Part 1: Timeline and essential features of the Development of
the English Language from Early Modern English to
Contemporary English
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. Phonetics: The study of speech sounds and their production, transmission, and
perception.
. Phonology: The study of the sound systems of languages, including the patterns and
rules for combining sounds.
. Morphology: The study of the structure of words and how they are formed.
. Syntax: The study of sentence structure and the rules for combining words to form
sentences.
. Semantics: The study of meaning in language, including how words and phrases acquire
meaning, and how meaning is conveyed in sentences.
. Pragmatics: The study of how context influences the interpretation of language,
including the role of implicature, presupposition, and speech acts.
. Discourse analysis: The study of how language is used in different contexts, including
the analysis of conversations, written texts, and other forms of communication.
. Sociolinguistics: The study of how language is influenced by social factors, including
regional, social, and cultural variation in language use.
. Language change: The study of how languages evolve over time, including the causes
and mechanisms of language change, as well as the effects of language change on
language structure and use.
. Lexical semantics: The study of how words acquire meaning and how their meaning
changes over time.
. Etymology: The study of the origins and history of words and how they have changed
over time.
. Dialectology: The study of regional and social variation in language, including
differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.
. Sociophonetics: The study of the relationship between social factors and speech sounds,
including variation in accent and dialect.
. Register: The variety of language used in a particular context, such as formal or
informal, technical or non-technical, and so on.
. Style: The distinctive way in which an individual or group uses languageCollocation:
The habitual juxtaposition of a particular word with another word or words with a
frequency greater than chance.
. Connotation: The emotional or cultural associations that a word carries beyond its
literal meaning.
. Denotation: The literal or dictionary definition of a word.
. Diction: The choice and use of words and phrases in speech or writing.
. Idiom: A group of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of the
individual words.
. Jargon: Specialized language used by a particular group or profession.
Early Modern English (1500-1700)
Graphology and Orthography:
● Printing press allowed for standardization of spellings and punctuation
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Key Terms
Great Vowel Shift led to changes in pronunciation
Phonology:
● Great Vowel Shifts led to changes in pronunciation
Morphology:
● Development of regular inflectional suffixes for past tense and plural form of nouns
Syntax:
● Development of complex sentence structures
● Move towards a more analytical syntax
Lexis:
● Vocabulary greatly influenced by Latin and Greek
● New words coined to reflect advances in science and technology
Semantics:
● Semantic range of words expanded
● Some words took on new meanings
Pragmatics:
● Use of polite language and honorifics became more prevalent
Grammar:
● Regularization of past tense
● Use of auxiliary verb "do"
● Loss of inflectional suffix "-th" for third-person singular verbs
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Contemporary English (1800-present)
Graphology and Orthography:
● Use of computers and digital technology has led to changes in the way we write and read
○ With the widespread use of computers, most of us now do our writing using word
processing software, such as Microsoft Word or Google Docs. This has made it
much easier to edit and revise our writing, as well as to produce clean, professionallooking documents.
○ Digital reading: With the rise of e-books and digital reading devices, such as
Amazon's Kindle, more and more people are doing their reading on screens rather
than on paper. This has led to changes in the way we read, with studies suggesting
that digital reading may lead to more skimming and less deep engagement with the
text.
○ Globalization: The internet has made it much easier for people all over the world to
communicate and share information. This has led to an increase in the number of
people using English as a second language and has also led to the development of
new varieties of English, such as Singlish (Singaporean English) and Hinglish
(Hindi-English).
Phonology:
● Pronunciation has remained relatively stable, although there have been some changes
due to globalization and the influence of other languages
Morphology:
● Loss of many inflectional suffixes
● Greater reliance on word order and auxiliary verbs to convey meaning
Syntax:
● More streamlined syntax with emphasis on simplicity and clarity
Lexis:
● Vocabulary constantly evolving with new words and phrases added to reflect advances in
technology and changes in society
Semantics:
● Semantic range of words constantly expanding with some words taking on new
meanings and others falling out of use
Pragmatics:
● Use of language heavily influenced by social and cultural norms
● Greater awareness of issues related to inclusivity and diversity
Grammar:
● Greater degree of standardization with focus on clarity and simplicity
● Variation in use of language depending on region and social class
Part 2: Processes of Language Change
Language is not a static entity, but a dynamic one that evolves over time. This evolution can
be attributed to various processes of language change. In this study guide, we will discuss the
processes involved in the formation of new words and how they contribute to the evolution of
language.
Coinage: Coinage is the process of creating new words from scratch. It involves inventing a
completely new word to describe a new object or concept. The new word may be based on an
existing word or entirely made up. Examples of coined words include "Google," "Kleenex,"
and "Xerox."
Derivation: Derivation involves the creation of new words by adding affixes to existing
words. An affix is a prefix or suffix that alters the meaning of a word. For example, adding
the suffix "-ness" to the word "happy" creates the new word "happiness." Similarly, adding
the prefix "un-" to the word "happy" creates the new word "unhappy.”
Telescoping: Telescoping involves the shortening of words through various processes such as
acronyms, compounding, blending, clipping, coalescence, and backformation.
● Acronyms are formed by taking the first letter of each word in a phrase and creating a
new word from those letters. Examples of acronyms include NASA, NATO, and AIDS.
● Compounding involves combining two or more words to create a new word. Examples
of compound words include "laptop," "hamburger," and "basketball."
● Blending involves combining parts of two or more words to create a new word.
Examples of blended words include "brunch" (breakfast + lunch) and "smog" (smoke +
fog).
● Clipping involves shortening a word by removing one or more syllables. Examples of
clipped words include "math" (mathematics) and "phone" (telephone).
● Coalescence involves combining two or more words into a single word by blending the
sounds and meanings of the original words. Examples of coalesced words include
"smog" (smoke + fog) and "motel" (motor + hotel).
● Backformation involves creating a new word by removing a suffix or prefix from an
existing word. For example, the word "editor" was created by removing the "-er" suffix
from the word "editorial."
Changes through Borrowing: Changes through borrowing involve the adoption of words
from other languages. Borrowed words can either retain their original form or be adapted to
fit the sound and structure of the borrowing language. Examples of borrowed words in
English include "sushi" (Japanese), "entrepreneur" (French), and "kangaroo" (Australian
Aboriginal).
Changes in Grammar and Style: Changes in grammar and style involve alterations to the
way words are used in a language. These changes can include changes in verb endings and
the use of modals in verb forms. English has become more reliant on word order instead of
inflections.
Graphology: Graphology is the study of how the visual aspect of language, including
spelling and punctuation, has evolved over time. Changes in graphology can also contribute
to the evolution of language.
Etymology: the study of the historical relation between a word and the earlier form or forms
from which it has developed.
● Amelioration is the process by which the meaning of a word changes to become more
positive. A well-known example is the word nice, which, when it first appeared in about
1300 AD, meant clumsy or stupid.
● Pejoration is the reverse process by which the meaning of a word becomes more
negative than its meaning in earlier times. For example, silly originally meant blessed.
● Broadening is the process by which a word expands from its original meaning and
becomes more general. Examples of this are business, which originally meant being
anxious and full of care but has now broadened to include all kinds of work.
● Narrowing is the process by which a word takes on a more restricted meaning. For
example, girl originally meant a young person.
Part 3: Theories of Language Change
Functional Theory (Michael Halliday)
. Halliday's functional theory broadly explains language change as a tool which enables
changing economic and social functions in society to be carried out. According to
Functional Theory, language changes according to the needs of its users. In Functional
Theory, lexis is not actively discarded. It evolves until it is of no further use and is then
replaced by new words needed such as the need for new technological developments. It
proposes that language changes in response to the changing needs of society. Language
is seen as a tool that serves a communicative purpose, and it changes according to the
needs of its users. The theory argues that language change is motivated by functional
needs, such as the need to express new concepts or adapt to changes in social practices.
The functional theory is based on the idea that language is a social practice and is shaped
by social factors, such as the culture, history, and geography of its speakers.
. Reasons for language change: The functional theory argues that language changes for
functional reasons, such as to express new concepts or to adapt to changes in social
practices. One example of this is the development of new words to describe new
technological developments. Another example is the change in the use of pronouns to
reflect changes in social attitudes towards gender. Functional needs are the primary
driving force behind language change, according to the functional theory.
. There are several pieces of evidence that support Halliday's functional theory of
language change:
○ Correlation between social change and linguistic change: A study by Trudgill
(1974) found a correlation between social change and linguistic change. Trudgill
observed that as Norwich, England became more socially diverse in the mid-20th
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century, there was a corresponding change in the pronunciation of certain vowel
sounds by the local population. This supports Halliday's assertion that language
changes according to the needs of its users in response to changing social
circumstances.
The emergence of new terminology: The introduction of new technological and
scientific concepts often requires the creation of new words and terminology. For
example, the words "internet," "computer virus," and "smartphone" did not exist in
the English language until relatively recently. This supports Halliday's claim that
language evolves to meet the needs of its users.
Adaptation of language to suit different situations: Halliday's functional theory
suggests that language is used for a variety of functions, including transactional,
interpersonal, and imaginative purposes. Studies have shown that people adapt their
language use to suit different situations and contexts. For example, a study by Giles
and Powesland (1975) found that people in the Welsh town of Aberystwyth used
more Welsh words and phrases when speaking to someone they perceived as Welsh
rather than English. This demonstrates how language use can vary depending on the
social and cultural context, which supports Halliday's theory that language changes
in response to the needs of its users.
Changes in language use over time: Linguistic studies have shown that language
use changes over time. For example, the use of the word "gay" has shifted in
meaning from "happy" to "homosexual" in the last century. This change in meaning
is likely due to the changing social attitudes towards homosexuality. This supports
Halliday's view that language changes in response to changing social
circumstances.
Use of language as a tool of power: Halliday's functional theory suggests that
language can be used as a tool of power in social interaction. A study by Tannen
(1990) found that men and women use language differently in social situations.
Men tend to use language in a competitive and confrontational manner, while
women tend to use language to build and maintain social relationships. This
demonstrates how language use can be influenced by social power dynamics, which
supports Halliday's theory that language changes in response to the needs of its
users in different social contexts. These studies support the idea that language use is
shaped by social factors and is responsive to changing social needs.
. While Halliday's functional theory provides valuable insights into the mechanisms
behind language change, some elements of the theory do not fully explain language
change.
○ Underestimation of the role of individual agency: Halliday's theory puts a strong
emphasis on the social functions of language and the needs of the community, but it
does not fully account for the role of individual agency in driving language change.
While cultural and social factors are undoubtedly important, individuals can also
initiate language change through their own linguistic innovations.
○ Lack of attention to variation and dialects: Halliday's theory focuses on the
standard language and does not fully take into account the role of variation and
dialects in language change. Variations and dialects have their own rules and
conventions, and they can influence language change in different ways.
○ Limited scope for syntactic change: While Halliday's theory recognizes that
syntax plays an important role in language, it does not fully account for the complex
processes involved in syntactic change. Syntax is an essential aspect of language,
and syntactic changes can significantly impact language evolution.
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Neglect of the influence of other languages: Halliday's theory places a strong
emphasis on the internal mechanisms of language change and does not fully
account for the influence of other languages on language change. Contact between
languages can lead to the adoption of new words, grammatical structures, and
pronunciation patterns, which can significantly impact a language’s evolution.
Insufficient explanation of sound change: Halliday's theory does not provide a
comprehensive explanation for the complex processes involved in sound change.
Sound change is an essential aspect of language evolution, and it can occur through
a variety of mechanisms, including assimilation, dissimilation, and metathesis.
Random Fluctuation Theory (Charles Hockett)
. Random Fluctuation Theory relates to spoken language and suggests that change occurs
when people pronounce words in a particular style which spreads and becomes seen as
the desirable form of discourse. The theory suggests that language change is not
necessarily driven by any functional need or cultural transmission, but instead arises due
to random fluctuations in the usage of language. In this view, linguistic change is seen as
a by-product of the inherently unpredictable nature of communication between
individuals.
. Reasons for language change: Hockett's theory argues that language change can occur
randomly, without any specific cause or purpose, and that it is not always driven by
communicative needs or cultural factors. Instead, random fluctuations in language use
can sometimes lead to the emergence of new linguistic structures, and these structures
can then become part of the language over time.
. There is some evidence to support the Random Fluctuation Theory:
○ The observation that language change can occur rapidly and seemingly without
reason. For example, the use of "like" as a discourse marker in English (e.g. "I was
like, 'no way!'") has increased dramatically in frequency over the past few decades,
even though it serves no clear grammatical or semantic purpose.
○ Another piece of evidence comes from studies of Creole languages. Creoles are
typically formed when speakers of different languages are forced to communicate
with one another, such as in a colonial context. Creoles often have simplified
grammar and a reduced vocabulary compared to the languages that their speakers
originally spoke. According to the Random Fluctuation Theory, this simplification
occurs because the new language is formed by random processes of recombination
and simplification.
. Some limitations are:
○ Limited explanatory power: Provides a limited explanation for language change,
as it does not account for the complex social, cultural, and cognitive factors that
shape linguistic variation. It views language change as a random, stochastic process,
overlooking the social and cultural contexts that drive linguistic innovations and
diffusion.
○ Lack of empirical support: There is little empirical evidence to support the notion
that language change occurs primarily through random fluctuations. Most studies of
language change suggest that it is driven by a complex interplay of social, cultural,
and cognitive factors, including language contact, prestige, social network
dynamics, and cognitive processing.
○ Difficulty in accounting for linguistic regularities: The Random Fluctuation
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theory struggles to explain linguistic regularities, such as the systematic sound
changes observed in historical linguistics. While it can account for random noise
and variation, it fails to explain the patterns and trends that are characteristic of
language change over time.
Limited scope: The Random Fluctuation theory focuses primarily on phonological
change and does not account for other dimensions of language change, such as
syntactic or lexical change. It also does not address the role of language acquisition
and learning in driving linguistic change.
Cultural Transmission Theory (Clark, Hartl)
. Hartl and Clark's Cultural Transmission Theory builds upon Bandura's Social Learning
Theory and suggests that language change is primarily driven by the cultural
transmission of language norms and practices within a speech community. According to
this theory, language change occurs when an individual perceives a benefit in adopting a
linguistic innovation or variation.
. Reasons for language change:
○ Prestige: speakers may adopt linguistic innovations if they are associated with
higher status, wealth, or social influence. For example, in some communities, the
use of certain accents or dialects may be associated with higher education or
professional success. As a result, younger speakers may adopt these linguistic
features to enhance their own perceived prestige.
○ Accommodation: speakers may modify their language use to match that of their
conversational partner, particularly in situations where they perceive a need to
establish social rapport or demonstrate respect. For example, a speaker may adjust
their accent or vocabulary to match a new acquaintance’s or avoid stigmatization in
a new social setting.
. There is some evidence to support the Random Fluctuation Theory: Hartl and Clark's
theory is supported by a range of empirical studies on language change, including
sociolinguistic studies of dialect variation and studies of language change in historical
contexts. For example, studies have shown that linguistic innovations often originate in
social networks with high social interaction and cohesion levels, suggesting that social
factors play a key role in driving language change (Eckert, 2012).
. Some limitations are:
○ Lack of reach: The theory does not fully account for language change in isolated or
small communities with limited exposure to other languages.
○ Community transmission: It does not explain why some changes are more likely
to be transmitted than others, and why some changes may occur in one community
but not in another.
○ Individual agency: The theory does not account for individual agency in language
change, as it primarily focuses on larger social and cultural factors.
○ Linguistic constraint: The theory does not fully address the role of linguistic
constraints and the influence of linguistic structure on language change.
○ Adoptive advantage: The theory also does not account for language change in
situations where there is no clear benefit or adaptive advantage to the change.
Substratum Theory
. Substratum Theory is a linguistic theory that explains language change through the
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influence of pre-existing languages on a new dominant language. According to this
theory, when speakers of different languages come into contact with each other, they will
interact and influence each other's languages. In situations where one language is
dominant, the other languages may have an effect on it, leading to changes in the
dominant language.
. Substratum Theory suggests that the substrate languages can leave an imprint on the
dominant language, resulting in changes such as phonological shifts, borrowing of
words, and grammatical constructions. For example, when the Romans conquered
England in the first century AD, the Latin language influenced the English language.
This is evidenced by the large number of Latin loanwords in English, such as
"butter" (from Latin "butyrum") and "calendar" (from Latin "calendarium").
. There is some evidence to support the Substratum Theory from historical and
sociolinguistic studies. For example, the influence of the Celtic language on the English
language has been observed in Old English texts, which show a number of grammatical
constructions and loanwords from Celtic languages. In addition, studies of creole
languages, which are formed when speakers of different languages come into contact
with each other, have also provided evidence for Substratum Theory. For example,
Haitian Creole, which is spoken in Haiti, is based on French but also has influences from
West African and other languages.
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Some limitations are:
○ Lack of direct evidence: One limitation of the Substratum Theory is the lack of
direct evidence that substrate languages have influenced the development of
dominant languages. While there may be similarities between the languages, it can
be difficult to determine whether these are due to direct influence or coincidental
similarities.
○ Difficulty in determining causation: It can also be difficult to determine the extent
to which a substrate language has influenced the dominant language, as there may
be other factors at play. For example, trade or cultural contact may have led to the
borrowing of words or grammatical structures, rather than direct influence from a
substrate language.
○ Not applicable to all language change: This may not be applicable to all instances
of language change. For example, it may not explain the development of new words
or the evolution of pronunciation within a single language community.
○ Ignores internal factors: The theory places a heavy emphasis on external
influences, such as contact between different language communities, and may
therefore neglect internal factors that also contribute to language change. For
example, changes in social attitudes or cultural practices within a single community
may lead to changes in language use and structure.
Theory of Lexical Gaps
. The Theory of Lexical Gaps is a linguistic theory that proposes that language change
occurs as a result of the need to fill gaps in the lexicon. The theory suggests that
speakers of a language may encounter new concepts or experiences that do not have
corresponding words in their language, and thus must create new words to fill these
lexical gaps. This process of creating new words to fill gaps in the lexicon is known as
lexical innovation.
. One reason why the Theory of Lexical Gaps is proposed as a cause of language change
is that language is constantly adapting to reflect changes in society and culture. As new
concepts and experiences emerge, speakers need to be able to communicate about them,
which can lead to the creation of new words or the adaptation of existing ones. This
process of creating and adapting words to reflect changes in society and culture is known
as lexicalization.
. Evidence in support of the Theory of Lexical Gaps comes from the fact that new words
are constantly being created and added to languages. For example, the rise of technology
has led to the creation of new words like "emoji," "selfie," and "hashtag," which did not
exist in the lexicon just a few decades ago. Similarly, changes in social attitudes have led
to the creation of new words like "genderfluid," "nonbinary," and "transgender," which
reflect new concepts and experiences that were not widely understood or discussed in
the past.
. Some limitations are:
○ Inability to explain why some words are more likely to catch on: Some lexical
innovations become part of the standard lexicon, while others fall out of use or are
only used in certain contexts.
○ Does not fully account for the role of language contact in language change:
When speakers of different languages come into contact, they may borrow words or
structures from one another, which can lead to changes in both languages.
○ Why some languages change more rapidly than others: Some languages may be
more open to lexical innovation and adaptation, while others may be more resistant
to change. Factors like language prestige and standardization may play a role in
this.
The S-Curve Model
. The S-Curve model is a theory that describes the way language changes over time. It is
based on the idea that language change follows an S-shaped curve, with an initial period
of slow change, followed by a rapid period of change, and then a levelling off as the
change becomes the norm. This model is based on Chen who asserted that users would
pick up a language change at a certain rate before spreading into wider language usage
and then slowing.
. The S-Curve model gives a number of reasons for language change, including:
○ Social factors: Changes in language are often driven by changes in society, such as
shifts in demographics or changes in social norms. For example, the rise of
feminism in the 20th century led to changes in language use, such as the adoption of
gender-neutral terms.
○ Contact with other languages: When two or more languages come into contact,
they can influence each other and lead to changes in the languages involved. For
example, English has borrowed many words from other languages over the
centuries, such as "sushi" from Japanese and "croissant" from French.
○ Language standardization: As a language becomes more standardized, there may
be pressure to conform to certain rules or norms, which can lead to changes in the
language over time. For example, the rise of the printing press in the 15th century
led to increased standardization of written languages, which in turn led to changes
in pronunciation and grammar.
. There is evidence to support the S-Curve model from studies of language change over
time. For example, a study by Labov in the 1960s found that the use of the "r" sound in
certain words in New York City English was spreading rapidly through the population,
following the pattern of an S-shaped curve. Other studies have found similar patterns of
change in other languages.
. Some limitations are:
○ Does not account for all types of language change: The S-curve model is most
useful for explaining changes in the use of specific words or phrases. It may not be
as useful for understanding broader linguistic changes, such as shifts in grammar or
pronunciation.
○ Does not explain why certain innovations are adopted: The S-curve model can
help explain the spread of linguistic innovations, but it does not provide an
explanation for why certain innovations are adopted in the first place. Other
theories, such as Cultural Transmission Theory, may be more useful for
understanding the motivations behind language change.
○ Assumes a uniform rate of adoption: The S-curve model assumes that the rate of
adoption of a linguistic innovation is uniform across all members of a speech
community. In reality, the rate of adoption may vary depending on factors such as
social status or geographic location.
Part 4: Language change – progress or decay?
Introduction:
Language is a dynamic and ever-changing system that evolves over time. While some
linguists view language change as progress, others see it as decay. Jean Aitcheson's book,
Language Change: Progress or Decay? (1981), taps into this linguistic debate and explores
the two opposing viewpoints: the prescriptive approach and the descriptive approach. This
study guide aims to provide an in-depth analysis of the two viewpoints and their arguments.
Section 1: The Prescriptive Approach
1.1 Definition: The prescriptive approach is a viewpoint that advocates for a 'gold standard'
of the English Language that should be preserved.
1.2 Key features:
● The focus is on maintaining a fixed standard of language use.
● There are rules for grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation that should be followed.
● Deviations from the standard are considered incorrect or improper.
● The goal is to preserve the language and prevent it from changing over time.
1.3 Arguments:
● The prescriptive approach advocates for clear and precise communication, which is
essential for effective communication.
● A standard language is necessary for social cohesion, and deviations from the standard
can lead to misunderstandings and communication breakdowns.
● A fixed language standard is essential for educational purposes, such as teaching
grammar and syntax.
1.4 Criticisms:
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The prescriptive approach is often seen as elitist, as it values the language of the upper
classes over that of the lower classes.
It can be seen as an attempt to impose a single, dominant language on diverse
communities, which can be oppressive.
The prescriptive approach is often based on arbitrary rules and conventions that do not
reflect the way language is actually used.
Section 2: The Descriptive Approach
2.1 Definition: The descriptive approach is a viewpoint that advocates for the evolution of
language as the product of its users, with no fixed standard.
2.2 Key features:
● The focus is on describing how language is used rather than prescribing how it should be
used.
● There is no fixed standard, and language use evolves over time.
● All varieties of language are considered equal and valid, including non-standard and
regional dialects.
● The goal is to document language use and understand how it evolves over time.
2.3 Arguments:
● The descriptive approach acknowledges that language is constantly changing and
evolving, and that this change is necessary for communication to remain effective.
● All varieties of language are considered equal and valid, and there is no hierarchy of
language varieties.
● The descriptive approach values linguistic diversity and the richness of different dialects
and varieties of language.
2.4 Criticisms:
● The descriptive approach can be seen as promoting linguistic relativism, in which all
language varieties are considered equal, regardless of their quality or effectiveness.
● It can lead to a lack of clarity and precision in communication, as there are no fixed rules
for language use.
● It can be challenging to teach language effectively when there is no fixed standard to
follow.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, the prescriptive approach advocates for a fixed standard of language use, while
the descriptive approach acknowledges the evolution and diversity of language over time.
Both viewpoints have their strengths and weaknesses, and there is no clear winner in the
debate. The study of language change is essential for understanding how language evolves
and how it can be used effectively in communication.
Language Change and Standards of English
1.1 Introduction
● Language is constantly changing and we encounter different varieties of spoken and
written English in our daily lives.
● Some people believe that language change is a decline in the standards of English, while
others see it as a natural process that reflects the ways in which people use language to
communicate and express themselves.
1.2 Prescriptivism vs Descriptivism
Prescriptivist view:
○ The prescriptivist view of language emphasizes the importance of following rules
and adhering to standard grammar and vocabulary.
○ Prescriptivists believe that there is a "correct" way to use language and that
deviations from this standard are incorrect or "bad" English.
○ This view tends to prioritize the language of the elite or powerful, often at the
expense of regional or minority dialects.
○ Prescriptivist attitudes can lead to resistance to language change and the use of
language that deviates from standard grammar and vocabulary.
Descriptivist view:
○ The descriptivist view of language recognizes that language is constantly changing
and evolving.
○ Descriptivists believe that all varieties of language are valid and that there is no
inherently "correct" way to use language.
○ This approach prioritizes clear communication and mutual understanding over
adherence to a fixed standard.
○ Descriptivist attitudes can lead to greater acceptance of language change and the
use of non-standard forms of language.
Impact on language change:
○ Prescriptivist attitudes can lead to resistance to language change and the use of nonstandard forms of language.
○ This can create a divide between speakers of different dialects or varieties of
English.
○ Descriptivist attitudes can lead to greater acceptance of language change and the
use of non-standard forms of language.
○ This can create a more inclusive and diverse linguistic community.
○ Both prescriptivist and descriptivist views play a role in language change and
evolution. The tension between these two views can lead to debates and discussions
about language use and norms.
1.3 Language is an ever-changing phenomenon. To study its changes, a systematic
method of storage and retrieval of the language is essential. This is because:
○ Language changes occur gradually over time: Language changes can take place
over a long period of time, and it can be difficult to identify them without a
systematic record of the language.
○ Multiple forms of a language exist: Languages are not uniform, and different
varieties and dialects exist. Without a systematic method of recording and retrieving
these different forms of a language, it would be difficult to study how they evolve
over time.
○ Accurate documentation is necessary: For accurate analysis of language change, it
is important to have accurate and reliable documentation of the language. This
documentation must be comprehensive and detailed enough to capture the nuances
of the language.
○ Helps with identifying patterns: Having a systematic record of a language can help
researchers identify patterns and trends in language change. This can be useful in
predicting future changes and understanding the factors that drive language change.
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Allows for comparison: A systematic record of language enables researchers to
compare different versions of a language across time and space. This can help
identify similarities and differences between dialects and can lead to a better
understanding of language change.
Part 5: Child Language Acquisition
I. Features of Child Language Acquisition
○ Virtuous errors: errors made by children that demonstrate a grasp of language
rules and structures, even if they are not yet fully developed.
○ Overextension/underextension: when a child uses a word to refer to a broader or
narrower category than adults would.
○ Overgeneralization: when a child applies a grammatical rule too broadly, such as
adding "-ed" to irregular verbs (e.g. "runned" instead of "ran").
II. Features of Child-Directed Speech (CDS)
○ High degree of repetition: caregivers often repeat words or phrases to aid in the
child's language acquisition.
○ Longer and more frequent pauses: caregivers use pauses to allow the child time
to process language and formulate a response.
○ Frequent use of the child's name: using the child's name in speech helps to
engage their attention and foster language development.
III. Theories of Child Language Acquisition
○ Nativism: the idea that humans have an innate ability to learn language and that the
brain is pre-wired for language acquisition.
○ Behaviourism: the theory that language is acquired through reinforcement and
conditioning, with children learning through imitation and repetition.
○ Social Interactionism: the idea that language acquisition is the result of social
interaction and communication, with children learning through conversation and
joint attention.
Stages of first language acquisition in Children
There are four main stages of first language acquisition in children. These are:
. The babbling stage (3-8 months): Children first start to recognise and produce sounds eg
'bababa'. They don't yet produce any recognisable words but they are experimenting with
their newfound voice!
. The one-word stage (9-18 months): The one-word stage is when babies start to say their
first recognisable words, eg using the word 'dog' to describe all fluffy animals.
. The two-word stage (18-24 months): The two-word stage is when children start
communicating using two-word phrases. For example, 'dog woof', meaning 'the dog is
barking', or 'mummy home', meaning mummy is home.
. The multi-word stage (telegraphic stage) (24-30 months): The multi-word stage is when
children start to use longer sentences, more complex sentences. For example, ‘Mummy
and Chloe go school now'.
The Babbling Stage
The babbling stage is the first significant stage of language acquisition in children, occurring
from around 4-6 months until about 12 months of age. During this stage, the child hears
speech syllables (sounds that make up spoken language) from its environment and caregivers
and attempts to imitate by repeating them.
There are two types of babbling: canonical babbling and variegated babbling.
● Canonical babbling is the type of babbling that emerges first. It consists of the same
syllables being repeated over and over e.g. a baby saying 'ga ga ga', 'ba ba ba', or a
similar string of repeated syllables.
● Variegated babbling is when different syllables are used in the babbling sequence.
Instead of using one syllable repeatedly, the child uses a variety e.g. 'ga ba da' or 'ma da
pa'. This occurs around two months after canonical babbling starts, at around eight
months of age. Children may also begin to use intonation that resembles actual speech at
this stage, while still only producing meaningless sounds.
The Holophrastic (One-word) Stage
The holophrastic stage of language acquisition, also known as the ‘one-word stage’, typically
occurs around the age of 12 to 18 months.
● At this stage, children have identified which words and combinations of syllables are the
most effective for communicating and may attempt to communicate a full sentence's
worth of information.
● For example, a child may say 'dada' which could mean anything from ‘I want dad’ to
‘Where is dad?’. This is known as holophrasis.
A child's first word will often resemble a babble and, while they may hear and understand a
wide range of sounds, they can still only produce a limited range themselves. These words
are known as proto words. Despite sounding like babbles, they still work as words because
the child has assigned meaning to them. Children may also use real words and typically adapt
them to suit their speaking ability. Sometimes these words are used incorrectly as the child
attempts to learn and use them. For example, they may call every animal a 'cat' if they grew
up with one.
The Two-word Stage
The two-word stage occurs at around 18 months of age. At this stage, children are able to use
two words in the right grammatical order. However, the words they use tend to exclusively be
content words (words that hold and convey meaning) and they often leave out function words
(words that hold a sentence together, such as articles, prepositions, etc.)
● At this stage, the child’s vocabulary starts at around 50 words and consists mostly of
common nouns and verbs. These often come from things their caregivers have said or
things in their immediate environment.
● Typically, as the child progresses through the two-word stage, the ‘word spurt’ occurs,
which is a relatively short period during which the child's vocabulary grows much larger.
Most children know 50 words by around 17 months of age, but by 24 months they may
know up to over 600.
For example, a child might see a dog jump over the fence and simply say ‘Dog jump’ instead
of ‘A dog jumped over the fence.’ The order is correct and they say the most important word,
but the lack of functional words and tense use makes the information very context-dependent,
much like in the holophrastic stage.
The Multi-word Stage
The multi-word stage of language acquisition in children can be broken up into two distinct
sub-stages: the early multi-word stage and the later multi-word stage. Children move on from
two-word phrases and begin to form short sentences of around three, four, and five words,
and eventually even more. They also begin to use more and more function words and are able
to form more complex sentences. Children typically progress rapidly through this stage as
they understand many of their language basics already.
The early multi-word stage
● The early part of this stage is sometimes called the ‘telegraphic stage’ as the children's
sentences seem to resemble telegram messages due to their simplicity. The telegraphic
stage takes place from around 24 to 30 months of age.
● Children mostly ignore function words in favour of using the most important content
words and usually start using negatives (no, not, can't, etc.). They also tend to ask more
questions about their surroundings.
● For example, a child might say ‘no want veggies’ instead of ‘I don't want vegetables
with my food.’ While children at this substage still don't use function words in their own
sentences, many do understand when others use them.
The later multi-word stage
● The later multi-word stage, also known as the complex stage, is the final part of
language acquisition. It starts at around 30 months of age and has no fixed endpoint.
● At this stage, children start to use a variety of function words and there is a great
increase in the amount of words children can use. Their sentence structures also become
a lot more complex and varied.
● Children in this stage have a concrete sense of time, quantity, and the ability to engage in
simple reasoning. This means they can talk confidently in different tenses, and verbally
explain ideas such as putting ‘some’ or ‘all’ of their toys away. They can also start to
explain why and how they think or feel things, and may also ask others.
As children reach the age of five and above, their ability to use and understand language
becomes more or less fluent. Many children still struggle with pronunciation, but they are
able to understand when others use these sounds. Eventually, older children gain the ability to
confidently read, write, and explore a variety of new topics and ideas. Typically, school will
also help children to further develop their linguistic skills.
Part 6: Theories of language acquisition
What is Cognitive Theory?
Cognitive theory suggests that children go through stages of language development. Theorist
Jean Piaget emphasised that we can only move through the stages of language learning as our
brains and cognitive processes develop. In other words, children have to understand certain
concepts before producing the language to describe them. Theorist Eric Lenneberg argued
that there is a critical period between two years old and puberty in which children need to
learn language, otherwise, it cannot be learned sufficiently well.
What is Behavioural Theory (Imitation Theory)?
Behavioural theory, often called 'Imitation Theory', suggests that people are a product of their
environment. Theorist BF Skinner proposed that children 'imitate' their caregivers and modify
their language use through a process called 'operant conditioning'. This is where children are
either rewarded for desired behaviour (correct language) or punished for undesired behaviour
(mistakes).
What is Nativist Theory and Language Acquisition Device?
Nativist theory, sometimes referred to as the 'innateness theory', was first proposed by Noam
Chomsky. It states that children are born with an innate ability to learn language and that they
already have a "language acquisition device" (LAD) in their brain (this is a theoretical device;
it doesn't really exist!). He argued that certain errors (eg 'I runned') are evidence that children
actively 'construct' language rather than just imitating caregivers.
What is Interactionist Theory?
Interactionist theory emphasises the importance of caregivers in child language acquisition.
Theorist Jerome Bruner argued that children do have an innate ability to learn language
however they require lots of regular interaction with caregivers to achieve full fluency. This
linguistic support from caregivers is often called 'scaffolding' or a Language Acquisition
Support System (LASS). Caregivers may also use child-directed speech (CDS) that helps a
child learn. For example, caregivers will often use a higher pitch, simplified words, and lots
of repetitive questioning when talking to a child. These aids are said to enhance
communication between the child and caregiver.
What are Halliday's functions of language?
Michael Halliday suggested seven stages that show how the functions of a child's language
become more complex with age. In other words, children express themselves better and better
as time goes by. These stages include:
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Stage 1- Instrumental Stage (language for basic needs eg food)
Stage 2- Regulatory Stage (language to influence others eg commands)
Stage 3- Interactive Stage (language to form relationships eg 'love you')
Stage 4- Personal Stage (language to express feelings or opinions eg 'me sad')
Stage 5- Informative Stage (language to communicate information)
Stage 6- Heuristic Stage (language to learn and explore eg questions)
Stage 7- Imaginative Stage (language used to imagine things)
How do we apply these theories?
Babies and young children say all kinds of funny things such; 'I runned to school' and 'I
swimmed really fast'. These may sound ridiculous to us but these errors suggest that children
are learning common English grammar rules. Take the examples' I danced ',' I walked ', and' I
learned'- why do these make sense but not 'I runned '?
Theorists who believe that language is innate, such as nativists and interactionists, argue that
these errors are virtuous errors. They believe that children build up a set of internal grammar
rules and apply them to their own language; for example 'the suffix -ed means past tense'. If
there is an error, children will modify their internal rules, learning that 'ran' is correct instead.
Cognitive theorists may argue that the child has not reached the level of cognition required to
understand the use of irregular verbs. However, as adults don't say 'runned' we cannot apply
the behaviourist theory, which suggests that children imitate carers.
Part 7: The seven functions of children’s language as
discussed by Halliday
. The instrumental function of language
The instrumental function of language refers to when language is used to fulfil a need, such
as requiring food, drink, or comfort
○ For example, the phrases 'I want', 'Can I have', and 'I need' are all examples of
instrumental language.
○ When a child is thirsty they might say something like 'I want bottle'. If the carer
gives them the bottle then their needs have been met through their use of language.
. The regulatory function of language
When a speaker commands, persuades or requests something from someone else, this is
known as a regulatory language function. Regulatory language controls the listener's
behaviour (the speaker adopts a commanding tone). Examples include:
○ 'Let's go home now.'
○ 'You need to finish that work by tomorrow so get on with it.'
○ 'Can you give me the report from yesterday?'
As evident in these examples of Halliday's functions, the listener has restricted agency as the
speaker has taken the dominant position in the conversation.
. Interactive
This example of Halliday's function is how we form relationships with others as it
encompasses the communicative use of language. It is how we relay our thoughts and
emotions, strengthening bonds with those around us. Interactional language examples include
phrases like 'I love you mum' or 'Thank you so much', revealing the emotions and opinions of
the speaker.
. Personal functions
This function defines how we refer to ourselves and express our personal opinions, our
identity, and our feelings. A child may communicate their opinions and emotions in a
simplistic way, using phrases like 'me good' or 'me happy'.
As well as expressing personal opinions and emotions, the personal function of language also
encompasses how we use language to learn more about our surroundings, by requesting
information about it. This is known as the 'personal function of language', as we gain
information which benefits ourselves and our understanding of society. Questions like 'what's
that?' or 'what does that mean?' are examples of personal language function.
The next three language functions that are part of Halliday's functions of language describe
how children adapt to their environment through learning language
. Heuristic
This term refers to language associated with discovery and explanation, usually in the form of
questions or a running commentary (when the child talks about what they are doing as they
are doing it). For example, a lot of children talk to themselves when they are younger (some
people still do this as adults!) to explain what they are doing, to themselves. This helps them
understand their actions in relation to the world around them.
Children tend to do this when they are playing.
○ They say things like 'The horsey goes over to the dinosaur and says hello, but he
doesn't say hello back because he isn't being friendly. The wizard felt bad for the
horsey and came and said hello to her. Now they are best friends'.
Another example of children narrating is persistent questioning.
○ It is not uncommon for children to continuously ask 'What's that?', 'What does that
do?', or 'Why?' in response to an adult giving them an instruction. It also occurs
when adults are talking about a topic children don't understand.
. Representational/informative
Similar to heuristic and personal functions, representational language occurs when we request
information. However, it differs from 'heuristic' and 'personal' functions as it also refers to
when we relay information. In other words, it describes the exchange of information between
two or more people.
○ For example, questions like 'what's that?' and 'what does that do?' are
representational; if this question is answered it leads to an exchange of information.
○ Another example of representational language is when people relay information.
Imagine someone telling a story, such as, 'I was walking down the street and a cat
jumped out in front of me. It really made me jump! 'This is an example of
representational language because it relates information about events.
. Imaginative
When children tell stories and create imaginary friends or concepts in their heads, it is an
imaginative way of using language. Imaginative language usually occurs in leisure or play
scenarios.
○ Remember when you were a child playing in the playground? Did you and your
friends imagine you were somewhere else, such as in a house or a spaceship?
Children do this to make games more interesting.
Children adopt suitable characters to act out with their friends. For example, if you pretend
you are in space you remove yourself from the playground environment and into a fantasy
world - much more exciting!
Halliday's theory of language
Based on his own child, Halliday argued that children communicate and learn a language
before they can speak. There are a few things that Halliday believed impact how a child
learns its first language:
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Halliday suggests social interaction is key for child language learning as it is vital for
them to see how language functions in society. That way they can learn how to be
members of society themselves.
Halliday views language as not only a mode of communication but a cultural code we
need to understand to fit in with our surroundings: 'Language is the main channel
through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him, through which he learns to
act as a member of a society... [and] to adopt its' culture'. This quote reveals Halliday's
view that language is the key to learning how to become a member of society rather than
just a method of communicating.
Rather than the language learning process starting when children start to speak, Halliday
argued that as soon as children can cry or make facial expressions language is present.
This is because children can communicate their feelings through facial expressions and
actions.
Children learn to do things to get a reaction, meaning they can communicate their
emotions and use language to get what they want before they can talk. Children often
throw small objects or start to cry to get a reaction from their caregivers.
Halliday believes we are always making choices in our language and communication.
Nature vs Nurture in Language Acquisition
The debate between nature vs nurture in language acquisition is an ongoing one, with
evidence supporting both sides. It is generally agreed that both genetic and environmental
factors play a role in language acquisition.
Nature:
● The idea that language acquisition is innate and predetermined by genetic factors.
● The theory suggests that the human brain has an inherent capacity to learn language.
● The famous linguist Noam Chomsky proposed the theory of Universal Grammar, which
suggests that all human languages share a common structure.
● According to this theory, children are born with an innate understanding of this structure
and can use it to acquire any language they are exposed to.
Nurture:
● The idea that language acquisition is a result of environmental factors, such as social
interaction, exposure to language, and learning from caregivers.
● This theory suggests that children learn language through imitation, reinforcement, and
shaping.
● Behaviorist B.F. Skinner proposed the theory of Operant Conditioning, which suggests
that language is learned through a process of reward and punishment.
● The Social Interactionist theory suggests that children learn language through their
social interactions with others and the feedback they receive from them.