus
PH
74
FA MIL Y 6
M YRI ST
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
order of apetalous tr e es the
comprising the single genus M yri sti ca of about 8 0
.
I C A CE JE
An
—
.
—
nutmeg family
species
M yri sti ca A large tropical genus O f fragrant apetalous trees
the nutmegs coextensive with the nutm eg fa m ily having alternate
entire often punctat e leaves small dioecious regular flowers and a
succulent two valved one celled fruit with a solitary seed usually
co v ered by a lancinate aril
M fr agr ans a handsome tree 2 0 to 30 feet high O f the M alay
archipelago supplies the nutmegs and mace of comm erce
—
,
.
—
,
.
-
,
,
,
,
,
-
-
,
.
.
,
,
,
.
,
Officia
l
P art
drug
M yri sti ca
O l eum M yr i sti ca
F A MI L Y 7
u
sed
B otani c al nam e
M yri sti ca fr agr ans
M yri sti ca f r agr ans
er nel of s eed
V olatil e oil
K
family of arom atic
tree s or shrubs with alternate coriaceous pellucid punctate l ea v es
containing considerable v olatile Oil ; flowers polygamous each ha v ing
a calyx of four or six col o red s epals
LA U RA CE fE
.
LA U RE L FA MI L Y
OR
—
.
A
'
,
,
,
.
Official
Pa
rt
drug
C amphor a
S t earopt en
Sassaf r as
C innamomum Zeyla
ni c u m
Ci nna momum Sa
i goni c u m
Bark
Pi th
Bark
Bark
Ol eum Cinnamomi
V ola til e Oil
Sass af r as
M edulla
of
u
B otani cal nam e
Cinna momum C a mphor a
r ii f oli u m
Sa ssaf r as v a
r i i f oli u m
Sass af r as v a
C i n namomum zeyla
ni c u m
sp e cies o f
U n d et ermine d
cinnamo n
C innamomum cassia
s ed
root
U noffi c ial
D r i mys
wint eri
Laurus nob ili s
FA MI L Y 8
M YRI CA CE ZE
B A YB E RRY FA MI L Y A family of e v er
green O r deciduous apetalous mostly dioe cious shrubs an d trees i n
cluded within the single genus M yrica Flowers in mostly single
seldom closely set aments leaves single occasionally ( M yrica aspleni
folia ) pinnately cleft Fruit a w axy drupe
T he outer waxy layer Of the fruit is used in m aking a superior candle
while an infu s ion or fluid extract of the bark and leaves is used as a
specific in vario us a ffections of the mucous m embranes diarrhoea
dysentery etc
FAMIL Y 9
P U LYG ON A C E JE O R B U C K W H E A T FA MIL Y
A petalous
herbs shrub s or rarely trees with alternate entire lea v es the s ti pules
.
,
,
OR
—
.
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
—
.
.
'
,
,
,
AMI L Y
E LM F
75
fo rm ing a sh e ath abov e the swollen joints of the stem ; flow e rs sm all
and with a two to S i x parted perianth ; fruit an angled ak ene
,
—
,
O fficial
P ar t
dru g
Rh e um
us
.
B otanica
l na
me
R h e um O fli ci na
le
Rh e um p alm at um an d
th e v ar ie ty t anguti cum
ed
Rhiz om e
U n offic ial
Rum ex
Rum ex
FAMIL Y
P H YT
cri spus
famil y of apetalous trees shrubs
or woody herbs the pok eweed family with alternate entire leaves
and flowers resembling those of the g oosefoot family ( Chen opodi acece)
but diff ering in having the s everal celled o v ary composed of carp els
united in a ring and f o rming a b erry in fruit It embraces 2 1 genera
and 55 species tropical and sub tropical
1 0
.
OL A CC A CE E
A
—
,
,
—
—
,
-
,
.
,
—
,
Offic ia
l
.
Pa
rt
dr ug
P hytol a cc a
FA MIL Y
B otani cal nam e
P hytol a cca d ecandr a
u s ed
Root
CH E N OP ODI A CE E
family of mor e or less succul ent
apetalous annual or perennial herbs the goosefoot fam i ly with
usually alternate exstipul ate lea v es and minut e gr e enish flower s It
embraces about 8 0 genera and over 50 0 species amo ng them b eing
s e v eral garden v egetables and an um ber of w e eds
1 1
.
A
—
.
—
—
.
,
.
Officia
l dru g
P art
Ol e um Ch e nopo dii
ed
V ol atil e oi l
Refined sug ar
Sa cch arum
F AMIL Y
us
small family of ap etalou s
plants the birthwort family chi efl y climbers or twiners and tropical
with irreg ular dingy O ften o ff ensively sm elling flowers T h ere are
five gen e ra and about 2 0 0 species
1 2
A RI S T
.
OL O CH I
A CE E
B otani ca
l nam e
Ch enopodi um anth elm inti cum
B e ta v ulg ari s
A
—
.
—
—
,
.
,
,
.
l
Offi c ia
P art
used
nd
Rhi z om e a
roots
nd
Rh iz om e a
roots
dru g
S erp en tari a
B otani c al nam e
A r i stolochi a s erp entar i a
A ri stolochia r e ti c ul ata
l
U n ofli c i a
A s arum
FAM IL Y
E L M FA MIL Y
Forest
cana dens is
trees indigenous
to the temperate and tropical z one s characteri z ed by b eing woody
pl ants with pi n n ately veined leave s and caducous stipul es and without
1
3
.
U L M A CE /E
A s arum
OR
,
,
—
76
PH
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
milky j uice T heir flowers are unisexual or herm aphroditic with
or four parts to the perianth Fruit a samara
.
.
O fli ci a
l
.
,
rt
Pa
dru g
us
B otani cal nam e
U lmus f ul v a
ed
Inner b ark
U lmus
F A MI L Y
1
4
M ORA C E ZE
.
OR
Si x
M U LB E RRY
FA MIL Y
—
.
M ostly shrubs or
trees rarely herbs perennials with small axillary clustered or solitary
unisexual flowers v ariously colored ; leaves o v ate with serrate m argin
and ha v ing caducous stip ul es ; fruit an akene enclosed bv the perianth
M ilky j uice present
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
Offici a
l
Pa
rt
us e d
Flower ing tops of p i stil
l at e pl an t
Frui t
S trob il e
G l andul ar tr i chom e
dr ug
C annab i s Indi ca
F A MIL Y
B otani c al nam e
Cannab i s sa ti v a
Fi cus
cari ca
H um ul us lupulus
H umulus lupul us
vast group of
apetal o us trees shrubs or herbs m ainly natives of warm countries
with milky acrid juice normally alternate entire leaves ; fruit a three
locular capsule containing seed s with 0 i endosperm Som e plants
furnish rubber
1
E U P H O RB IA C E ZE
5
.
,
OR
SP U R G E FA MI L Y
A
-
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
O fli c i a
l
B otani cal nam e
H ev ea sp e cies
S tillingia sylv ati ca
Ri cinus com m u n u s
C roto n tigli um
drug
E lasti ca
S tillingi a
O l eum Ri ci ni
Ol eum T i gli i
U n ofl‘i c i a
l
Ca
sc a
ri lla
Croto n e lu t er i a
ap i oca
K amal a
M anih ot
M allotus
T
uti lissim a
phi li pi nensi s
T h e Ch lori pe ta
la (P olype ta
la)
Fl o wer s
ha v e b o th calyx and corolla the latter being composed Of
distinct petals
M A G N OL I A CE E O R M A G N OLI A FAMI L Y T rees and
FA MIL Y 1 6
S h r ubs ha v ing alternate lea v es and single l a
rge flowers with calyx and
corolla colored alike Sepals and petals deciduo u s anthers adnat e
P istils a
n d stamens num erous
B ark ar omatic and bitter
,
.
—
.
.
.
.
Offic ia
l
dru g
Ol eum ani si
.
,
P art
.
us
V olati l e oi l
ed
B otani cal nam e
Illi ci um v erum
C A S H E W FA M I L Y
77
i 7 RO SA CE ZE A family of polypetalous plants the
ros e famil y with alternate simple or c ompound stipulate leaves and
reg u lar flowers with usually num ero us distinct stam ens inserted on th e
urn S haped calyx It embrac es 8 0 genera and nearly 2 0 0 0 species
found in all parts of the world
T h e flowers bear comparatively
T re es shrubs and a few herbs
m any petals T he fruits vary greatly and m ay b e fleshy an akene
b erry or a drupe M any of th e fruits are edible
FAMIL Y
—
.
—
.
—
,
-
,
.
,
.
.
,
.
.
.
Offic ia
l dr ug
B otani c a
l na
me
Rosa d a
m ascena
P run us amygdalus v ar ie ty a mar a
P ru nus a mygdalus v ariety dulci s
P ru nus s erotina
Rubus vill osus R c unei f ol i us
and R ni grob a ccus
Q uill ajas apo naria
Hag eni a abyssi n i c a
O l e um R os a
A mygd a
la A mar a
A mygd al a D ulci s
P ru n us
,
,
Vir giniana
Rub us
,
.
,
.
Bark
P ani cl es of p i still at e
flo wers
P e tals
Ros a
g alli ca
P runus
l aur oc er asus
C ydo nia vulg ar i s
FA MILY
family of
lo u s trees or shrubs with res i nous acrid m i lky juice alternate
ch lori pe ta
leaves sm all flowers and a mostly drupaceous fruit E xhalations of
m any m embers frequently poisonous e specially from the Rhus v ene
n ata and R T oxicodendron ( P oison I v y )
1
8
.
A N A C A R DI A C E E
OR
,
C A S H E W FA MI L Y
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
Ofli ci a
l
B otani cal nam e
Pi sta cia l en ti scus
Rhus gl abr a
P art
drug
M as ti ch e
glabr a
U n offi cial
Rhus T oxi cod endro n
Rhus A rom a ti ca
Rhus
FA MIL Y
A
,
,
,
—
.
used
Resinous ex ud ati o n
F rui t
Rhus
Rhus
RA N U N CU L A CE E
toxi cod endro n
aroma ti ca
order of herbaceous or woody
plants the crowfoot or buttercup fam i ly with radical or alternate
p almately vei n ed lea v es and terminal racemose or panicled flower
clusters the flowers r e gul ar or irreg ul ar with all parts distinct and u n
connected T her e are 30 genera and 1 3 50 species
M edium si z ed shrubs or herbs with acrid jui ces Fruit is an akene
1
9
.
—
.
An
—
—
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
-
.
,
78
PH
A RM A CE U T
IC
A L B OT A N Y
po d or berry C hi e fly temperate or co ld climate s S eeds contai n
albuminous matter
l nam e
Ofli ci a
l drug
Pa
r t us e d
B otanica
Hy drasti c canad ensi s
Hydr asti s
Rhiz om e and roots
A co ni tum nap ellus
A co ni tum
T ub erous root
D elphini um St aphi sagria
S taphi sagria
S ee d
Ci mi cif uga
Rhiz om e and root
Cimi ci f ug a r ac emosa
U n official
A ne mo ne p uls ati l a
P uls atill a
l
E ntir e h erb
A ne mo ne pr a t ensi s
C opti s
E ntir e h erb
C op ti s tr if olia
Hell eborus
H ell eborus nig er
Rhiz om e a
n d roots
A do ni s
A do nli s v er nali s
E ntir e h erb
.
.
.
FAMIL Y
v ast family of polypetalous herbs
shrubs and trees the bean family with alternate st ipulate usually
compound leave s and papilionaceous or som etim es regul ar flow e rs with
usually I O m onadelphous diadelphous or rar ely distinct stame ns and
a simple pistil b ecom i ng generally a legum e in fruit It embraces three
well marked groups 2 4 tribes 4 2 7 genera and 7 0 0 0 species
Officia l dru g
P art u s e d
l nam e
B otanica
A ca cia
A cacia Se n eg al and oth er sp e cies
G ummy ex ud ati o n
T r agacantha
A str agalus gum m i f er an d oth er
G ummy ex udati o n
sp ecie s
Balsamum P eruvia num Balsa m
T ol uif er a p er eir a
B alsamum T olu tanum
B alsam
T ol ui f er a Balsamum
Ham atox ylon
H eartwood
Ham atox ylon c am pec hi anu m
Santalum R ubrum
H eartwood
P t erocarp us s a
li nu s
nt a
G lycyrrhi z a gl abr a
G lycyrrh iz a
Rh iz om e and root
G lycyrrhiz a gl an dul i f er a
C assia acutif olia
Cassia angustif olia
Cassiafist ul a
T amari ndus indi ca
C op aib a sp ecie s
V o ua
ca
pou aar arob a
P hysostigma v e nenosu m
P t erocarpus M arsup i um
Cy ti sus S cop a
r i us
20
.
LE G U MIN OS E
—
.
—
A
,
—
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
-
,
,
.
,
rigonell a f oenu m graCu m
P i sci dia erythr ina
Indigof er a tinctoria
T ri fol i um pr a t ens e
D ipt eryx odor at a
T
-
80
PH
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
small family of tropical A m erican
p olypetalous aromatic trees the canella family with alternate ex
stipulate entire leaves and axillary cymos e perfect flowers It em
braces two genera Canellaand Ci nnam odendr on and about f our species
FA MI L Y
6
2
C AN E LL A CE E
.
A
—
.
—
—
,
,
C anell ac
Pa
rt
dru g
l nam e
B otani ca
Canell a alb a
us e d
ortex
FAMIL Y
.
,
,
U n official
.
,
,
,
fam ily of polypetalous shrubs or tre es
the dogwood or come] fami ly of all parts of the world with usually
alternate coriaceous entir e leaves and terminal or axillary cymose clus
ters of sm all flowers It embraces I 5 genera and 8 0 species
7
2
C ORN A CE ZE
.
A
—
.
—
,
,
.
.
U n offic ial
Pa
rt
dru g
C ornus
B otanical nam e
C or nus fl ori da
us e d
Bark
FAMIL Y
fam i ly of tre es or shrubs the
spurge laurel or m ez ereum family having very tough bark opposite
entire lea v es an d sm all perfect regular flowers
2
8
T H YME LE A CE ZE
.
A
—
.
,
,
,
,
Offic ia
l
.
,
Pa
rt
dru g
M ez ere um
B otani cal nam e
D aph n e M ez er eum
us ed
B ark
F AMIL Y
GE RA N I A CE E
A family of polypetalous herbs shrubs
9
or trees the geranium family usually with lobed or dissected leaves
and axillary peduncles Of Often showy perfect flowers It embraces
se v en tribes 2 5 genera and about 98 0 species widely sc attered in tem
perate and sub tropical regions
2
—
.
,
.
—
—
.
,
,
,
,
-
.
O fficial
dr ug
P
G er ani um
a
rt u s e d
B otani cal nam e
G er ani u m m acul a tum
Rhiz om e
FA MI L Y 3 0
HA MA ME LI DA C E ZE
family of polypetalous shrubs or
trees the witch ha z el family with alternate simple lea v es two
deciduous stipules and heads or spikes of monoecious or polygamous
flowers It includes 1 9 genera and about 40 species
T he leaves and twigs contain highly arom atic volatile O ils
.
—
—
.
A
—
—
,
,
.
.
.
O fficial
drug
Ham am eli di s f oli a
Ham am eli di s cort ex
S tyrax
FA M I L Y 3 1
rarely trees
—
.
P art
us
ed
L eav es
Bark and twigs
B alsam
LI N A CE /E
A
—
.
the flax family
—
B otanic al nam e
Ha ma m eli s v ir g iniana
Ham am eli s v irginiana
Liq ui d amb ar orien t ali s
fa
mil y of polypetalous herbs shrubs or
with alternate simple and usually entire
,
,
81
P A S SI FL ORA CE JE
le aves and regular symmetrical h ypogynous flowers which are four
t o fiv e m emb ered thro u ghout the petals blue yellow or white an d
fugacious It embraces 1 5 genera and ab out 2 3 5 specie s distributed
over the world
,
,
,
-
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
Offic ia
l dru g
B otani cal nam e
L inum usi t ati ssi mum
Linum
FA M I L Y 3 2
GU T
family of polypetalous trees or shrubs
the gamboge family with resinous j uice opposite coriaceous leaves
and terminal or axillary clusters of regular dioecious flowers It em
braces 2 6 genera and about 3 7 0 species all nati v es of the tropics
.
—
T I FE RZE r
A
-
—
,
,
,
.
.
,
l
Ofii c i a
Pa
rt
dru g
C am bogi a
G um
B otani cal nam e
rcinia h anburii
Ga
us e d
r esin
M A LV A CE E O R M A L L ow FA MI L Y A family of chlori
p etalous herbs shrubs or trees abounding in mucil age and usually
with the ab o v e ground portion covered with trichom es ; the leaves are
alternate an d palm ately ner v ed ; the flowers reg ul ar the corolla beau
t i f ully c olored funnel or bell shaped stam ens mo n adelphous ; fruit a
several celled pod
F A MI L Y 33
—
.
.
,
,
-
,
—
,
,
-
.
Offic ia
l
B otani cal n am e
dru g
A lth a
ea
A lth a
a
aofli c i n ali s
G o ssypii C ort e x
G ossyp i um
h erb ac eum
G ossyp i um h erb ac e um
G ossyp i um h erb ac e um
G ossyp i um P ur i fic a
tu m
Ol eum G ossypii
se m i ni s
FA MI L Y 3 4
P A P AV
A CE E
A fam i ly of polypetalous plants
the poppy family usually with milky or colored juice alternate ex
stipulat e lea v es and l o ng one flow er e d peduncles the flowers usually
with two caduco u s sepals and four cruciate petals It embraces
ab out 2 0 genera an d 8 0 species
H erbs or low shrubs with m ilky or colored narcotic j uices
Flowers
showy Fruit usually a m any sided caps ul e T emperate and tropical
regions
.
ER
—
.
—
,
—
,
,
.
.
.
,
-
.
.
.
Offic ia
l
Pa
rt
us ed
C o ncr e t e milk y ex uda t e
Rh iz om e
drug
Op i um
Sang ui naria
B otani cal nam e
P ap av er som ni f erum
Sangui na
r ia c ana d en si s
f amily of polyp etalous shrubs
trees or rarely herbs the passion flower family often climbin g with
altern at e palm ately lob e d or compoun d leav es and solit ary or r acemose
FA MIL Y 3 5
.
P A S S I FL ORA CE E
—
—
.
-
A
,
—
,
,
,
,
82
PH
ARM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
ofte n handsome flowers with five monadelphous stamens It embraces
fi v e tribes 2 7 genera an d 2 3 5 species all tropical or sub tropical
.
,
-
,
U n offi
,
c
ial
.
,
Pa
rt
dru g
u se
B otani cal nam e
Cari ca p ap aya
Pa
s si flor ainc ar na t a
d
P ap ain
Pa
ssi fl or a
FAMIL Y 3 6
M E N I SPE RMA CE /E
.
OR
,
M O ON SE E D FA MI LY
Chlori
—
.
petalous woody climbing tropical plants with alternate simpl e leaves ;
flowers green to white ; fruit a one seeded succul ent drupe T h ey
usually contain tonic narcotic or poisonous bitter principles
,
—
.
.
,
Official
P art
drug
us
B otani cal nam e
Ja teorhiz a p alm ata
C ho n dod en dro n tom en tosum
ed
C alumb a
P ar eir a
l
U n officia
Fru i t
A nami r t a
Rhiz om e
FA MIL Y 3 7
M YRT
p ani cul ata
M eni sp erm um c ana d ens e
an d roots
M YR T
trees or
shrubs of warm er climates with Opposite entire exstipulate leaves of an
elliptical shape and having a vein running close to the margin A ll the
organs pro v ided with roundish glands containing hydrocarbo n prin
c i ple s giving them an arom atic odor
F lowers with imbricate calyx
lobes numerous stam ens and an inferior ovary
.
A C E fE O R
LE
,
F AMI LY
—
E v ergreen
,
.
,
.
,
.
Offic i a
l
Pa
rt
drug
us
B otani c a
l nam e
E ucalyptus globul us
E ucalyp tus glob ulus
E ug enia aroma ti ca
E ug enia arom a ti ca
P i m ent a ofli ci na
li s
ed
E uc alyptus
E ucalyptol
C aryophyll us
E ug en ol
P i m en t a
U n offi cial
M yrcia
V ol atil e oil and l eav es
FA MIL Y
P O L Y GA L A CE /E
M yrcia
a cri s
family of polypetalous herbs
shrubs or rarely small trees the milkwort family having alternate
simple entire leaves and irregular hypogynous flowers with four to eight
diadelphous or monadelphous stamens
38
.
—
.
A
,
—
—
,
.
Officia
l
dr ug
Pa
rt
us
B otani cal nam e
P olyg ala Seneg a
ed
.
S eneg a
RU T
A CE E O R RU E FA MI LY A fam i ly of pellucid
punctate polypetalous woody plants rarely herbs ha v ing ex stipulate
opposite simple or compound lea v es and v ariously shaped i nfl or e sc enc e s
FA MI LY 39
,
,
.
—
.
,
,
84
PH
A RM A CE U T
or yellow flowers It emb races
ical in distributio n
.
1
8
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
genera and
1 1 0
species mainly tr op
,
.
Offic ial
P art
dru g
B otani cal nam e
us e d
f G ui ac u m Oflfici n ale
l G ui ac u m s an ctum
Resin
G u i ac u m
A family O f polypetalous trees
FA M I L Y 44
T E R N S T RO E MI A CE E
or shrubs the tea or cam ell i a family having alternate simple leaves
and Often large showy m ostly fiv e part ed flowers with num erous
stam en s It embraces 4 1 genera and 3 1 0 species nearly all n atives
of the tropics
—
.
.
—
—
,
-
,
,
,
.
.
l
Ofii c i a
P ar t
us e d
Feebly b asi c principl e
drug
fl ei n a
Ca
'
FA MI L Y 4 5
SAP IN DA CE E
T
B otani cal nam e
h ea chinen si s
family of polypetalous trees or shrubs
the s oapberry family ha v ing alternate Often e v ergreen compound
leaves and small unsymm etrical odorless fl o wers with eight stam ens
It embraces 1 2 2 genera and 9 50 species m ainly tropical
.
A
—
.
-
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
Officia
l dr ug
B otani cal na m e
P a ullinia C up ana
P art
G uar ana
ste of
Pa
us e d
crush ed s eeds
FA M I L Y 4 6
ST E RCU LI A CE E
A family
trees~th e cola nut or sterculia family
of polypetalous shrubs or
having usually opposite
single or three to nine foliate lea v es and a variously shaped i nfl ores
cence of reg ul ar perfect flowers with frequently monadelphous stam ens
havi ng two celled anthers
—
.
.
—
—
,
—
,
-
.
Pa
rt
Offi cial dru g
O l eum th eo bro m a
ti s
Fixed
u s ed
oi l
T
B otani c al nam e
h eobroma Ca ca o
U n official
C ol a
F A M IL Y 4 7
U MB E LLI F E RJE
.
OR
acumina ta
PA RS LE Y FA MIL Y
—
.
A
family of
pol ypetalous herbs or shrubs characteri z ed as follows :
Inflorescence an umbel ( simple or compound) of small flowers each
with five petals and five stam ens and ovary two celled inferior calyx
adnate to o v ary
Fruit a cremocarp consisting of two seed li k e dry carpels or m eri
carps which often separate when fruit is ripe E ntire plants possess
arom atic volatil e oils
,
,
-
,
.
—
,
,
.
.
,
,
RU
Offi cial
B I A CE E
Pa
rt
dru g
A ni sum
Ri p e f r ui t
Foeni culum
N
u se
85
B otani c a
l nam e
P i mp i nell a A ni sum
Fa
sni c ul u m vulg ar e
U nd et ermined
C arum C arv i
C o ni um ma cul atum
Ferula f oe ti da
C oriandrum s a tiv um
d
early rip e f rui t
Rhiz ome a
n d roots
Frui t
U nrip e f rui t
G u m r esin
Rip e f ru i t
S umbul
C arum
C o ni um
A s af oe ti d a
C or iandr um
U n offic ial
A ng eli ca
archang eli ca
A p i um p e tros eli n u m
A p i um gr av eol ens
D or em a A mmo niacum
FA MIL Y 4 8
Chlor i pe ta
lou s
shrubs or trees
with small z ygomorphic flo w ers exhibiting a fiv e lobed calyx ,fi v e petals
I O hypogynous stamens and a superior ovary ; fruit a drupe
Indige
nous to torrid and temperat e z ones
E RYT
.
H ROX YLA CE [EL
—
-
,
.
.
O ffi cia
l
Pa
rt
dru g
us
B otan ical nam e
E rythroxylo n C oca
l E rythroxylo n T r ux ill ense
ed
Leav es
VI T A CE /E OR GRAP E FA MIL Y Ch lori petalou s shrubs
with abundant watery sap whose stem s climb by m eans of tendrils
O pposite th e lea v es ; fl o wers hypogynous ; fruit a berry
FA M I L Y 4 9
—
.
.
,
.
O ffi c ial dru g
Vinum
Vinum
P art
ed
Ferm ent ed j ui ce of f rui t
F erm en t ed j u i c e of f r ui t
i n pr es enc e of th ei r skins
A lbum
R ubrum
l n am e
B otanic a
Vi ti s vini fer a
Vi ti s v ini fera
us
.
A T E FA MIL Y Chl ori pe ta
lous tre e s of small siz e with Opposite ovate lanceolate entire leaves
scarl e t recepta cle calyx and corolla ; fruit an edible berry with hard
rind
FAMIL Y 50
P U N I CA CE E
.
,
OR
P OME G RA
N
—
.
-
,
,
'
,
.
Officia
l
P art
dr ug
B ark of
G ranatum
SUB
-
C LA SS B
.
us e d
stem an d root
SY M PE T
A LE
B otani cal nam e
P u ni ca G r anatum
GAMOP E T
AL E
di v i sion of di cotyledonous plants i n which the flowers possess both
calyx and corolla the latter with petals more or less united into one
piece
A larg e family of gam o petalous trees
RU B I A C E E
F A MIL Y I
shrubs or herbs the M adder family with simple opposite or whorled
A
,
.
—
.
.
—
,
,
—
86
PH
A RM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
leaves connected by int erposed stipul es and p erfect often dimorp h ous
flow ers It embraces 2 5 trib es 3 7 5 genera and 4 50 0 species in all parts
of the world
U sually contain valuabl e alkaloids
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
B otani cal nam e
li s
C in cho na ofli ci na
B ark
j Cinchona C ali s ay a
l Cincho na l edg eri an a ari d hybri ds
B ark
Cincho na su cci r ubr a
C ep hali s Ip ec a cu anh a
f
Root
l C ephaeli s acumina ta
E x tr a ct
O ur oup aria G amb ir
Feebly b asi c substanc e
C o ff ea ar ab i c a
c ial dr ug
Offi
P art
Cincho na
u s ed
,
FAMI L Y
~
A large
di spersed family of
gamopetalous chiefly cl i mbing herbs rarely shrubs or trees the con
v olvulus or bindweed family with alternate leave s and showy pen
m erou s axillary flowers
It embraces about 3 6 genera and 8 7 0 species
ta
C ontains milky juice s
2
C ON V
.
OLV U LA CE JE
—
.
wi delv
—
,
,
—
,
.
.
.
B otani cal nam e
E x ogo ni um P ur ga
C o nvolv ulus S ca mmo nia
FA MIL Y 3
VALE RI AN A CE AE A family of gamopetalous herbs
the v alerian family ha v ing Opposite exstipulate leaves and cym es of
small Oft en irregular flowers with stam ens fewer than the corolla lob e
and inserted on its tube T here ar e nine genera and 2 7 5 species
V a
ler i ana the type gen us distinguished by its triandrous flow ers i n
clu d es the co m mon or o ffi cial v alerian
—
.
.
—
,
.
.
,
,
,
.
Officia
l
Pa
rt
Val eriana
FAM IL Y 4
B otan i cal nam e
Valeriana offici nali s
ed
Rhiz om e an d roots
drug
us
~A fam i ly of ga m opetalous plants
the
star apple or the sapodilla family b ei ng mainly trees or shrubs with
milky juice alternate leathery lea v es and large flowers with perfect
stam ens It embraces 3 8 genera and 4 0 0 species all natives of the
w arm er cou ntri es
A n important resin produci n g fam i ly
.
SA P O T
A CE E
.
—
—
,
,
.
,
,
.
—
.
U n officia
l drug
G utta
—
p ercha
P ar t
used
C o ncr e t e ex ud ati o n
B otani cal nam e
P al aqu i um gutta
—
88
PH
ARM A CE U T
IC
AL
B OT
AN Y
northern hemisphere having opposite lob ed or odd pinnate lea v es the
inflorescence usually cymose with perfect regul ar or irregular flowers
and a baccate or drupaceous fruit It includes 1 3 genera and about 2 0 0
species the honeysuckle V iburnum elder etc
-
,
,
,
.
,
Pa
rt
O ffic ial
dru g
Viburnum Opulus
Bark
V i bur num
Bark
P r uni foh u m
B otani cal nam e
Viburnum Opulus
f Viburn um prunif o li um
Vibur num lentago
used
Flowers
FA MI L Y
.
,
,
,
ca na densis
Sambucus
family of gamopetalous frequently
narcotic poisonou s plants the nigh tshade family having col o rless
juice alternate simple leaves regular pentam erous and pentandrous
flower s and many seeds It embraces 7 2 genera and 1 7 50 species
found in all warm countries particularly A merica S olan zm z the type
genus include s S tu ber osu m the cultivated p otato ; S M elongen a the
egg plant ; S ni gr u m the black nightshade ; S Du lcam ar a the bitter
sweet ; S C ar oli nen s e the Ho r s e N ettle
Io
.
SO L A N A CE ZE
A
—
.
,
—
—
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
'
,
.
,
.
,
-
.
.
,
,
.
.
Official
P art
dr ug
B ell a donna F oli a
B e ll a
aRa dix
donna
Str amoni um
Hyoscy amus
Scopol a
C apsi cum
U n offi c ia
l
D ul camar a
D uboi sia
T ab acum
FAMIL Y
,
n i c al n a
m e
B ota
A trop a Bell a do nna
A trop a Bell a do nn a
D atur a Str a mo ni um
Hyoscy amus nig er
S copol a C ar ni oli ca
C apsi cum f a
s ti g i a
tu m
u se d
Leav es
Root
L eav es
L eav es
flower
and
Rhiz om e
Frui t
S olan um
dulc am ar a
D ubo i sia m yOp or oi de s
N i c o ti a
n at ab a cum
CA MP A N U LA C E E
~A family
gamopetalous herbs
the bellwort family of nor thern temperate regions with alternate
simple l eaves and regular blue or white b ell shaped fiv e parted flowers
embracing 53 genera ( including the Lobel zacea
e) and a thousand species
I I
.
.
of
—
,
-
-
,
’
.
Offic ial
P art
dru g
L ob elia
Le
us e d
av es and flow ering tops
B otan i cal na m e
L ob el i ai n fl a
ta
f amily of g am opetalo u s t r e e s s h r ub s
or perennial herbs~th e heath f am i ly~ wi th commonly altern ate u m
divided often evergreen leaves v ariously shaped clusters of sym m e t
FA M I L Y
I 2
.
E RI CA CE ZE
—
.
A
,
,
,
,
,
MI N T
F
89
A MI L Y
al tetramerous or pentamerous flowers and capsul ar baccate
c eo u s fruit
T hey are natives of temperate or cold climates
pa
ri c
,
,
.
or
dru
.
L ea v es
have a bitter astringent taste due to glucosides
bell shaped or w en shaped
B lossoms
.
—
-
.
Offi cia
l dr ug
C h i maphi l a
P art
us
B o ta
ni c a
l nam e
C hi m a
philaumb ell at a
A rctostaphylos U v aU rs i
G a ulth er ia procumb ens
ed
U V aU rsi
Ol e um G a ulth eria
FA M I L Y
OL E A CE zE
family of gamopetalou s erect or climb
ing shrubs trees or rarely herbs the olive family with O pposite
simple or pinnate l eaves and perfect or unisex u al flo wers with four lobed
calyx four cleft corolla and two or rarely four free stamens It em ~
braces 1 9 genera and ab o ut 3 0 0 species distributed over the warm
or temperate regions of the world
I
3
.
A
—
.
—
,
—
,
,
-
-
,
,
.
,
,
.
P art
Fixed
oi l
Sa cch ar ine
ex uda te
SCR OP H U LA RI A CE JE
fam i ly of gamopetalous plants
family c hi efl y herbs with v arious form s of lea v es and
inflorescence the fl ower s distinguish e d by ha v ing a persistent fiv e
lobed calyx and a two lipped corolla with four didynamous stamens
and often one staminode inserted on its tub e and the fruit atwo
celled usually m any seeded capsule with axil e placent a
e
It embraces
gen era and more than 2 0 0 0 species C ontains bitter acrid
1 66
poisonous principles
—
FAM I L Y I 4
the figw or t
B otani cal nam e
O l ea europ ea
Fr axinus or nus
us e d
.
A
—
.
—
,
-
,
,
-
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
P art
l na
me
B otani c a
D ig i t a
li s p urpur ea
Vero ni ca v irgini ca
u s ed
L eav es
Rhiz om e and
roots
.
Verb ascum thapsus
L eav es
F A MI L Y
I
L AB IA T
5
.
zE O R
M IN T
FA MIL Y
.
~A cosmopolitan family
'
symp e talous herbs rarely shrubs with quadrangular stems opposite
or whorled aromatic lea v es and u s ually thyr s oid or vertic i llate clusters
of flower s each with a two lipped corolla didynamous or diandrous
men s and a four lobed o v ary A ll of the members of this family
st a
are rich in volatil e Oils
of
,
,
,
,
—
,
,
—
.
,
.
PH
90
A RM A CE U T
O l eum L a
v end ula
: Flor u m
AL
B OT
L ea v es
an d
u se
d
M eli ss a offic i n ali s
tops
H erb
FA MIL Y
AN Y
n i c al na
me
B ota
li s
L eav es
Sa lvia Ofli ci n a
D r ied pl ant
S cut ell aria lateri fl or a
L eav es and flowering tops M arrub i um vulg ar e
L eav es a
nd flowering tops H e d eo m a p ul eg i oi d es
L eav es a
nd flow er ing tops M en th a Sp i c a t a
L eav es a
nd flo wering tops M enth a p ip eri t a
V olati l e oil f rom l eav es and T hymus v ul g ari s
flo wering tops
V ola ti l e oil f rom fr esh
Rosm arin us ofli c i na
li s
flowering tops
La
li s
V olatil e oi l f rom f r esh
v en dulaofli ci na
flow ering tops
Pa
rt
O l eum R osm ar ini
IC
Ori g anum
m aj or ana
family of gamopetalous trees or shrubs
the storax f am i ly h av i n g alternate simple lea v es and u sually white
racemed flowers with a corolla of four to eight more or less united
petals It embraces seven genera and 2 3 5 species natives of all parts
of the world
1
6
ST
.
YRA CE ZE
A
—
.
—
fi
.
,
.
Official
u sed
B alsa mi c r esin
B enzoi nu m
FA MIL Y
B otani cal nam e
x Benz oin
S tyr a
P art
dru g
largest famil y of plants embracing
8 3 5 genera and over
sp ecie s
A family of gamopetalous herbs
shrubs and rarely trees found in all parts of the world having their
flower s in a head or capitulum on a common receptacle surmounted
by an in v olucre with five ( rarely four ) stamens inserted on the carolla
their anther s syngenesious
C alyx tub e crowned by a pappus i n the
form of bristles teeth or scales etc
C orolla either ligulate or tubular
In the perfect flowers a two cleft style i s present Fruit an akene
T h e plants of this family contain i nulin a substance isom eric with
starch
I
7
COMP OS IT
.
E
T he
—
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
.
-
.
,
,
.
B otani cal nam e
A nth emi s nob ili s
A r ni c a mon t ana
M atri caria C ha momill a
C al en dul a ofli ci na
li s
A rcti um l app a
A nacyclus Pyr ethru m
T a
r axacum ofli c i nale
.
.
P H A RM A CE U T I C A L
92
B OT A N Y
pharmaceutic importance T his the largest group of Gym nosperms
includes the pines firs spruces hemlocks j unipers b alsams cedars
and arbor v it a
e
T h e f ollowing Gymnospermous plants yield pro ducts
of pharm aceutic and m e dici nal value
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
FI G
.
38
—
.
th e p ine r T er m i nal twi g ; 2 ovulate co ne ;
stam ina te cone ; 4 two year old cone (F rom Ham aker )
I n flor esc enc e s
'
of
.
-
.
.
—
.
B otani cal nam e
Pinus str o bus
Pinus p a
lustri s
Pinus gl abr a
Pinus echi nata
Pinus t a
e da a
nd
oth er sp ecies of Pinus J
A b ies b als a m ea
L ar ix d eci du a
Pi c ea ex c elsa ( A b ies ex c els a)
T s uga occi d en tali s
J unip erus Oxycedrus
J uniperus commu ni s
J unip erus Sabina
‘
Ca
lli tri s q u adri v a
lv i s
Pinus sylv estri s
.
.
P roducts
Whi t e p ine b ark
T
u
rp entine rosin and t ar
,
B als am of fir
Veni ce turp entine
B urgu ndy p i tch
V ola til e oi l
Oi l of ca d e
J unip er b erries and vol atil e oi l
T ops a
n d vol a til e oil o f s a
v in
Sand ar ac
V ola til e oil
_
3
.
P IN A CE
FA MI L Y
a
s
~Old nam e
93
C onifer a
e
pine family
( C one b earing family ) T rees or shrubs with resinous j uice m ost lv
awl shaped or needl e shaped leaves and mon oecious or rarely dioecious
flowers in catkin s destitute of calyx or carolla T hree sub fam i lie s
A bi e ti n e m or proper pine family ; C upr essi ne m or cypress fam ily ; and
T a
x i ne a
A ll are evergreen excepting the L arches
e or yew fam i ly
I
.
P I N A CE E
.
.
T he
.
-
.
-
,
,
-
,
-
.
,
,
,
,
.
.
d
C o ncr et e Ol eor esin
Resin
D estructi v e di sti ll at e
product
Liqui d Ol eor e sin
T ops
O ily product
V ol atil e oil
B otani cal nam e
Pinus p a
lu stri s and
other sp ecies
O th er sp ecies
O th er sp ecies
A b ies b alsa mea
J uni p erus Sabina
J u nip erus Oxyc edr us
J u ni p erus communi s
Resinous
A b ies
Pa
rt
er eb inthi na Canadensi s
Sab ina
Ol eum C adi n u m
Ol eum Ju ni p er i
U noffic ia
l
T
P i x B urg un di c a
S andar ac a
D ammar
Pi x Canad ensi s
S uccinum
T
( amb er)
er eb i nthi na Veneta
Ju ni p er us
,
u se
ex uda t e
Resinous ex ud a t e
Resi nous ex uda t e
Resinous ex ud a t e
ex celsa
C alli tri s q u a
dr i v a
lv i s
A g ath i s lor a
nthi f oli a
sug a can ad ensi s
P ini t es su cci ni f er
Lar i x e ur op ea
J u nip erus co m muni s
T
BIB LIO G RA PHY
Le
M aout an d Dec ai sne s
’
'
_
Lehrbuch de r
D escript iv e an d A nalyt ica
l B otany
sburge r, N oll , Sch enck
Stra
by
‘
.
and Sc hi mp er
.
'
Ba sti as College B otany
M a cfarlane's ' Le ctur es On the
’
.
'B otan
y
Comp ara t iv e
‘
M o rphology and
T
ax onom y
rame r s
and P harmac ogno sy
'
St ev en s P lant A natomy
'
Ha
ma
ker s O utline s of Biology
'
'
k
o
f
B otany vol I by Coulter Barnes C owles
A T ex t B oo
'
'
nd P h arm a cognosy
by M ary L C reig hton
E l e ments of B ot any a
nz enf a
Di e N a
turli chen Pfla
ntl
mili en v on A E ngl er und K Pra
'
'
s
a
r
in
g
s
y
t
e
m
a
t
i
B
ot
a
n
y
translated by P ott er
m
S
c
W
’
K
‘
-
.
’
’
-
.
’
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
_
.
’
,
.
.
.
of
96
I N DE X
Balsamum P eruvianum
T
ol u t
an u m 7 8
,
,
Balsams 9 2
Bark 2 8
outer 2 8
mi ddle 2 8
inner 2 8
Barosm a b e tu li na 8 3
Basi di a F ungi 6 2
Basidi omycet es 6 2
Basi di um 6 2
Bast fib ers 8
Bayb erry Fa mily 7 4
Bean Family 7 8
B elladonna Folia 8 8
Ra di x 8 8
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
B e nz oi n u m , 90
Berb eri da ceae 7 9
B erb eri s A quif oli um 7 9
B erch Family 7 3
Berry 53
B et a V ulg ari s 7 5
B etul al en ta 7 3
B etula cea
e 73
Biennial plan t 1 7
Bindweed Family 8 6
Birch Fam ily 7 3
Bir thwort Family 7 5
B la ck N ightshade 8 8
B lu e G r een A lg a
e
56
B og M osse s 6 5
B oswellia c ar t ern 7 9
B uck wheat Fam ily 7 4
B uck thorn Fa mily 8 3
B uchu 8 3
B ud 2 0
a ccessory 2 0
adv enti ti ous 2 0
axillary 2 0
flower 2 0
l eaf 2 0
mix e d 2 0
nake d 2 0
sc aly 2 0
B ulb 2 2
sc aly 2 3
tuni ca te d 2 2
B u n dl e 1 0
collat e ral clos e d 1 0
conc entri c 1 0
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
B urs er a
ce m, 7 9
B urgundy Pi tch , 9 2
B rassi ca nigra 7 9
B rown A lg ae 58
B ryal es 6 5
B ryophyt a 6 4
,
,
,
,
Cactac ea
e, 7 9
C actus , 7 9
C affeina, 8 4 , 8 6
C ala mus , 7 0
root cross s e ctio n 9
C alci um oxal at e 4
lendula offici n ali s 90
Ca
C all i tri s q u a
dr i v a
lv i s 9 2
C alumb a 8 2
C alyptr a 6 6
C alyx 4 1 4 2
defini tio n 4 1 4 2
p arts 4 1 4 2
shap es 4 1 4 2
-
,
,
,
1 1
,
,
,
,
93
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
c hl or i sep
alo us
,
41 ,
41 , 42
ga mos ep alous
C ambog ia 8 1
Ca
mb ium 2 6
C a mellia Fam ily 8 4
,
,
,
,
m pa
Ca
n ul a
c e m, 8 8
C amphor a, 7 4
e, 8 0
C anell ac ea
C an ell a alb a 8 0
C anell a C ort ex , 8 0
C annab i s Indi c a, 7 6
,
s at i v a 7 6
Capi tulum 39
C apsi cum f a
s ti g i a
tu m 8 8
C ari c a p ap ay a 8 2
Ca
rp el 4 6 4 7
defini tio n 4 6 4 7
rts 4 6 4 7
Pa
dehisc ence 4 6 4 7
compou nd 4 6 47
Carpophor e 5 2
x
Ca rna ub a Wa
70
Carum C arv i 8 5
Ca
ryophyllus 8 2
C arth a mus tinctor i us 9 1
C asc ari ll a 7 6
C ash e w Fam ily 7 7
Cass ia a cutif ol ia 7 8
angustif olia 7 8
fistul a 7 8
C astanea den ta t a 7 3
C a tkin 39 7 3
C aul icl e 1 5
C ed ars 0 2
C el astr ac ea
e 79
C el ery 8 5
C ell s ap colors 4
C eph a
eli s I p e c a cuanh a 8 6
acu m ina ta 8 6
C entroso m e 4
C er eus g r andifl orus 7 9
C h enopodi ac ea
e 75
Chenopodiu m an th elm in ti cu m
C hi maphil a umb ella ta 8 9
C hir a t a 8 7
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
I N DE X
C hloripeta
e , 7 2, 76
lz
C hlorophyc ea
e , 58
Chl orophyll , 56 , 4
C hr omopl ast ,
hro m opla
s t,
Chon dod endr o n tomentosum
C h on drus , 59
C hro m atophore s , 3
C hrys an th emum ros e u m , 9 1
ar ne u m 0 1
Chry s a
robi n u m 7 8
c
,
,
C hytri diale s , 6 0
C i chori um in tybus , 9 1
Ci m i c i f ug a r ac e mos a
, 78
Cinna moden dro n, 8 0
Cinna momum Cassia, 7 4
C amphora , 7 4
Sa
i g oni c u m 7 4
Zeyla
ni c u m , 7 4
Cincho na Cali say a, 8 6
L e dg eri a
na
86
,
offi c i n a
li s, 8 6
su cc i r ub r a
86
,
Rubr a, 8 6
C i tr ullus C olocynthi s, 9 1
Ci trus A ur anti um , 8 3
Li mo n um , 8 3
vulgari s , 8 3
C l av aria, 6 3
Cla
va
ri a
les, 6 3
av i ceps purp u r ea, 6 0 , 6 2
lif e history , 6 0 , 6 2
C los e d coll at er al b u ndl e , 1 0
C lub M oss es , 6 6
C oca, 8 5
C ocos nucif er a, 7 0
C ocoanut Oil , 7 0
C ocos nuci fer a , 7 0
C occul us ,
C ofl e aar ab i c a, 8 6
C ola acumina ta, 8 4
C olchi cum a utum nal e , 7 1
C olchi ci C ormus , 7 1
Sem en, 7 1
C oll enchyme, 5
C olocy nthi s, 9 1
Calyptr og en, 1 5
C ommiphora M yrrha 7 9
C ompos i t e
s , 90
C o nc entri c bu ndl e, I O
C ond ur ango , 8 7
C one, 53
C oni dia , 6 2
C onif er e , 9 1 , 9 3
C oni um m a cul atum , 8 5
C onv all aria , 7 1
m aj ali s , 7 1
a
86
C onv olv ulac e a
,
.
—
,
-
97
C o nvolvulus S cammonia, 8 6
C op aib a, 7 8
C operni ca c eri f er a, 7 0
C opti s tri f olia, 7 8
C oriandrum s a tivum , 8 5
c ork ) S, 7
C orm , 2 2
C orna c ea
e, 8 0
C ornus fl ori d a, 8 0
C or n S mut , 6 2
C or n stalk 2 2
C oroll a , 4 3 , 4 4
defini tion, 43 , 44
Pa
rts 43 44
shap es 43 44
,
,
,
c hlori p et
,
alou s, 4 3
g amop etalous
C orymb 39
C oto 7 4
C otyl edons I 5
C r e mocarp 5 2
,
44
4 3 , 44
,
.
,
,
,
,
C r eosot u m , 7 3
Cri bi f or m , 7
tissu e 5
C rocus s ati vus 7 1
C roto n elu ter i a 7 6
tigli um 7 6
C ro wf oot Fami ly 7 7
,
,
.
,
,
C r u ci f er a, 7 9
C ryp togams , 2
C ub eb a, 7 2
C ucurb i ta P epo , 9 1
C ucurb i tac ea
e, 9 1
e, 7 3
C upul if er a
C ulm , 2 1
C upul es , 5 2 , 6 4
C up Fu ngi , 59, 6 1
C usso , 7 7
e , 56
Cy an ophyc ea
Cyca ds , 9 1
Cydonia v ulgar i s , 7 7
Cydoni um , 7 7
Cyme, 39
Cypr ess , 9 3
Cypri p edi um , 7 1
pub esc ens
71
r v i fl or u m , 7 1
pa
,
C yti sus scop ari us , 7 8
Cytopl asm , 3
D am iana, 8 3
D a mmar , 9 3
D aph ne M eze r e um , 8 0
D atura S tra mo ni um , 8 8
phis agri a 7 8
D elphini um S t a
D erma tog en, 1 5 2 0
D et ermina t e Inflor esc en c e, 3 7 4 0
defini ti on, 3 7 4 0
,
,
—
—
98
I N DE
D e te rminat e Inflore sc ence,
D extr os e, 4
D iagra m of a cell , 3
Dia toms , 58
Di cotyl e dons, 2 , 2 3
kinds
3 7 40
—
,
ch aracteristi cs of 7
Di cotyl st e m 2 5 2 6
ch ar a cteri sti cs 7 2
c ross s e ct i o n of I I
n d st e ms
Di fierences b e tween roots a
Digi tali s p ur pur ea 8 9
Dioeci ous 4 2 6 5
D ipt eryx odora t a 7 8
D odd er 1 6
D ogb ane Family 8 7
D ogwood Family 8 0
D or ema a mmoniac um 8 5
D ri mys wint eri 7 4
D rup e 5 2
D ryopteri s fil i x m as 68 6 9
m arginali s 6 9
D uboi sia m yOporoi des 88
D ucts 8
D ulc am ar a 8 8
,
,
,
,
-
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
—
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
1
6
X
E ug enol , 8 2
E uonymus a tr op ur pur e us , 7 9
E up a tori um p erf oliatum , 9 1
e, 7 6
E uphorb ia c ea
E x ocor tex , 2 3
Ex ogo ni um P urg a, 8 6
E x og enous st em , 2 8
Fag acea
e, 7 3
Fag ar a Clav a H erc uli s, 8 3
Fagus f erruginea , 7 3
-
sylv a ti c a 7 3
Fami ly 2
Fe rn stru c tur e 6 7
annulus 6 7
anth eri dia 6 7
arch egonia 6 7
f ro n d 6 7
in dusi um 6 7
la m ina 6 7
pinna 6 7
p innule 6 7
proth allus 6 7
protonema 6 7
spor angi a 6 7
tru e 6 9
w at er 6 9
Fert il iza ti o n 4 9
Ferul a f re ti da 8 5
Fibrov asc ul ar 5
bu ndl e 1 3 6 9
b icoll ater al 1 3
clos e d coll a t eral 1 3
co n cen tri c 1 3 1 4
op en coll ater al 1 3
r adial 1 4
Fi cus c ar i ca 7 6
Figwort Family 8 9
Fili cal es 6 7
Fil i cinea
e 69
Fi rs 9 2
Fl ax Family 8 0
Flower 4 1 4
comple t e 4 1 4 2
d efini ti o n 4 1 4 2
diagr a ms of 4 1 4 2
doubl e 4 1 4 2
i mp erf e ct 4 1 4 2
p arts 4 1 4 2
p er f e ct 4 1 4 2
p istill at e 4 1 4 2
r eg ul ar 4 1 4 2
stam inate 4 1 4 2
structure 4 1 4 2
sy m m e tri c al 4 1 4 2
Foen um G ra
e cum 7 8
Foeni c ulum V ul ar e 8 5
Foot 66 6 8
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
E cb alliu m E l at eri um , 9 1
E gg pl an t , 8 8
E l asti ca 7 6
E l a t eri um, 9 1
E lder , 8 8
E lleta
ri ar ep ens , 7 2
Elm Fam ily, 7 5
E mbr yo, 1 5
E n dod erm i s, 5 , 7 , 4 8
E n docort ex, 2 3
E ndog enous st em , 2 3
E n dosp erm , 50
E n tomophilous , 4 8
E nz yme s , 4
E p i d ermal , 5
E p i d er mi s ,
of o a
k l eaf , 7
of Iri s l eaf , 7
of v i ol e t p e t al , 7
l outgrowths , 7
of ep i d erm a
E qui s e tum , 6 7
E q ui s e t al es , 6 6
E r i c a c ea
e, 8 8
E r ig ero n canadens e, 9 1
E ri odi ctyon calif ornic um , 9 1
e, 8 5
E rythroxyl acea
E rythroxylo n C oca, 8 5
tr ux i llense , 8 5
E ta
e ri o , 5 2
E uc alyp tol , 8 2
E ucalyptus , 8 2
E ug enia aroma tica, 8 2
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
g
,
,
,
I N DE X
I 00
In dian T urnip 7 0
Indigo 7 8
I n digof era tinctoria
Indusi um 6 7
L eav es ,
,
78
,
,
,
,
I nfl or ese n c es, 3 7 4 0
ascen di ng , 3 7 4 0
c entrif ugal , 3 7 40
c entrip e tal , 3 7 40
cymose, 3 7 4 0
de t erminat e , 3 7 4 0
indet ermina te, 3 7 4 0
m ixe d , 3 7 40
I n t er f a
r c a mb i um , 1 9 ,
c i c ul a
Inul a Hel enium , 9 1
Involucr e, 3 8
Inuli n , 4
Ip e ca cuanh a 8 6
—
—
—
—
-
—
—
—
,
;
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
I ri dac eae 7 1
I ris Family
exstipula t e 3 1
imp aripinna te 34
lyra te 34
p arip innate 3 4
p e ti ola te 3 1
s essile 3 1
si mpl e 3 2
stipul a te 3 1
Leaf arrang em en t 3 6
alternate 3 6
fasci cl ed 3 6
opposi te 3 6
v erticil la te 3 6
ap ex 3 3
acute 33
a cuminate 33
ar istat e 33
cuspi da te 3 3
emargin a te 3 3
m u cro nate 33
ob cordate 3 3
obtus e 3 3
r e tus e 3 3
trunca te 3 3
b as e 33
auri cula te 33
cordate 3 3
h ast ate 3 3
renif orm 3 3
s agi tta t e 33
m argin 33
cr enat e 3 3
cl ef t 3 3
dentate 3 3
div i ded 3 4
entir e 3 3
incise d 3 3
lob e d 33
p arte d 3 3
r ep an d 33
ru n cinate 33
s erra te 3 3
outli ne 3 3
a cerose 33
a ci cul ar 3 3
cuneat e 3 2
deltoi d 3 3
elliptical 3
7
,
fl or en ti na 7 1
,
,
g ermanica
p alli da 7 1
I soetacea
e 66
71
,
,
,
,
,
,
Jal ap a 8 6
Jateorhiz a p almata
,
,
,
Jung erm ani ales 6 5
J ugl anda cea
e 73
,
82
,
;
,
J uglans cinerea 7 3
J uni per Berri es 9 2
J unip ers 9 2
J unip eru s Oxycedrus
Sab ina 9 2
communis 9 3
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Lab ellum , 4 3 , 7 1
L ab ia ta
e , 89
L actuc a v i rosa, 9 1
L actucari um , 9 1
L ami na , 3 0
Lapp a, 90
L arch e s , 9 1
Larix de ci du a,
92
( E urop ea) , 93
La
c ti c if er ou s t i ssu e , 5
v essels , 7 , 8
ur a
ce m, 7 4
La
li s , 9 0
L av e ndul ofii ci n a
La urus nob il i s , 7 4
Leav es , modified f orms , 3 8
bracts , 3 8
br ac teolar , 3 8
a
compl e te 3 0
compou n d 3 2
de compound 3 4
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
fili f or m , 3 2
oblo ng 3 2
ov at e 3 2
,
,
obfiq u e ,
32
, 33
orb i cul ar
oblanc e ol a te
,
i e, 3 2
p e c ta
t , 32
, 35
uc
, 35
sp atula e
dur a tio n
c a d ous
32
IN D E X
Leaf
duration de ci duous 3 5
ev ergr een 3 5
p ers is tent 3 5
i ns erti on 3 6
c auline 3 6
cl asping 3 6
c o nna t e p er f olia t e 3 6
eq ui tan t 3 6
p erf oli ate 3 6
r adi cal 3 6
r amal 3 6
sur face 34
gl abrous 3 5
gl aucous 3 5
h isp i d 3 5
pub esc ent 3 5
p elluci d puncta te 3 5
rugos e 3 5
scabrous 3 5
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
—
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
—
,
,
,
seri c i ous ,
35
spinos e 3 5
tom en tos e 3 5
vill os e 3 5
v er rucos e 3 5
t ex tur e 34
c eo us 3 4
c ori a
m embr an ous 34
sc arious 3 4
s u ccul en t 3 4
v enatio n 3 1 3 2
,
,
f urch ate, 3 1 , 3 2
p ar all el , 3 1 3 2
pi n ni , 3 1 , 3 2
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
‘
,
,
,
,
,
,
Lycoper di a
le s, 6 3
c e a, 6 6
Lyc opodi a
l es 6 6
Lycopodia
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
pr ima ry 9
s e co ndary 9
M ega c eros 6 5
M egas por e 4 9
M egasporophyll 4 6
M eli ssa ofli ci na
li s 90
M eni sp erm ac ea
e 82
M enisp er mum canaden s e
M en th a spi ca ta 9 0
viridi s 90
M e ri carp 5 2
,
,
M en stem , 5
M e thysti cu m 7 2
M ez ere u m 8 0
M i crospore 4 9
M i crosporophyll 44
M il de ws 6 1
M ilkwee d Famil y 8 7
M ilkwort Family 8 2
M int Fam ily 8 9
M i stl eto e I 6
M ni um , 6 5
,
p alma t e 3 1 3 2
r e ti cul a t e 3 1 3 2
L eptan dra 8 9
Leguminos a
e 78
L e ucopl as t 4
L ev ulos e 4
Li ch ens structur e of 6 3 6 4
Li gnin 6
Lil ia c ea
e
70
Lily Famil y 7 0
Li m oni s C ortex 8 3
S uccus 8 3
Linac ea
e 80
Linum u si tat iss i mum 8 1
l is 8 0
Li q ui d a
m b ar orienta
Liri od en dr o n 3 I
Li v erworts 6 4
L ob elia i nfl a
ta 8 8
e 87
L og ani a cea
L umen 6
L up ulin um 7 6
,
,
,
.
,
,
'
,
,
,
,
,
,
Ma
ltu m , 7 0
M anni tol 4
M alv ac ea
z 81
M allotus phili pi ne nsi s 7 6
M ani hot utili ss im a 7 6
M anna, 8 9
M arch antia, 6 5
M ar ch a
n tial es , 6 5
M arrub i um v ulg ar e 9 0
M asti ch e, 7 7
M a tricaria Chamomi ll a 9 0
M a crocysti s 59
M e di ocortex 2 3
M e dul lary rays 5 9
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
a dder Fam ily 8 8
M agn oliac ee 7 6
M allow Fam ily 8 1
,
,
,
acrocys ti s, 59
,
,
,
1 01
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
onocotyle dons , 2
69
of , 6 9
,
chara ct eri st ics
M onoeci o us 6 3 6 5
M oo ns ee d Fami ly 8 2
M ora c ea
e 76
M oss lif e hi s tory 6 5
M oss es 6 5
M ucor m u cedo 6 1
M ul b erry Fa mi ly 7 6
M ucoral es 6 1
M usci 6 5
M ushrooms 59 6 3
M yc el i um 59
M yri c aa cri s 8 2
M yricac ea
e 74
M y ri s ti cacea
e 74
M yristi c a f ragrans 7 4
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
82
I N DE X
1 02
M yrrh a 7 9
M yr tace m 8 2
M yrtl e Famil y
O scilla toria, 56
Ouroup aria G ambi r , 8 6
Ovul e, d efini ti o n, 4 7
,
,
Myx omyc e t es
82
56
,
,
posi tion 4 7
sh ap e 4 7
structure 4 7
,
,
N a tural syst em , 2
N e cta r , 49
N est Fu ngi , 6 3
N e utr al P ri n c ipl es , 4
N i cotiana T abacum, 8 8
N i d ul ar ial es , 6 3
N ightsh ade Fami ly , 8 8
N o n protopl a s mi c c ell con t en ts , 4
N ostoc , 56
N ucl eus , 3
,
P alaqui um gutta, 8 6
0
Pa
a
lm e a
, 7
P alm Famil y , 7 0
P ani cl e , 3 9
P ap ain , 8 2
-
en dosp erm
g enera tiv e
P ola r 4 9
tub e 4 9
,
,
49
49
,
,
N u cle a
rpla
sm , 3
N u t, 5 2
N utmeg Fam i ly , 7 4
N u x V om i ca, 8 7
-
O le a
c ea 8 9
O l e um A ni s i , 7 6
C adi ni , 93
Chen opo di i , 7 5
Cinnamom i , 7 4
E ri g er on ti s , 9 1
G aulth eria, 8 9
G ossypi i Se m i n i s , 8 1
Ju ni peri , 93
v en d ula
e Flor u m , 90
La
e, 8 9
Oli v a
Ri c ini , 7 6
,
e, 7 7
Rosa
ma
ri ni , 9 0
Ros a
T he obr om a
ti s, 8 4
T hymi , 9 0
T i glii , 7 6
Oil of Cade , 9 2
Ol ib anum , 7 9
Ol i ve Fam ily , 8 9
Oospor e , 4 9
Oomyc e t es , 6 0
O p erculum , 6 6
Op i um , 8 1
Orch i d Fami ly , 7 1
Orch id ac ea, 7 1
Ord e r , 2
Org an,1 4
'
rep roduct iv e 1 4
v eg e ta tive 1 4
O rg anism I 4
O ri ganum maj or ana 90
Orri s 7 1
,
,
,
,
,
e, 8 1
P ap av er a c ea
P ap av er somnif erum , 8 1
P araphys i s , 6 5
P ar as i t e , 59
P ar ei ra , 8 2
P ar en chym a, 5
cortical , 2 8
P arsley Fa mily , 2 4
z, 8 1
Pa
ssi fl or a
cea
P assi o n fl ower Fa mi ly , 8 1
r nata , 8 2
Pa
ssifl or ain c a
na
84
P a ul linia Cu pa
,
P ea t M oss es , 6 5
Pe di c el , 3 8
P e du n cl e , 3 8
P eni ci lli um , 6 1
P epp er Fa mi ly , 7 2
P epo , 53 , 9 I
P e rennial , 1 7
P er ian th , 4 2
P e r ibl em , 1 5 , 2 1
P er i c a
m bi u m , 1 8
P er i d erm , 2 9
P er igo ne, 4 2
P eron ospor ale s , 6 1
P e t iol e, 3 0
Ph aophy c em , 58
P h anerog amia , 6 9
P h anero g ams , 2 , 6 9
P h ellog en , 6 1
P hl o em , 2 8 , 8 3
P hycocy anin, 56
P hycomyc e t e s , 59
P hyco erythrin , 5 9
P hysi ologi c al B ot any , 1
P hysostigma v en e nos u m ,
P hytol acc a c ea
e, 7 5
P hytolacca d e candra , 7 5
P hytophthor a, 6 1
P i c ea ex c els a , 9 2
P i cr a
sma , exc els a , 8 3
P i l eus , 6 3
P iloca rpus Jabor an di , 8 3
mi crophyllus , 8 3
1 0
I N DE X
4
Rh amnus P ursh iana 8 3
,
Fr a
ng ula
83
,
ca tharti ca , 8 3
Rhiz oi ds , 6 4
Rh iz om e , 2 2
Rhiz opus ni gri cans , 6 1
Rh e um ofli ci na
le , 7 5
p alma tum 7 5
v a
r t angut i cum 7 5
Rhodophyc ea
e
59
Rhus v enen a ta 7 7
glabra 7 7
toxicoden dro n 7 7
a roma tica 7 7
Ri ci n us comm uni s 7 6
Ros a da masc ena 7 7
galli ca 7 7
Rosa cea
e 77
Rosm arinus ofii ci na
li s 9 0
Ros in 9 2
Root 1 6
a dv en ti tious ; 1 6
anomalous 6
coni cal 6
duratio n of 1 6
epi phytic 1 6
f us if orm 1 6
napif orm 1 6
pri mary 1 6
s econdary 1 6
tap 1 6
Root 1 5 1 6
c ap I S
h ai rs 5
hi sto logy 1 7
Rub iace a
e 85
Rubus cunei f oli us 7 7
ni grob accus 7 7
vill osus
Ru e Family 8 2
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
1
,
1
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
1
,
,
,
,
,
,
z, 8 2
Ru t ace a
Rumex crispus , 7 5
Rusts , 6 2
l, 7 0
Sab a
Sabi na, 9 3
ccharos e, 4
Sa
Sacch arum , 7 0 , 7 5
ru m , 7 0
offici na
Sacch aromyc et e s , 6 1
Sa
c F u ngi , 6 1
Sa f ro n, 7 1
z, 7 3
Sa
li c ace a
Sa
lix , 7 3
li s , 9 0
Salv ia ofli c i n a
Salvinia, 6 9
c e ee , 6 9
Sa
lv i ni a
Sambucus canadensi s
Sandara c , 9 2
Sandar aca , 93
Sanguinaria canadensi s , 8 1
Santalum Rubrum , 7 8
San to ni ca, 9 1
Sap ind ac ea
e, 8 4
Sa
ce m , 8 6
pot a
S ap rol egnial es , 6 0
Saprophy te, 59
Sars ap arill a, I 7 , 7 1
s, 7 4
Sass af ra
m e dull a
74
v a
rii f oli u m , 7 4
Sc am m oni u rn, 8 6
S
, 38
,
cap e
S cil l a 7 1
S chiz omyc e t es 56
S chi z ophyta 56
,
,
,
Schl er enc h ym e , 5
ri a
ce m, 8 9
S cr oph ul a
S copol a carni oli c a, 8 8
S cop ari us , 7 8
S corp oi d cyme , 39
S couri ng rush es , 6 6
Scutell arialat e ri fl or a, 9 0
Se condary cort ex , 2 6
-
.
m edulla ry r ays , 9
Seed , 53 55
albu mi nous , 53 5 5
—
—
alb umen 53 55
app endag es 53 55
co ats 53 55
exalb uminous 53
structure 53 55
e 66
Sel aginell ac ea
Sel agi n ella 6 6
S en eg a 8 2
Se nna 7 8
Ser en o a s e rrul a t a 7 0
Serie s 2
—
,
—
,
—
,
,
—
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
1 e v e,
7
tub es
'
,
5,
1
r ub a
Si m a
cea
e,
Sinapi s , 7 9
3
83
alb a 7 9
nigra 7 9
Sk unk c abb a
ge 7 0
S li m e moulds 56
Smil ax med i c a 7 1
or nata 7 1
,
,
‘
,
,
,
,
ali s 7 1
ce a
e, 7 1
pa
pyr a
o fli c i n
,
S muts , 6 2
S oapb erry Family 8 4
Soli ta ry d e t e rmina te i n flor es c enc e ,
in d eterminate inflor esc e nc e , 3 8
Solan a
c e m, 8 8
S olanum Caroli nens e , 8 8
,
.
I N DE X
S ol an um
d ul cam ara 88
M elo ng ena 8 8
ni grum 88
tub erosum 88
S orgh um 7 0
S orosi s 53
sp a dix 39
Sp a th e 3 8
Sp ec ie s 2
Sp erma tophyta 6 9
Sp er m ogo nia 6 4
Sph ag nal e s 6 5
Sp ig elia mari l an dica 8 7
Spi k e 39
Sp i ral trach ea
e 9
Spi rogyra 2 58
Sporangia 6 7
Sporangiu m 6 4
Sporogo ni um 6 4 6 5
Sporophyte 6 4 6 5
Sp ur g e Fam ily 7 6
La urel Fa mily 8 0
Spruc e 9 2
S tam ens 4 4 4 5
defini te 45
in definite 4 5
ins erti o n 45
n umb er 4 5
posi tio n 4 5
structure 4 5
St aph i s agria 7 8
S t arch 4
S t ems dir ecti o n of growth
abov e groun d 2 1
c ul m 2 1
cli mb ing 2 1
f ru ti cos e 2 1
scap e 2 1
1 0
St em ,
und erground bulb
corm 2 2
rhiz ome 2 2
tub e r 2 2
siz e 2 0
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Ste r c uli a
c ez
e , 84
St e ri gma ta , 6 2
S tillingia sylv ati ca , 7 6
Stip e, 6 3
S tipul es , 3 0
S tolo n, 2 1
S toma, 6
S tomat a, 6
S to n e c ell s , f rom coEe e, 6
f rom clov e st e m , 6
f rom t ea, 6
f rom st ar anis e, 6
S tr amo ni um , 8 8
S trob il e , 39
S tr oph anth us h i spi dus , 8 7
Structur al B otany , 1
S trych nos , I g na
tii , 8 7
N ux V omi ca, 8 7
toxi fe ra , 8 7
e , 90
Styr a
c ea
S tyr ax, 8 0
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
—
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Benz oin 90
Fa mi ly 9 0
S ucc inum 93
S uff ruti cos e 2 1
S ugars 4
S umb ul 8 5
Syconi um 53
e 85
Symp etala
Symplocarpus f wti dus
S yst ema ti c B otany 1
S wert ia C hi ra
yi t a 8 7
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
20
,
-
,
,
,
,
sufiru ti cose , 2 1
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
78
, 91
,
,
ar 9 2
le, 9 0
araxacum ofii ci na
,
ax onomy 1
endri l 2 1
er eb in thina 93
C ana d ensi s 93
v ene ta 93
c ea 8 4
er n str oem i a
hallophyta 56
hall us 56
hea chi nens i s 8 4
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
ab acum 8 8
am arindus indi ca
anace tum v ulgar e
ap i oca 7 6
,
,
,
70
,
,
ten dril 2 1
stolo n 2 1
dur a ti o n of 2 0
u ndergrou nd 2 2
stem and root 1 6
S t em acaul es c en t 2 0
annual di cotyl 2 3
c aul es cen t 2 0
di re cti o n of grow th 2 0
dur ati o n 2 1
elo ng a ti o n 2 0
en dog enous 2 3
ex og en ous 2 3
f u nctio ns of 2 0
hi stology of annual dicotyl
monocotyl 2 9
p er ennial 2 5 2 6
p erennial di cotyl 2 5 2 6
u ndergro un d 2 2
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
T
,
T
,
T
,
T helephor a
le s, 6 3
T he obrom a ca ca o, 8 4
T hor n, 2 1
e, 8 0
T hy m eleacea
T hymus v ul ga
ri s , 9 0
5
1 0
T
T
6
I N DE X
hyrsus 39
issu e 3 4
arrang ement i n di cotyl st ems
class ificat i on 1 4
con ducting 1 4
f u ncti on of 1 4
f u ndamen t al 1 4
m e chani c al 1 4
prote ctiv e 1 4
g enera tive 1 5
produc e d by cork camb i um
syst ems 5
ep i dermal 5
f un dament al 5
fi bro v ascul ar 5
oadstools
e 7
oluif era P erei ra
Balsamum 78
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
-
,
T
T
T
,
,
,
a
r ch e z
e,
9
an nul ar 9
pi tte d 9
r e ti cul ate 9
spi ral 9
racheids 8
ra cheary tissu e 9
ragac anth a 7 8
ree 2 1
ri ti cum 7 0
rif oli um pr at ens e 7 8
rigonell a f oenum graecum
ri c homes 2 9
glandul ar 2 9
simpl e 2 9
ru e Ferns 6 9
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
i rrfl ex ed, 3 7
i nvolute, 3 7
pli c at e, 3 7
revolute, 3 7
Venatio n , 3 1 3 2
f u r ch a
te , 3 1 3 2
p almat ely v eine d, 3 1 3 2
—
—
—
,
‘
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
-
,
,
,
61
suga occi den tali s 9 2
ub er 2 2
ur nerac ea
e 83
ur ner adi fiu sa 8 3
urp entine 9
yp e 2
,
,
,
,
,
,
U lm ac ea, 7 5
U lmus f ulv a, 7 6
U mb el , 39
U mb ellif er a
e, 84
U r edi nal es , 6 2
U rginea mari ti ma , 7 1
U stil aginal es , 6 2
U stil ago Maydi s , 6 2
U v aU rs i , 8 9
Valeriana cea
e 86
Val eriana offici nali s
Vanilla 7
p lanif oli a 7 1
Variety 2
,
,
78
,
,
,
,
Waln ut Fam ily 7 3
Wat er Fe rns 6 9
S toma ta 7 6
Wh ite Pine Bark 9 2
Willow Fami ly 7 3
Wi tch H az el Fa mily 8 0
Woody Fibr es 5 7 8
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Xanthoxylum am eri canum
X yl em 1 2
elem ents 1 2 1 4 2 6
s e condary 1 9 2 6
,
,
,
,
,
,
Zea
0
, 7
M ays 7 0
Zingib e rac ee
a
,
,
,
—
,
,
,
p ar all el 3 1 3 2
pi n ni v eined 3 1 3 2
re t i cul a t e 3 1 3 2
Veroni ca V i rgini ca 8 9
Verti cillast er 39
Viburnum Lent ago 8 8
Op ulus 8 8
prunif oli um 88
Vinum A lb um 8 5
Rubrum 8 5
Vi t ac ea 8 5
Vi ti s v ini f era 8 5
V olvox 58
V ou a
ca
pou aA r arob a 7 8
-
,
,
,
—
,
rufil e s,
,
,
,
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
,
—
,
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
,
,
,
,
Vegetabl e cytology 1 2
hi stology 1
Veni c e T ur p entine 9 2
Vera trina 7 1
Veratrum 7 1
A lb um 7 1
Vi ri de 7 1
Verb ascum thapsus 8 9
Vernati on 3 7
condupli c a te 3 7
convolute 3 7
c i rc ina te 3 7
.
,
,
,
86
72
Zingib er , 7 2
o fli c i n a
li s , 7 2
Zygomyc et es , 6 1
Zyg ophylla
c ez
e , 83
,
83