Masculinity as Predictor of Psychological Help-Seeking Attitude of Male College Students
Ann Hersel D. Dado, Shaira Rose R. Del Pilar, Morelle G. Garfil
Jamaila T. Sorila, and Lady Priscilla M. Suarez
City College of Angeles
Institution of Education, Arts, and Sciences
Bachelor of Science in Psychology
ResPsy2– Research in Psychology 2
Submitted to:
Ms. Karren Grace Libando
December 28, 2022
Dedication
The researchers dedicate this paper to their beloved families for their unwavering love
and assistance in completing this research. Additionally, this study is dedicated to the male
students who willingly assisted and participated in its completion. In addition, the researchers
dedicate this study to their research adviser, Ms. Zeia Beatriz C. Valencia, who provided them
with assistance, instruction, and direction throughout the entire process of writing. Additionally,
gratitude is extended to their alma mater, City College of Angeles, and, most importantly, the
Heavenly Father for making everything possible.
Acknowledgments
We want to express our sincere gratitude and appreciation to the following people who
have helped and supported us in making this study possible.
First, we appreciate God, the Almighty, for His blessings, knowledge, and strength that
enabled us to complete this research.
To Ms. Zeia Valencia, our research adviser. Our sincerest gratitude for all her efforts,
encouragement, guidance, and patience with us. We are immensely grateful for the pearls of
wisdom she imparted to us. Working and learning under her guidance was a great pleasure and
honor.
To the panel chair, Mr. Ferdinand Pabalinas, and co-panelists, Ms. Angeli Lou Orquia and
Ms. Aufe Gudilos Fallado. We express our deepest appreciation and gratitude for taking the time
to evaluate our research proposal thoroughly and giving us their insights on improving and
completing our study.
To our family, especially Ann Hersel's family, who welcomed us into their home,
allowing us to undertake research meetings with great patience and support. We are truly grateful
for the unwavering love, care, and financial support during the research study.
Lastly, we commend each other for accomplishing our research proposal and for the
encouragement, support, and assistance that we provided to one another.
Masculinity as Predictor of Psychological Help-Seeking Attitude of Male College Students
Individuals handle emotions differently, and as a result, their emotional state frequently
influences their behavior. It is often said that males are more likely to hide their emotions when
unhappy, whereas females are more likely to express their feelings openly and seek help from
friends and family. The fact that males are generally not encouraged to talk about their feelings,
that they are often viewed as weak for expressing or revealing their emotions, and that they were
trained to be tough are some of the reasons why males find seeking psychological help a difficult
task to do. Mental health deserves just as much consideration and care as physical health.
Regardless of sex, mental health has significantly impacts our daily lives. It influences our
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
Mental health is an essential aspect of overall health. According to the World Health
Organization's (2018) constitution, "health" is a state of complete physical, mental, and social
well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. This definition implies that mental
health is more than the absence of mental diseases or impairments. Mental health is a condition
of well-being in which a person recognizes his or her potential, is capable of dealing with
everyday stressors, works productively, and contributes to his or her community. Mental health is
essential to our ability to think, emote, interact with others, make a living, and live a happy life
on a collective and individual level. However, the attitude or perspective regarding mental health
differs based on the person's sex.
Current studies have shown that in comparison to females, males have more negative
attitudes toward using mental health care (Yousaf, Popat, & Hunter, 2015). While studies reveal
that females are more likely to have suicidal thoughts, males are far more likely to commit
suicide (Kennard, 2020). In recent data from WHO (2021), the suicide rate for males was
estimated to be twice that of the female population, wherein out of 100,000, 12.6 males die from
suicide compared with 5.4 females. It was also found that high-income nations have greater rates
of male suicide (16.5 per 100,000). Meanwhile, lower-middle-income nations are said to be the
source of the highest suicide rates for females. Males are also more likely than females to incur
trauma (about 6 out of 10 males) connected to accidents, physical assault, combat, disasters, or
witnessing death or injury. Likewise, males are nearly twice as likely as females to consume
alcohol, and about 49% of males are more depressed than they reveal to their friends and family
(MindWise Innovations, n.d). These statistics indicate that the male population's mental health is
a significant concern and that the factors involved in addressing these mental health issues must
be identified.
There are a variety of factors that prevent people from seeking psychological help. In the
case of males, traditional masculine norms, such as being independent, tough, successful, in
charge, and capable, are ascribed to males' help-seeking behavior regarding various mental
health concerns, emphasizing avoiding emotions (Iwamoto et al., 2018). They often face
difficulties in their daily lives and are sometimes stereotyped as unwilling to seek assistance
(Hine, Bates, & Wallace, 2020). Common stereotypes depict males as reluctant to ask for
directions when they are lost, having difficulties discussing personal thoughts with friends and
family, and refusing professional assistance when needed (Staiger et al., 2020), and masculinity
has always been regarded as a barrier to males in terms of seeking help from mental health
professionals (Gueta & Shlivoche, 2022).
Filipino values such as “hiya” and “kapwa” are often viewed as positive characteristics
that identify people in the Philippines. However, they can affect mental health (Alfonso-Gregorio
& Lazo, 2022). Martinez and colleagues (2020) mentioned that Filipinos highly stigmatize
mental illness. People with psychological problems tend to isolate their diseases and avoid
getting professional care. This concept has similarities with the Filipino value of ‘hiya,’ which
regards any deviation from socially accepted behavior as a source of shame (Tuliao, 2014).
Gonzales and researchers (2019) also supported and consistently discovered that cultural
prejudice is linked to negative attitudes toward seeking help in the Philippines.
Given that the prevalence of mental health illnesses continues to increase for males, that
they are at risk of committing suicide and suffer from other psychological-related illnesses, and
that Filipinos have culturally prevalent masculine values, it is both timely and relevant to assess
the male population’s masculinity and their psychological help-seeking attitude in the local
context, specifically, on the male college students at City College of Angeles. Research on this
matter is not given much focus since there are few to no studies exploring the said variables.
More so in the Asian and Filipino contexts. The study can also help provide baseline data for
future research and programs aimed at breaking gender stereotypes and reducing the stigma of
seeking professional help. Thus, this study aims to describe the dimensions of masculinity based
on the research of Snell (1989) (restrictive emotionality, inhibited affection, success dedication,
and exaggerated self reliance) and the psychological help-seeking attitude of male college
students. Also, it will explore the relationship between the said variables and identify if
masculinity and its dimensions predict the psychological help-seeking attitude of male college
students.
Review of Related Literature
This section describes male college students' masculinity and psychological help-seeking
attitude. This section is broken down into five sections: the first section concentrates on mental
health globally; the second section discusses the condition and services of mental health in the
Philippines; the third section examines masculinity; the fourth section provides an overview of
men's attitudes toward seeking psychological help; and the final section concentrates on college
students' attitudes toward seeking psychological help.
Mental Health: A Global Perspective
Global mental health researchers have made significant progress in inventing and testing
innovative approaches to mental health care over the last decade. Despite the enormous
disparities in mental health treatment worldwide, trials have proven the clinical usefulness and
cost-effectiveness of mental health interventions (Javadi et al., 2017). The 2018 Lancet
Commission on Global Mental Health and Sustainable Development emphasized mental health
as an essential component of universal health care to solve service delivery shortages. The
Commission re-emphasized the need to scale up mental health care and acknowledged the
potential of digital health to improve access to mental health services among its central messages
(Patel, Saxena & Lund, 2018).
One of the most overlooked facets of public health is mental health. One person commits
suicide every 40 seconds, 3 million people die each year from alcohol-related causes, and about
1 billion people live with a mental illness (World Health Organization, 2020). The World Health
Organization (WHO) (2021) declares that suicide, which is often caused by depression, is one of
the main reasons for these deaths. Suicide was the fourth highest cause of death among
individuals aged 15 to 29, which means 700,000 fatalities annually. In addition, depression and
anxiety are two of the most common mental illnesses, costing the world economy $1 trillion
annually. Despite these numbers, countries devote only about 2% of their healthcare expenditures
to mental health. Even with the minimal cost of treatment for mental illnesses, the fine line
between those who need care and those who have access to it remains crucial, and the percentage
of people who receive adequate treatment is still low. Also, even though some countries have
progressed, people with mental illnesses continue to frequently face mistreatment and human
rights violations.
In the United States, mental diseases are common; nearly one in every five adults has a
mental condition (52.9 million in 2020). Nearly half of Americans (46.4%) have a mental illness
at some point in their lives; in any given year, 5% of adults (18 and older) have a mental illness,
totaling 43.8 million people. In a single year, 14.4% of adults in the United States had one mental
disorder, 5.8% had two, and 6% had three or more. On the other hand, suicide rates were higher
than the global average (9.0 per 100 000) in the WHO areas of Africa (11.2 per 100 000), Europe
(10.5 per 100 000), and South-East Asia (10.2 per 100 000). At the same time, the Eastern
Mediterranean region had the lowest suicide rate (6.4 per 100 000) (World Health Organization,
2021).
In addition, the World Health Organization (2022) affirmed that the COVID-19
pandemic had caused a global mental health catastrophe, causing millions of people to
experience short- and long-term stress and jeopardizing their mental health. As per estimates,
anxiety and depression disorders increased by more than 25% during the first year of the
pandemic. The gap in treatment for mental health disorders has expanded at the same time that
mental health services have been severely interrupted; a whopping 84 million people were
forcefully displaced worldwide in 2021, a result of growing social and economic inequality,
persistent conflicts, violence, and public health catastrophes that affect entire populations and
undermine progress toward increased well-being. Given the well-established link between
suicidal behaviors and financial difficulties, there were signs of heightened risk among young
people. Only a small percentage of those with mental health issues received treatment prior to the
COVID-19 pandemic, which has made the care gap for mental illness even wider, and outpatient
mental health services have increased (World Health Organization, 2022). Thus, given the
prevalence and statistics of mental illness, they continue to increase.
Mental health issues can significantly impact all aspects of life, including school
performance or work productivity, family and friend connections, and community participation.
According to Kapil (2019), mental health and substance abuse issues can manifest in various
ways. There is anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, addiction, and so on. Some of these issues are
obvious and may be immediately noticeable. When people are not seeking them, these can be
difficult to spot. They are, nonetheless, still present.
Mental Health in the Philippines
In early 2020, it was found out in a survey that around 3.6 million Filipinos suffer from
one or more mental, neurological, or substance abuse-related disorders (Department of Health,
2020). The statistics from WHO in 2016 also found that men's suicide rates were stated to be
more than 2,000 out of 2,413 (Acuna, 2018). These figures show a critical need to focus on
males' mental health and learn about their help-seeking attitudes.
Despite high rates of psychological problems, Filipinos worldwide have a widespread
aversion and negative attitude toward seeking psychological help. This was found in a systematic
review by Martinez and colleagues (2020), wherein it was discovered that immigrant status,
inadequate health insurance, language barriers, discrimination, and lack of acculturation to the
host culture affect the help-seeking behavior of overseas Filipinos. On the other hand, financial
limitations and accessibility issues hinder Filipinos from seeking psychological help. Self and
societal stigma associated with mental illness, as well as fear of losing face, embarrassment, and
adherence to Asian ideals of compliance to standards where mental illness is regarded as
unacceptable, hampered both groups.
To address the number of mental health concerns in the Philippines, Senate Bill No.
1354, also known as the Mental Health Act of 2017, sponsored by Sen. Risa Hontiveros, was
passed into law. The said law aims to assist mental health facilities in receiving sufficient
resources, as the bill requires the Department of Health (DOH) to provide psychiatric and
neurological psychosocial services to all regional, provincial, and tertiary hospitals, as well as
increase the capacity of mental health professionals and all health service providers. In addition,
the measure requires educational institutions to implement anti-stigma and anti-discrimination
mental health programs in schools and colleges (Ladrido, 2017). However, despite the
implementation and approval of this law, there were still significant gaps and discrepancies in
mental healthcare delivery according to national data on mental health services in the
Philippines.
Community mental health facilities are underdeveloped, and most mental healthcare is
only delivered in hospitals. According to the recent data from WHO (2014 as cited in Lally,
Tully & Samaniego, 2019), there are only 1.08 mental health beds in regular hospitals and 4.95
psychiatric hospital beds per 100,000 people. The National Center for Mental Health in
Mandaluyong City, Metro Manila (4,200 beds), and the Mariveles Mental Hospital in Bataan,
Luzon, are the only two tertiary care psychiatric hospitals in the Philippines (500 beds). The
National Center for Mental Health has only 12 smaller subsidiary hospitals across the country.
Despite the National Center for Mental Health having forensic beds, there have been no separate
forensic hospitals, crowding, non-developed units, personnel shortages, and financial restrictions
remain issues, especially in remote facilities. Consequently, the country still has difficulty
providing effective and affordable mental health care.
Another barrier to this is the mental health stigma that exists in the Filipino culture.
Regardless of sexuality, the Filipino males’ mental health perspective is frequently influenced by
dominant masculine ideals and mainstream Filipino mores. In an article written by Panaligan
(2021), phrases and words that are thrown around, such as 'Kalalaki mong tao,’ 'iyakin,' 'takot,'
and 'malambot,' are just some of the reasons why males prefer to hide their feelings. In addition,
machismo, which dictates that males should be the breadwinners in the family and be as
self-sufficient as feasible, is also viewed as another barrier for the male population in terms of
seeking psychological help. Fathers are typically seen as the pillar of strength in Filipino
households; as a result, Filipinos' willingness to actively respond to psychological issues is
already limited, and it is hardly extended to males. This notion is alarming given that mental
illness is the Philippines' third most frequent illness, and it even has the third-highest rate of
mental health problems in the Western Pacific (World Health Organization, 2017). Considering
its prevalence, mental illness is still regarded as non-existent or a source of shame in many
cultures.
Masculinity and Its Dimensions
In broad terms, the idea of masculinity can be described as a social construct that includes
"the behaviors, languages, and practices that are commonly associated with males and are
therefore culturally seen as not feminine" (Connor et al., 2021). Snell (1989) concluded in his
research that masculinity could be measured in four areas of behavior: Success Dedication,
Restrictive Emotionality, Inhibited Affection, and Exaggerated Self-Reliance. Snell added that
these four behavioral tendencies could explore whether males will reject the traditional
masculine advice that promotes adopting an "antifeminine" way of living while retaining the
masculine orientation toward instrumentality.
Amin and colleagues (2018) stated that males are expected to be stoic, independent,
tough, and powerful due to the underlying restrictive stereotypes and traditional masculine
norms, which encourage males to portray strength and dominance, especially over others. These
misconceptions have an impact on society as well as personal health consequences for males. In
general, males have worse health outcomes, young males are more likely to injure themselves or
others through reckless behavior, and they are also less likely to seek psychological attention
(Seidler et al., 2017).
In an article, Möller-Leimkühler (2002, as cited in Wahto & Swift, 2014) proposed that
conventional masculine norms urge males to repress or deny issues because some symptoms of
depression may be disguised by other expression styles seen as more acceptable for males (i.e.,
anger, aggression, hostility), they may be less likely to seek psychiatric care for disorders such as
depression. This idea was also supported by the study by Lynch, Long, and Moorhead (2016),
which stated that seeking professional assistance may jeopardize a male’s masculinity.
Self-reliance and strength ideals, which safeguard one's self-image and public image, contradict
emotional expressiveness and asking for aid, which is considered weak and dependent attributes
linked with femininity.
Yousef, Popat, and Hunter (2015) also affirmed in their study that males are less likely to
use psychological help-seeking services because of their high levels of ideal dominant
masculinity. Consequently, the stigma attached to help-seeking seems to be greater among males
who uphold traditional masculine roles (Steinfield & Steinfield, 2012, as cited in Johnson, 2018).
Furthermore, males who adhere to more conventional standards (such as the value of emotional
restraint and self-reliance) may be less inclined to talk about their psychological health issues
(McKenzie et al., 2018). Due to this notion, males become hesitant to seek help regarding their
psychological well-being.
Psychological Help-seeking Attitude of Males
Psychological help-seeking was defined as receiving all forms of mental health treatment,
both formally and informally, which encompasses all aspects of the receiving mental health
process, from beginning to engaging with mental health services to help-seeking (Mackenzie et
al., 2004, as cited in Chandrasekara, 2016). As a result, the term "psychological help-seeking"
refers to any effort of help-seeking for psychological problems from formal support offered by
qualified counselors or informal support provided by friends and family.
In the findings of the study by Thompson and colleagues (2016), it was found that
different personal characteristics, such as sex and age, have an impact on help-seeking behavior.
The study by Do and colleagues (2019) agreed with the notion that sex influences the
help-seeking attitude, wherein females were reported to be more positively related to
help-seeking and the recognition of the need for help than males. A study by Umubyeyi and
colleagues (2016) furthered that males with psychological concerns are more unlikely to seek
help from professional healthcare providers despite effective treatments. Males trivialize and
downplay their symptoms, wherein males with difficulties disclosing their mental health
concerns tend to suffer from depression (Becker et al., 2020).
Furthermore, females were found to be more open to personal discussion of information
and emotional experiences and more comfortable with interpersonal problem-solving approaches
than males (Burrick, 2014). Lindinger-Sternart (2015) also hypothesized that males have lower
support-seeking attitudes to avoid discussing upsetting events, expressing unpleasant feelings,
and being socially humiliated. Emotional issues cause them to feel ashamed, and they worry that
doing so would tarnish their idealized image of themselves if they ask for help. Because of these,
males resort to various pain relief methods, such as alcohol, narcotics, and aggressive conduct,
which justify their passive refusal of effective professional assistance (Chen et al., 2020).
People portray a very homogeneous picture of a male, leading to the idea that all males
are less capable and interested in developing emotional and supportive relationships with people
than females (Fuhrer & Stansfeld, 2002; Liebler & Sandefur, 2002, as cited in Collings, 2018).
Males have been only discouraged and inhibited from seeking help because of masculine norms
such as strength, prosperity, and self-sufficiency (Bottorff et al., 2022). Males find it difficult to
seek help because of the culturally prevalent masculine values and practices that emphasize and
reinforce males' desire to be autonomous, restrain emotion, and limit disclosures about their
vulnerabilities (Ogrodniczuk, Oliffe, & Beharry, 2018). As a result of the inability to receive
proper information or nonjudgmental support, young males regard mental health concerns as
secretive and shameful. They believe that something fundamentally wrong with them prevents
them from seeking help (Lynch et al., 2018).
A study conducted in the Philippines shows how Filipino males are less inclined to seek
help and are emotionally unavailable. This assertive dominance aspect may be maladaptive since
the notion that males must endure with suffering may suppress unpleasant emotions or avoidance
rather than adaptive coping (Agbayani et al., 2018). This is also supported in the article of
Panaligan (2021), which stated that males lack male peers, which might establish deeper
connections wherein they expect other males to uphold the same hegemonic masculinity.
Generally, toxic masculinity affects the help-seeking of male, like when older males tend to
rebuke the young male who resists hegemonic gender norms with homophobic or sexist
derogatory terms. The most significant outcome was the perception of a lower propensity for
males to seek psychological healthcare in the community.
Psychological Help-seeking Attitude of College Students
College students, in particular, are vulnerable to mental illness since they are exposed to
various new stressors. They are vulnerable because a typical college setting usually involves
academic obstacles, new living arrangements, and increasing personal responsibilities, which
even individuals who have developed healthy coping methods will have difficulties eluding
(Brenner, 2019). This is supported by the study of Ouriaghli and colleagues (2020), which
revealed that college students are frequently seen as a vulnerable population with a lower
predisposition to seek assistance. Male students are of high-risk groups who are even less likely
to seek assistance for mental health issues, putting them at a greater risk of suicide. The media
frequently draws attention to issues with student mental health, but not many evidence-based
interventions are created, especially for male students.
However, in their study of a different sample, Atkinson and others (1995, as cited in Sheu
& Sedlacek, 2004) did not find gender differences in the desire to consult a counselor for either a
personal or academic concern of Asian American college students. This is in contrast with the
study of Tata and Leong (1994, as cited in Sheu & Sedlacek, 2004), which also used the
Attitudes Towards Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale (ATSPPHS), and revealed that
Chinese American female college students had more optimistic attitudes toward asking for help
than did Chinese American male college students. However, the differences between African
American males and females in the help-seeking process are mostly unknown.
Additionally, in a study conducted by Que and colleagues (2014, as cited in Firmante,
2017), results showed that the primary reason for Filipino college students seeking and avoiding
counseling is to fulfill a class requirement (76.2 percent), followed by the presence of a personal
problem (12.6 percent). Firmante (2017) stated that the belief in significant others among college
students plays a significant role and has the greatest influence on their intention to seek help. The
decision to seek assistance among Filipino college students supports the importance of peers and
significant others. Also, in the same study by Firmante (2017), it is noteworthy to observe some
similarities in the intentions of seeking assistance between students from Western colleges and
Asian students, notably Filipino students.
In sum, the current literature on perceived masculinity and help-seeking practices are
sought to identify research opportunities and contribute to developing practical interventions and
measures to resolve the increasing concern among Filipino males about seeking psychological
help. In line with this, the researchers identified the relationship between the above-mentioned
variables and discovered that perceived masculinity predicts the psychological help-seeking
attitudes of male college students.
Statement of the Problem
This study aimed to describe the dimensions of masculinity and the psychological
help-seeking attitude of male college students in City College of Angeles, explore the
relationship between the said variables, and identify if masculinity and its dimensions predict
psychological help-seeking attitude. In order to gather all the necessary data, the following
questions are the ones the researchers intended to answer:
1. How may the masculinity of male college students be described in terms of:
1.1 Success Dedication
1.2 Restrictive Emotionality
1.3 Inhibited Affection
1.4 Exaggerated Self-Reliance
2. How may the psychological help-seeking attitude of male college students be
described?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the dimensions of masculinity and the
psychological help-seeking attitude of male college students in terms:
3.1 Success Dedication
3.2 Restrictive Emotionality
3.3 Inhibited Affection
3.4 Exaggerated Self-Reliance
4. Are the following dimensions of masculinity a significant predictor of the
psychological help-seeking attitude of male college students:
4.1 Success Dedication
4.2 Restrictive Emotionality
4.3 Inhibited Affection
4.4 Exaggerated Self-Reliance
Hypotheses
To properly assess the links between the variables, the researchers developed research
hypotheses that would serve as the study's primary foundation and guide throughout the research
process.
Ho1
There is no significant relationship between the dimensions of masculinity (success
dedication, restrictive emotionality, inhibited affection, and exaggerated self-reliance) and the
psychological help-seeking attitude of male college students.
Ha1
There is a significant relationship between the dimensions of masculinity (success
dedication, restrictive emotionality, inhibited affection, and exaggerated self-reliance) and the
psychological help-seeking attitude of male college students.
Ho2
Masculinity dimensions (success dedication, restrictive emotionality, inhibited affection,
and exaggerated self-reliance) are not significant predictors of the psychological help-seeking
attitude of male college students.
Ha2
Masculinity dimensions (success dedication, restrictive emotionality, inhibited affection,
and exaggerated self-reliance) are significant predictors of the psychological help-seeking
attitude of male college students.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Raewyn Connell’s (1987) Hegemonic Masculinity Theory serves as the primary
theoretical basis of this study. This theory has been used to explain males’ beliefs, principles, and
behaviors. Connell (1987, as cited in Messerschmidt, 2019) defined hegemonic masculinity as a
certain type of masculinity in a particular historical and societal contexts that justify unequal
gender relations between males and females, between masculinity and femininity, and among
masculinity. Connell also introduced the presence of a variety of fluid masculine positions and
identities that are superior to females and ordered in a hierarchical manner: hegemonic,
complicit, subordinated, and marginalized (Jewkes & Morrell, 2012). For this study, the first type
of masculinity is the most relevant to use. Hegemonic masculinity is the most accepted form of
masculinity in our current society. The ideal hegemonic masculinity is viewed as being
synonymous with an identity that is generally regarded as "macho," i.e., being (at least in part)
assertive and aggressive, courageous, almost invulnerable to threats and problems, and stoic in
the face of adversity. Thus, it is seen as being related to actions that show courage and strength,
such as refusing to admit weakness or to be overtaken by negative circumstances, while
discouraging other actions like expressing feelings or the desire to ask for assistance from others
(McVittie et al., 2017). Due to the fact that hegemonic masculinity holds such a powerful and
dominant position, this frequently leads to a narrow spectrum of "acceptable" actions, values,
etc., that must be consistently displayed to refrain from judgment and alienation, or worse
(Perkins, 2015). This theory supports the study's goal as it explains a broader concept of
masculinity and how males act according to it, which may influence their psychological
help-seeking attitude.
Furthermore, Tajfel and his colleagues' Social Identity Theory serves as a supporting
theory in this study. It is a broad social psychological theory that can be used to explain why
males are less likely than females to seek help. The theory was originally developed to explain
intergroup relations, conflict, and cooperation (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). However, it has since
expanded to explain the role of self and identity in behavior (Hogg, 2016). Tajfel (1972)
proposed that social identity was an "individual's knowledge that he belongs to certain social
groups, as well as some emotional and value significance to him of this group membership." This
notion implies that every person has the potential to belong to a variety of social groups. Such
groups are the outcome of a person categorizing society into groups based on factors including
similarity, common experience, and proximity (De Fina & Georgakopoulou, 2015).
SIT later expanded to include explanations of how people classify themselves into groups
based on interconnected sets of attributes such as attitudes, behaviors, or beliefs (Hogg, 2016).
However, this frequently focuses on how an in-group compares to an out-group; the in-group
will look for and magnify the out-group shortcomings to strengthen its own identity and,
indirectly, the members' beliefs of themselves (Lynch et al., 2016). Accordingly, SIT would
indicate that males should be more engaged than females, implying a higher relationship between
their conformity to male norms and help-seeking barriers, possibly because of increased pressure
to behave in accordance with 'in-group' expectations (Heath, 2019). This suggests that
individuals who are members of a group that values help-seeking behavior are more likely to
seek help because it aligns with their in-group expectations. On the other hand, individuals who
belong to groups that look negatively at seeking help will be less likely to do so, preserving their
status as an in-group member. When applied to males and their help-seeking behavior, SIT
would imply that males would avoid seeking psychological help in order to maintain their
in-group status as males.
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework
As shown in Figure 1, this study illustrates the researchers' conceptual framework, in
which the dimensions of masculinity: Success Dedication, Restrictive Emotionality, Inhibited
Affection, and Exaggerated Self-Reliance serve as variables that correlate to psychological
help-seeking attitude, and determine how masculinity and its dimensions are significant predictor
of help-seeking attitude.
Significance of the Study
This study sought to describe and identify the relationship between masculinity and the
psychological help-seeking attitude of male college students at City College of Angeles and if
masculinity and its dimensions predict psychological help-seeking attitude. The findings of the
study could benefit the following:
Society
The information from this research can help promote awareness of how people perceive
masculinity and how it influences the help-seeking attitude of the male population.
Males
This study promotes awareness of the significance of masculinity and its relationship to
males' psychological help-seeking attitudes, which may help them decrease potentially damaging
thinking patterns and prevent possible illnesses caused by toxic masculinity.
City College of Angeles
This study may be beneficial to the institution where it is conducted since it might serve
as a starting point for establishing future mental health programs which can help to lessen males'
negative views on masculinity that influence their willingness to seek psychological help, as well
as reference material for other relevant studies that future researchers at the same institution may
perform.
Guidance Counselor
The outcome of the study could help the guidance counselors address the adverse
viewpoints of male students’ concerning masculinity that affects their inclination toward seeking
psychological help, as well as promote guidelines that mainly focus on male students, which
assist them in realizing that sharing their concerns and worries does not diminish their
masculinity.
Mental Health Practitioners
The findings of this study could also help practitioners develop focused interventions in
the future to alleviate the stigma on males’ psychological help-seeking attitudes and toxic
masculinity.
Future researchers
Those who are planning to conduct a study similar to this topic and explore it further can
use this as a basis and use the related literature and findings for their research.
Scope and Delimitation
This study aimed to describe masculinity, its dimensions and the psychological
help-seeking attitude of male college students, simultaneously explore the relationship of the
above-mentioned variables and identify if masculinity predicts psychological help-seeking
attitude. The data collection of this study was limited to male college students across all courses,
year levels, and student status (regular or irregular), enrolled in the 1st semester of the academic
year 2022-2023 at the City College of Angeles. Informed consent was provided alongside the
survey form containing the study instruments via Google forms that were sent out through the
participant’s school email addresses.
Definition of Terms
The conceptual and operational definitions of the following terms are presented in this
section of the study.
Attitude Toward Psychological Help-seeking.
It is an emotion or opinion about something or someone or behavior resulting from it
(Cambridge University Press, 2022). In this study, this refers to the behavior and perspective of a
person regarding seeking psychological help.
Exaggerated Self-Reliance
The tendency to be preoccupied with being self-reliant and maintaining independent
control over one's life (Doyle, 1989). In this study, it refers to the urge of male college students
to concentrate on maintaining independence and personal control over their life.
Inhibited Affection
It is concerned with the inhibition of feelings of love and tenderness for loved ones
(Doyle, 1989). In this study, it refers to the suppression of affectionate and delicate feelings of
male college students to their loved ones.
Male
In this study, it refers to the participants who are biological males, including different
gender identities (e.g., gay, bisexual, transgender, etc.).
Male College Students
In this study, it refers to the participants who are biological males, including different
gender identities (e.g., gay, bisexual, transgender, etc.) that are enrolled in college regardless of
the course, year level, and student status.
Masculinity
It is a social construct that comprises "the behaviors, languages, and practices that are
frequently associated with males and are consequently culturally perceived as not feminine"
(Connor et al., 2021). In this study, it pertains to the attributes, roles, and behavior that male
college students regard as characteristics of males.
Mental Health
It refers to psychological well-being conditions that allow people to manage life's
stressors, recognize their capabilities, study and work effectively, and contribute to their
communities. It is essential to our individual and group ability to make decisions, make friends,
and change the world we live in (World Health Organization, 2022). In this study, it pertains to
the psychological health of an individual.
Psychological Help-Seeking Attitude
It is the act of actively seeking assistance from others, which includes discussing one's
worries with another person for advice or support (Rickwood, 2005, as cited in Gebreegziabher,
Girma & Tesfaye, 2019). In this study, it refers to the participants’ willingness to ask or request
help from a professional mental health practitioner in terms of counseling, consultancy, therapy,
research, education, social interventions, psychological or developmental assessment, and other
types of assessments that a psychologist or psychiatrist provides.
Restrictive Emotionality
It deals with the public restriction of privately felt emotions (Doyle, 1989). In this study,
it addresses the suppression of male college students to their deeply felt emotions in public.
Success Dedication
It refers to the dedication of male college students to pursue success in one’s life (Doyle,
1989). In this study, it relates to the male college students' determination to put in significant
effort in order to succeed in life.
Methodology
This section shows the research design, locale, variables, participants, sampling
technique, instruments, procedures, and data analysis that were utilized in the study.
Research Design
The researchers employed a descriptive-correlational research design utilizing multiple
regression to test for the relationship and predictive power of the independent variables (IV) to
the dependent variable (DV).
The descriptive-correlational research design was appropriate for the study since
descriptive research is mainly concerned with describing the nature or condition, the degree in
detail of the situation as it exists at the time of the study, and investigating the cause/s of a
particular phenomenon (Cresswell, 1994). The researchers described the male college students’
masculinity and psychological help-seeking attitudes in this study. Meanwhile, a correlational
research design was used in this study to correlate the variables without manipulating them
(Bhandari, 2021). This design was used to explore the relationship between masculinity, its
dimensions, and the psychological help-seeking attitudes of the respondents.
The use of multiple regression, frequently with the effect of other predictors statistically
excluded, was also employed to assess the relevance of each predictor to the relationship
between a result (the dependent variable) and a number of predictor variables (Petchko, 2018). In
this study, the independent variable, masculinity and its domains (IV), serve as the predictor of
the dependent variable (DV), which is the psychological help-seeking attitude.
Research Locale
The research was undertaken at the City College of Angeles (CCA), one of the prime
colleges in Pampanga. The school was established in July 2011 as a local college in Angeles
City. CCA has three institutes with 15 college courses and offers free education to its students.
The school currently has a total population of 5,590, of which 2,195 are males and 3,395 are
females. For the convenience on the researchers' part, the City College of Angeles was chosen as
the research locale.
Research Variables
The researchers described the masculinity and psychological help-seeking attitude of the
male college students at City College of Angeles and determined if there was a relationship
between the two variables. Also, the predictive value of the independent variables (IV),
masculinity (success dedication, restrictive emotionality, inhibited affection, and exaggerated
self-reliance) on the dependent variable (DV), the psychological help-seeking attitude, was tested
through multiple regression.
Masculinity is a social construct that comprises "the behaviors, languages, and practices
that are frequently associated with males and are consequently culturally perceived as not
feminine" (Connor et al., 2021). This research considered the following dimensions of
masculinity according to Snell (1989): success dedication, restrictive emotionality, inhibited
affection, and exaggerated self-reliance. Moreover, a psychological help-seeking attitude is
defined as the act of actively seeking assistance from others, which includes discussing one's
worries with another person for advice or support (Rickwood, 2005, as cited in Gebreegziabher,
Girma & Tesfaye, 2019). In this research, it refers to the participants’ willingness to ask or
request help from a professional mental health practitioner in terms of counseling, consultancy,
therapy, research, education, social interventions, psychological or developmental assessment,
and other types of assessments that a psychologist or psychiatrist provides.
Research Participants
The researchers chose a specific population to provide the best information about the
study when selecting participants. In this study, the respondents are biological males, regardless
of gender identities (e.g., gay, bisexual, transgender, etc.) enrolled at City College of Angeles
under the three (3) institutes of the school, namely: the Institute of Education, Arts and Sciences
(IEAS); the Institute of Business and Management (IBM); and the Institute of Computing
Studies and Library Information Science (ICSLIS), regardless of the courses, year level, and
student status (regular or irregular).
Sampling Technique
The researchers utilized a non-probability approach, controlled quota sampling, to
determine participants. The quota sampling method is a non-probability sampling used to get
representative data from a group. The use of quota sampling guarantees that the sample group
reflects specific features of the population the researcher has selected. To restrict the kind of
samples that researchers might choose, controlled quota sampling entails the implementation of
specific limitations (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2012).
In this study, the researchers requested the total number of male students enrolled in CCA
for the first semester of the academic year 2022-2023 from the Registrar’s Office. The
calculation was performed using the Raosoft software to determine the sample population and
quota per institute. A sample size of 328 was required to attain a 95% confidence level and a 5%
margin of error (Raosoft, 2004). During the conduct of the study, 384 male students voluntarily
responded to the questionnaire of which 131 were from IEAS, 110 were from IBM, and 143
were from ICSLIS. The chosen sampling technique was appropriate for each institute to have an
equal number of representatives in the study.
Research Instruments
The instruments used in this study were two standardized questionnaires: Masculine
Behavior Scale (MBS) and Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help – Short
Form (ATSPPH-SF).
In measuring the level of masculinity of male college students, the researchers modified
the Masculinity Behavior Scale that William Snell developed in 1989. MBS is a 20-item
self-report scale that measures masculinity over four dimensions which are: (1) success
dedication (e.g., I spend a lot of effort and time in pursuing a highly successful career) ; (2)
restrictive emotionality (e.g., I don't usually share my feelings and emotions with others); (3)
inhibited affection (e.g., I tend to avoid being in really close, intimate relationships); and (4)
exaggerated self-reliance (e.g., I try to be in control of everything in my life). The test uses a
5-point Likert scale form of response, where each item is rated from 0 (disagree) to 4 (agree).
Scores can be obtained by summing up all the responses for each dimension which ranges from
-10 to +10. The total score can be determined by adding all the scores for each of the four
dimensions which ranges from -40 to +40, wherein positive scores correspond to a more
masculine behavior. MBS's internal consistency ranges from 0.69 to 0.89 with an average
test-retest reliability of 0.62. The test also showed a positive correlation with other measures of
masculinity, such as the Personal Attributes Questionnaire, which proves its concurrent validity
(Snell, 1989).
At the same time, the researchers adopted the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional
Psychological Help – Short Form (ATSPPH-SF) developed by Fischer and Farina in 1995 to
measure the attitudes toward psychological help-seeking of male college students. ATSPPH-SF
is a 10-item test that measures an individual's attitudes toward seeking mental healthcare (e.g., A
person should work out his or her own problems; getting psychological counseling would be the
last resort; Personal and emotional troubles, like many things, tend to work out by themselves).
The test uses a 4-point Likert scale form of response, where each item is rated from 0 (disagree)
to 3 (agree). The total score is obtained by summing up all the responses on each item, wherein
items 2, 4, 8, 9, and 10 follow reverse scoring. Scores above 20 show a more positive attitude
toward seeking psychological help. The test's internal consistency was reported to be 0.84, with a
0.80 test-retest reliability within a month and construct validity of 0.87 (Fisher & Farina, 1995,
as cited in Elhai, Schweinle & Anderson, 2007; Picco et al., 2016).
Given these psychometric properties and the objectives of the study, the MBS and
ATSPPH-SF are each considered to be appropriate tools for the variables being studied.
Research Procedures
A step-by-step process was followed in gathering the data for this study. The steps
involved are stated below.
Prior to the data collection, the researchers sought a group of psychometricians to
validate the instruments used in this study. Pilot testing was then carried out. After the pilot
testing, the researchers performed quantitative checks to obtain the psychometric properties of
the instruments and qualitative checks to gain feedback on how the participants received the
instruments. After that, the researchers submitted the paper and instruments used in the study to
the Office of the Vice President for Research, Extension, and Quality Assurance for review.
Documents were submitted to the Ethical Review Board (ERB) of CCA to ensure that the
research methodology upholds the principles of ethics in its conduct. Upon receiving the
approval certificate from the Ethical Board, a formal letter of request was sent to the acting
Vice-President for Academic Affairs, Dr. Carolina A. Sarmiento, for the study to be carried out at
the City College of Angeles.
After receiving permission from the VP, the researchers also sought consent from the
deans and instructors of each institute at the school to collect data and to use 10 minutes of their
asynchronous classes to conduct the survey. Posters were also posted on the researchers’ social
media accounts containing the criteria that they were looking for a participant to gather more
respondents for the study.
The researchers sent out the link of the Google Form to the Google Meet chat box for
each class they were able to enter, which contains the informed consent and the instruments of
the study, namely: the Masculinity Behavior Scale (MBS) and Attitudes Toward Seeking
Professional Psychological Help – Short Form (ATSPPH-SF) after giving a brief introduction
and discussion of the study.
Lastly, the researchers encoded the data through Microsoft Excel 2010 and was then
submitted to the statisticians for the data analysis.
Data Analysis
Statistical treatments were encoded and run using Microsoft Office Excel 2010 and Stata
software. Data were analyzed using descriptive analysis, which was utilized to acquire the mean
and standard deviation (Kaur, Stolzfus, & Yellapu, 2018). It summarized the data on masculinity
and its dimensions and the psychological help-seeking attitude of male college students. At the
same time, this study also employed Pearson's Correlation Coefficient r. This was to correlate
each masculinity dimension in the psychological help-seeking attitude of the participants.
Utilizing this analysis helped determine the relationship between the variables, as mentioned
earlier. Multiple regression analysis was then applied to examine the potential predictive power
of these multiple independent variables to the single dependent variable (Moore et al., 2006). In
this instance, it analyzed the dimensions of masculinity as predictors of the psychological
help-seeking attitude of male college students.
The researchers also tested four assumptions of multiple regression in this study.
Specifically, the assumptions of normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and homoscedasticity. For
the assumption of normality, regression assumes that the distribution of the variables is normal.
Meanwhile, the assumption of linearity states that only linear correlations between dependent
and independent variables can be reliably estimated using multiple regression. On the other hand,
the multicollinearity assumption supposes that when there is a strong correlation between the
independent variables, changes in one variable will affect changes in the other variables, which
will result in considerable fluctuations in the model outputs. Lastly, homoscedasticity is the
assumption that all levels of the independent variable have the same error variance (Osbourne &
Waters, 2002; Wu, 2020). Performing a test of these assumptions helped the researchers avoid
encountering errors with their data. Upon testing the above-mentioned assumptions, it was found
that the assumption of normality was not met. Therefore, the researchers used bootstrapping
technique to further assess the data. Bootstrapping technique "normalizes" data by resampling it
5000 times (Sainani, 2012). In this case, the data for the domains of masculinity and
psychological help-seeking attitude were resampled 5000 times to normalize the data.
Ethical Considerations
This study may be beneficial to the area of psychology since it can provide fresh insights
into the variables discussed previously and could lead to future studies on male mental health
and perceived masculinity. Prior to data collection, the researchers sought consent from the City
College of Angeles Office of the Vice President for Research, Extension, and Quality Assurance
and Dr. Carolina A. Sarmiento, acting Vice-President for Academic Affairs. Informed consent
was provided to respondents in order to explain the general purpose of the study, the minimal
risks associated with participation, and the fact that some questionnaire items required the
disclosure of highly sensitive and personal information and some questions could be upsetting to
some people. The researchers ensured that the information submitted by study participants was
handled with the utmost discretion and privacy in accordance with the Data Privacy Act of 2012.
On request, respondents shall receive a copy of the study's results or overall conclusion. The data
collected for this study were only utilized for the completion of the study and were then deleted.
Results and Discussion
This section reports the data gathered in the study. Consequently, it presents the statistical
analysis results that addressed the research questions regarding Masculinity as Predictor of the
Psychological Help-Seeking Attitude of Male College Students.
This study sought to describe the dimensions of masculinity (success dedication,
restrictive emotionality, inhibited affection, and exaggerated self-reliance) and the psychological
help-seeking attitude of male college students. At the same time, it aimed to determine the
relationship between the domains mentioned earlier of masculinity and psychological
help-seeking attitude and, finally, assess if the said masculinity dimensions are significant
predictors of psychological help-seeking attitude.
Table 1
Summary of Mean, Standard Deviation, and level of Masculinity dimensions and
Psychological Help-seeking Attitude of Male College Students.
Success Dedication
Mean
Std. Deviation
Level
6.50
3.20
High
Restrictive Emotionality
2.61
4.15
High
Inhibited Affection
1.39
3.99
High
Exaggerated Self-Reliance
3.16
3.16
High
Psychological Help-seeking
15.37
4.07
Low
Attitude
The mean scores of the respondents were obtained to determine their level of masculinity
in terms of success dedication, restrictive emotionality, inhibited affection, exaggerated
self-reliance, and their level of psychological help-seeking attitude. Table 1 presents the mean,
standard deviation, and the corresponding interpretation of the respondents' scores from the five
variables. Results indicate that the male college students scored high per subscale of masculinity;
specifically, success dedication (x̄=6.50, SD=3.20), restrictive emotionality (x̄=2.61, SD=4.16),
inhibited affection (x̄=1.39, SD=3.99), and exaggerated self-reliance (x̄=3.16, SD=3.16).
However, the psychological help-seeking attitude score can be described as low (x̄=15.37,
SD=4.07).
Ouriaghli and colleagues (2020) explained in their study that traditional notions of
masculinity, such as stoicism, self-reliance, and restricted emotionality, are sometimes associated
with the lower rates of help-seeking noted in male students. These findings coincide with two
dimensions of masculinity used in this study: exaggerated self-reliance and restricted
emotionality. Moreover, Que and colleagues (2014, as cited in Firmante, 2017) discovered that
fulfilling a class requirement is the main reason Filipino male college students do not seek
counseling or other mental health services, which may be attributed to one of the dimensions of
masculinity–success dedication which Snell (1989) defined as the dedication of male students to
pursue success in one's life. Meanwhile, in an article written by Panaligan (2021), the low level
of help-seeking attitude of males is attributed to toxic masculinity, like when older males tend to
rebuke the young male who resists hegemonic gender norms with homophobic or sexist
derogatory terms. This aligns with the description of the inhibited affection domain of the scale
used in this study.
These findings correspond with the study of Yousef, Popat, and Hunter (2015), which
revealed that those males with dominant masculinity ideals are less likely to use psychological
help-seeking services. This also agrees with the findings of Lynch, Long, and Moorhead (2016),
which stated that seeking professional assistance may jeopardize a male’s masculinity.
Self-reliance and strength ideals, which safeguard one's self-image and public image, contradict
emotional expressiveness and asking for aid, which is considered weak and dependent, attributes
linked with femininity.
On the other hand, in the study of Staiger and colleagues (2020) regarding men with
depression, it was revealed that even an average level of masculine ideals still results in a low
level of psychological help-seeking attitude and past experiences with mental health practitioners
and the services offered by the practitioners are the main contributor to the reasons why males
hesitate to seek psychological help. Hence, a lot of factors could contribute to lower levels of
psychological help-seeking and all these should be carefully considered in order to address the
mental health concerns of males.
Table 2
Correlation between Psychological Help-seeking Attitude of Male College Students with
Masculinity dimensions.
1
Success Dedication
2
3
4
5
-
Restrictive Emotionality
0.0371
-
Inhibited Affection
0.041
0.6074*
Exaggerated Self-reliance
0.3965*
0.4815*
0.4474*
Psychological
0.0653
-0.2493*
-0.0988
-
-
-0.1664*
-
Help-seeking Attitude
*Correlation is significant at p < 0.01 level (2-tailed).
RED – negatively correlated
BLUE – positively correlated
The results, as shown in table 2, indicate that the psychological help-seeking attitude of
male college students has a very low and significant negative correlation with restrictive
emotionality (r=-0.25, p<0.000) and exaggerated self-reliance (r=-0.17, p<0.000). On the other
hand, success dedication (r=0.07, p<0.000) and inhibited affection (r=-0.10, p<0.000) have a
negligible to no correlation with psychological help-seeking attitude.
The results imply that when masculinity and its previously mentioned domains, such as
restrictive emotionality and exaggerated self-reliance, increase the psychological help-seeking
attitude of male college students decreases. This idea is further supported by the findings of
Yousaf, Popat, and Hunter (2014), wherein it was inferred that men might have unrealistic
expectations of what it means to be a man, which could affect how likely they are to seek
psychological help. For instance, if the males feel that they should be stoic yet realize that
healthcare providers will want them to be emotionally expressive and open. This is also
consistent with Chan's (2013) argument, according to which seeking assistance might seriously
harm one's reputation personally and publicly if young men are supposed to act emotionally
non-expressively. Moreover, in a qualitative study conducted by Johnson and colleagues (2011)
about men's discourses in seeking help in the context of depression, it was revealed that
self-reliance is one of the most contributing factors as to why these individuals tend not to seek
psychological services. They concluded that these men reported being heavily influenced by the
self-reliance narrative when discussing their need for treatment for depression.
On the other hand, no significant relationship was found between success dedication and
inhibited affection with the psychological help-seeking attitude of the male college students. This
result might be explained in a way that these dimensions of masculinity may decrease the
psychological help-seeking attitude in some cases but not the others (Boxer & Gill, 2021). The
effectiveness of a more help-seeking attitude may rely on the unique masculine beliefs that an
individual, especially males, holds.
Table 3
Table of the regression for restrictive emotionality and exaggerated self-reliance.
Model
R
R-Square
Adjusted R Square Bootstrap Std. Err.
Restrictive Emotionality
0.2494
0.0622
0.0597
0.5242
Exaggerated
0.1664
0.0277
0.0251
0.6169
Self-reliance
Predictor of ATSPPH
Table 3.1
Variances of Restrictive Emotionality and Exaggerated Self-reliance to Psychological
Help-seeking Attitude.
Model
Restrictive Emotionality
B
SE
β
z
p
-0.2443
0.0524
0.0622
-4.66
0.000
Exaggerated Self-reliance
-0.2141
0.6169
0.0277
-3.47
0.001
Two out of four masculinity dimensions are found to have a significant negative
correlation with psychological help-seeking attitude, particularly restrictive emotionality and
exaggerated self-reliance. Hence, only these two were further tested using multiple regression
analysis. Multiple regression was carried out to determine if the dimension of masculinity
(restrictive emotionality and exaggerated self-reliance) predicts a psychological help-seeking
attitude. Regression analysis was performed using the bootstrapping procedure because it was
discovered that the data were not normally distributed. By resampling the data with 5000
replications, the bootstrapping technique assesses the data "as if" it were normal (Sainani, 2012).
The table above shows that the two dimensions of masculinity can explain 9% of the
variance in psychological help-seeking attitude. Looking at the individual contributions of each
predictor, the result indicates that restrictive emotionality (z=-4.66, p<0.000) and exaggerated
self-reliance (z=-3.47, p<0.001) were shown to be statistically significant predictors of
psychological help-seeking attitude (see table 3.2). The analysis revealed that restrictive
emotionality (β = 0.06) was the most influential predictor, while exaggerated self-reliance (β =
0.03) was the least influential predictor.
The same findings were confirmed by Tsan and colleagues (2011) in their study, which
found that males' fear of being viewed as feminine—which is connected to disclosing emotions
as part of treatment—significantly predicts their attitude toward seeking help. This agrees with
the study of Perkins (2015), which determined that the restrictive emotionality domain was
predictive of more negative attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. It was
suggested that males who undergo some level of pressure that prevents them from expressing
their emotions tend to have more negative attitudes toward services, situations, activities, and
other matters connected to seeking support.
Maher's (2022) study with the same variables also revealed that the most significant
predictor and contributing factor to the help-seeking attitude of males is self-reliance, this
insinuates that males still conform to this traditional masculine norms such as emotional control,
risk-taking, and power over women, self-resilience, and dominance affects the help-seeking
attitude. This is similar to Heath's (2019) findings, which showed that increased adherence to
masculine norms, such as independence, predicts a more negative attitude toward seeking
psychological help.
The findings highlight that two dimensions of masculinity measured by MBS,
specifically restrictive emotionality and exaggerated self-reliance, are significant predictors of
psychological help-seeking attitudes of male college students. This predictive relationship may
be dependent on male's particular masculine beliefs around being restrictive with their emotions
and reliant on themselves. Furthermore, aside from normality, assumptions of linearity,
multicollinearity, and homoscedasticity were met (Osbourne & Waters, 2002).
Conclusion
This study explored the dimensions of masculinity as a predictor of the psychological
help-seeking attitude of male college students. The male college students showed high levels of
masculinity in terms of success dedication, restrictive emotionality, inhibited affection, and
exaggerated self-reliance, and showed a negative attitude towards seeking psychological help.
Among the dimensions of masculinity, the domain of success dedication has the highest score,
followed by exaggerated self-reliance and restrictive emotionality. Meanwhile, inhibited
affection scored the lowest. However, this result does not directly show a significant relationship
between all the dimensions of masculinity and help-seeking.
For this study, only two dimensions—restrictive emotionality and exaggerated
self-reliance—showed a significant negative correlation with psychological help-seeking
attitude. Both dimensions are also found to be substantial predictors of psychological
help-seeking attitudes among male college students. According to these findings, the study
provided an important note that the male college student's attitude toward seeking psychological
help is negatively associated with masculinity in terms of restrictive emotionality and
exaggerated self-reliance. At the same time, it highlighted that masculinity and the domains
mentioned earlier predict the psychological help-seeking attitude of male students.
Recommendation
This study has added to the understanding of dimensions of masculinity as predictor of
the psychological help-seeking attitude of male college students. As the investigation progressed,
a few areas emerged as potential future research areas.
Firstly, the researchers recommend continuing the exploration and investigation of other
dimensions of masculinity besides the four dimensions used by the researchers. Furthermore,
future researchers are encouraged to use mixed methods or qualitative design to set off the
study's limitations. Although the questionnaires used in this research have good psychometric
properties, a more profound understanding could be gained through in-depth interviews and
observations.
Moreover, since the researchers were only able to gather data from the male college
students of City College of Angeles, to improve the study further, the researchers suggest that
data collection be conducted in bigger localized areas to collect a larger sample with various
cultural backgrounds. Likewise, future research may also include other demographic profiles,
such as educational attainment, to see whether or not there is a significant difference in
masculinity and psychological help-seeking attitude if males have a lower or higher education
level.
The researchers also recommend that the participants' ages be expanded since male
college students' ages usually range from late adolescence to adulthood; this is to examine if
there is a substantial change in predictors as people become older. For the educational institution,
replication of the study can be used as a foundation for future programs to enhance the
psychological help-seeking attitude of their students. Lastly, researchers recommend replicating
the study if there would be a significant change in the outcome of the result.