Branches of Philosophy LESSON 1 ✧ Doing Philosophy Common Meanings of Philosophy ⋆ Ideas ⋆ Academics ⋆ Views ⋆ Principles ⋆ Perspectives ⋆ Wisdom ⋆ Beliefs ⋆ Reasoning but these are partially correct because… ⋆ Philosophy serves as a framework or basis for interpreting or making judgments about the world. ⋆ Philosophy distinguishes between correct and incorrect forms of reasoning to know or determine what is true. ⋆ We can do Philosophy in various aspects of life, not just in theory. Philosophy ⋆ from Greek words philo (love) and sophia (wisdom), meaning love of wisdom. ⋆ A Philosopher practices or investigates Philosophy. ⋆ For Philosophers (Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato), our reason will show us that certain truths are: - Universal (true for all humans) - Objective (independent of human interest) ⋆ Philosophy begins with wonder. Metaphysics - Study of the fundamental nature of reality Seeks the most intimate aspect of every reality, its being WHAT IS REAL? What kinds of things exist? Do only particular things exist or do general things also exist? Epistemology - Study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge - from Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos (study of), meaning study of knowledge HOW DO WE KNOW? Determining the kinds, sources, and conditions of knowledge. - Ethics - Study of what is right and wrong in human behavior Standards for making moral judgments Meaning of moral judgments WHAT IS MORALLY GOOD? WHAT IS RIGHT? has different applications in a person’s real life Logic - Seeks to organize reasoning G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy - - Deductive Reasoning: examines general case then deducts it to specific cases Inductive Reasoning: involves taking specific examples and considers general principles that caused them 3. EFFICIENT ⋆ the one that initiates change in an object ⋆ e.g., the artisan, the man who gives advice, or the father of the child 4. FINAL ⋆ purpose of something ⋆ e.g., a seed’s end is an adult plant and a sailboat’s purpose is sailing Aesthetics - - Study of beauty and taste from Greek word Aisthetikos meaning one who is perceptive of things through sensations, feelings, and intuitions HOW DO WE FIND SOMETHING BEAUTIFUL? every person defines beauty as per their own perspectives ⋆ Philosophy provides ethical guidelines for the use of modern technology. - New ethical issues require new and updated approaches, which philosophy supplies through the different areas of applied or practical ethics. Importance of Philosophy ⋆ Philosophy provides a holistic view of life. - It supplements what is lacking in scientific explanations to come up with holistic explanations of things or events in the world. - Aristotle argued that there are four kinds of answers to “why” questions: the causes. ⋆ Aristotle’s Four Kinds of Causes 1. 3.MATERIAL ⋆ composition of something. what a thing is made up of ⋆ e.g., for a table - wood; for a statue - bronze or marble ⋆ Philosophy has significantly contributed to social transformation. - The concept of democracy that we have (separation of power — executive, judicial, and legislative) is largely a product of ideas of some philosophers — Locke and Montesquieu ⋆ Philosophy continues to explore what is possible and consequently expands the boundaries of knowledge or what we can know. - This is to keep our sense of wonder and amazement with the world since it drives us to explore alternative ways of looking at things. 2. FORMAL “The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.” — Socrates ⋆ design or form of something. due to the arrangement, shape, or appearance of the thing changing LESSON 2 ✧ Journey to Truth G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy What is Truth? ⋆ “Adequatio rei Intellectus” - The thoughts in the mind should conform to the reality of the world. ⋆ Correspondence Definition of Truth: - The thoughts in the mind should conform to the reality of the world. - When someone says, "Today is Tuesday", one should ask oneself, "Is today Tuesday?" before accepting the person’s statement to be true. A. ARISTOTLE’S APPEARANCE VS. REALITY ⋆ deductive argument of a certain form where a conclusion is inferred from two premises ⋆ PREMISES — knowable and guarantee the truth of a conclusion; explanation on why the conclusion is valid and acceptable AIM: To demonstrate the truth of a claim or conclusion. LAW OF SYLLOGISM: Statement 1: If a, then b Statement 2: If b, then c Statement 1: If a, then c ANCIENT ROOTS ⋆ DOXA, opinion ⋆ EPISTEME, knowledge ⋆ only gods and beings of supreme intelligence possess all knowledge. ⋆ man has to exert mental effort to know the truth. ⋆ mental capacity (reason) as a tool PLATO’S APPEARANCE VS. REALITY ⋆ something that appears to be is not automatically true ⋆ APPEARANCE — unreliable, deceptive AIMS: 1. To see the real from illusory. 2. To see beyond materials. B. MODERN LEGACY RENE DESCARTES Father of Modern Philosophy ⋆ NOTION OF INDUBITABILITY ⋆ In his Meditation on First Philosophy… "From my earliest years, I have accepted many false opinions as true, and that what I have concluded from such badly assured premises could not be highly doubtful and uncertain. From the time that I first recognized this fact, I have realized that if I wished to have any firm and constant knowledge in the sciences, I would have undertake, once and for all, to set aside all the opinions which I have previous accepted among my beliefs and start agian from the very beginning" ⋆ statements that cannot be doubted are those that are so clear and so distinct that one cannot rationally doubt or reject it. ⋆ statements that are false, doubtful, or uncertain cannot be used as basis for knowledge G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy ● ● ● ● ● ● C. KNOWLEDGE: too evident to be doubted indubitable (impossible to doubt) certain CONTRARY TO DESCARTES focuses on textual criticism - a revelation of the problem of sign and signifier (structuralism), a doing away with the author and all that limits reading or limitation OPINION: can be doubted and often confuse our thoughts dubitable uncertain Argumentation and Fallacies CONTEMPORARY PERIOD ⋆ denial of philosophical viewpoints between 16th and mid-20th centuries in reality, truth, knowledge, human nature, and language ⋆ attacked the notion of objective reality - no objective reality - No “Truth”: there are so many truths, that it is particular ⋆ criticized the modern period - truth seemed to be dictated by those in power JACQUES DERRIDA NOTION OF DESTRUCTION ⋆ challenged traditional views ⋆ desire for a more democratic society ⋆ POWER and AUTHORITY has shifted from those who used to be at the center of the society ⋆ KNOWLEDGE is no longer viewed as a privileged few CONTRARY TO PLATO non-essential elements or appearance is the basis of everything that can be spoken or written ● ● ARGUMENTS: traditionally defined as a combination of propositions wherein a given proposition or premise is used to support the truth of another proposition (conclusion) being asserted used to persuade others to believe the truth of the proposition being asserted “BUT ARGUMENTS MAY BE FAULTY… IT MAY BE FALLACIOUS” — it is meant to deceive you into accepting a conclusion that does not reflect reality FALLACY: fallacia (latin) - deceit or fraud ● ● ● effective in subjectively convincing their audience argument based on faulty reasons subtly incorrect arguments Psychological Warfare Logical Maneuver targets and seduces emotions & subconscious drives & motivation of man uses rhetorical skills, fools the cognitive and intellectual aspect of the human mind G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE 1. 3. RATIONALIZING ⋆ when one's ego is placed in an unpleasant situation, one can spin untrue, but pleasant reasons to settle things REPEATED ASSERTION / AD NAUSEAM ⋆ repeats or multiplies essentially the same assertion with the aim that sooner or later people will accept it as the truth 4. AD BACULUM ⋆ when force or threat of force is used instead of proper reason 2. POISONING THE WELL ⋆ happens when one discounts in advance the opponent's evidence, proof, or counterargument, thereby preventing the opponent from employing them 5. AD HOMINEM ⋆ attacks, not the argument but the person of the opponent himself G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy LOGICAL MANEUVERS 1. 3. FALLACY OF COMPOSITION ⋆ if each member of a group has a particular characteristic, then the group as a whole has this same characteristic feature 2. FALSE DILEMMA ⋆ claiming that the conclusion is true on the basis of only two possible contrary alternatives without recognizing that there may be other possible alternatives that can be considered ⋆ black and white fallacy FALLACY OF DIVISION ⋆ if a given group as a whole has a particular characteristic feature, then each of its members has this same characteristic feature G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy 4. STRAW-MAN FALLACY ⋆ claiming that the conclusion is true on the basis of proving false an argument that is a weaker or watered-down version of the original argument that one tends to oppose 6. BANDWAGON ⋆ sometimes called "the appeal to common belief" or "appeal to the masses" because it's all about getting people to do or think something because "everyone else is doing it" or, "everyone else thinks this" 7. GUILT BY ASSOCIATION ⋆ when someone connects an opponent to a demonized group of people or to a bad person in order to discredit his or her argument. the person is "guilty" by simply being similar to this "bad" group and therefore, should not be listened to about anything 5. SLIPPERY SLOPE ⋆ claiming that the conclusion is not true on the basis of the universality of the conclusion being proposed G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy 8. LESSON 3 ✧ Discovering the Self: HASTY GENERALIZATION ⋆ claiming that the conclusion is true on the basis of evidence that is of insufficient quantity to logically support the extent of the conclusion Who Am I? Who Am I? “MAN IS ALWAYS MORE THAN HE KNOWS ABOUT HIMSELF” — karl jaspers HUMAN BEING’S UNDERSTANDING OF THEMSELF 1. Who am I? 2. Why do I have to live, if I die soon? 3. Why do I have to follow a boss who does not even have responsibilities? 4. Why do I have to fear losing things which I do not have yet? 5. What is true love? Human Being FALLACIES ⋆ Fallacies are statements or arguments whose intention is to deceive the hearer into accepting the truth of the conclusion despite the lack of logical support provided by the premises to the conclusion. - - HOW TO AVOID LOGICAL FALLACY? ⋆ Pretend you disagree with the conclusion you’re defending ⋆ List your main points: under each one, list the evidence you have for it ⋆ Learn which type of fallacies your argument is especially prone to, and be careful to check from them in your work ⋆ Be a Thomist… Steel-man Argument the source of many questions about the existence of the world and everything that exists in it it seems he is capable of discovering all the answers to all his own questions when confronted with the question “WHO AM I?” which directly unveils their existence, they are pushed to the limit of silence Human Being’s Encounter with Existential Limit Situations - For Jaspers, human beings lead to a deeper consciousness and experience his limitations and finitude. These boundary situations lead to a deeper reflection on one’s self-being G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy - Why am I experiencing guilt or death or pain? Why am I suffering this kind of illness? What is the meaning of all these? How do I deal with these things? Duality of Body and Soul ⋆ the duality of body and soul is the view held by those who believe that our body is separate and distinct from our soul ⋆ our body shows our corporeality but we are more than our body because we have a soul or spirit ⋆ PLATO is one of those who argued for the dualism of body and soul. the human soul he theorized, exists prior to the body and even after the body is long gone The Relation of I and the Body 1. A human being is conscious that he is limited and is constantly connected with his body. 2. “My body” feels something (reality): “My body” touches, smells, hears, or senses something. 3. “My body” senses the “I-existence”. This principal basis of reflection is a communicative manifestation of an essential relationship between “My body” and existence or the world Two Levels of Experience in Reflecting on “My Body” 1. In the first level of reflection, the body is seen as a separate entity from the self. 2. Another way or level of reflection on “my body” is when I consider it as a “mystery”. Unity of Body and Soul ⋆ Saint Thomas Aquinas claimed that body and soul are not two entities that interact with each other but are made up of matter and form I have my body ⋆ the claim “i have my body” implies possession. i own my body: it is mine. ⋆ nonetheless, this does not only show authority over it, but also a great responsibility. Human Consciousness and Existence ⋆ part of the reason why the mind-body problem could not be entirely abandoned in philosophy is that humans naturally engage in thought as they interact with the world I am my body John Locke ⋆ theory of the self as TABULA RASA ⋆ John Locke’s notion of inner sense that is better understood as reflection or introspection ⋆ all thoughts are conscious… moreover, our consciousness is the criterion for personal identity ⋆ the “I” or the self is consciousness and this is found even in Descartes when he observed that the self is a thinking thing ⋆ the union between my body and I is not just a mere relationship of two organisms or entities. for Marcel, this union means existential existence to my body and to myself. ⋆ my body cannot exist apart from my body. G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy My Self and the World ⋆ my existence is existential. i appear to the world and relate with it. through my body, i touch, see, taste, smell, grasp, and affect the world through my body in a particular way. ⋆ i am present in the world through my body: the world knows and feels my presence through my body. - b. Axiological Approach - LESSON 4 ✧ Harmony with Nature Human Being’s Encounter with the Environment - HUMAN BEING’S PERSPECTIVE ON ENVIRONMENT - - The kind of relationship that a human being establishes with the environment depends on how they perceive it. The environment is considered a commodity or property to be used and disposed of for one’s own individual welfare. HUMAN BEING’S APPROACHES ON ENVIRONMENT ⋆ Instrumental approach ⋆ Axiological approach ⋆ Anthropological approach ⋆ Utilitarianism ⋆ Natural Law ethics ⋆ Virtue ethics - - - The primary concern of human beings is to unveil they're being as human or what being human ought to be. Human being does not recognize that the environment has its own consciousness and inherent system. Such an approach considers the environment as an object. d. Utilitarianism - a. Instrumental Approach Human being affirms the protection of the environment as long as it possesses values or importance for human beings Human being recognizes the intrinsic value of the environment. This approach demands that humans protect and take care of it. This approach needs a greater use of imagination and reflection on the part of the human being for them to see and experience the intrinsic value of the environment. c. Anthropological Approach - The problem with this approach is that when a human being can no longer recognize the value of the environment, it ceases to be of value. - T focuses on the consequences of human action, whether it is wrong or right. Our action is ethically right when it produces the greatest happiness for the greater number of people. Human beings use such view to utilize and manipulate the natural environment for human development G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy - e. Natural Law Ethics - - There is goodness in human nature to do good which is rooted in the goodness of God; the God who created everything according to His Divine Plan We respect nature because God created it for a divine purpose. The environment is created and continuously recreated for human beings’ well-being. Mercado also asserted that human beings could encounter the Divine in the environment f. Virtue Ethics Perspective - - The development of our virtue of care and respect for the environment is a habitual performance of caring and respecting non-human beings. The act of caring and respecting becomes second nature. This extends to non-humans, especially to the environment where he/she lives and realizes his/her being. SACREDNESS OF ENVIRONMENT - The recognition of the sacredness of the environment is based on the creation of all things. The environment as part of creation poses an affirmation of the Creator who is uncaused and causes everything that exists (Buenaflor, 2006). The Influence and Effects of Human Activity toward the Environment THE SPIRIT OF STEWARDSHIP - - LEONARDO MERCADO - Natural environment “symbolizes a possible encounter with the Divine” (Mercado 1974, 161). - Human being is part of creation. He/she is not the author of his/her existence. According to Timbreza, a human being has the responsibility to take care of, protect, and cultivate his/her potentialities, faculties, and functions. As part of creation, human beings’ choice and action influence and affects the unfolding phenomena in the environment. G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy - - - Human beings’ actions must not distort the nature of things but help them to their realization and sustainability. What the human being does to the environment has a great influence and effect on his/her existence. As a steward, the human being has to take care of the environment, and not destroy it; as a steward, he/she is responsible for the well-being and harmony in the environment. HUMAN BEING AS THE SUMMIT OF CREATION - - - - - Rationality makes human being different from other created beings. As the summit of creation and image of the Divine Creator, he/she has a moral responsibility to take care of and respect the environment. According to St. Augustine, the human being bears and reveals the divine image of the Creator. Being the summit of creation does not mean having the freedom and authority to control creation, the environment for its expense. Emmanuel Levinas believes that human beings’ action is for the good of the “other,” and not for his/her own good. G12 STEM 16 - Marilag ; Introduction to Philosophy
