name the two types of microscopeslight and electron
what are the two types of electron microscopestransmission electron microscope TEM<br>scanning electron microscope SEM
what is magnification?it is the number of times an image is enlared. represented with an x sign placed in front of a number.
what is resolution?the ability to distinguish between two points clearly as seperate. units in nm
what determines the resolutuon?the electromagnetic spectrum (range of electromagnetic radiations of diff wavelengths)<br><br>shorter wavelength -&gt; higher resolving power (wavelength of visible light is longer than of an electron which means the ability to distingush between two points is lower)
what is the max resolution?the shortest distance between 2 seperate points.<br>the max resolution = 1/2 wavelenght used.<br>the shorter wavelength = higher max resolution = lower resolution
what is the source of electromagnetic radition in a light microscopevisible light
what is the wavelength in a light microscope400-700 nm
what is the highest magnification in a light microscopex1500
what is the max resolution in a light microscope200 nm (low)
what is the advantage of using light microscopelive specimens can be viewed, image can be coloured. used for structures viewed in um
what is the source of electromagnetic radition in a electron microscopefree electrons
what is the wavelength in a electron microscope1nm
what environment must electron microscope be invacuum environment so electron can travel in straight lines. useses electromagnetic lenses
what is the highest magnification in a electron microscopex250000
what is the max resolution in a electron microscope0.5 nm (high)
what is the disadvantage in using a electron microscopeonly dead material can be examined in a vacuum, images are black and white. used for viewing structures measured in nm
transmission electron microscope infouses beam of electrons. it passes thru specimen before being viewed. it presents images inn 2D. it shows internal structures and membranes within internal structures.
scanning electron microscope infolower resolution compared to TEM. it scans surfaces of speciments giving it a 3D apperance
diff between light microscope and electron microscopetype of radiation (lm is light, em is electrons)<br>radiations travels thru (lm is air, em is vacuum)<br>wavelength of radiation (lm is longer 400-700nm, em is shorter 1nm)<br>highest magni for microscope (lm is x1500, em is x250000)<br>max reso of microscope (lm is lower w 200 nm, em is higher w 0.5 nm)<br>state of specimen (lm is live, em is dead)
how thick is cell surface membranealso called plasma membrane&nbsp;<br>7nm thick and seen as 3 layers at xx100000
what kind of apperance does the cell surface membrane have?a trilaminar apperance which is partially permeable and is made of phospholipid bilayer
what is the function of cell surface membranecontrols movement of substances into and out of the cell
how many lmembranes does nucleus (largest organelle) havedouble membrane?
general function of nucleuscontains genetic info for synthesis of protiens. site of transcription of genes and production of mRNA. Dna is protected from degradation by enzymes
what are the components of nucelusnuclear pore<br>nucleolus<br>chromatin
nuclear envelope infoattached to er, has 2 membranes
nuclear envelope functioncontrols movement of substances between nucleus and cytoplasm
nucleous featuresdensest region of nucelus
nucleolus functionsite of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis (ribosome assembly)
chromation functiondna and its associated proteins
ribosomes featuressmalles organelle. not bound by a membrane. made of RNA that is synthesized in nucleolus + some protein and has 2 subunits
ribosome functionsite of protein synthesis
what are the two types of ribosomes80S ribosomes and 70S ribosomes
80S ribosome features25nm (important) larger than 70S and found in cytoplasm and RER in all of eukaryotes
70S ribosome features18nm smaller, found in mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes and all of prokaryotes
rough endoplasmic reticulum featuresextensive, conntected system of membranes.<br>made of cisternae (flattened membrane sacs)<br>it is continous with nuclear envelope<br>it runs through the cytoplasm<br>80S ribosomes are attached
functions of rough endoplasmic reticulumsite of protein synthesis<br>protein modification (protein folding, glycosylation = addition of carbohydrate chains to protein)<br>protein transport to Golgi
smooth endoplamsic reticulum featuresER without ribosomes
smooth er functionsite of lipid and steroid synthesis eg cholesterol, steroid hormones
golgi body featuresgolgi appartaus/complex<br>its made of cisternae<br>it has a layered apperance<br>there is no connection between members<br>not continous with nuclear envelope<br><br>swellings at the end of sacs for vescile formation<br>constantly being formed and broken down<br><br>being formed by : transport vesicles from RER on cis face<br>brown down from : secretory vesicles and lysosomes on trans face
functio of golgi bodymodification of proteins and lipid for exx glycosylation, phosphorylation = addition of phospate gp to proteins cutting/folding proteins<br><br>packing molecules into vesicles for transport<br>formation of secretory vesciles for release of protein out of the cell<br>formation of lysosomes
what are the cell structures involved in the production and secretion of proteinsribosome RER transport vesicle golgi body secretory vesicle cell surface membrane
what are the steps of the production and secretion of proteins1. synthesis of proteins at ribosome/RER<br>2. transport vesicle buds off RER and fuses with golgi body<br>3. modification of protein at Golgis body<br>4. seperation of a secretory vesicle from the golgi body<br>5. fusion of the vesicle with the cell surface membrane<br>6. contents released/secretion of protein by exocytosis
<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>When mucus is secreted from a goblet cell in the trachea, these events take place. </div> <div>1. addition of carbohydrate to protein<br> 2. fusion of the vesicle with the plasma membrane 3. secretion of a glycoprotein<br> 4. separation of a vesicle from the Golgi apparatus&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>What is the sequence in which these events take place?&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1 → 4 → 2 → 3&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
lysosomes featuresvery very small<br>spherical small sacs
function of lysosomescontains hydrolyitc enzymes/lysozymes<br>breakdown unwanted structures via hydrolysis in an acidic environment -&gt; worn out organelles or dead cells<br><br>in white blood cells, lysozymes digest bacteira
mitochondria featuresrelativley large organelle<br>has double membranes<br>crisae = folded inner membrane<br>matrix = interor solution<br><br>contains 70S ribosomes and small circular DNA<br>it divides by binary fission and it has a prokaryotic origin
mitochondria functionssite of aerobic respiration. it synthesizes ATP or produces energy in the form of ATP.<br>releases energy
two types of mitochondria shapeslongitudinal cross section (long hot dog shaped mito)<br>tranverse cross section (circly stuff)
chloroplasts featuresrelatively large organelle<br>oval shaped<br>2 membranes and contains chlorophyll<br><br>thylakoid = flattened membrane sacs<br>grana = thylakoid stacks<br>stroma = interior solution<br><br>contains 70S ribosomes, small circular DNA and starch grains&nbsp;<br>divides by binary fission and has prokaryotic origin
chloroplasts functionsite of photosynthesis
what are the 2 main processes in photosyntheiss called?light dependent reaction<br>light independent reaction
what happens in light dependent reactionslight energy is absorbed and water is used to synthesise ATP
what happens in light independent reactions?ATP used to convert C02 into glucose
cell wall featuresthick rigit layer made of cellulose<br>permeable bc there are spaces or gaps between fibers
cell wall functionstructural support, prevent bursting, limit cell size
plasmodesmata what is itstrands of cytoplasm passing through channel
plasmodesmata functionallows substances to pass from cell to cell without passing through cell malls<br>which allows more raipd transport of substances
vacuoles and tonoplast featurescommonly found in plants cells<br>large permanent central<br>surrounded by a partially permeable membrane called tonoplast
vacuoles and tonoplast functionsstore of cell sap that contain water ions minerals salts pigments sugars<br>stores waste products<br>pushes chloroplast to edge of cell<br>gives turgidity to cell
protoplasmthe colourless material comprising the living part of a cell, including cytoplasm nucelus and other organells
centrioles featurescentrioles are cylindrical made of 9 groups of 3 microtubules and not found in plant cells
centrioles functioninvolved in cell division - replicates before each cell division moves to opposite poles, centrioles are found in pairs at right angles from each other and forms centrosome<br><br>modified centrioles are also found elsewhere like in flagella/cilia and acts as a microtububle organising centre (MTOC) which organises/assembles microtubules
centrosomes functionMTOC which organises and assembles microtubules<br><br>for the formation of spindle fibers at opposite poles during mitosis/cell division<br><br>aid contraction of spindle fibers to seperate sister chromatids
microtubules features"25nm very small<br><br>made from tubulin and form dimers which polymerise to form long ""protofilaments""<br>13 protofilaments makes 1 microtububle which is long rigit hollow tubes.<br>formed and broken down at microtububle organising centers (MTOCs)"
microtubules functionalong with actin filames, they make up the cytoskeleton which provides mechanical support and acts as an intracellular transport system for movement of vesicles or other components<br><br>beating of flagella<br><br>makes up spindle fibers and centrioles used in cell divison
cilla featuresonly found in eukaryotes<br>smaller in diameter than microvilla (not to be confused with flagella which found in prokaroytes)<br>motile/ moves rhythmically<br>complicated structure made of microtubules
cilia functionmovement/ locomotion<br>eg ciliated epithelial cells in lungs
microvilli featuresonly in animal cells.<br>found on epithelial cells in intestines and kidneys<br>finger like extensions of the cell surface membrane
microvillii functionsincrease surface area of the cell membrane for absorption, secretion of enzymes, digestion at the cell surface and excretion of waste substances
what happens if we rupture cells and spin them at high speed? (centrifugation)&nbsp;<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>The larger structures will sediment first.&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
similarities between animal and plant cellsplasma mebrane<br>nucleus<br>nucleolus<br>cytoplasm<br>other organells (mitochondria, golgi apparatus, ribosomes, lysosomes)
differences between animal and plant cellsshape of cell (ac no fixed shape, pc has a fixed shape)<br>presence of cell walls (ac absent, pc present)<br>presence of plasmodesmata (ac absent, pc present)<br>present of vacuoles (ac absent if present small temp, pc present large permanent)<br>presence of chloroplasts (ac absent pc present)<br>presence of centrosomes (ac present pc absent)
prokaryotes featurespro = before&nbsp;<br>karyon = nucleus<br>includes all bacteria and archaea
eukarotes infoeu=tru<br>karyon= nucelus<br><br>includes plants animals fungi and other microbes
<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Prokaryotic Cells typical features&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Unicellular </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Relatively smaller (<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1-5μm</span>) </div> </li> <li> <div>Simpler in structure </div> </li> <li> <div>Divides by binary fissio&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what all bacteria do not have"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">No membrane-bound organelles </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">No nucleus<br> </span>DNA lies free in cytoplasm in the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">nucleoid region&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what all bacteiral have"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Plasma membrane </div> </li> <li> <div>Cytoplasm </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Peptidoglycan cell wall </span></div> </li> </ul> <div>→ made of chains crossed linked by amino acids </div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">70S ribosomes </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Circular DNA </span></div> </li> <li> <div>DNA is <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">naked </span></div> <div>→not associated with proteins&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is only present in some bacterial"<div> <div> <div> <div>1) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">Plasmids </span></div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">Small, circular DNA </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">Codes for non-essential proteins </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Several may be present</div> </li><li><div>2) Pili</div></li> </ul> <ul> <li> <div>Sexual reproduction </div> </li> <li> <div>For attachment to other cells/surfaces3) 3)<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">Flagellum</span></div></li><li><div><div><div> <div>• Locomotion </div> <div>4) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">Capsule </span></div> <ul> <li> <div>Outer coat, additional protection </div> </li> <li> <div>Attach to surfaces </div> <div>5) Infoldings of plasma membrane (mesosomes) </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div><div>• For photosynthesis / nitrogen fixation&nbsp;<br></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
what do prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplast have in common<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Similar size </div> </li> <li> <div>Small, circular DNA </div> </li> <li> <div>70S ribosomes </div> </li> <li> <div>Division by binary fission&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Eukaryotic Cells features&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Larger (~10-100μm in diameter) </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">Has membrane-bound organelles </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Has nucleus </div> </li> <li> <div>DNA is <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">linear </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">DNA associated with proteins </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Larger <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">80S </span>ribosomes </div> </li> <li> <div>Cellulose cell walls (plants) </div> </li> <li> <div>Chitin cell walls (fungi)&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
virsues features"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">Non-cellular </span>structure </div> </li> <li> <div>~50 times smaller than bacteria (20-300nm) </div> </li> <li> <div>Much simpler </div> </li> <li> <div>No plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes </div> </li> <li> <div>Only: </div> <div>1. Nucleic acid core = <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">DNA or RNA </span></div> <div>2. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Capsid </span>= protein coat </div> </li> </ul> <ul> <li> <div>- &nbsp;Protective coat </div> </li> <li> <div>- &nbsp;May have one or two coats </div> <div>3. Some viruses also have an </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">outer envelope made of phospholipids </span></div> <div>4. Some proteins may be present<br> - e.g. haemagglutinin, neuraminidase</div></li> </ul><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Can only reproduce by <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">infecting </span>living cells </div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>All <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">parasitic </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Uses protein synthesising machinery </span>of host cell to replicate</div></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the 4 most common elements in living organisms?chon ps<br>carbon hydrogen oxygen nitrogen<br>phosphorus sulfur
what is a monomer?simplest repeating unit of a polymer
what makes up monomerselements
what are polymers made up of?repeating monomers?
how are polymers joined?end to end
what process makes polymerspolymerisation<br>
what is condensation? and how is it accomplishedwhen two molecules combine. done with the removal of water.
what is hydrolysis? and how is it donemolecule breaks down. addition of water
what are carbohydrates made of?CHO
whats the general formula of carbohydratesCx(H20)y
what are the 3 groups of carbohydratesmono, di, poly sacchariches
what is the roles of carbohydrates in living organisims?source of energy in respiration (starch)<br>building blocks for larger molecules (RNA, DNA)<br>structural support (cellulose)
what are monosaccharides?single sugar molecule and its soluble and sweet.
whats monosacc molecular formulacnh2non
how are monosacc classified (be specific)by number of carbon atoms<br>3C = triose<br>5C = pentose<br>6C = hexose
name linerar structures of monosacctriose
name ring structures of monosaccpentose, hexose (5C, 6C). chain of carbon atoms long enough to close up on itself.
whats the benefit of the ring structuremore stable
name the 2 isomers in glucose c1 c5"alpha<table><tbody><tr><td><b>α</b></td></tr></tbody></table>beta&nbsp;<span style=""color: rgb(32, 33, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">β</span><br>"
how to draw&nbsp;
how to draw&nbsp;<table><tbody><tr><td><b>α</b></td></tr></tbody></table>&nbsp;isomer"<img alt=""Science Decoder: Glucose"" src=""alpha+and+beta+glucose.jpg"">"
how to draw beta isomer"<img alt=""Science Decoder: Glucose"" src=""alpha+and+beta+glucose.jpg"">"
how are disaccs formedfrom 2 monosacc<br>
what process makes disacccondensation&nbsp;<br>1 hydroxyl group (-OH) + hydrogen atom (H) produces 1 water molecule (H20)<br>
what bond is formed when making disaccglycosidic bond is formed (covalent)
how does disacc turn back into monosacchydrolisis (addition of water)<br>
what are hydrlosis and condensation reactions controlled byenzymes<br>
what are the relative masses, charges and locations of subatomic particles?proton = mass is 1 charge is +1 location is nucleus&nbsp;<br>neutrons = mass is 1 charge is 0 location is nucleus<br>electron = 1/1840 charge is -1 location is shells surrounding nucelus<br>
how do protons behave in an electric fieldprotons are deflected towards the negative plate in an electric field<br>
how do neutrons behave in an electric field?not affected by an electric field due to their lack of charge&nbsp;
how do electrons behave in an electric field?deflected toward the positive plate in an electric field. the deflection is greater than protons as the electron has a smaller mass.<br>
whats atomic numberproton
whats mass numberproton+ neutron<br>
whats an orbital?a region that holds up to 2 electrons with opposite spin
shape of s orbitalsphere
what p orbital look likefigure 8
whats a subshelldivision of electron shells into different orbitals. spdf
what rules do electrons follow when filling up orbitals?always occupy the lowest energy orbital avaliable. electrons only pair up when there is no empty orbital of the same energy level as the half filled orbitals
how many orbitals and electron are there in each type of subshell?s-subshell 1 orbital-2electrons<br>p-subshell 3 orbitals-6 electrons<br>d-subshell 5 orbitals-10 electrons
what does the principal quantam number (n) represent&nbsp;the larger the principal quantum number, the higher the energy&nbsp; and further the shell is from the nucleus
how is the periodic table divided up based on subshellsgroup 1-2 is s block<br>group 3-12 is d block<br>group 13-18 is p block<br>the rest is f block
what is meant by the term first ionisation energyenergy required to remove one mole of electron from one mole of gaseous atom to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions&nbsp;
is first ionization energy exothermic or endothermicendothermic
how do successive ionisation energies tell u which groups an element belongs to?large increase between 2 diff successive ionization energies
trend of ionization energy across periodalong period, first ionization energy increases
what is the reason of the first ionisation energy trend across a periodnuclear charge increases, atomic radius decreases. shielding is the same. as a result of these factors, electrostatic attraction increases, so more energy is needed to overcome these forces to remove an electron from the atom.
whats trend of first ionisation energy down a groupdecrease
why does first ionization energy decrease down a groupnuclear charge does increase BUT atomic radius increase, shielding increases<br><br>electrostatic attraction decreases
what is meant by the term relative atomic mass?the weighted mean mass of an atom of an element relative to an atom of carbon-12 having a mass of exactly 12 units.
whats meant by the term molecular mass&nbsp;weighted average of the mass of a molecule relative to an atom of carbon-12 having a mass of exactly 12 units
whats meant by the term relative isotopic massmass of an atom of an isotope on a scale relative to an atom of carbon-12 having a mass of exactly 12 units
what is meant by the term relative formula massthe weighted average of of the masses of the formula units relative to an atom of carbon-12 having a mass of exactly 12 units<br>
what is meant by the term amount of susbtancemeasured in moles. based upon the standard count of atoms called avogadros constant. measures number of atoms in a substance
define the molethe amount of any substance containing as many particles as there are carbon atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12
what is fragmentationthe breaking up of covalent compound during mass specs into smaller POSITIVLEY CHARGED speicies.
what are polysacc made ofpolymers/macromolecules&nbsp;
how is polysacc madevia condensation
what is the bonds that make polysacc calledglyocsidic bonds
are polysaccharides sugars?nop<br>they are not sweet and are insoluble
what is starch functionused as a storage molecule in plants&nbsp;<br>food reserve
what is starch made ofamylose + amylosepectin
what is amylose made from (structure)alpha glucose molecules<br>lined by 1-4 glycosidic bonds<br>long, helical<br>unbranched, linear chain
what is amylopectin?a component of starch<br>branched molecule
what molecules r amylopectin made ofmade of alpha glucose molecules
what linkages r in amylopectin"1-4 1-6 glycosidic bonds<br>it branches off at 1-6 linkages<br>shorter chains<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-09-24 at 00.07.45.png"">"
how to test presense of starchiodine solution (iodine in potassium iodide solution)<br>reacts with amylose in starch to form a starch iodine complexx<br><br>orange brown --&gt; dark blue
what is glyocen used for in the bodystorage of carbohydrate in animals<br>
glycogen structure"similar to amlyopectin<br>alpa glucose with 1-4 1-6 glycosidic bonds. more branched than amylopectin. it clumps together and forms granuels&nbsp;<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-09-24 at 15.21.43.png"">"
where is glycogen abundant inliver and muscle cells
structure of glycogen (just click for pic refence)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-09-24 at 15.23.28.png"">"
why does glucose need to be stored as another compoundglucose is soluble which could increase or decrease concentration/water potential of cell which would cause water to enter into the cell and cell volume may increase causing animal cells&nbsp;<br><br>reactive which interferes with other reactions in cell
why does glucose need to stored as starch and glyocgen"starch and glyocgen in inert - non reactive<br>insoluble - no osmotif effect on cell and doesn't diffuse easily out of cell<br>compact - large quantity of energy released when hydrolysed<br>glucose can be stored/ moblilised quickly - many ends for attachment/removal of glucose"
what is cellulose used forused as a structural role in plant cell walls
properties of cellulosehigh tensile strength&nbsp;<br>helps prevent cell bursting, helps cell withstand tugor pressure and is fulllyyy permeable
what is the structure of cellulosebeta glucose<br>molecules of beta glucose are roated at 180( to each other<br>1-4 glyosidic bonds<br>unbranched,straight chain, linear<br>form fibers
condensation of beta glucose into cellulose (just click)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-09-24 at 16.11.35.png"">"
molecules --&gt; fibers w high tensile strengthbeta glucose -&gt; cellulose molecule -&gt; microfirbil -&gt; fiber
cellulose structureeestraight chains and can lay parallel to each other
what is formed between cellulose moleculeshydrogen bonds (many OH groups in cellulose)
what can a cellulose molecule formmicrofibrils and fibers
fiber arrangement ofcell wallscriss cross manner w many gaps between fibers. cell wall is permeable to water, ions etc
are all monosacharrides reducingyas queen<br>
are all disaccharides reducingYES except sucrose (which we needa know)
what test is used to see presence of reducing sugarsbenedicts solution
steps of benedict solutionadd equal parts benedict to equal parts reducing sugar<br>heat at 80C and it should turn brick red w precipitate
how does benedict solution workit only works in alkaline solution. when mixed w reducing sugars it gets reduced and turns from Cu2+ to Cu+ (from blue, soluble to red insoluble_
How to test presence of non reducing sugarsadd equal parts non reducing to equal parts acid to hydrolyse the glycosidic bonds to make monosacc (reducing) then use benedict solution
what elements r lipids made ofcho sometimes p<br>
what are lipids important forenergy storage because lipids have many C-H bonds and can generate more eneergy than carbohydrates<br><br>it is a structural component of membranes<br>other specific biological functions like hormone stuff
what are the monomers of lipidsglycerol + fatty acid
what are the polymers of lipidstriglyceridies phospholipids
glycerol info3 carbons , 3 Oh groups which is the functional grpup
fatty acid infohas an acid head (COOH group) and a lonngggg hydrocarbon chain w many C-H bonds. hydrophobic and non polar
types of fatty acidssaturated<br>unsaturated
does saturated have double bondsnop all single
does unsaturated have double bondhas&nbsp;<br>monounsaturated&nbsp; has 1 double bond<br>polyunsaturated has more than 1&nbsp;
what does the double bond in unsaturated fatty acids result inkink in hydrocarbon tail<br>less c-h bonds<br>lower&nbsp; melting point, liquid at room temp.
what are the components of trigylcerides3 fatty acids 1 glycerol<br>
how are triglycerides linkedby ester bonds
how are triglycerides formedcondensation
in triglycerdies what are the fatty acidsit can be either unsaturated or saturated
properties of triglyceridesinsoluble in water
why are triglycerides insoluble in waterbecause of the long hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids + its non polar and hydrophobic
are triglycerides soulble in organic solventsyas queen like ether chloroform ethanol
what are the roles of triglyceridessource of energy<br>metabolic source of water<br>insulator<br>protection of organs<br>buyounyancy
why are triglycerides a source of energymany c-h bonds (more than carbs)<br>higher proportion of hydrogen<br>it is insoluble and compact<br>MORE ENERGY CAN BE PRODUCED PER UNIT MASS
why are triglycerides a metabolic source of waterhigh ratio of H to O atoms<br>releases water during oxidation of fat especially in desert animals
structure of phospholipids1 glycerol 2 fatty acids 1 phospahte group
how does triglyceride turn into phospholipids1 glycerol 2 fatty acids 1 phosphate group
do phospholipids have HYDROPHYLLIC heads explain whyYES<br>and its cuz of the phosphate group thats charged (PO4-) and polar which forms H bonds with watee
do phospholipids have HYDROPHOBIC tails explain whycuz of fatty acid residues. hydrocarbon chains r non polar and insoluble and repels water
roles of phospholipidshelps to hold membrane proteins in place<br>can combine w carbohydrates to form glycolipids<br>forms a phospholipid bilyaer<br>regulation of membrane fluidity
detail abt phospholipid bilayerhas a hydrophobic core its like a barrier to h20 soluble substances at membrane
how does phospholipid allow regulation of membrane fluiditydouble bonds in unsaturated fatty acids tails which increases fluidiity. if its saturated fatty acid the fluidity decreases
how does phospholipids help to hold membrane proteins in place"hydrophobic interaction w ""floating"" membrane proteins"
f (x+a)horizontal translation of - a<br>translated by the vector (-a,&nbsp;<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;0)
f(x) + avertical translation of a<br>translated by the vector ( 0,&nbsp;<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;a)
f(-x)reflection in the y axis
-f(x)reflection in the x axis
f(ax)stretch by a scale factor 1/a in the x direction
af(x)stretch by a scale factor of a in the y direction
how to test for lipidsemulsion test where you shake a sample with ethanol and pour the mixture into a tube with water
what happens to the solution if there are no lipidstransparent&nbsp;
what happens to the solution if there are lipidswhite and cloudy<br>
how does the emulsion test worklipid molecules will clump together forming little groups dispered throughout the liquid which leads to emulsion
what elements are proteins made ofCHON (S)
what is the monomer of proteinsamino acids<br>
what is the dimer of proteinssdipeptide
what is the polymer of proteinspolypeptide
whats the general structure of amino acids ( u needa know how 2 draw)&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; H&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; H<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;|&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; /<br>O=C - C - N&nbsp;<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;|&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;|&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; \&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;HO&nbsp; &nbsp; R&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; H<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
how many types of amino acids are there20<br>
what state is amino acids in water"ionized<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-10-03 at 18.45.26.png"">"
skeletal structure of amino acids(just click)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-10-03 at 18.45.52.png"">"
whats the simplest amino acidglycine
how to draw glycine just click"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-10-03 at 18.46.35.png"">"
whats the R group of glycieneH<br>
which amino acid has a R group that contains hydrogen and sulfurcysteine
where does peptide bonds formbetween carbon of -COOH<br>and nitrogen of -NH2<br>
where and how are polypeptides madesynthesised at ribosome<br>condensation reaction&nbsp;
what are the 4 bonds present in proteinhydrogen bonds<br>disulfide bonds<br>ionic bonds<br>hydrophobic bonds
are hydrogen bonds strong?nop, individually its p weak but theres so many it becomes strong
where are hydrogen bonds found in proteinseither between R groups<br>between hydrogen of -NH -OH groups and O and -CO groups<br>
how can hydrogen bonds be broken?high temperatures<br>pH changes<br>EASILY
whare disulfide bonds strongvery strong covalent bonds<br>
where are dilsulfide bonds found in proteinsbetween sulfur atoms of cysteine amino acids
are ionic bonds strongweaker than disulphide bonds but stronger than hydrogen bonds
where are ionic bonds found in proteinsbetween ionized amine and carboyxlic acid groups<br>-NH3+ and -COOH- groups or between CHARGED R groups
how can ionic bonds be broken downpH changes and high temp
are hydrophobic bonds strongnop its the weakest out of the 4 bonds
where are hydrophobic bonds in proteins foundnon polar/ hydrophobic R groups<br>
whats the weakest to strongest bonds in protein<div> <div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div>Hydrophobic interactions </div> </li> <li> <div>H bonds </div> </li> <li> <div>Ionic bonds </div> </li> <li> <div>Covalent bonds<br> i.e. disulphide bonds, peptide bonds&nbsp;</div> </li> </ol> </div> </div> </div></div>
what are the 4 levels of protein structureprimary structure,<br>secondary structure,<br>teritary structure<br>quaternary structure
what is the sequence of amino acids in the primary structureit is a linear sequence
how is the amino acids in the primary structure held tgt&nbsp;by peptide bonds
does primary structure have a specific sequence of amino acidsyes
how is folding of polypeptide determined bydiff properties of amino acid r groups which dictates folding of polypeptide chain
what bonds are between the amino acids in secondary structurehydrogen bonds
what are the 2 conformations in the secondary strcuture"alpha - helix<br>beta - pleated<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-10-05 at 20.29.28.png"">"
are the bonds located next to each other in secondary structurenop<br>of same polypeptide chain
what kinda bonding is in alpha - helixhydrogen bodning between H atom of -NH group and O atom of -CO group<br>4 places ahead
what shape/structure is alpha - helixxspring like structures
what bonding in beta pleated sheets"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Hydrogen bonding </span></div> </li> <li> <div>between H atom of the -N<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">H </span>group </div> <div>and O atom of the -C<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">O </span>group&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what structure in beta pleated sheets<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Straighter, looser form </div> </li> <li> <div>Parallel, flat sheets&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is teritary structure formed from"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""> </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Coiling and folding </span>of secondary structures →Into a precise <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">3D structure&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the cause of the shape of teritary structures?<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Due to interactions between R groups&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
what bonds in teritary structure<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>H bonds, disulfide, bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions so could be all&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
what does myoglobin carryoxygen
where is myoglobin present inmuscle cells - gives it a red colour
what is myoglobin made of1 polypeptide chain
whats a haem groupnon amino acid group
does myoglobin have a haem groupyes - it binds 1 molecule of oxygen
what is quaternary structure a combination of&nbsp;2 or more polypeptide chains
what bonds is in quaternary structureall 4 bonds
example of quaternary structurehaemoglobin, collagen
which levels of protein structure are demonstrated by a haemoglobin moleculeprimary secondary tertiary quaternary
whats the shape of globular proteinsspherial ball shape
what protein structure is globular proteinsmostly teritary but sometimes quaternary structure
are globular proteins soluble?yes
what roles do globular proteins havemore functional roles
examples of globular proteins<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>&nbsp;All enzymes, antibodies, some hormones, myoglobin, haemoglobin&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
shape of fibrous proteinslong parallel strands
what structure makes up fibrous proteinsmostly secondary structure to form fibers
is fibrous proteins solubleno its insoluble
what roles do fibrous proteins havestructural roles
examples of fibrous proteinscollagen, keratin
what makes globular proteins sollublewith non polar amino acids, the hydrophobic R groups are inside<br>with polar amino acids, the hydrophillic R faces outside
whats haemoglobinoxygen carrying pigment in red blood cell
what structure does haemoglobin havequaternary
how many polypeptide chains make up haemoglobin4, 2 alpha globin and 2 beta globin
what kind of protien is haemoglobinglobular
does haemoglobin have a haem groupyes
is the haem group in haemoglobin a prosthetic groupyes n its a permanent part of haemoglobin
what ion is in each haem and what is its useeach haem has one iron iron (Fe2+) which can bind to one oxygen molecule.&nbsp;
one haemoglobin can bind to how many molecules of 02?4 molecules of 02
does collagen have high tensile strength?yes
whats the 3rd amino acid of each polypeptide in collagenglycine.
whats the order of amino acids in collagen polypeptideproline, alanine, glycine REPEAT
does glycine have the smallest r group and whats the advantageyes and so it can be tightly wound
what does the chains in collagen (polypeptides) form?a triple helix collagen molecule
what holds the triple helix collagen molecule tgth2 bonds
what the structure of&nbsp; triple helix collagen molecule&nbsp;quaternary
how do collagen molecules lie?parallel&nbsp;
do collagen molecules form cross linksyes and they are covalent between R groups of lysine amino acids
what kind of ends do collagen molecules have? advantage?staggered ends&nbsp;<br>no weak spot
what does collagen molecules turn up to formfirbils and fibers
whats the structures from smallest to biggest (cellulose related)polypeptide -&gt; triple helical collagen molecule -&gt; fibrils -&gt; fibers
how to test presense of proteinsbiuret reagent (equal amounts biruet to sample)
how does biruet worknh2 groups in amine react with the copper ions which turn purple -&gt; protein present
what happens if the biuret is purpleprotein is present<br>
what happens if the biuret is blueno protein
is water dipole?yes
whats dipole"<span style=""color: rgb(32, 33, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">&nbsp;</span><b>a pair of equal and opposite electric charges or magnetic poles of opposite sign separated especially by a small distance</b>"
what bonding in h20hydrogen bonding between O and H atoms (individually weak cumultativey strong)
what are the properties of water<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1) High specific heat capacity<br> 2) High latent heat of vaporisation<br> 3) High latent heat of fusion<br> 4) Water as a solvent<br> 5) Cohesion, Adhesion and Surface Tension&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is specific heat capacity<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1oC&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
why does water have specific heat capacitycuz of h bonding in water<br>large energy needed to break hydrogen bonds<br><br>it also provides stable temperature in the environemt (buffer against sudden temp change and so the temp of water does not change quickly)
whats latent heat of vapourisation<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>amount of heat required to evaporate 1 g of water&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
why does water have High latent heat of vapourisation&nbsp;"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div>Due to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">H bonding </span>in water&nbsp;</div> </li><li><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div> Able to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">remove a large amount of heat </span></div> <div>energy from surroundings →Important as a cooling mechanism&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></li> </ol></div> </div> </div></div>"
why does water have high latent heat of fusion"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Water also need <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">to lose a large amount of heat to freeze&nbsp;</span>→Due to H bonds</div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div> →Provide stable habitats for aquatic </div> <div>organisms, less likely to freeze&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
is ice more dense than waterno so it floats and acts as an insulator on surface of frozen lakes
why is water used as a solvent"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Water is <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">dipolar </span></div> <div>• <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Dissolves ions, polar molecules, gases </span>(oxygen, CO2) and <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">waste products </span>(ammonia NH3 and urea)&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
importance of water as a solvent"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Transport</span>, removal of wastes, secretions, medium for enzymatic reactions&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
is water a solvent for non polar moleculesnop
when is water most denseat 4 celcius&nbsp;
whats cohesion<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Tend to stick to each other&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats adhesion<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Tend to stick to surfaces&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats the use of cohesion adhesion and surface tension"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">1) Transport of water in xylem </span>tissue of plants →long, unbroken column of water </div> <div>2) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">High surface tension </span>→Surface dwellers’ habitat E.g. pond skater&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Describe the importance of water as an environment for fish at the North Pole.&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1) Water is a solvent→provides (dissolved) oxygen and remove carbon dioxide / ammonia. </div> <div>2) Water provides support / buoyancy </div> <div>3) Water is liquid, so fish can move </div> <div>4) Transparent, so fish can see </div> <div>5) High specific heat capacity→so can provide stable temperature / environment </div> <div>6) Ice less dense than water→ice floats and act as insulator, so can survive when water freezes </div> <div>7) high latent heat of fusion, water does not freeze too easily </div> <div>8) greatest density is at 4 °C→As a frozen lake warms after a cold winter, dissolved mineral nutrients are brought to the surface.&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what are enzymesbiological catalysts
what can enzymes do?break down or synthesize products<br>used in controlling metabollic reactions
what are the features of enzy,esincrease rate/speed up chemical reactions<br>they are specific : one enzyme can only fit one or a few substrates<br>they are unchanged at the end of the reaction<br>they are effective in small amounts<br>they have a high turnover number = can catalyse many reactions per unit time.
how do enzymes catalyse reactions?enzymes <b>lower the activation energy</b> of chemical reactions which provides an <b>alternative pathway for reactions to occur</b>
whats activation energyenergy needed for a chemical reaction to successfully form products
what kind of protein are enzymes<b>all enzymes&nbsp;</b>are&nbsp;<b>globular</b>
what do all enzymes have?an <b>active site</b>
whats an active sitewhere&nbsp;<b>substrates bind</b>&nbsp;to
whats binding in enzymes<b>complementary</b>&nbsp;in shape to substrate
what does the active site give<b>specifity&nbsp;</b>-<b>&nbsp;</b>only a few catalytic amino acids can bind to the active site<br>it is also precisely positioned andnot necessarily beside each other in a primary sequence
what are the two ways that substrates can bind to enzymeslock and key mechanism and induced fit mechanism.
how does subtrates bind to enzymes in lock and key mechanismactive site does not change shape, the shape of the active site is&nbsp;<b>fully complementary&nbsp;</b>to the shape of the substrate (substrate expected to fit exactly)
how does subtrates bind to enzymes in induced fit mechanismactive site is flexixble and moulds around substrate. the shape of the active site is partially complementary to shape of substrate which results in a better fit.
where do enzymes operateintracellularly - Cells synthesise enzymes and<br>retains them for internal use&nbsp;<br><br>extracellularly - Cells synthesise enzymes and secrete them for external use&nbsp;
what are the steps in the mode of action to form products1. enzyme + substrate<br>2. enzyme substrate complex<br>3. enzyme + product
what happens during the enzyme + subtrate step&nbsp;step (1)<br><br>enzymes and substrates move and collide randomly. only collisions in the right orientation with enough energy result in a successful reactin. enzymes have&nbsp;<b>active site</b>&nbsp;with&nbsp;<b>specific shape&nbsp;</b>that is&nbsp;<b>complementary to substrate</b>
what happens during the enzyme substrate complex stepstep (2)<br>formation of the enzyme-substrate complex or (ESC)<br>substrate <b>interacts with R groups of the catalyitc amino acids at the active site&nbsp;</b>which forms femporary bonds.<br>in the infuced fit model, active site changes shape to mould around substrates<br>but at the end, substrate binds strongly to active site and ESC is formed.
what happens during the enzymes + product stepstep (3)<br>here is product formation, interactions of substrates w the active site brings substances <b>close</b> together in the right position which <b>puts the strain</b> on the reactants -<b> resulting in bonds being able to form or break more easily which leads to allowing transfer of charges/groups and eventually LOWERS ACTIVATION ENERGY.</b> products form and leave active site with <b>enzymes remaining unchanged.</b>
whats electronegativitypower of an atom to attract electrons to itself
whats the factors influencing electronegativity?nuclear charge, atomic radius and shielding by inner shells and sub-shells
electronegativity down a groupdecreases
electronegativity across a periodincreases
what value of electronegativity values tell us that it is a ionic bondif its &gt; than 1.8 its ionic
whats ionic bondingelectrostatisic attraction between oppositely charged ions
whats metallic bondingelectrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons
whats a dative covalent bonda covalent bond whereby both electrons in the shared pair are donated by one of the bonding atoms only.
whats a&nbsp;σ bondstrongest type of covalent bond, formed from the head on overlap of orbitals
whats a&nbsp;π bondweaker than&nbsp;σ bonds.<br>formed from the sideways overlap of orbitals.&nbsp;<br>carbon carbon pi bond is formed from the sideways overlap of p orbitals above and below the plane of carbon atoms.
whats bond energyenergy required to break one mole of a particular covalent bond in the gaseous state
whats bond lengthinternucelar distance of 2 covalently bonded atoms
how does hybridisation form sp3 orbitals to occur? (EG CARBON IN METHANE)-carbons original electronic confirugration is 2s2 2p2 but for methane to form it needs an orbital in the p orbital so a 2s orbital electron promotes to a 2p orbital<br>-electrons then rearrange themselves via hydbridisation into four identical orbitals called sp3 orbitals which is able to bond with h2 to form ch4
how does hybridisation to form sp orbitals occur (eg carbon in ethyne)carbons og configuration is 2s2 2p2<br>hybridisation occurs for 2 out of the 4 orbitals (2s and 2p orbital) now these two orbitals sp hybrids are identical
how does hybridisation to form sp2 orbitals occur? (eg carbon in ethene)2s orbital electron promoted to 2p orbital<br>hybridisation occurs for 3/4 orbitals (2s and 2 of the 2ps)<br>now 3 orbitals are identical and called sp2 hybrids.
whats the shape and bond angle of a molecule with 2 bonding pairslinear 180 degrees eg CO2
what is the shape and bond angle of a molecule with 3 bonding pairstrigonal planar 120 degrees eg boron triflouride
what is the shape and bond angle of a molecule with 4 bonding pairstetrahedral 109.5 degrees eg ch4
whats the shape and bond angle of a molecule 5 bonding pairstrigonal bipyramidal 90 and 120 degrees
what is the shape and bond angle of a molecule with 6 bonding pairsoctaheral 90 degrees
what is the shape and bond angle of a molecule with 2 bonding pairs and 2 lone pairsbent 104.5&nbsp;
what is the shape and bond angle of a molecule with 3 bonding pairs and 1 lone pairpyramidal 107
what is rate of reactionspeed of conversition of substrate into product<br>rate is always per unit time.
how do we measure rate of reaction in an experiment&nbsp;by rate of product formation or rate of susbtrate dissappearance
what are the steps to measure rate ofmeasure the product formation or substrate dissapearance<br>plot a time course graph<br>find the gradient of the curve = ror
what is catalsase used forbreaking down hydrogen peroxide (toxic metabolic product in tissues)
where are catalase enzymes foundin tissues of most living organisms
how to obtain catalasepotatoes usually
whats rorrate of oxygen released
how is ror calculatedcollect gas or count bubbles
whats the electronic distrubution in a polar moleculeasymmetrical
what 4 elements are the most electronegative in orderF &gt; O &gt; N &gt; Cl
is c02 polar or non polarnon polar
if theres a lone pair on a central atom what does it result in&nbsp;polar molecule - asymmetrical distrubution&nbsp;
what are the two cases of van de waals forcesdue to tempoary dipoles non polar<br>permanent dipoles polar
what are instantaneous dipolesdipoles made in that instance. for example, since electrons randomly move around there is a chance an electron will be closer to one side of an atom causing for it to be negative for that moment.
what determines strength of van dar waal forcesnum of electrons
why does pentane have a higher boiling point than 2,2 - dimethyl propane even tho they hv same number of atoms C5H12pentane is longer so larger area for interaction
what causes permanent dipolesdiopoles w same charge repluse each other<br>dipoles w diff charge attract each other
why are hydrogen bonds so strong&nbsp;with N, O F stronger than van dar wall forces cuz<br>strength of electronegativ diff between H and N O F is so strong (hydrogen only electron gets pulled away to the electronegative atom so hydrogen nucelus partially exposes making other pairs attracted to it)<br>&nbsp;+ hydrogen of small size
what makes a substance solubleusually a substance will dissolve in a solvent with similar intermollecular forces
why is pentane so soluble in hexane?cuz pentane and hexxane intermolecular forces are similiar. the amount of energy needed to break van dar wall forces in pure hexane and pentane is paid back when van dar aal forces are formed between molecules of hexane and pentane
why cant pentane dissolve in waterhydrogen bonding.<br>if pentane were to dissolve in water there would be van der waal forces between water molecules and pentane. the energy reelased if van dar waals forces were to form between water and pentane molecules would not pay back the energy required to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules as the hydrogen bonds stronger than van der waals forces.
what shape is hydrogen bonded in icetetehedral formation - water molecule hydrogen bonded to 4 others
what happens when ice meltsstructure collapses slightly and molecules come closer tgt
what happens as ice coolsas they get more energy they move a little further apart.
how to do you check for amylase if both substrate and product are colourless and are both liquiduse iodine test
whats the coloue change when u test amylase samples w iodine solutioncolour will change from dark blue to yellow brown<br><br>dark blue = starch still presewnt<br>yellow brown = starch completely hydrolyzed
what is a coloriometer used formeasuring light absorbance in arbitary units
what are the factors affecting enzymatic reactionsubstratre concentration<br>enzyme concentration<br>temperature <br>ph
what substances have an ionic structurecompounds of metals and non metals especially reactive elements
what type of particle does ionic compounds containions : cations + and anions -
how are particles in an ionic compound bonded tgtstrong ionic bonding - electrostatic attraction between opp charged ions
giant covalent bondingstrong covalent bonds attraction of atomic nuceli for shared pairs of electrons
metallic bondingattractionof nuceli for decolaized electrons
macromolecular bondingweak intermolecular forces betweeen molecules&nbsp;<br>strong covalent bonds between atoms within each molecule.
simple molecular bondingweak intermolecular forces between molecules strong covalent bonds between the atoms of each molecule
whats the hardness of ionic compoundshard but brittle
whats the hardness of giant covalent compoundsvery hard
whats the hardness of metallic compoundshard but malleable&nbsp;
whats the hardness of macromolecular compoundssoft and often flexible
whats the hardness of simple molecular compoundssoft
whats the electrical conductivity of ionic compoundsconduct when moleten or dissolved in water; electrolytes
whats the electrical conductivity of giant covalent compoundsdo not normally conduct
whats the electrical conductivity of metallic compoundsconduct when solid or liquid
whats the electrical conductivity of marcomolecular compoundsdo not normally conduct
whats the electrical conductivity of simple molecular compoundsdo not conduct
whats the water solubility of ionic compoundsoften soluble
whats the water solubility of giant covalent compoundsinsoluble
whats the water solubility of metallic compoundsinsoluble but some react to form metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas
whats the water solubility of macromolecular compoundsusually insoluble
whats the water solubility of simple molecular compoundsusualllyyy insoluble unless molecule contain groups which can hydrogen bond with water or they react with water
whats the non polar solvents solubility of ionic compoundsinsoluble
whats the non polar solvents solubility of giant covalent compoundsinsoluble
whats the non polar solvents solubility of metallic compoundsinsoluble
whats the non polar solvents solubility of macromolecular compoundssome soluble
whats the non polar solvents solubility of simple molecular compoundsusually soluble
when pressure increases temperature...increases
when pressure increases volume...decreases
formula for ideal gaspV = nRt
what happens at low substrate concentration-some active sites avaiable for binding<br>-few collisions between enzyme and substrate<br>-less substrate binds w active site<br>-few enzyme substrate complexx formed<br>-substrate is limiting<br>-rate of reaction proportional to substrate concentration.
what happens at high substrate concentration-rate increases to a plateu/vmaxxx is reached<br>-all active sites are saturated<br>-max number of esc formed with enzymes being the limiting factor<br>-further increase of substrate does not increase rate.
whats Vmaxmax rate of enzymatic reaction
whats Kmmichaelis-menten constant<br>to find it its half of Vmaxx and read substrate conc from x axis
whats Km formeasure of enzyme affinity&nbsp;
whats affininitydegree of attraction between molecules<br>higher Km, lower the affinity
what happens if enzyme has high Km and low affinityhigher substrate concentration needed to reach 1/2 Vmax<br>enzyme forms fewer ESC in the same unit of time<br>enzyme active site is a less good fit for substrate
what happens at low enzyme concentration as enzyme concentration increases- more enzymes present<br>- more active sites available for substrate to bind<br>- increase in frequency of collision<br>- more esc form<br>rate increases as enzyme conc increases
what happens at high enzyme conc- rate of reaction levels off<br>- substrate conc is the limiting factor<br>- max number of escs formed
what happens at low enzyme conc- less active sites available to bind to substrate<br>- enzyme conc is liminiting
what happens to enzyme reaction at low temp as it increasesincrease in kinetic energy<br>enzyme and substrate move faster<br>increase in collision rate between substrate molecules and enzyme active site<br>substrates bind to enzyme active site more often<br>more enzyme substrate complex form<br>rate incr as temp incr
what happens at optimum temperature for enzyme substrate reaction-max rate of enzyme reaction
what happens at very high temperature for enzyme substrate reactionreaction slows down then stops<br><br>hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds holding enzyme start to break<br>active site changes shape<br>enzyme is denatured<br>susbtrate cannot find to active site<br>fewer esc forms<br>irreversible&nbsp;
what happens at too low/high pHh+ or oh- can interact with the R groups of amino acids in ezymes<br>it can disrupt ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds and changes the active site shape<br>substrate cannot bind to active site<br>less enzyme substrate complex form
what happens at optimum pHmax rate of enzyme reaction<br>beyond optimum pH enzyme denatures<br>diff enzymes diff optimal pH
what are inhibitorsmolecules which can reduce rate of an enzyme catalaysed reaction
what are competitive inhibitor"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Fit into enzyme’s active site </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Similar shape </span>to real substrate </div> </li> <li> <div>Competitive inhibitor <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">competes with substrate for active site </span>of enzyme </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Reversible&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens to competitve inhibitor at low substrate conc"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>[inhibitor] &gt; [substrate] </div> </li> <li> <div>Less frequency of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">collisions </span>with S </div> </li> <li> <div>Less <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">ESCs </span>forms </div> </li> <li> <div>Reduces rate of reaction </div> <div>→Enzyme’s function <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">inhibited&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens to competitive inhibition at high substrate conc"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""> </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Can be reversed/overcome by.... having more substrates </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">At high [S] </span></div> <ul> <li> <div>[S] &gt; [inhibitors] </div> </li> <li> <div>Inhibitor has less effect </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Substrate outcompetes inhibitor </span>at high [S] </div> </li> <li> <div>More chances of substrate molecule <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">colliding </span>and binding to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">active site </span></div> </li> <li> <div>More <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">S binds </span>to active site </div> </li> <li> <div>More <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">ESCs </span>form<br> →Enzyme’s function <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">unaffected </span></div> </li> </ul> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Competitive, reversible inhibition&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what kinda types of non competitive inhibition<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Irreversible – e.g. in poisons (cyanide binds to enzyme in mitochondria and inhibits ATP synthesis) </div> </li> <li> <div>Reversible – end product inhibition&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats irreversible non competitive inhibition"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Inhibitor binds to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">allosteric site </span>on enzyme </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Allosteric site </span>= another site on enzyme </div> <div>other than the active site </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Changes </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">active site</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">’s shape </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Disrupts H bonds and hydrophobic </div> <div>interactions<br> →3D shape of enzyme affected →Distortion ripples </div> </li> </ul> <div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Substrate unable to bind </span>to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">active site </span>→ Enzyme’s function - inhibited </div> <div>• Increasing substrate concentration has no effects on enzyme activity&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats end product inhibiton"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>A form of control for metabolic reactions </div> </li> <li> <div>Maintain homeostasis <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">In a chain of reactions </span></div> </li> </ul> <ul> <li> <div>Catalyzed by various enzymes </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">End product becomes a non-competitive enzyme inhibitor for upstream reactions&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens in end product inhibition when there is high amount of end product"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→binds to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">allosteric site </span>on another enzyme catalyzing a </div> <div>reaction in the same metabolic chain →Inhibits reaction&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens in end product inhibition when there is low amount of end product"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Inhibitors can lose its attachment on<br> enzyme’s allosteric site and are used elsewhere </div> <div>→ Temporary/brief<br> →<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Non-competitive, </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">reversible </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">inhibition&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats immobilised enzymes<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Enzymes attached to an inert, insoluble material&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>How to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">encapsulate enzymes </span>in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">alginate beads</span>?&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>""<div> <div> <div> <div>1. Mix enzymes with <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">sodium alginate<br> </span>2. Add drop by drop into <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">calcium chloride&nbsp;</span></div><div>3. Pack them into a <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">column</span></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>4. Run substrates through the column&nbsp;</div><div>5. Collect products from bottom </div> </div> </div> </div></div><div>You can run the products through the column again and again to increase % yield.<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">&nbsp;<br></span></div> </div> </div> </div>"
<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Why Use Immobilised Enzymes?&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Can easily <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">reuse </span>enzymes </div> </li> <li> <div>Can easily recover enzymes </div> </li> <li> <div>Longer shelf-life of enzyme </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Less purification / downstream processing </span>needed<br> →Bcs it keeps product <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">enzyme-free </span>so no effect on product quality </div> </li> </ul> <div>• Allow <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">continuous production<br> </span>→Can obtain more product per unit time </div> <ul> <li> <div>Reduces end product inhibition </div> </li> <li> <div>Enzymes more tolerant of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">pH </span>changes </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Thermostable </span>– less likely to denature at high temp&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how is the tolerance of pH and temp high for immobilized enzyme"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Alginate <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">protects enzyme<br> </span>→As enzyme is less exposed to solution<br> <span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Less H</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">+ </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">or OH</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">- </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">penetrate the alginate beads<br> </span>→Shape of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">active site </span>of immobilised enzyme is less disrupted </div> <div>• 3D structure of enzyme is <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">stabilized </span></div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">H bonds vibrate less </span>at high temp </div> <div>→Fewer bonds within immobilised enzyme break </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Active site </span>less likely to change shape →Less denaturation&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how thick is the cell surface membrane7nm thick
what is the role of the cell surface membranecontrols movement of susbtances into and out of the cell
"what does it mean by ""cell surface membrane is semi permeable"""it keeps water soluble substances out<br>allows passage of lipid soluble substances
what is the fluid mosaci model"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Fluid </span>– <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">phospholipids and protein molecules are able to move about </span>and diffuse sideways within its monolayer </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Mosaic </span>– <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">proteins interspersed / scattered </span>within membrane&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the components of the plasma membrane"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Phospholipids </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Cholesterol </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Proteins </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Glycolipids </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Glycoproteins&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ol> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the purpose of the hydrophyllic head in phospholipidsstabilise membrane
whats the purpose of the hydrophobic tais in phospholipids"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">no allow Barrier </span>to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">water-soluble </span>substances <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">Allow </span>passage to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">lipid-soluble </span>substances </div> <div>Only <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">lipid-soluble, small, uncharged molecules </span>can diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer </div> <div>• Also! Fatty acids help <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">maintain fluidity </span>of membrane<br> </div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what affects membrane fluidity?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">1. Temperature</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">2. Ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">3. Length of phospholipid tails</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">4. Cholesterol!&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how does temperature affect membrane fluidity?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Higher temperature, higher kinetic energy, more fluid&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"how does&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids&nbsp;</span>&nbsp;affect membrane fluidity?""<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">More unsaturated FA, higher unsat:sat ratio, more fluid </span>→Unsaturated FA has C=C which cause <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">kinks </span>→Phospholipids more <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">loosely arranged<br> </span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">More saturated FA, lower unsat:sat ratio, less fluid </span>→No kinks, <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">more area for phospholipids to interact&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"how does&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Length of phospholipid tails&nbsp;</span>&nbsp;affect membrane fluidity?""<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">The longer the tails, less fluid<br> </span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">More surface area </span>for interaction between tails&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"how does&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Cholesterol&nbsp;</span>&nbsp;affect membrane fluidity?""<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>The cell can <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">maintain fluidity </span>during higher / lower temperatures by changing the ratio of unsat:sat, length of tails, and adding cholesterol!&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
name 4 rules of the kinetic molecular theory (ideal gas)<div><div><div><div>Gases are made up of tiny particles, molecules in a state of rapid random motion</div></div></div></div><div><div><div>•</div><div><div>The average kinetic energy of particles is directly proportional to the temperature of the gas in Kelvin.</div></div></div></div><div><div><div>•</div><div><div>Collisions between the molecules and container give rise to pressure and all collisions are perfectly elastic.</div></div></div></div><div><div><div>•</div><div><div>The combined volume of molecules is negligible compared to the volume&nbsp;of the container.</div></div></div></div><div><div><div>•</div><div><div>Attractive forces between particles are negligible and they exert no force on each other.</div></div></div></div>
why do real gases not obey the kinetic theory"<span style=""color: rgb(200, 195, 188); background-color: rgb(24, 26, 27);"">Real gasses do not always obey the kinetic theory because there is attraction between molecules and the volume of the molecules themselves is not negligible.&nbsp;</span>"
when are the diff between real and ideal gasses noticable and why"<span style=""color: rgb(200, 195, 188); background-color: rgb(24, 26, 27);"">&nbsp;very high pressures and very low temperatures.</span><span style=""color: rgb(200, 195, 188); background-color: rgb(24, 26, 27);""> this is because under these conditions, the molecules are close to each other, the volume of molecules is not negligible, and there are Van der Waals’ forces of attraction between molecules.&nbsp;</span>The intermolecular forces are negligible when the volume occupied by the gas tends to infinity. Volume would tend to infinity when pressure decreases and temperature increases. Thus real gasses tend to behave ideally, i.e, obey the gas laws at low pressure and high temperatures. And conversely at very high pressure and low temperature the law becomes invalid.<span style=""color: rgb(200, 195, 188); background-color: rgb(24, 26, 27);""><br></span>"
whats an exothermic reactiongives heat to the surroundings
whats an endothermic reactiontakes in heat from the surroudnings
enthalpy change in exothermic is ___exothermic is negative<br>
enthalpy change in endothermic is ___positive
whats enthalpy changeis the amount of heat energy taken in/given out in a chemical reaction
whats activation energy (chem)minimum energy required for a reaction to take place
how to measure enthalpy changes- mass of reactants<br>- mss of water<br>- rise or fall in temperature
whats enthalpy change reactionq = mcdeltat
whats the standard enthalpy change of reactionStandard enthalpy change of reaction (∆Hr ) is the enthalpy change when molar amounts of reactants as shown in the stoichiometric equation react together under standard conditions to give products.
whats the standard enthalpy change of combustionStandard enthalpy change of combustion (∆Hc) is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is completely burnt in oxygen under standard conditions. All reactants and products are in their standard states.
whats standard enthalpy change of formationStandard enthalpy change of formation (∆Hf ) is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of the substance is formed in its standard state from its elements in their standard states under standard conditions.
whats hess lawThe enthalpy change accompanying a chemical reaction is independent of the pathway between the initial and final states.
whats bond enthalpyBond enthalpy is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of covalent bonds, in a gaseous molecule, are broken under standard conditions.
cholesteral structural featuresgenerally small molecule<br>hydrophyllic head and hydrophobic tail<br>fit between the phospholipid molecule<br>not found in prokaryotes cell membrane
cholesteral functions in membraneregulates fluidity of membrane<br>stabilises the membrane (esp the hydrophobic layer)<br>block passage of very small ions through membrane
how does chlolesteral regulates membrane fluditity - low temp<br>at lower temperature the membrane has less fluditity&nbsp;<br>chlolesteral increases fludiity/ decreases fluiditity to prevent close packing of phospholipid tails
how does chlolesteral regulates membrane fluditity - high tempat high temp membrane i more fluid<br>so cholesteral decreases fluidity - reducing mobility of phospholipids
types of membrane proteinsextrinsic/ peripheral proteins<br><br>intrinsic/ integral proteins
"where are&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Extrinsic proteins found&nbsp;</span>"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Inner or outer surface of the membrane&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
"where are&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Intrinsic&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">&nbsp;proteins found&nbsp;</span>""<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Extend into hydrophobic core </div> </li> <li> <div>Maybe mobile or fixed </div> <div>(attached to structures) </div> </li> <li> <div>Some are <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">transmembrane proteins </span>→Span across the membrane<br> →E.g. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">transport proteins&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the structure of intrinsic proteins"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions</div><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Hydrophobic regions</span></div> </li><li><div>→interacts with <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">hydrophobic core / fatty acids tails </span>of phospholipids </div></li> </ul> <div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Hydrophilic regions </span></div> <div>→Extend into <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">aqueous external environment </span>inside/ outside the cell&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
roles of membrane proteins"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1) Transport proteins </span></div> <div>Passage for <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">ions / charged / polar / larger molecules </span>through membrane&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the two types of transport proteiinxx"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Two types</span>:<br> <span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Channel proteins </span>→For facilitated diffusion </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Carrier proteins </span></div> <div>→For facilitated diffusion / active transport&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
channel proteins features"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Highly specific </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Channel /pore is <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">water-filled<br> </span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Hydrophilic R-groups on amino acids face inwards towards channel </span>→E.g. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">aquaporins </span>= channel protein for water </div> </li> </ul> <div>• Can be gated / can open and close →E.g. voltage-gated or ligand-gated&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
carrier protein specifics"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Highly specific </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Conformational change </span>occurs when it </div> <div>interacts with the ion / molecule </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Binding sites </span>that alternately open to one side of the membrane then the other </div> </li> <li> <div>Constantly flip between two shapes </div> <div>→E.g. sodium-potassium pump Pumps 2 K+ in, 3 Na+ out&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
membrane proteins roles"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1) &nbsp;Transport proteins </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">– </span>channel and carrier proteins </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">2) &nbsp;Enzymes </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">3) &nbsp;Receptor for cell signalling molecules </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">4) &nbsp;Anchoring cytoskeleton </span></div> <div>– maintain cell shape </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">5) &nbsp;Cell-to-cell adhesion&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ol> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are glycolipids<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Glycolipid = carbohydrate chains </div> <div>attached to phospholipids&nbsp;</div> </li><li><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Carbohydrate chains face outside of cell </div> </li> <li> <div>Form a sugary coat on the cell = glycocalyx&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
roles of glycolipid"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1) Interacts with water to stabilize membrane structure </span></div> <div>• Able to form <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">H bonds </span>with water molecules <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">2) Cell-to-cell adhesion </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">3) Cell recognition </span></div> <ul> <li> <div>Acts as cell surface <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">antigens / markers </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Macromolecules on cell surface membrane </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Antigen</span>: foreign substance that triggers immune response </div> </li> <li> <div>To distinguish self from non-self&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are glyoproteins<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>carbohydrate chains attached to protein&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
roles of glycoprotein"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1) Interacts with water to stabilize membrane structure </span></div> <div>• Able to form <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">H bonds </span>with water molecules <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">2) Cell-to-cell adhesion </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">3) Cell recognition </span></div> <ul> <li> <div>Acts as cell surface <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">antigens / markers </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Macromolecules on cell surface membrane </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Antigen</span>: foreign substance that triggers immune response </div> </li> <li> <div>To distinguish self from non-self&nbsp;</div></li> </ul><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">4) Receptor for cell signalling molecules </span></div> <div>(for glycoprotein only, not glycolipid)&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is cell signaling"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Cell signalling = How cells detect and respond to stimuli </div> </li> <li> <div>Also, how cells communicate<br> →Involves <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">ligands </span>= specific chemicals as signalling molecules →Leads to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">specific responses</span></div></li> </ul><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>4. Receptor activates <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">G protein<br> </span>5. G protein triggers production of many </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">secondary messengers </span>by enzyme<br> • 2o messengers are <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">small and soluble </span></div> <div>6. 2o messengers triggers <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">enzyme cascade </span></div> <ul> <li> <div>Catalysed by enzyme kinases and </div> <div>phosphatases </div> </li> <li> <div>Cause <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">signal amplification </span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div>7. Enzymes carry out <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">specific response&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div></div><div><div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what is the process of cell signaling"<div> <div> <div> <div>1. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ligands </span>secreted from cells<br> (E.g. adrenaline from adrenal gland) </div> <div>2. Ligands transported via <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">bloodstream </span>to target cells </div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div>Cell Signalling </div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div>3.<span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Ligands bind to cell surface receptors</span></div></div><div> <div>on target cells (E.g. liver / muscle cell) </div> <div>Receptor is <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">specific </span>and <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">complementary </span>in shape to ligand </div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Shape of receptor changes </span>when ligand binds →Signal passed into the cell (transduction)&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div>"
what are the example of specific responses<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Activated enzymes breakdown glycogen into glucose </div> </li> <li> <div>More glucose available for respiration </div> </li> <li> <div>More energy in the form of ATP produced&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
types of ligands"<div> <div> <div> <div>1. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Water-soluble </span>ligands</div> <ul> <li> <div>Cannot pass through membrane </div> </li> <li> <div>Recognised by <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">receptor </span>at plasma membrane </div> </li> <li> <div>E.g. adrenaline, glucagon</div></li><li><div>2. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">Lipid-soluble </span>ligands<br></div></li> </ul> <ul> <li> <div>Can pass through membrane </div> </li> <li> <div>Can <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">diffuse directly </span>across the cell surface membrane </div> </li> <li> <div>Bind to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">intracellular receptors </span>in the cytoplasm or nucleus </div> </li> <li> <div>E.g. steroids, oestrogen&nbsp;<br></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
what are the 5 mechanisms of transport"passive<br><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">1. Simple diffusion<br> 2. Facilitated diffusion&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">3. Osmosis</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">active</span></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">4. Active transport<br> 5. Endocytosis and Exocytosis&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is diffusion"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Net </span>movement of molecules From a region of high concentration to low concentration&nbsp;<span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Down the concentration gradient&nbsp;</span>Until equilibrium</div></li><li><div><br></div></li> <li> <div>In cells, this occurs across a phospholipid bilayer </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Passive transport </span></div> <div>→No ATP used </div> <div>→Result of random particle movements&nbsp;<br></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
what substances can pass bc of simple diffusion"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">1) Non-polar/ lipid soluble 2)Uncharged </span></div> <div>E.g. oxygen and carbon dioxide </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">3) Small </span></div> <div>E.g. water molecules (osmosis) </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Polar, water soluble, charged molecules </span>are unable to pass through the hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
factors afffecting rate of simple diffusion"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1) Steepness of the concentration gradient </span></div> <div>• Greater the difference in concentration,<br> the steeper the conc. gradient, the higher the rate </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">2) Temperature </span></div> <div>• The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of molecules/ions, the higher rate of diffusion </div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">3) Nature of molecules / ions </span></div> <div>• Smaller, non-polar molecules diffuse faster <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">4) Surface area to volume ratio (SA:V) </span></div> </div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">+ </span></div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div>• As the object size decreases, the SA:V increases, the shorter </div> <div>diffusion distance, the higher the rate of diffusion As the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">object size decreases</span>, the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">SA:V increases</span>, the shorter diffusion distance, the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">higher the rate of diffusion&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats faciliated diffusion"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Diffusion through membrane <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">transport protein&nbsp;</span>From a region of high concentration to low conc.&nbsp;<span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Down a concentration gradient&nbsp;</span></div></li></ul><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Involves <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">channel proteins </span>and <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">carrier proteins </span>Allow passage of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">ions and polar molecules </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Passive transport </span>→No ATP require&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what substances can pass thru with faciliated diffusion"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Polar, water soluble, charged molecules are unable to pass through the hydrophobic core of the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">phospholipid bilayer cant</span></div> <div>Substances that can pass through using <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">facilitated diffusion via transport proteins </span>are: </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">1) Large or water-soluble molecules </span></div> <div>E.g. glucose, amino acids </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">2) Ions or polar molecules </span></div> <div>E.g. Na+ and Cl-&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Factors Affecting Rate of Facilitated Diffusion&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"<div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">1) &nbsp;Steepness of the concentration gradient </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">2) &nbsp;Temperature </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">3) &nbsp;Number of transport proteins available&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Channel proteins: Open or close&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">4) Surface area of the membrane</span></div></li></ol> <div>• Large surface area able to fit more transport proteins&nbsp;<br></div> </div> </div> </div>"
whats osmosis"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Diffusion of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">water&nbsp;</span>From a region of high water</div></li><li> <div>potential to low water potential&nbsp;<span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Down the water potential gradient&nbsp;</span>Across a <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">partially permeable membrane&nbsp;</span>Until equilibrium&nbsp;</div></li> </ul><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Passive transport </span>→No use of ATP&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
osmosis visking tube expierment details"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• In control, <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">starch cannot diffuse out </span></div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Water diffuse in by osmosis </span></div> <div>→Raised water level </div> <div>→Solution in beaker remains blue when heated with Benedict’s solution </div> <div>• In experiment, <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">maltose diffuses out </span></div> <div>→Less water diffuse in by osmosis </div> <div>→Solution in beaker results in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">brick-red precipitate </span>when heated with Benedict’s solution&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what does water potential depend om"<div> <div> <div> <div>1. How much water there is in relation to solutes </div> <ul> <li> <div>Concentration of the solution </div> </li> <li> <div>More solutes present, water more likely to move in </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Solute potential, </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">s </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">-ve value </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">s </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">of pure water = highest = 0 </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">As concentration increases, </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">s </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">more negative = </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">s </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">decreases </span></div> <div>2. How much pressure is applied to it </div> </li> </ul> <div>• More pressure, more likely to move out </div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Pressure potential, </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">p&nbsp;</span>+ve value</div> </li> <li> <div>Esp in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">plant cells</span>, bcs they have <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">cell wall </span></div> <div><br></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div><br></div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ψ </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">= </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">s + </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">p&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Overall -ve value</span></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what happens when the external solution is HYPERTONIC to the animal cell"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">No cell wall, no pressure potential! </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ψ </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">= </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">s<br> </span></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Higher concentration of solutes outside </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Water potential outside is lower (more negative) </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Water diffuse <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">out </span>of cell <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">by osmosis </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Cell shrinks&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens when the external solution is ISOTONIC to the animal cell"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Water potential outside animal cell similar to cell’s content </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">No net gain/loss </span>of water </div> </li> <li> <div>Cell <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">maintains its shape&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens when the external solution is HYPOTONIC to the animal cell"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Lower solute concentration outside </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Water potential outside animal cell higher </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">(less negative) </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Water diffuse <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">into </span>cell <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">by osmosis </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Cell volume increases and bursts (<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">lyse</span>)&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens when the external solution is HYPERTONIC to the plant cell"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Higher conc of solutes outside cells<br> </span><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Lower / more negative water potential </span>outside →Water <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">leaves </span>the plant cells <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">by osmosis </span>→Water potential in cells decreases </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Result: </span></div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Protoplast shrinks</span>, pull away from the cell wall <span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Plasmolysis </span>occurs </div> <ul> <li> <div>No pressure on cell wall, so <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">p </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">= 0 </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Therefore <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ψ </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">= </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">s </span>only&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens when the external solution is ISOTONIC to the plant cell"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Plant cell and solution are in the </div> <div>state of equilibrium </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">No net movement of water </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">Protoplasm just began to shrink </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">away from cell wall </span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">Incipient plasmolysis </span></div> </li> </ul> <ul> <li> <div>No pressure on cell wall, so <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">p </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">= 0 </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Therefore <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">Ψ </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">= </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">s </span>only&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens when the external solution is HYPOTONIC to the plant cell"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Low conc of solutes outside cells </span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Higher water potential outside </span>→Water diffuse <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">into </span>cells <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">by osmosis </span>→Water potential in cells increases </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Result: </span></div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Protoplast pushes against cell wall </span>→The cell becomes <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">turgid </span></div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">p </span>or <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">turgor pressure </span>in cells builds up </div> </li> <li> <div>Increases water potential of the cell further </div> </li> <li> <div>Water potential in cell, <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Ψ </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">= </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">s </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">+ </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Ψ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">p&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats active transport"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Movement of molecules or ions through <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">carrier proteins&nbsp;</span>From a region of low concentration to high concentration&nbsp;<span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Against the concentration gradient&nbsp;</span></div></li> </ul><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Using energy </span>in the from of ATP </div> <div>→Needed for <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">conformational change </span>of carrier protein </div> </li> </ul> <div>• Result in cells having a higher concentration of ions compared to the external environment&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
roles of active trasnport"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Sodium-potassium pumps </span>in cells → Important in nerve impulses </div> <div>• Transport of ions from soil via root hairs → Contributes to root pressure </div> <div>• Hydrogen pumps in cells<br> → Translocation of sucrose into phloem </div> <ul> <li> <div>Absorption in the intestines </div> </li> <li> <div>Reabsorption in the kidneys&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what does endocytosis and exocytosis transport"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Mechanism to transport <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">large quantities </span>of substances&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats endocytosis<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>into cell<br> – Phagocytosis = solids – Pinocytosis = liquids&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats exocytosis<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>out of cell&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats the mechanism of phagocytosis"<div> <div> <div> <div>1. Phagocyte is attracted to bacteria. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Bacterial antigens binds to receptors </span>on the cell membrane. </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">2. Membrane infolds.&nbsp;</span>Pseudopodia forms.&nbsp;</div><div>3. Bacteria is <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">engulfed.&nbsp;</span></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">4. Membrane fuses </span>to form <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">endocytic vesicle / phagosome. </span></div> <div>5.The vesicle <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">fuses with lysosomes </span>containing hydrolytic enzymes, that catalyses hydrolysis. </div> <div>6. Enzymes break down protein / DNA / lipid peptidoglycan / carb. </div> <div>7. The bacterium is killed and digested within the vesicle.&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
whats the steps of exocytosis"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Substances packaged into <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">secretory vesicles </span></div> <div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Fuse </span>with cell surface membrane →Release contents </div> <div>• E.g. Secretion of digestive enzymes and hormones from cells&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how many helix does DNA have2
what proteins are DNA assosciated withhistone proteins
when DNA coils and wraps around histone proteins what is formedchromatin
how is chromosomes formedduring cell division<br>dna undergoes&nbsp;<br>further coiling to form chromosomes
what are genesdna that codes for protein
whats locusposition of gene in a chromosome
what are alleles and typesdiff forms of one gene<br>can be dominant or recessive
homologus chromosomespairs of chromosomes found in diploid cells<br>1 maternal 1 paternal<br><br>similar centromere position<br>similar chromosome size and shape<br>same genes diff alleles
what are sister chromatidsduplicated DNA
how are sister chromatids formedduring interphase, <br>DNA replication occurs in the nucelus&nbsp;<br>where one chromatid becomes 2 (identical)
what holds the sister chromatids tgtcentromere
how many sets of chromosomes do diploid cells have?2 complete cells 1 maternal 1 paternal&nbsp;
how many sets of chromosomes do haploid cells haveone set
whats the biological importance of mitosis"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Maintaining number </span>of chromosomes →Ensuring genetic stability /<br> →New cells can retain function </div> <div>2) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Growth </span>of multicellular organisms </div> <div>3) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Cell replacement / Tissue repair </span></div> <div>4) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Asexual reproduction<br> </span>E.g. vegetative reproduction in plants / cloning&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the 3 stages of the mitotic cell cylceinterphhase<br>-g1, s, g2<br><br>m phase (mitosis)<br>-prophase, metaphase, anapahse, telophase<br><br>cytokinesis
what happens during g1 phaseinterphase<br>-growth of cell<br>-syntesis of proteins and other substances
what happens during s phaseinterphase<br>-dna replication that results in sister chromatids
what happens during G2 phaseinterphase<br>-growth&nbsp;<br>-duplication of centrioles that form 2 pairs of centrosomes<br>-repair DNA replication errors.
what happens during prophase"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Condensation </span>of chromatin →Become shorter and thicker →Appearance of chromosomes →Visible as two, sister chromatids </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Spindle fibres </span>form<br> →Start attaching to centromere<br> • Centrosomes move to opposite poles • Nuclear envelope breaks down<br> • Nucleolus breaks down&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens during metaphase"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Centrosomes reach opposite poles • Spindle fibres are fully formed </div> <div>• Chromosomes line up at the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">metaphase plate </span>/ equator </div> <div>• Chromosomes <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">attached to spindle fibres at centromere </span>/ kinetochore&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens during anaphase"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Centromere </span>of each chromosome <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">divides </span>• Sister chromatids split at the centromere </div> <div>• Spindle microtubules <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">shorten </span></div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Chromatids pulled to opposite poles </span>→with <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">centromeres leading </span>towards poles&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens during telophase"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Chromatids reach the poles <span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Chromosomes decondense </span></div> <div>→Become long and thin <span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Nucleolus </span>reforms </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Nuclear envelope </span>reassembles • Spindle fibres breaks down<br> • Cytokinesis starts&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens during cytokinesis in animal cells?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Division of the cell’s cytoplasm&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Cell membrane drawn together </span>→By contractile ring of </div> <div>microfilaments<br> →Forms a <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">cleavage furrow </span>→Creating a drawstring effect </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Cell membrane fuses<br> </span>• To divide cell into two<br> • Organelles are shared out&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens during cytokinesis in plant cells?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Division of the cell’s cytoplasm&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Vesicles </span>transported to equator →To form <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">cell plate </span>at equator<br> <span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Cell wall </span>laid down </div> <div>• So cytoplasm divided into two • Organelles are shared out&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are checkpoints"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• The duration of the cell cycle differs for diff types of cells </div> <div>• The cell cycle is tightly controlled and coordinated </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Checkpoints </span>prevent the cycle from continuing when mistakes are made or DNA is damaged&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are telomeres<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• A region of repetitive nucleotide sequences • At the end of a chromatid&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is the role of telomeres"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• DNA replicating enzymes stops a little before the end of DNA molecules </div> <div>• Telomeres <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">prevent loss of genes </span>at the tips of each chromatid&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the drawbacks of telomeres"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Telomeres get shorter </span>with each mitotic division </div> <div>• So after many rounds of mitosis, aged cells eventually lose vital genes and die&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what repairs telomeres and how"telomerase• It stops the telomeres from getting shorter each time a<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>chromosome is replicated<br> • But telomerase is NOT normally active in human body cells! </div> <div>• It is however active in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">stem cells</span>. • As well as in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">cancer cells </span>:O&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are stem cells features"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Stem cells are <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">undifferentiated </span></div> <div>• Able to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">continually divide </span>via mitosis → Bcs stem cells have <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">telomerase </span></div> <div>→ Telomeres do not shorten each cell cycle </div> <div>• When it divides, it can produce:<br> <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→ A stem cell that divides<br> → A cell that differentiates / specializes&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
stem cells roles"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Form cells that can differentiate<br> • Divides to give continuous supply of stem cells • For:<br> <span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Cell replacement<br> </span><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Tissue repair<br> </span><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→ </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Growth </span></div> <div>“Levels” of stem cells potency: </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Totipotent<br> </span><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Pluripotent </span><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Multipotent&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is totipotent stem cellhas unlimited capability and have ability to form extraembroymic membranes and tissues the embryo itself and all postembryonic tissues and organs.
what is pluripotent stem cellcapable giving rise to most but not all tissues of an organisms and example is inner mass cells
what is multipotent stem cellcommited to give rise to cells that have a specific function - example of blood stem cells.
what is steam cell therapy<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>- Introduce new adult stem cells<br> - Promote healing of injury/disease&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats cancer<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Most common disease in developed countries </div> <div>• 1 in 4 deaths&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats the most common cancers<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Prostate cancer – men&nbsp;</div><div>• Breast cancer – women&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
how is mitosis involved in cancer"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Result of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">uncontrolled mitosis</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""></span>→Cells divide repeatedly<br> →Cell cycle checkpoints not controlled&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Short interphase<br> </span>→DNA replication is error-prone&nbsp;</div><div>→Very little growth&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats mutagen<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>substance that causes mutation&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats carcinogen<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Cancer-causing substance&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
what are mutagens<div> <div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div>1) &nbsp;Ionising radiation (e.g. X-rays, gamma rays) </div> </li> <li> <div>2) &nbsp;UV light </div> </li> <li> <div>3) &nbsp;Free radicals </div> </li> <li> <div>4) &nbsp;Chemicals (e.g. tar, ethidium bromide, mustard gas) </div> </li> <li> <div>5) &nbsp;Virus infection (e.g. HPV, HIV)&nbsp;</div> </li> </ol> </div> </div> </div></div>
what are other factors thaht increase chances of cancer<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Hereditary predisposition<br> • Tobacco smoking<br> • Obesity&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what causes cancers"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Mutation </span>in genes that controls cell division<br> <span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Oncogenes </span>(mutated gene that causes cancer) is <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">switched on&nbsp;</span></div><div>→Proto-oncogene (normal gene) converted to an oncogene&nbsp;</div><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Tumour suppressor genes switched off </span></div> <ul> <li> <div>Cancer cells pass on mutations and oncogenes to daughter cells </div> </li> <li> <div>Cancer cells can <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">escape DNA repair </span>during interphase as well → result in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">accumulated mutations&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what can accumulated mutations in cancer cells cause?"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Immune system does not recognize </span>the cells as foreign and destroy it → avoid detection of immune system </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">No programmed cell death </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Has <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">telomerase </span>→ Can <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">divide indefinitely </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Do not respond to extra/intracellular signals to stop dividing </div> </li> <li> <div>Mitosis is no longer inhibited by cell to cell contact → <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">no contact inhibition&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Loss of function / cell specialization</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Form mass of undifferentiated cells = </span><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">tumour&nbsp;</span></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
tumor development stages"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1) <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Carcinogens cause mutations </span>in gene which controls cell division →oncogene switched on </div> <div>2) Cancerous cell <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">escape cell death and immune system </span></div> <div>3) Cell undergoes rapid and <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">uncontrolled mitosis </span>→grows into mass of unspecialised cells = <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">tumour </span></div> <div>4) Tumour grows, then <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">displaces and compresses </span>surrounding tissues </div> <div>5) Growth of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">blood capillaries </span>into tumour (angiogenesis)<br> </div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is tumor"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Mass of undifferentiated cells </span></div> </li> <li> <div>No specific functions </div> </li> <li> <div>Result of uncontrolled cell division </div> </li> <li> <div>Has abnormal changes in cell shape </div> </li> <li> <div>Can grow, then <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">displace and </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">compress </span>surrounding tissues </div> </li> <li> <div>Has <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">high demand of nutrients </span></div> </li> <li> <div>As tumour grows, there can be growth of blood capillaries into tumour </div> </li> <li> <div>To deliver nutrients&nbsp;</div><div> <div> </div></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
types of tumors"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">a) Benign<br> </span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Do not spread </span>from their site of origin • E.g. warts, ovarian cysts, brain tumours </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">b) Malignant<br> </span><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Can spread </span>throughout the body (<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">metastasise</span>)<br> • Can undergo <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">metastasis<br> </span>→Through blood and lymphatic system<br> →Invade and destroys other tissues in other areas →Can result in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">secondary growth&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are reversible reactionsreactions that can go backward and forward<br>
"what is le chatelier's principle?"if a reaction at equilibrium is subjected to a change in pressure temperature or concentration, the position of equilibrium will move to counteract with the change
what happens if we add more A to the equilibrium<br>A (g) + B (g) -&gt; C (g)if the concentration of A is increased, the equilibrium will shift to the RIGHT to reduce the concentration of A. Therefore, more C is produced.
what happens if we add more C to the equilibrium<br>A (g) + B (g) -&gt; C (g)If we add more C it will shift to the left to try to use up C so more A and B will be produced
Changing concentration only works if the equilibrium is <span class=cloze>[]</span>Changing concentration only works if the equilibrium is <span class=cloze>homogenous</span><br> what happens if we add pressure to the equilibrium<br>2A (g) + B (g) -&gt; C (g)It will shift to the side with the least gas moles so in this case more C will be produced.
what happens if we less pressure to the equilibrium<br>2A (g) + B (g) -&gt; C (g)shift to left hand side cuz most num of gas moles.
what happens if we increase temp to the equilibrium<br>2A (g) + B (g) -&gt; C (g) DELTAH = -42 kJmol-1It will shift to the left cuz backward reaction endo favours higher temp<br>exo favours lower temp
Do catalysts have an effect on equilibrium?A catalyst will speed up the rate of forward and backward reaction equally.<br>It will speed the rate at which equilibrium is reached but have no effect on yield.
What is KcEquilibrium constant that can be worked out from the molar concentration in a reaction.
Write Kc expression for the following reaction<br>C (s) + O2 (g) -&gt; CO2(g)Kc = [CO2]/[O2]<br><br>This is a heterogenous reaction (where all reactants and products in diff states) so we dont include SOLID and PURE LIQUIDS in the final Kc expression due to the concentrations remaining constant.
What affects the value of Kc?Temperature<br>Product and reactant concentration.
What happens to Kc value when temperature causes the equilibrium to shift right?Kc will increase
What happens to Kc value when temperature causes the equilibrium to shift left?Kc will decrease
What happens to Kc value when product concentration increaseskc rises
What happens to Kc value when reactant concentration increaseskc drops
What is Kc not affected by- concentration<br>-adding a catalyst has no effect on kc value
What is total pressurethe total pressure in a reaction is te sume of all the pressures of the individual gasses (partial pressure)
What are mole fractionsthe partial pressure of gas is calculated using mole fractions. a mole fraction is the proportion (fraction) of gas in a gas mixture.<br><br>mole fraction of gas = num of moles of a particular gas / total numbrt of moles of gas in the mixture<br>partial pressure = mole fraction of gas x total pressure in mixture
What are partial pressure used forto calculate Kp
What is the Haber process?It is a good example on how the position of equilibria is important is determing the most economical method - comprmisies needed<br>process to make ammonia<br>N + H -&gt; Nh3 (not balanced lol)
conditions for haber process400c and 200 atm
why arent high pressures used often in industrial processesthey are expensive and can be dangerous.
what is the contact processindustrial chemical reaction that is used to make the bulk chemical sulfuric acid (h2so4)
to make sulfuric acid we need to convert what to whatsulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide
what catalyst is used in the contact process and whyv2o3 to catalyse so2 to so3
what are brønsted lowry acidsproton donors&nbsp;
what are brønsted lowry basesproton acceptors
what makes an acid or a base weakthe ability to dissociate<br>strong acid and bases dissociate almost completley
what are conguate pairs"linked by the transfering of a proton<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-19 at 09.51.34.png"">"
when acids react with bases what do they form?salts<br>pH = neutral&nbsp;
what does a graph of a strong base and strong acid look like"graph starts at pH 1 as there is excess strong acid.<br>ends at around pH 13 as now we have excess strong base<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-19 at 10.00.13.png"">"
what does a graph of a weak base and strong acid look like"graph starts at pH 1 as there is excess strong acid<br>ends at around pH 9 as there is excess weak base<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-19 at 10.05.12.png"" style=""float: right;"">"
what does a graph of a strong base and weak acid look like"graph starts at around pH 5 as there is excess weak acid<br>ends at around pH 13 as now we have excess strong base<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-19 at 10.08.31.png"">"
what does a graph of a weak base and weak acid look like"starts around pH 5 as there is excess weak acid<br>ends around pH 9 as there is excess weak base<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-19 at 10.11.32.png"" style=""float: right;"">"
What is the equivalence point or end point"At this point the acid has been neutralised fully by the base. The sharp vertial rise shows a rapid change in pH.<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-19 at 10.28.50.png"" style=""float: right;"">"
What is an indicator used forto determine the end point of a titration - however u needa choose the right one.
what must a sutiable indiator do"<span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">indicator must change colour entirely within the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">vertical</span></u> part of the titration curve for it to be effective at determining the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">end point</span></u></span>"
methyl orange and low pH, high pH and what is it used forred in low pH<br>yellow at high pH<br><br>can be used for strong acid strong base or strong acid weak base
phenolphthalein and low pH, high pH and what is it used forcolourless at low ph<br>and pink at high ph<br><br>can be used in weak acid strong base
what indicator is used for weak base weak acid reactionssince wbwa reactions have no sharp pH changes no indicator is suitable so a pH meter has to be used.
For a reaction to occur, particles must <span class=cloze>[...]</span>For a reaction to occur, particles must <span class=cloze> collide</span><br> what is rate of reactionsthe change of concentration/ amount of reactant or product per unit time
what are the 2 rules of collision theory1. for a reaction to occur the particles must collide in the right direction<br>2. they must also have a minimum amount of kinetic energy
whats the formula of rate"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-19 at 11.20.05.png"">"
what is activation energy&nbsp;the minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to occur
whats an energy profile diagrama diagram to show the energy changes in a reaction
whats maxwell boltzmann distributionshows the energy in gas particles
What affects rate?Temperature, concentration, pressure, catalysts
how does increased temperature effect the maxwell boltzmann distribution?curve shifts to thhe right<br>peak is lower&nbsp;<br>area under curve is the same<br>area under curve beyond activation energy increases
how does decreased temperature effect the maxwell boltzmann distribution?"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">1.Curve sifts the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">LEFT</span></u></span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">2.Peak is <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">HIGHER</span></u></span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">3.Area under curve is the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">SAME</span></u></span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">4.Area under curve beyond activation energy <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">DECREASES</span></u></span></div>"
why when temp increase the distribution curve will have a larger area under the curve beyond the activation energy?larger proportion of molecules will have energy greater than the activation energy
why when temp decrease the distribution curve will have a larger area under the curve beyond the activation energy?smaller proportion of the molecules will have energy greater than the activation energy
why is there a faster rate of reaction when temperature is increased"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Particles move around <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">more</span></u> at higher temperatures. They <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">collide</span></u> more often and hence the reason why reactions happen <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">faster</span></u> at higher temp</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The combination of more collisions <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">AND</span></u> more energetic collisions means that <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">small increases in temperature leads to a large increase in rate.</span></u>eratures.</span></div>"
how does pressure increase rate of reaction"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Increasing PRESSURE will increase the rate of reaction.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Particles are <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">closer together</span></u> and collide <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">more often</span></u>. There are more <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">frequent</span></u> collisions and a higher <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">chance</span></u> of </span><span style=""color: white;"">a reaction&nbsp;</span></div>"
how does concentration increase rate of reaction"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Increasing CONCENTRATION will increase the rate of reaction.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Particles are <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">closer together</span></u> and collide <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">more often</span></u>. There are more <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">frequent</span></u> collisions and a higher <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">chance</span></u> of a reactio</span><span style=""color: white;"">n&nbsp;</span></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">how does catalyst affect rate of reaction</span>""<div>A substance that <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">increases</span></u> the rate of a reaction by providing an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">alternative pathway</span></u> that has a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">lower activation energy</span></u>. The catalyst is chemically <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">unchanged</span></u> at the end of the reaction.&nbsp;<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">They are used to make product <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">faster</span></u> and can be used to lower the temperature required for a reaction. This saves <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">energy</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">money</span></u>!</span></div>"
what is a heterogenous catalyst"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">This is a catalyst that is in a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">different phase </span></u>from the reactants.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The catalyst is in a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">different state</span></u> to the reactants</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">For example the Haber process –</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">N</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2(g) </span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">+ 3H</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2(g) -&gt;</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp;2NH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3(g)</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;""> </span></span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">A solid Iron catalyst is used which is a different state the gaseous reactants.</span></div>"
what is a homogenous catalyst"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">This is a catalyst that is in the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">same phase </span></u>as the reactants.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Generally homogeneous catalysts are aqueous in aqueous reactants. For example using Sulphuric Acid to make an ester.</span></div>"
what will incrrasing the surface area of heterogenous catalysts do"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Increasing the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">surface area</span></u> of the heterogeneous catalyst will <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">increase</span></u> the rate of reaction. More particles can react with the catalyst at the same time.</span></div>"
how do homogenous catalysts work&nbsp;"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Homogeneous catalysts forms <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">intermediate </span></u>species by reactants combining with the catalyst which react to form products. The catalyst is <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">reformed</span></u> again.</span></div>"
why are catalysts used in industry"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">1.<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Lower the temperature</span></u> needed for a reaction to proceed. This means less money spent and less CO2 produced.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">2.<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Speed up</span></u> the reaction by providing an alternative pathway for the reaction to proceed.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">3.Change the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">properties</span></u> of a product. Using a Ziegler-Natta catalyst can turn poly(ethene) to a more <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">dense</span></u>, <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">rigid</span></u> and higher <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">melting point</span></u> plastic.</span></div>"
what are enviromental benefits of using a catalyst"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">1.Lower <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">temperatures</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">pressures</span></u> are required. This reduces energy and reduces CO2 produced.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">2.Less waste is produced as catalysts can allow scientists to use reactions with better atom economies. E.g. instead of producing a product via 5 steps a catalysed reaction may only need 2 steps.</span></div>"
catalysts maxwell boltzmann distribution and energy profile diagram *just click"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-21 at 13.28.28.png"">"
how can rate be measured in experiments&nbsp;electrical conductivity<br>amount of mass lost<br>volume or product produced (vol)
how is rate of reaction measured by electrical conductivity"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">During a reaction there may be a change in the number of <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">ions</span></u>.</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">This change will affect the level of electrical <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">conductivity</span></u>.</span></div></div>"
how is rate of reaction measured by amount of mass lost"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">For reactions that produce a gas – place reaction on balance and measure the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">mass loss</span></u> as gas i</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">however use a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">fume cupboard</span></u> if gas is har</span><span style=""color: white;"">mful or toxic.s lost</span></div>"
how is rate of reaction measured by volume of gas produced"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Another way of measuring the rate if a gas is produced. Measure the amount of gas produced using a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">gas syringe</span></u>. Measure this over a specified time.</span></div>"
what are the characteristics of genetic materials"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">1) Ability to carry instructions/information<br> </span>• Blueprint for the construction and behaviour of cells </div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">2) Ability to be copied </span></div> <div>• Pass on exact copy of information to daughter cells&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the monomer of nucleic acidsnucleotides
whats the polymer of nucleic acidspolynucleotides
whats the two types of polymers of nucleic acidsDNA<br>RNA
whats the bond between adjacent monomers after condensation called"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">phosphodiester bond&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the bond between complementary base pairshydrogen bond
what does a nucleotide consist of"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>A nucleotide consists of:<br> 1) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Nitrogenous base </span><br> 2) <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Pentose sugar&nbsp;</span></div> <div>3) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Phosphate group</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what types nitrogenous base are there<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Purine or pyrimidine base<br> </div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what types pentose sugar are there"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>&nbsp;5 carbon sugar, either <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">deoxyribose </span>or <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">ribose&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what types phosphate group are there<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Negatively charged, making DNA a negatively charged molecule&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
how many rings do purine bases have2<br>adenine (A)<br>guanine (A)<br><br>to remember think of PUre As Gold<br>
how many rings does pyrimidine bases hhave"1 only<br><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">1) &nbsp;C</span>ytosine<br><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">2) &nbsp;U</span>racil (RNA only)<br><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">3) &nbsp;T</span>hymine (DNA only)&nbsp;"
Purine <span class=cloze>[...]</span> Pyrimidine so DNA molecule has the same width throughoutPurine <span class=cloze> always binds with</span> Pyrimidine so DNA molecule has the same width throughout<br> Purine always binds with Pyrimidine so DNA molecule has the <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Purine always binds with Pyrimidine so DNA molecule has the <span class=cloze> same width throughout</span><br> Whats RNA"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div> RNA = <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ribonucleic acid</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""></span>• Single-stranded<br> • Forms a <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">single helix </span></div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div>3 components in ribonucleotides&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the three components in ribonucleotides&nbsp;"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1) Nitrogenous base<br> 2) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ribosesugar </span></div> <div>• Contains 1 oxygen atom more than deoxyribose </div> <div>3) Phosphategroup&nbsp;</div><div>• Bases: A, <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">U</span>, C, G&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) </span>is a RNA nucleotide&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats dna"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>DNA = <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Deoxyribonucleic acid </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Double-stranded </div> </li> <li> <div>Forms a <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">double helix </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Have <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">complementary base pairs </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Longer than RNA&nbsp;</div></li><li><div>3 components in deoxyribonucleotides:&nbsp;</div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
whhat are the components in deoxyribonucleotides&nbsp;"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1) Nitrogenous base&nbsp;</div><div>2) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Deoxyribosesugar </span></div> <div>• Contains 1 oxygen atom less than ribose</div><div>&nbsp;3) Phosphate group&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Bases: A, <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">T</span>, C, G&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how is DNA formed (gen)"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Linking of nucleotides occurs in nucleus during S phase of cell cycle </div> </li> <li> <div>DNA replication occurs </div> </li> <li> <div>Bond between adjacent monomers after condensation = <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">phosphodiester bond&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
x<div> <div> <div> <div>x</div></div> </div> </div>
basic structure of DNA"<div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div>DNA has a <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">sugar-phosphate backbone</span></div> </li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Complementary base pairing <span style=""color: black;"">occurs between opposite strands</span></span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">&nbsp;<span style=""color: black;"">Two strands of polynucleotides are</span><br></span></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">antiparallel&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div></li> </ol></div> </div> </div>"
how is the sugar phosphate backbone formed"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Formed by alternating sugar and phosphate groups </div> <div>→Linked by <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">phosphodiester bond&nbsp;</span>• Strong covalent bonds&nbsp;<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 09.35.56.png""></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how many bonds is between A = T2 hydrogen bonds
how many bonds is between C = G3 hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bonds can be easily broken for transcription to <span class=cloze>[...]</span> or replication. Hydrogen bonds holds the two strands together. Hydrogen bonds can be easily broken for transcription to <span class=cloze> RNA</span> or replication. Hydrogen bonds holds the two strands together.<br> <span class=cloze>[...]</span> can be easily broken for transcription to RNA or replication. Hydrogen bonds holds the two strands together.<span class=cloze> Hydrogen bonds</span> can be easily broken for transcription to RNA or replication. Hydrogen bonds holds the two strands together.<br> Hydrogen bonds can be easily broken for <span class=cloze>[...]</span> to RNA or replication. Hydrogen bonds holds the two strands together. Hydrogen bonds can be easily broken for <span class=cloze> transcription</span> to RNA or replication. Hydrogen bonds holds the two strands together.<br> Hydrogen bonds can be easily broken for transcription to RNA or <span class=cloze>[...]</span>. Hydrogen bonds holds the two strands together. Hydrogen bonds can be easily broken for transcription to RNA or <span class=cloze> replication</span>. Hydrogen bonds holds the two strands together.<br> Hydrogen bonds can be easily broken for transcription to RNA or replication. <span class=cloze>[...]</span> bonds holds the two strands together. Hydrogen bonds can be easily broken for transcription to RNA or replication. <span class=cloze> Hydrogen</span> bonds holds the two strands together.<br> Why is hydrogen bonding used between complementary base pairing<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><b>Important for 3D structure of molecule </b></div><b> </b></li><b> </b><li><b> </b><div><b>Many H bonds give stability</b></div></li><b> </b></ul><div>Hydrogen bonds are <b>WEAK</b> which are important for DNA REPLICATION / TRANSCRIPTION so <b>strands can be seperated</b></div><div>Hydrogen bonds only form&nbsp;<b>between specific bases</b>&nbsp;so there are&nbsp;<b>fewer</b>&nbsp;mistakes in dna replication/transcription</div><div>Hydrogen bonds can also easily reform&nbsp;<b>without chemical reaction</b></div> </div> </div> </div>
In what way are the two strands of polynucleotides are antiparallel"<b>antiparallel&nbsp;</b>-&gt; run in opp direction<br>one strand runs from 5' to 3' direction<br>other runs from 3' to 5' direction"
"Whats 5'"meaning its nearest to carbon 5
<div> <div> <div> <div>5’ – T A A A G C C C T A – 3’&nbsp;</div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Given the sequence of DNA above, calculate:</div></div></div><div> <div> <div>1.the total number of bases in the length of DNA</div><div>2.the number of purines and pyrimidines<br>3.the number of H bonds in the DNA molecule&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div>"DNA is&nbsp;<b>double stranded&nbsp;</b>so 10x2 = 20<br><b>Complementary base pairing occurs so</b>&nbsp;<br><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>5’ – T <span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 0);"">A A A G </span>C C C T <span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 0);"">A </span>– 3’<br> 3’–<span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 0);"">A</span>TT TC<span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 0);"">GGGA</span>T–5’</div><div>(highlighted is purines) purine = pyrimidines = 10&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">A = T</span>, whereas <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">G </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">≡ C </span>so.....&nbsp;</div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>5’ – <b>T A A A</b>&nbsp;G C C C <b>T A</b>&nbsp; – 3’ </div> </div> </div> </div></div><div>3’ – <b>A T T T</b> C G G G <b>A T</b>– 5’</div><div> No. of H bonds = (2*6) + (3*4) = 24&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>(AT is 2 hydrogen bonds, CG is 3 hhydrogen bonds)</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
when and where does semi conservative DNA replication occuroccurs in the nucleus during S phase during interphase<br>requires ATP
what enzymes is needed for semi conservative DNA replication"<div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(112, 48, 160);"">1. Helicase</span></div></div></div><div><div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(112, 48, 160);"">2. DNA polymerase</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(112, 48, 160); font-weight: 700;"">3. DNA ligase</span></div> </div> </div> </div>"
why is helicase needed for&nbsp;semi conservative dna replication<div> <div> <div> <div> <div> To break H bonds to separate 2 DNA strands&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
why is DNA polymerase needed for&nbsp;semi conservative dna replication"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>To synthesise a new strand of DNA (in the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">5’ to 3’ </span>direction) </div> </li> <li> <div>To catalyse the formation of phosphodiester bond </div> </li> <li> <div>Proofreads DNA&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
why is DNA ligase needed for&nbsp;semi conservative dna replication<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>To join DNA fragments together </div> </li> <li> <div>To catalyse the formation of phosphodiester bonds&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
what are the steps to semi-conservative DNA replication"<div> <div> <div> <div>1. DNA double helix unwinds<br>2. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(112, 48, 160);"">Helicase </span>break H bonds<br></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>3. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Free, activated DNA nucleotides </span>are activated with 2 additional phosphates&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>4. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(112, 48, 160);"">DNA polymerase </span>attach to each of the two separated parental strands&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what happens when DNA double helix unwinds<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• The whole DNA molecule is unwound eventually&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
"what happens when&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(112, 48, 160);"">Helicase </span>break H bonds&nbsp;""<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>2 DNA strands separated </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Both strands are used as templates&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"what happens when&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Free, activated DNA nucleotides </span>are activated with 2 additional phosphates&nbsp;""<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Have 3 phosphate groups in total </div> </li> <li> <div>Free in the nucleus for synthesis of new </div> <div>strands&nbsp;</div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">The bases of activated nucleotides form H bonds with bases on each exposed parent DNA strands</span></div></li><li><div>According to the rules of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">complementary base pairing&nbsp;</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 10.25.47.png""></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
"what happens when&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(112, 48, 160);"">DNA polymerase </span>attach to each of the two separated parental strands&nbsp;""<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Catalysing the formation of a new strand of DNA </span></div> </li> <li> <div>DNA polymerase links activated nucleotides together</div> </li><li><div>&nbsp;→By removing 2 phosphate groups (which are then recycled!)&nbsp;</div></li><li><div>→Catalysing <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">phosphodiester bond </span>formation </div></li> </ul> <ul> <li> <div>DNA polymerase also proofreads DNA! </div> </li> <li> <div>This occurs step-by-step </div> </li> <li> <div>Process continues along whole DNA molecule&nbsp;</div></li> </ul><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 10.29.46.png""><br></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the complication with DNA polymerase"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(112, 48, 160);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(112, 48, 160);"">DNA polymerase </span>attach to each of the two separated parental strands </div> <div>→But the two enzymes <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">move in opposite directions </span></div> <div>→And new DNA strand always formed in the <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">5’ to 3’ </span>direction</div><div>&nbsp;<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 11.07.22.png""></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the leading strand<br>The other is synthesised in sections known as Okazaki fragments, this is called the <span class=cloze>[...]</span> strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase which catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds."One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the leading strand<br>The other is synthesised in sections known as Okazaki fragments, this is called the <span class=cloze> lagging</span> strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase which catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds.<br> <img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 11.15.48.png"">"
One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the leading strand<br>The other is synthesised in sections known as Okazaki fragments, this is called the lagging strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme <span class=cloze>[...]</span> which catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds."One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the leading strand<br>The other is synthesised in sections known as Okazaki fragments, this is called the lagging strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme <span class=cloze> DNA ligase</span> which catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds.<br> <img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 11.15.48.png"">"
One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the leading strand<br>The other is synthesised in <span class=cloze>[...]</span> known as Okazaki fragments, this is called the lagging strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase which catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds."One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the leading strand<br>The other is synthesised in <span class=cloze> sections</span> known as Okazaki fragments, this is called the lagging strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase which catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds.<br> <img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 11.15.48.png"">"
One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the leading strand<br>The other is synthesised in sections known as <span class=cloze>[...]</span>, this is called the lagging strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase which catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds."One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the leading strand<br>The other is synthesised in sections known as <span class=cloze> Okazaki fragments</span>, this is called the lagging strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase which catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds.<br> <img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 11.15.48.png"">"
One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the leading strand<br>The other is synthesised in sections known as Okazaki fragments, this is called the lagging strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase which catalyses the formation of <span class=cloze>[...]</span> bonds."One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the leading strand<br>The other is synthesised in sections known as Okazaki fragments, this is called the lagging strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase which catalyses the formation of <span class=cloze> phosphodiester</span> bonds.<br> <img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 11.15.48.png"">"
One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the <span class=cloze>[...]</span><br>The other is synthesised in sections known as Okazaki fragments, this is called the lagging strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase which catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds."One DNA strand is synthesised continously, it is called the <span class=cloze> leading strand</span><br>The other is synthesised in sections known as Okazaki fragments, this is called the lagging strand. The fragments are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase which catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds.<br> <img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 11.15.48.png"">"
what is the result of semi conservative DNA replication"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">2 DNA molecules </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Each containing <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1 original strand </span></div> <div>and <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1 newly synthesised strand </span></div> <div>→This is why it’s called <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">semi-conservative replication&nbsp;</span></div></li> </ul><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 11.18.53.png""><font color=""#ff0000""><b><br></b></font></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how did scientists know about semi conservative DNA replication"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Meselson &amp; Stahl</span>’s experiment (1958)<br> </div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Using bacteria <span style=""font-style: italic;"">E.coli </span>&amp; different nitrogen sources&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1) Grow <span style=""font-style: italic;"">E.coli </span>with <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">nitrogen-15<br> </span>→For many generations<br> → So all DNA contains only 15^N in their nucleotides&nbsp;</div><div>→Extract &amp; centrifuge samples to separate DNA&nbsp;</div><div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Result: All DNA is heavy </span></div> <div>2) Transferred to a medium with <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">nitrogen-14<br> </span>→Allowed <span style=""font-style: italic;"">E.coli </span>to divide again (1 generation, approx. 20min)&nbsp;</div><div>→Centrifuge &amp; observe<br> →<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Result: All DNA is a hybrid. Has 1 heavy strand + 1 light strand.&nbsp;</span></div><div>→Repeated for 2 more generations &amp; DNA is observed&nbsp;<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 11.33.49.png""></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how does the nucelus control all activities of the cell<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Cell’s activities refer to chemical reactions in the cells </div> </li> <li> <div>All chemical reactions are controlled by enzymes </div> </li> <li> <div>All enzymes are made of proteins</div></li><li><div>DNA contains info of the synthesis of proteins so it determines the exact sequence of&nbsp; amino acids which hdetermine thhe primary secondary tertiary and quaternary structures of the proteins.<br></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>
whats a genonetotal set of genes in a cell
whats a generegion of DNA which codes for a polypeptide and determines exxact sequence of amino acids
what are the basic steps in protein synthesis1. transcription<br>2. RNA processing<br>3. translation
how do genes code for proteins"<div> <div> <div> <div>DNA and RNA uses a triplet code</div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""><br></span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Triplet code </span>= sequence of <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">3 nucleotide bases </span>in DNA </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Codes for 1 amino acid&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""><br></span></div><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 11.43.57.png""><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""><br></span></div> </div> </div> </div>"
There are 64 possible different triplet codes and only <span class=cloze>[...]</span> amino acidsThere are 64 possible different triplet codes and only <span class=cloze> 20</span> amino acids<br> There are <span class=cloze>[...]</span> possible different triplet codes and only 20 amino acidsThere are <span class=cloze> 64</span> possible different triplet codes and only 20 amino acids<br> More than one triplet code can code for the <span class=cloze>[...]</span>. This means the triplet code is degenerate. Meaning that it has some redundancy. For example CAA, CAG, CAT and CAC code for the same amino acid valineMore than one triplet code can code for the <span class=cloze> same amino acid</span>. This means the triplet code is degenerate. Meaning that it has some redundancy. For example CAA, CAG, CAT and CAC code for the same amino acid valine<br> More than one triplet code can code for the same amino acid. This means the triplet code is degenerate. Meaning that it has some redundancy. For example CAA, CAG, CAT and CAC code for the same amino acid <span class=cloze>[...]</span>More than one triplet code can code for the same amino acid. This means the triplet code is degenerate. Meaning that it has some redundancy. For example CAA, CAG, CAT and CAC code for the same amino acid <span class=cloze> valine</span><br> More than one triplet code can code for the same amino acid. This means the triplet code is <span class=cloze>[...]</span>. Meaning that it has some redundancy. For example CAA, CAG, CAT and CAC code for the same amino acid valineMore than one triplet code can code for the same amino acid. This means the triplet code is <span class=cloze> degenerate</span>. Meaning that it has some redundancy. For example CAA, CAG, CAT and CAC code for the same amino acid valine<br> In DNA code that codes for one amino acid is called <span class=cloze>[...]</span>. In RNA its called a codonIn DNA code that codes for one amino acid is called <span class=cloze> triplet code</span>. In RNA its called a codon<br> In DNA code that codes for one amino acid is called triplet code. In RNA its called a <span class=cloze>[...]</span>In DNA code that codes for one amino acid is called triplet code. In RNA its called a <span class=cloze> codon</span><br> What types of RNA is involved in protein synthesis"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Messenger RNA (<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">mRNA</span>) </div> </li> <li> <div>Transfer RNA (<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">tRNA</span>) – 20 types </div> </li> <li> <div>Ribosomal RNA (<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">rRNA</span>)<br> – made in nucleolus<br> – makes up the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">ribosome&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
is mRNA single stranded&nbsp;yes
whats the nitrogenous base pairing for mRNAAUCG
where is mRNA madein nucelus and moves to ribosome (small subunit)
what does mRNA do"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Copy of the gene that codes for a polypeptide&nbsp;</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Codes for sequence of amino acids&nbsp;</span></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
what is a codonset of 3 bases on mRNA
mRNA sequences is a <span class=cloze>[...]</span> which dictate which amino acids will be added to the polypeptide chainmRNA sequences is a <span class=cloze> series of codons</span> which dictate which amino acids will be added to the polypeptide chain<br> mRNA sequences is a series of codons which dictate which <span class=cloze>[...]</span> will be added to the polypeptide chainmRNA sequences is a series of codons which dictate which <span class=cloze> amino acids</span> will be added to the polypeptide chain<br> mRNA sequences is a series of codons which dictate which amino acids will be added to the <span class=cloze>[...]</span>mRNA sequences is a series of codons which dictate which amino acids will be added to the <span class=cloze> polypeptide chain</span><br> Codon is read by <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Codon is read by <span class=cloze> tRNA</span><br> What is the start codon?AUG
what does the start codon dostarts translation
what is every 1st amino acid in a polypeptide chain<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>methionine&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
What is the stop codonUAA UAG UGA
What does the stop codon doStops translation and production of the polypeptide chain
where is tRNA madenucleus
where is tRNA found<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li><div>cytoplasm and ribosome&nbsp;<br></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>
is tRNA is single strandedyes
how many loops does tRNA have3<br>clover leaf shaped
how many types of tRNA are there20 diff tRNA for 20 diff amino acids
What does tRNA do"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Carries a specific amino acid to ribosomes&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
What is an anticodon"it is specific and exposed 3 bases on one loop<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 12.47.53.png"">"
what does an anticodon doit forms complementary base pairs with hcodon mRNA at ribosome<br>diff tRNA type = diff anticodon
what does tRNA doit holds amino acids in place, side by side for<br>-peptide bond formation at ribosome<br>can be reused after leaving ribosome
is rRNA single strandedyes
what does rRNA domake up ribosomes
where is rRNA madein nucleus
what are ribosomes made ofrRNA + some proteins
what does the small subunit of ribosome dobinding site for mRNA
What are the 3 sites of the large ribosomal subunitE P A
What does P and A do"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">2 binding sites for tRNA carrying amino acids </span>to bind to mRNA&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
What does E do<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>tRNA exit site<br> </div> </div> </div> </div></div>
Large ribosomal subunit contains the enzyme peptidyl transferase to catalyse the formation of <span class=cloze>[...]</span> to form polypeptideLarge ribosomal subunit contains the enzyme peptidyl transferase to catalyse the formation of <span class=cloze> peptide bond</span> to form polypeptide<br> Large ribosomal subunit contains the enzyme peptidyl transferase to catalyse the formation of peptide bond to form <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Large ribosomal subunit contains the enzyme peptidyl transferase to catalyse the formation of peptide bond to form <span class=cloze> polypeptide</span><br> Large ribosomal subunit contains the enzyme <span class=cloze>[...]</span> to catalyse the formation of peptide bond to form polypeptideLarge ribosomal subunit contains the enzyme <span class=cloze> peptidyl transferase</span> to catalyse the formation of peptide bond to form polypeptide<br> what phase does protein synthesis occur ing1 g2 phase of interphase
what are the enzymes needed for protein synthesis1. helicase<br>2. RNA polymerase<br>3. Peptidyl transferase
whats the use of helicase in protein synthesis<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• To break H bonds to separate 2 DNA strands&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats the use of RNA polymerase in protein synthesis"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>To synthesise a new strand of RNA (in the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">5’ to 3’ </span>direction) </div> </li> <li> <div>To catalyse the formation of phosphodiester bond&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the use of Peptidyl Transferase in protein synthesis<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• To catalyse the formation of peptide bond&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what are the steps in stage one : transcription"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1. DNA double helix unwinds<br> • Only part of the DNA (gene) unwinds </div> <div>2. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(112, 48, 160);"">Helicase </span>break H bonds </div> <ul> <li> <div>2 DNA strands separated </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Only 1 strand is used as template&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>3. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Free, activated RNA nucleotides </span></div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Form H bonds with bases on </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">DNA </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">template strand </span></div> </li> <li> <div>According to the rules of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">complementary base pairing&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>4. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(112, 48, 160);"">RNA polymerase </span>attach to template </div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">To catalyse the formation of mRNA </span></div> </li> <li> <div>RNA pol joins activated RNA nucleotides together →Catalysing <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">phosphodiester bond </span>formation </div> </li> </ul> <div>• mRNA forms in the <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">5’ to 3’ </span>direction </div> <div>→This is the primary transcript or pre-mRNA&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the steps in stage two : RNA processing"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>The pre-RNA has exons and introns </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Introns </span>= non-coding sequences&nbsp;</div></li><li><div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Removed via RNA splicing</span><br></div></li> </ul> <div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">Exons </span>= coding sequences<br> <span style=""color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"">Joined together </span>to form mature mRNA<br> →Mature mRNA leaves the nucleus via the nuclear pore&nbsp;<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 13.23.55.png""><br></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what are the steps in stage three : Translation"<div> <div> <div> <div>1. mRNA binds to ribosome<br> • Translation starts at START codon of mRNA </div> <div>(Codon: <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">AUG</span>, codes for <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">met</span>hionine) </div> <div>2. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">tRNA carries specific amino acid </span>to ribosome </div> <ul> <li> <div>Binds to large subunit of ribosome </div> </li> <li> <div>Has specific tRNA / anticodon for the amino acid </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Anticodon of tRNA </span>complementary base pair to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">codon on mRNA </span>by forming <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">H bond</span></div><div> <div><br></div></div></li><li><div><div><b> </b><div><b> </b><div><b> </b><div><b> </b><div>3. A <span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);""><b>second tRNA</b> </span>molecule with amino acids binds with the next codon on mRNA </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">• </span><b><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Two tRNAs hold amino acids in place</span></b>, side by side for peptide bond formation </div> <div>• 2 tRNAs are bound at the ribosome at a time&nbsp;</div></div></div></div></div></div></li> </ul><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>4. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(112, 48, 160);"">Peptidyl transferase </span>in the ribosome </div> <div>→Catalyses the formation of peptide bond between the two amino acids&nbsp;<br></div><div><br></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>5. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ribosome moves along </span>one codon more on the mRNA </div> <ul> <li> <div>In the 5’ to 3’ direction </div> </li> <li> <div>Next tRNA arrives and amino acids are </div> <div>added one at a time </div> </li> <li> <div>Previous tRNA detaches, moves away and is recycled </div> </li> <li> <div>Polypeptide is released when <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">STOP codon (UAA, UAG, UGA) </span>reached&nbsp;<br></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
mRNA is <span class=cloze>[...]</span> livedmRNA is <span class=cloze> short</span> lived<br> why is production of protein only for a short period of timeso that gene expression can be controlled<br>prevents too much product forming<br>efficent for energy use
What is a mutationRandom change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene which affects the phenotype (apperance) of organism
what are the two types of mutationschromosome mutation<br>gene mutation
what is chromosome mutationchange in structure/number of chromosomes
what is gene mutationmutation which causes altered codons in mRNA sequence&nbsp;<br>and also may alter amino acid sequences of polypeptide chain which can result in new alleles (diff forms of one gene)
what types of gene mutations are theresubstituion<br>insertion/addition<br>deletion
what is base substitution&nbsp;where only one nucleotide is replaced by another
what types of base substitution mutations are there&nbsp;"3 types<br><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1. Silent mutation</span></div></div></div></div><div><div><div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">= </span>triplet code / codon still codes for the <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">same amino acid</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">2. Nonsense mutation</span></div><div>= <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">stop codon </span>is introduced</div><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">3. Missense mutation</span></div><div>= triplet code / codon codes for a <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">different amino acid&nbsp;</span></div><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 15.05.26.png""><span style=""font-weight: 700;""><br></span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what does silent mutation result in"<div> <div> <div> <div>Triplet code changed but amino acid seq is <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">unaffected</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Normal, functional protein</span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">&nbsp;<br></span></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what does nonsense mutation result in"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Premature chain termination </span></div> <div>Subsequent amino acids are not formed </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Incomplete, non-functional polypeptide&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what does missense mutation result in"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Only <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">one </span>amino acid of the polypeptide seq is affected </div> <div>If amino acid has side chain with different property, tertiary structure is more affected. </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Faulty protein</span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">, may be still functional&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the effect of base instertion + base deletion-frame shift mutations<br>-nonsense mutation
what happens during frameshit mutations"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Deleting/inserting one nucleotide of DNA will change which bases are read together </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">All subsequent codons are affected, all subsequent amino acids affected </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Faulty, non-functional protein&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens during nonense mutations (BIBD)"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Result in STOP codon </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Premature chain termination </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Subsequent amino acids are not formed </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Incomplete, non-functional polypeptide&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>What if 3 nucleotides are deleted at once in Base Insertion + Base Deletion</div> </div> </div> </div></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Can result in the deletion of 1 codon</div><div>Deletion of 1 amino acid<br> Protein may still be functional!&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is an example of a base substituion mutaztionsickle cell anaemia
what is sickle cell anaemia<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Inherited blood disorder </div> </li> <li> <div>Affects the structure of the haemoglobin&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats the cause for sickle cell anaemia (struturally)"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Cause: <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Base substitution </span>in gene coding for <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">β</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">-globin</span></div></li> </ul><div> <div> <div> <div> <div> <div> <div> <div> <div><br></div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what does base substituion in gene coding results in?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→different <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">mRNA </span>codon<br> →different <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">tRNA </span>brings a different <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">amino acid </span>to ribosome </div> <div>→leads to a change of 6th amino acid in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">polypeptide </span>chain&nbsp;</div><div>→Altered <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">primary structure<br> </span>→Glutamic acid is polar whereas valine is non-polar </div> <div>→Changed <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure<br> </span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
For sickle cell haemoglobin, the T in C<b>T</b>T is replaced with an <span class=cloze>[...]</span>For sickle cell haemoglobin, the T in C<b>T</b>T is replaced with an <span class=cloze> A</span><br> what does mutated β-globin cause"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Hb molecule to become <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">less soluble </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Stick together to form fibres </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Less able to bind oxygen </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Cells to become crescent / <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">sickle-shaped </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Sickled red blood cells are prone to rupture (haemolysis) </div> </li> <li> <div>May block blood vessels&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
A person that inherited two mutated β-globin alleles (<b>Hb^S</b>) will have sickle cell anaemia. One from mom one from dad.<br>A person with one&nbsp;<b>Hb^S&nbsp;</b>and one&nbsp;<b>Hb^A</b> is only a <span class=cloze>[...]</span> which results in no diseaseA person that inherited two mutated β-globin alleles (<b>Hb^S</b>) will have sickle cell anaemia. One from mom one from dad.<br>A person with one&nbsp;<b>Hb^S&nbsp;</b>and one&nbsp;<b>Hb^A</b> is only a <span class=cloze> carrier</span> which results in no disease<br> A person that inherited <span class=cloze>[...]</span> mutated β-globin alleles (<b>Hb^S</b>) will have sickle cell anaemia. One from mom one from dad.<br>A person with one&nbsp;<b>Hb^S&nbsp;</b>and one&nbsp;<b>Hb^A</b> is only a carrier which results in no diseaseA person that inherited <span class=cloze> two</span> mutated β-globin alleles (<b>Hb^S</b>) will have sickle cell anaemia. One from mom one from dad.<br>A person with one&nbsp;<b>Hb^S&nbsp;</b>and one&nbsp;<b>Hb^A</b> is only a carrier which results in no disease<br> A person that inherited two mutated β-globin alleles (<b>Hb^S</b>) will have <span class=cloze>[...]</span>. One from mom one from dad.<br>A person with one&nbsp;<b>Hb^S&nbsp;</b>and one&nbsp;<b>Hb^A</b> is only a carrier which results in no diseaseA person that inherited two mutated β-globin alleles (<b>Hb^S</b>) will have <span class=cloze> sickle cell anaemia</span>. One from mom one from dad.<br>A person with one&nbsp;<b>Hb^S&nbsp;</b>and one&nbsp;<b>Hb^A</b> is only a carrier which results in no disease<br> A person that inherited two mutated β-globin alleles (<b>Hb^S</b>) will have sickle cell anaemia. One from mom one from dad.<br>A person with <span class=cloze>[...]</span> is only a carrier which results in no diseaseA person that inherited two mutated β-globin alleles (<b>Hb^S</b>) will have sickle cell anaemia. One from mom one from dad.<br>A person with <span class=cloze> one&nbsp;<b>Hb^S&nbsp;</b>and one&nbsp;<b>Hb^A</b></span> is only a carrier which results in no disease<br> <div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Why do all multicellular plants and animals need transport systems anyway?&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Small SA:V ratio compared to unicellular organisms </div> </li> <li> <div>Longer distance for gas/ nutrients/ hormones to reach tissues </div> </li> <li> <div>Higher demand for nutrients/gas </div> </li> <li> <div>Diffusion alone too slow to satisfy needs </div> </li> <li> <div>Efficient supply of gas/ nutrients/ hormones needed! </div> <div>→Transport systems reduce diffusion distance, can transports large amounts of required materials and is efficient!&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
How thick are parenchyma cellsthin
How thick are collenchyma cellsthicker than parenchyma
How thick are sclerenchyma cellsthickest (has lignin)
function of parenchyma<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Photosynthesis, storage of nutrients, cell division&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
function of collenchymastructural support
function of sclerenchymanon living cells only for support
example of parenchyma cells<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Cortical cells, pith cells, mesophyll cells&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
example of collenchyma cells<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Outer cortical cells&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
example of sclerenchyma cells<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Cortical cells of harder stems / tree branches&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what are the different types of cells in xylem tissue"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Vessel elements / Xylem vessels</span></div> </li> <li> <div>Tracheids</div> </li> <li> <div>Fibres </div> </li> <li> <div>Parenchyma cells&nbsp;</div> </li> </ol> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the different types of cells in phloem tissue?"<div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Sieve tube elements<br> </span>→joined end to end to form <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">sieve tubes</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">&nbsp;Companion cells&nbsp;</span></div></li> </ol> </div> </div> </div>"
what are the functions of xylem"<div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Structural support</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">&nbsp;Transport of water </span>from root to leaves to atmosphere&nbsp;</div></li> </ol> </div> </div> </div>"
what is the appearance of xylem under microscope"<div> <div> </div></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Cell wall have <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">lignin </span>bands, in addition to cellulose </div> </li> <li> <div>Lignin = strong, hard, waterproof substance&nbsp;</div></li><li><div>→Bands can have diff patterns (e.g. rings, spiral, reticulated)</div></li><li><div>→Thicker cell wall observed&nbsp;</div></li><li><div>→Safranine dye stains xylem in red&nbsp;</div></li><li><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 17.22.44.png""></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are xylem vessels made ofelongated cells joined end to end
are xylem vessels living"no<br><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">No cytoplasm, no organelles, hollow lumen&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
why is xylem vessels non living"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→So <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">more space for greater volume </span>of water to flow</div><div> →<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Less resistance </span>to flow of water&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
Xylem vessels have thick cell walls made of <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Xylem vessels have thick cell walls made of <span class=cloze> cellulose</span><br> Xylem vessels have <span class=cloze>[...]</span> cell walls made of celluloseXylem vessels have <span class=cloze> thick</span> cell walls made of cellulose<br> Why do xylem vessel walls have cellulose"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Structural support<br> </span>→Allows <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">adhesion of water&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
Why does xyelm vessel cell wall also have lignin"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Prevents inward collapse </span>as xylem vessel is under tension</div><div> →Also <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">waterproof </span>to prevent loss of water&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
Why does xyelm vessel have no end walls"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Less resistance </span>to flow of water<br> →Forms a <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">continuous tube joined end to end&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
Why does xyelm vessel have a large lumenlarge volume of water can be transported<br>
Why does xyelm vessel have pits"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→Formed from plasmodesmata&nbsp;</div><div>→No lignin<br> →<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Allow lateral movement of water&nbsp;</span></div><div>→To connect to all parts of plant </div> <div>→If there is a air bubble blocking vessel, pits allow water to move out into another xylem vessel and bypass airlock&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
features of xylem vessels"cell walls with cellulose, lignin<br>no end walls<br>large lumen<br>pits<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 17.27.19.png""><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 17.26.54.png""><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-12-23 at 17.27.15.png"">"
what is the function of phloem"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Transport of assimilates </span>(e.g. sucrose, amino acids) </div> </li> <li> <div>From <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">source </span>= site of synthesis of photosynthetic products </div> </li> <li> <div>To <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">sink </span>= site where assimilates are stored/used </div> </li> <li> <div>Via <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">translocation&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
Elongated sieve elements ar e joined end to end to form a <span class=cloze>[...]</span> = sieve tube.Elongated sieve elements ar e joined end to end to form a <span class=cloze> continous column</span> = sieve tube.<br> Elongated sieve elements ar e<span class=cloze>[...]</span> to form a continous column = sieve tube.Elongated sieve elements ar e<span class=cloze> joined end to end</span> to form a continous column = sieve tube.<br> structure of sieve tuble elements"<div> <div> <div> <div>• Have many <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">plasmodesmata</span></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Strong cellulose walls</span></div><div>-Has <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">few organelles&nbsp;</span></div><div><font color=""#ff0000""><b>-</b></font>Has <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">peripheral cytoplasm </span>that lines cell walls&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Have <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">sieve plate </span>= perforated cell wall </div> </li> <li> <div>Have many <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">sieve pores </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Cytoplasm of cells are connected&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what is the purpose of sieve tube elements having many plasmodesmata"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→Allow <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">loading of sucrose from companion cells</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;""></span>→For <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">rapid entry of water </span>near source&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is the purpose of sieve tube elements having strong cellulose walls"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Prevent excessive cell bulging </span>under pressure&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is the purpose of sieve tube elements having few organells<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Has cellulose cell wall, plasma membrane, few mitochondria and ER only </div> </li> <li> <div>Has no nucleus, ribosomes, vacuoles&nbsp;</div><div><div>→ →</div><div><br></div><div>Less resistance to flow</div><div>&nbsp;Maximum volume of phloem sap containing assimilates transported</div></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
"what is the purpose of sieve tube elements having a&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">peripheral cytoplasm </span>that lines cell walls&nbsp;""<div> <div> <div> <ol> <li><div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Less resistance to flow</span><br></div></li><li> <div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Maximum volume </span>of phloem sap containing assimilates transported&nbsp;<br></div> </li> </ol></div> </div> </div>"
whats the purpose of sieve tube elements having sieve plates and many sieve pores"<div> <div> <div> <ol> <li><div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Reduce barrier to flow</span><br></div></li><li><div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Prevent cell bulging </span>under pressure for phloem<br></div></li><li> <div>→Sieve pores become <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">plugged with callose to prevent loss of phloem </span>sap after damage<br> (a clotting mechanism)<br></div></li> </ol></div> </div> </div>"
what structures do companian cells havemany mitochondria<br>many ribosomes/rer<br>numerous plasmodesmata
why does comapian cells have many mitochondria"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→For <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">ATP production </span>via aerobic respiration&nbsp;</div><div>→For <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">active transport in translocation&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
why does comapian cells have many ribosomes/rough endoplasmic reticulum"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→For <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">polypeptide production&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
why does comapian cells have many plasmodesmata across cell walls"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">Transport assimilates into sieve tube&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the main substances transported in plants<div> <div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div>&nbsp; Gases (e.g. carbon dioxide, oxygen) </div> </li> <li> <div>&nbsp; Products of photosynthesis (e.g. sucrose) </div> </li> <li> <div>&nbsp;Mineral ions </div> </li> <li> <div>Water&nbsp;</div> </li> </ol> </div> </div> </div></div>
<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>In general, plants have slower transport than animals. Why?&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→ Lower requirement for oxygen &amp; glucose</div><div>&nbsp; → Lower energy requirements<br> → Lower rate of respiration&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
how is gases transported in plantssimmple diffusion
what features of plants make it simple diffusionleaves are thin and flat<br>have branching shape and a network of air spaces<br>→ <b>High SA:V ratio<br></b>→ Effective for diffusion<br>→ No specialized transport system for gases&nbsp;
whats the pathway for the transport of water and mineral ionsfrom roots upwards<br>soil, root hair, cortex, endodermis, xylem (in root to stem to leaves), mesophyll cells (in leaves), stomata, atmosphere
Root cap is impermeable to water so it can be <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Root cap is impermeable to water so it can be <span class=cloze> tough for protection</span><br> Root cap is <span class=cloze>[...]</span> to water so it can be tough for protectionRoot cap is <span class=cloze> impermeable</span> to water so it can be tough for protection<br> Are root hairs permeable or impermeable to waterPermeable
Root hairs are long thin extensions of <span class=cloze>[...]</span> and are able to reach spaces between soil particles. They are delicate and need to be replaced after a few days. Root hair cells also have a large surface area which allows increased area of absorptionRoot hairs are long thin extensions of <span class=cloze> epidermal cells</span> and are able to reach spaces between soil particles. They are delicate and need to be replaced after a few days. Root hair cells also have a large surface area which allows increased area of absorption<br> Root hairs are long thin extensions of epidermal cells and are able to reach spaces between <span class=cloze>[...]</span>. They are delicate and need to be replaced after a few days. Root hair cells also have a large surface area which allows increased area of absorptionRoot hairs are long thin extensions of epidermal cells and are able to reach spaces between <span class=cloze> soil particles</span>. They are delicate and need to be replaced after a few days. Root hair cells also have a large surface area which allows increased area of absorption<br> Root hairs are long thin extensions of epidermal cells and are able to reach spaces between soil particles. They are <span class=cloze>[...]</span> and need to be replaced after a few days. Root hair cells also have a large surface area which allows increased area of absorptionRoot hairs are long thin extensions of epidermal cells and are able to reach spaces between soil particles. They are <span class=cloze> delicate</span> and need to be replaced after a few days. Root hair cells also have a large surface area which allows increased area of absorption<br> Root hairs are long thin extensions of epidermal cells and are able to reach spaces between soil particles. They are delicate and need to be replaced after a few days. Root hair cells also have a large <span class=cloze>[...]</span> which allows increased area of absorptionRoot hairs are long thin extensions of epidermal cells and are able to reach spaces between soil particles. They are delicate and need to be replaced after a few days. Root hair cells also have a large <span class=cloze> surface area</span> which allows increased area of absorption<br> Root hairs are long thin extensions of epidermal cells and are able to reach spaces between soil particles. They are delicate and need to be replaced after a few days. Root hair cells also have a large surface area which allows increased <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Root hairs are long thin extensions of epidermal cells and are able to reach spaces between soil particles. They are delicate and need to be replaced after a few days. Root hair cells also have a large surface area which allows increased <span class=cloze> area of absorption</span><br> How are mineral ions taken upby active transport or facilitated diffusion
how does the movement of water go from soil to root hairssoil has a <b>higher water potential </b>than root hair cytoplasm (high conc of ions and organic substances) so water<b> diffuses down water potential gradient via osmosis via partially permeable membrane into vacuole and cytoplasm of root hair cells.</b>
how does the movement of water go from root hairs to cortex"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Root hairs has higher water potential </span>than cortex </div> </li> <li> <div>Water moves down the water potential gradient via <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">osmosis </span></div> </li> <li> <div>From root hairs → cortex</div></li><li><div>3 possible routes for route hairs -&gt;</div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
what are the three possible routes for the root hairs to cortex"<div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Apoplastic </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">pathway&nbsp;</span></div> </li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;""><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Symplastic </span>pathway&nbsp;</div></div></div></div></div></span></div></li><li><div>Vacuolar pathway&nbsp;</div></li> </ol></div> </div> </div>"
"what happens during&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Apoplastic </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">pathway&nbsp;</span>""<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Through <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">cell wall </span>or intercellular spaces </div> </li> <li> <div>Between <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">cellulose / lignin </span>fibres&nbsp;</div> </li><li><div>→there is adhesion of water to cellulose</div></li><li><div>Water does not cross membranes and enter cells&nbsp;</div></li></ul> </div> </div> </div>"
"what happens during&nbsp;<span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192); font-weight: 700;"">Symplastic&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">pathway&nbsp;</span>""<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Through <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">cytoplasm </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Travel cell to cell via <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">plasmodesmata&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"what happens during&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Vacuolar&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">pathway&nbsp;</span>"water passes thru vacuole and back outside<br>comes w symplastic pathway
whats the movement of water from root hair -&gt; cortex -&gt; endodermissymplast pathway as the only way to cross endodermis is through cytoplasm<br>in endothermal cells the apoplast pathway is blocked
The endodermis has a Casparian strip whichh is a suberized cell wall. The endodermis has a waxy band of <span class=cloze>[...]</span> in cell walls. It is impermeable to waterThe endodermis has a Casparian strip whichh is a suberized cell wall. The endodermis has a waxy band of <span class=cloze> suberin</span> in cell walls. It is impermeable to water<br> The endodermis has a Casparian strip whichh is a suberized cell wall. The endodermis has a waxy band of suberin in cell walls. It is <span class=cloze>[...]</span> to waterThe endodermis has a Casparian strip whichh is a suberized cell wall. The endodermis has a waxy band of suberin in cell walls. It is <span class=cloze> impermeable</span> to water<br> The endodermis has a Casparian strip whichh is a suberized cell wall. The endodermis has a <span class=cloze>[...]</span> band of suberin in cell walls. It is impermeable to waterThe endodermis has a Casparian strip whichh is a suberized cell wall. The endodermis has a <span class=cloze> waxy</span> band of suberin in cell walls. It is impermeable to water<br> The endodermis has a <span class=cloze>[...]</span> whichh is a suberized cell wall. The endodermis has a waxy band of suberin in cell walls. It is impermeable to waterThe endodermis has a <span class=cloze> Casparian strip</span> whichh is a suberized cell wall. The endodermis has a waxy band of suberin in cell walls. It is impermeable to water<br> Why must water pass through endodermal cells?"water and ions must pass through the endodermal cells<div>So transport of ions controlled&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;at carrier protiens of plasma mebrane of endodermal cells&nbsp;</div><div><span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">Absorbed by active transport and contributes to root pressure</span></div>"
how is ions absorbed in the endodermis cell&nbsp;absorbed by active transport and it contributes to root pressure
how does water move from endodermis to xylem"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Water continues to move <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">down the water potential gradient </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Across <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">pericycle </span>(layer of cells just below endodermis)</div> </li><li><div>&nbsp; → To the&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Pits in cell walls of xylem vessels&nbsp;</span></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how does water move from xylem vessels from roots to leaves"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Roots have a higher water potential </span>than leaves</div><div>&nbsp;→Water moves down water potential gradient&nbsp;</div><div>→Water moves up xylem from roots to leaves&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how does water move from xylem in leaves to atmosphere"<div> <div> <div> <div>Xylem has a higher water potential than atmosphere&nbsp;</div><div>Water moves <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">down water potential gradient&nbsp;</span><br></div></div><div><br></div><div>water moves from xylem vessels in leaves -&gt; pits of xylem vessels (lignin impermeable) -&gt; palisade/spongy mesophyll cells -&gt; onto surface of spongy mesophyll cell walls -&gt; evaporation into air spaces -&gt; diffusion of water vapour via stomata to atmosphere</div><div><br></div><div><div><div> <div> <div>After evaporation, intercellular airspaces are also saturated with water vapour </div> <div>Air space also has higher water potential than atmosphere&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div>"
what is transpiration"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Loss of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">water vapour </span>from leaves&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is the side effect of transpiration<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Side effect: cooling of plant&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
wha
what are the 2 ways transpiration can occur?via stomata<br>via cuticle
how does transpiration occur via stomata"<div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Diffusion of water vapour from airspace to atmosphere</span><br></div></div> </div> <div> <div> <div>Only occurs when stomata is open<br> →For gas exchange<br> →Entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and exit of oxygen&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div>"
how does transpiration occur via cuticle<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Loss of water vapour through cuticle on leaf surface </div> </li> <li> <div>Very small amount of water loss&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>What helps water to move upwards against gravity without a pump?&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1)</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Transpiration pull </span>+ cohesion and adhesion of water&nbsp;</div></div></div><div>2) Root pressure</div> </div></div></div></div> </div>"
general formula of alkanesCnH2n+2
general formula of alkenesCnH2n
general formula of alchoholsCnH2n+1OH
whats molecular formulaactual num of atoms in a compound<br>C2H6
whats emperical formulasimplest whole number ratio of atoms<br>CH3
whats structural formulaarrangement of atoms w/o showing all bonds<br>CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
whats skeletal formula"<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">bonds</span></u> of the carbon skeleton only</span>"
whats homologous series"<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">group of compounds have the same <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">functional group</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">general formula</span></u></span>"
1-10 carbon stem name1 meth<br>2 eth<br>3 prop<br>4 but<br>5 pent<br>6 hex<br>7 hept<br>8 oct<br>9 non<br>10 dec
alkane"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><span style=""color: white;"">C</span>-C</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">General Formula –</span> CnH2n+2</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Prefix/Suffix – </span>-ane</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Example -</span> propane</span></div>"
alcohols and diols"<div>-OH</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">General Formula –</span> CnH2n+1OH</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Prefix/Suffix – </span>FOR ALCOHOLS -ol/hydroxy- FOR DIOLS -diol/dihydroxy-</div> <span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Example –</span> methanol/ethanediol<br>"
alkene"<div>C=C</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">General Formula –</span> CnH2n</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Prefix/Suffix – </span>-ene</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Example -</span> propene</div>"
haloalkane"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">C-X</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">General Formula – CnH2n+1X</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Prefix/Suffix – fluoro-/chloro-/bromo-/iodo-</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Example - bromopropane</span></div>"
primary amines and diamines"<div>-NH2</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">General Formula –</span> CnH2n+3N</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Prefix/Suffix – </span>FOR AMINES amino-/-amine FOR DIAMINES diamino-/-diamine</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Example –</span> aminopropane/diaminopropane</div>"
ethers"<div>R-O-R’</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">General Formula –</span> CnH2n+2O</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Prefix/Suffix – </span>alkoxy-</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Example -</span> methoxymethane</div>"
aldehydes"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255); font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp; &nbsp; = O</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255); font-weight: bold;"">-C&nbsp;</span></div><div><font color=""#0000ff""><b>&nbsp; &nbsp; \H</b></font></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255); font-weight: bold;"">General Formula –</span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> C</span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">n</span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">H</span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">2n</span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">O</span><br></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Prefix/Suffix – </span>-al</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Example -</span> ethanal</span></div>"
carboxylic acids and dicarboxylic acids"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.29.54.png"">"
esters"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.30.36.png"">"
ketones"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.31.07.png"">"
nitrile"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.31.42.png"">"
whats heterolytic fission"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The bond breaks but the electrons are distributed unequally to form 2 different ions (a cation and an anion).</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">double headed</span></u> arrow shows the movement of a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">pair</span></u> of electrons.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.32.22.png""><br></div>"
whats homolytic fission"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The bond breaks with the pair of electrons in the bond being shared equally to form 2 uncharged <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">radicals</span></u>.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The dot means there is an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">unpaired</span></u> electron on the atom.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.33.05.png""><br></div> <div></div>"
what are the 3 stages of a chain reactioninitiation<br>propagation<br>termination
what happens during initiation"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Radicals are produced normally using visible light or ultra violet. Called <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">photochemical</span></u> reactions.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The bond breaks producing 2 radicals.&nbsp;</span></div>"
what happens during propagation"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">When a radical reacts with a non radical molecule. New radicals are created which then go on to react with other non-radicals. This is why it’s called a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">chain reaction</span></u>.</span></div>"
what happens during termination"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">When <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2 radicals react</span></u> they form a non-radical molecule. This <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">ends</span></u> the chain reaction. This is why it’s called termination.</span></div>"
how is chloromethane made"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Chloromethane can be made via this reaction – CH4 + Cl2&nbsp;-&gt;&nbsp;CH3Cl + HCl</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Initiation</span> </span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Sunlight breaks the Cl-Cl bond in a process called <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">photodissociation</span></u>.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The bond breaks <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">equally</span></u> pro</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Propagation</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">1.The Cl radical reacts with a methane molecule to make a methyl radical (&nbsp; CH3).</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">2.The methyl radical reacts with a Cl2 molecule forming chloromethane and a Cl&nbsp;&nbsp; radical.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">This Cl radical can react with more methaneducing 2 highly reactive radicals</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Termination</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">2 radicals react to make a stable non-radical molecule. For <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">example</span></u> forming chloromethane..</span></div></div>"
WHY IS PRODUCING CHLOROMETHANE DIFFICULTFURTHER REACTIONS OCCUR PRODUCING A MIXTURE PRODUCTS
whats the complication in making chlorometane"<div>If there is loads of chlorine in the reaction mixture we will get di, tri, tetra haloalkane.</div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Cl• + CH3Cl -&gt; •CH2Cl + HCl</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">•CH2Cl + Cl2&nbsp;-&gt;&nbsp;CH2Cl2 + Cl•</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">dichloromethane</span></u> is formed -&gt; can react further to make trichloromethane</span><br></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Cl• + CH2Cl2&nbsp;-&gt;&nbsp;•CHCl2 + HCl</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">•CHCl2 + Cl2&nbsp;-&gt;&nbsp;CHCl3 + Cl•</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">trichloromethane</span></u> is formed -&gt; can react further to make tetrachloromethane</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">With free radical substitution you make chloromethane, dichloromethane, trichloromethane and tetrachloromethane which all have to be <b><u>separated</u></b>.</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Adding <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">excess methane</span></u> will reduce the amount of multiple substitutions. <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Greater chance</span></u> of chlorine reacting with methane.</span><span style=""color: white;"">I</span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">In addition to multiple substitution we can also get <b><u>isomers</u></b> formed. This is because free radical substitution c<b>an occur anywhere on a hydrocarbon chain</b>. E.g. 1-chlorobutane and 2-chlorobutane</span></div></div>"
what are the 7 reactiom typesaddition<br>elimination<br>substitution<br>condensation<br>hydrolysis<br>oxidation<br>reduction
wha happen during addition reactions"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.44.07.png"">"
wha happen during elimination reactions"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.45.47.png"">"
wha happen during substitution reactions reactions"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.48.04.png"">"
wha happen during condensation reactions"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.48.14.png"">"
wha happen during hydrolysis reactions"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.48.18.png"">"
wha happen during oxidation reactions"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.48.22.png"">"
wha happen during reduction reactions"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.48.28.png"">"
what are electrophiles"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Theses are ‘electron loving’ species and generally are <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">positively charged ions</span></u>. They attack other molecules with a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">negative charge or </span></u><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">δ</span></u><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">-</span></u>. Examples include NO2+, CH3+, H+, CH3CO+ and Cl+/Br+/I+</span></div>"
what are nucleophiles"<div><u><span style=""font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Nucleophiles</span></u></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Theses are ‘nucleus loving’ species and must have a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">lone pair of electrons</span></u> some have a negative charge. They attack other molecules with a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">positive charge</span></u> or δ+. Examples include OH-, NH3, H2O, CN-</span></div>"
"<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">what are radicals</span>""<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">As seen before, these are atoms with an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">unpaired electron</span></u> and incredibly reactive! Initially formed via <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">UV light</span></u>. Examples include Cl•, CH3• and Br</span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">•&nbsp;</span>"
alkenes hydbridisationsp2
what r structural isomers<br>"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">the same <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">molecular formula</span></u> but a different <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">structural formula</span></u></span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">There are 3 types of structural isomers – 1. Chain</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">&nbsp;2. Positional&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">3. Functional Group</span></div>"
what r chain isomers"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Same molecular formula but different arrangement of the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">carbon skeleton</span></u>.</span></div>"
what r functional grp isomers"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Same molecular formula but different functional group.</span></div>"
how to make sure u drew an isomer"to see check the longest continous chain of carbons<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.53.29.png"">"
what are stereoisomers"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Stereoisomers</span></u> have the same structural formula but a different arrangement of atoms in space. An example is cis/trans isomerism</span></div><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.54.29.png""><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><br></span></div>"
cissame side
transopp side
when u get cis trans isomerism"when u hv 2 diff atoms or grps of atoms on the same carbon<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.57.22.png"">"
whats optical isomerism"type of steroisomerism<br><div>Optical isomers are <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">mirror images</span></u> of each other and have a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">chiral</span></u> carbon atom. A <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">chiral</span></u> molecule has <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">4</span></u> different groups attached to a carbon atom. We can arrange these groups in <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2 different ways</span></u> which forms 2 different molecules. We call these <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">enantiomers</span></u>.<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">These <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">enantiomers</span></u> are mirror images of each other and are <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">non-superimposable</span></u>. No matter which way you turn them they will <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">not overlap</span></u>.</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.58.31.png""><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.59.29.png""></div>"
chiral center"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 09.59.49.png""><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 10.00.26.png"">"
alkane features"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Alkanes are <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">saturated hydrocarbons</span></u> with the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">general formula</span></u> of CnH2n+2</span></div><div><font color=""#0000ff"">-only hydrogen and carbon</font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff"">-saturated so single bond</font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff"">-cycloalkanes r slightly diff hv gen formula of cnh2n</font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff"">still saturated and functional group isomer of alkenes</font></div>"
how to get alkanesfractional distilation<br>alkanes found in crude oil (Mixture of diff length of hydrocarbons)
how does fractional distillation work"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The vaporised oil enters the column and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">rises</span></u> through the trays. The <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">longest hydrocarbons</span></u> don’t vaporise and run down to the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">bottom</span></u>.</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">shortest hydrocarbons</span></u> won’t even condense at 20°C and so comes off as a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">gas</span></u> at the top of the column.</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">•The column has a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">temperature gradient</span></u>. It is cooler at the top. As the vapour rises parts of the mixture condense at different temperatures. </span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">•This is because there are <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">different chain lengths</span></u> and hence different boiling points.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">•The fractions are drawn off at different levels.</span></div></div>"
how fractional distillation used"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 10.03.38.png"">"
whats crackingbreaking long chain alkane into shorter hydrocarbons<br><br>thermal<br>catalytic&nbsp;
why cracking over fractional distillation"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Fractional distillation produces a variety of fractions however <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">demand</span></u> for each fraction varies.Heavier fractions like fuel oil are in <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">lower demand </span></u>than lighter fractions such as petrol which are more <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">valuable</span></u>.-&gt; u can get by cracking</span></div>"
thermal cracking"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">High</span></u> temperature and pressure used</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">1000°C</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> 70atm of pressure<br></span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Alkenes are used to make <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">polymers</span></u> such as plastics. E.g. Propene is used to make poly(propene)</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Products of thermal cracking are mainly <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">alkenes</span></u></span></div></div>"
catalytic cracking"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">High</span></u> temperature and&nbsp;&nbsp; slight pressure used</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">450°C</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> A <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">zeolite</span></u> catalyst is used which helps to lower the temperature needed<br></span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Products of catalytic cracking are mainly <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aromatic</span></u> hydrocarbons useful in fuels for vehicles. (Aromatic compounds contain benzene rings which is 6 carbons in ring with a delocalised electron system).</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Using a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">zeolite</span></u> catalyst lowers the temperature and pressure needed for cracking to occur.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">This <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">lowers costs</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">speeds</span></u> up the process.</span></div></div>"
complete combustion of alkanes"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Alkanes</span></u> burn in oxygen completely (plentiful supply of O2) to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)Alkanes are good <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">fuels</span></u> as most burn readily to produce large amounts of <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">energy</span></u>.</span></div><div><div>The complete combustion of butane</div> <div>C4H10(g) + 6.5O2(g) -&gt;&nbsp;4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)</div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">They are used to power <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">vehicles</span></u> and most of Britain’s <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">electricity</span></u> is made using the combustion of alkanes.</span></div></div>"
incomplete combustion of alkanes"<div>The incomplete combustion of butane producing CO and/or CO2</div> <div>C4H10(g) + 4.5O2(g) -&gt; 4CO(g) + 5H2O(g)</div> <div>C4H10(g) + 5.5O2(g) -&gt; 2CO(g) + 2CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)</div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">When alkanes burn with a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">limited</span></u> oxygen supply we produce <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">carbon monoxide</span></u> (CO) and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">carbon</span></u> (soot). <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Incomplete combustion</span></u> occu</span><span style=""color: white;"">rs.</span></div></div>"
alkenes details"<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">unsaturated hydrocarbons</span></u> with the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">general formula</span></u> of CnH2n<br></span>-have at least one double covalent bond (Unsaturated)<br>- double bonds hv high electron density so alkenes are fairly reactive<br>-cylcloalkenes have 2 fewer hydrogens then their straight chain ver of the same molecule"
what do alkenes attack"electrophiles due to double bond<br><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The double bond has a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">high density of electrons</span></u> and is attacked by electrophiles. The electrophile <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">adds</span></u> to the molecule.</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">An electrophile is an electron pair <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">acceptor</span></u>. They are <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">deficient in electrons</span></u> and are attracted to the double bond.</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">All electrophilic addition reactions the curly arrow starts with the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">double bond</span></u>. In this generic example E+ represents the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">electrophile</span></u>. It is accepting electrons.</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 10.12.36.png""></div></div>"
whats the test of alkenes"decolouration of bromine water<br><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Adding bromine water to an alkene causes a colour change from <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">brown-orange to colourless</span></u></span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Bromine (brown-orange) is the electrophile and adds to the alkene forming a dibromoalkane (colourless).</span></div></div><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 10.13.19.png""><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><br></span></div>"
how r alcohols produced"<div><font color=""#0000ff"">1. hydration of alkene (eletrophillic addition)</font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff"">-H3PO4, 330c, 6mPA</font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff"">or&nbsp;</font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff"">-Steam, concentrated H2SO4</font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff""><br></font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff"">2. reduction of aldehyde</font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff"">- NaBH4 (in water) LiAlH4 (in dry ether)</font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff""><br></font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff"">3. nucleophillic substiution (halogenoalkane)</font></div><div><font color=""#0000ff"">-heat under reflux with H2o (slow) or aq OH-(fast)</font></div><div><span style=""color: white;"">=--dd-</span></div>"
what is hydrogenation"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Hydrogenation is the addition of hydrogen to a double bond. alkene to alkane</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 10.15.30.png""></div><div>requires h2 and a nickel catalyst</div><div>its electrophillic addition</div>"
how are halogenalkanes made"alkenes react with hydrogen halides<br><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">EXAMPLE - HBr follows the same mechanism as addition of a halogen.</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 18.18.23.png""></div><div><br></div><div><br></div><div>electrophillic addition of alkene (seen above)</div><div>-where HX acts as a base</div><div><br></div><div>nucleophillic subsitition of alcohol</div><div>-OH- (aq) fast or</div><div>-H2O slow</div>"
what happens when u react hydrogen halides with unsymmetrical alkenes?<br>result : TWO DIFFERENT PRODUCTS MADE<br>what is it dependent on : STABILITY OF CARBOCATION INTERMEDIATE (more alkyl groups bonded to the C+ more stable as the alkyl groups push the e- toward C+ stablises it)
what markownikoff rule"<div>The <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">major product</span></u> when we add a hydrogen halide to an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">unsymmetrical alkene</span></u> is where the hydrogen adds to the carbon with the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">most number of hydrogens</span></u> attached already.</div><div>for example</div><div>primary carbocation -&gt; less stable -&gt; formed less often forming a minor product</div><div>secondary -&gt; more stable -&gt; formed more often forming major product</div>"
how are alkenes oxidised"<font color=""#0000ff"">oxidised into<br><br>DIOL<br>- cold dilute acifified KmO4<br><br>CO2 + H2O&nbsp;<br>ALDEHYDE -&gt; CARBOXYLIC ACID<br>KETONE<br>- hot cold KMnO4</font>"
what happens if alkenes oxidised using cold dilute acificed maganate (vii) ions"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 19.16.57.png"">"
what happens if alkenes oxidised using hot cocentrationed acificed maganate (vii) ions"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Using a hot concentrated oxidising agent is powerful enough to <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">break</span></u> the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">C=C</span></u> bond in alkenes</span></div><div><div>We actually form a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">variety of different products</span></u> however it is dependant on what groups represent R1, R2, R3 and R4 in the diagram.</div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The R groups could by any alkyl group or a hydrogen for example. This formula essentially represents <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">all possible alkenes</span></u>.</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The products of these reactions can actually help us to identify an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">unknown alkene</span></u>!</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 19.17.42.png""></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The C=C double bond breaks and 2 molecules with a C=O group is formed. We call this a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">carbonyl</span></u> group.</span></div></div><div><div>If R1, R2, R3 and R4 are <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">alkyl</span></u> (hydrocarbon) groups then we make a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">ketone</span></u>. If one them is a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">hydrogen</span></u> (H) then an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aldehyde</span></u> is formed.</div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">If an aldehyde is produced this can be <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">oxidised further</span></u> to a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">carboxylic acid</span></u>!</span></div></div><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 19.18.24.png""><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><br></span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">If we have a situation where both R groups on the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">same side</span></u> of the doubleReminder in the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">red box</span></u>.</span>In this situation an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aldehyde</span></u> is formed (methanal) however this is easily <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">oxidised further</span></u> to make <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">carbon dioxide</span></u> (CO2) and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">water</span></u> (H2O).</div></div><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-17 at 19.19.04.png""><br></div>"
what are halogenoalkenes?alkanes with 1 or more halogens attached to it<br>functional group -X in its homologous series
what kind of bond do halogenalkanes hvpolar bonds
what are halogenalkanes attacked by"nucleophiles bc they are more electronegative than carbon so they pull electrons towards themselves<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-18 at 19.52.44.png"">"
how does halogenalkanes react with hydroxide ions?via nucleophillic substituion.<br>the nucleophile will attack the carbon andw ill replace the halogen on the haloalkane<br>C-X breaks both electrons move from the bond to the halogen. A new bond is formed between OH- ion and carbon.<br>alchol is formed
wat r the conditions of nucelophilic substitution&nbsp;"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">1.<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Warm</span></u> aqueous sodium hydroxide (source of OH- ions)</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">2.Carried out under <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">REFLUX</span></u></span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">3.<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Primary</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Secondary</span></u> haloalkanes under go this type of reaction</span></div>"
how does halogenalkanes react w hydroxide ions using ethanol solvent?"via elimination<br><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">1. The OH- will attack the hydrogen on a carbon <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">adjacent</span></u> to the carbon with the halogen on.&nbsp;</span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">OH</span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">-</span><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> acts as a </span><u style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">base</span></u><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> (proton acceptor) forming water.</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">2. The electrons in the bond move to form a double bond between two carbons.</span></div></div><div><div>3. The C-X (X represents a halogen) breaks, <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">both</span></u> electrons move from the bond to the halogen.&nbsp;</div></div><div>alkene formed&nbsp;</div><div>h+ and cl- is eliminated</div><div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Overall - CH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">CHClCH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;""> + KOH -&gt;</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp;CH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">CHCH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;""> + H</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">O + </span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">KCl</span></div></div><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-18 at 19.58.31.png""><span style=""font-weight: bold;""><br></span></div>"
what happens when water is used as a solvent in a halogenoalkane reaction and hydroxide ionits substition<br>alcohol is formed<br>OH- acts as a nucleophile
what happens when ethanol is used as a solvent in a halogenoalkane reaction and hydroxide ionOH- acts as a base<br>alkene is formed<br>elimination reaction
whats the condtion for halogenoalkane reaction w oh- ion using ethanol solvent"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">1.<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Warm</span></u> ethanolic sodium hydroxide (source of OH- ions)</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">2.Carried out under <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">REFLUX</span></u></span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">3.<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Secondary</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Tertiary</span></u> haloalkanes under go this type of reaction</span></div>"
what kind of mechanism occur in secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes?"<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><b><u>S</u>_<u>N</u><u>1 mechanisms</u>&nbsp;</b></span>"
"how do&nbsp;<b style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><u>S</u>_<u>N</u><u>1 mechanisms</u>&nbsp;occur</b>"they occur when there is an attack on the carbocation of a compound where a group breaks off
"what are&nbsp;&nbsp;<b style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><u>S</u>_<u>N</u><u>1 mechanisms</u>&nbsp;</b>"reaction mechanisms
"what happens during&nbsp;<b style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><u>S</u>_<u>N</u><u>1 mechanisms</u>&nbsp; ?</b>""- halogen breaks off<br>- carbocation intermediate is formed<br>- the Y- ion can attack either from above or below forming 2 different isomers. theres only 1 reactant in the rate determining step hence the 1 in Sn1<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-18 at 20.25.27.png"">"
whats S_n2 mechanism?optical activity and reaction mechanism
what halogenoalkanes peform S_n2 mechanism?primary<br>secondary
how is S_n2 mechanism and S_n1&nbsp;mechanism different?only a single isomer for S_n2 mechanism + two reactants in the rate<br>two isomers for S_n1 + 1 reactant in the rate
what happens during S_n2 mechanism"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">In an SN2 mechanism <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">both</span></u> Y- and CH3CH2X are reacting in <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">one step</span></u> and the nucleophile always attacks the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">opposite side</span></u> of the leaving group.</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">This means we only produce <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">1 product</span></u> which happens with mainly with <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">primary</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">secondary</span></u> halogenoalkanes</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-18 at 20.28.39.png""></div></div>"
how does halogenoalkanes make nitriles"reaction with cyanide ions<br><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">A nucleophile will attack the δ+ Carbon and will <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">replace the halogen</span></u> on the haloalkane. Hence the reason why we say substitution.</span></div><div><div>The C-X (X represents a halogen) breaks, <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">both</span></u> electrons move from the bond to the halogen. A new bond is formed between CN- ion and carbon</div></div><div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Overall reaction</span></div> <div>R-X + KCN -&gt;&nbsp;RCN + KX</div></div><div>r = alkyl&nbsp;</div><div>x = halogen</div><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-18 at 20.30.25.png""><br></div>"
whats the conditions for halogenoalkanes to react with cyanide ions"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">1.<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Warm</span></u> ethanolic potassium cyanide (source of CN- ions)</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">2.Carried out under <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">REFLUX</span></u></span></div>"
halogenoalkanes also reaxt with <span class=cloze>[...]</span> via nucleophillic substitution toohalogenoalkanes also reaxt with <span class=cloze> ammonia</span> via nucleophillic substitution too<br> halogenoalkanes also reaxt with ammonia via <span class=cloze>[...]</span> substitution toohalogenoalkanes also reaxt with ammonia via <span class=cloze> nucleophillic</span> substitution too<br> what happens when halogenoalkanes also react with ammonia via nucleophillic substitution?"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Ammonia will attack the δ+ Carbon and will <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">replace the halogen</span></u> on the haloalkane forming an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">intermediate</span></u>.</span></div><div><div>In the second phase of this reaction another molecule of <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">NH</span></u><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span></u> acts as a base by reacting with <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">hydrogen</span></u>. The reason why we need <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">excess</span></u> NH3.</div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">An <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">amine</span></u> is produced (identified by a fishy smell). Ammonium ion (NH4+) is also produced.</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Overall - CH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">CH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Cl + 2NH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp;-&gt;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">CH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">CH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">NH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp;+ NH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">4</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Cl</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-18 at 21.08.37.png""><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp;</span></div></div>"
halogenoalkanes become <span class=cloze>[...]</span> as we go down the grouphalogenoalkanes become <span class=cloze> more reactive</span> as we go down the group<br> this is due to increased bond strength<br><br>less bond enthalpy mean more reaction
what is a diseaseill health<br>which cause reduced effectivness of functions<br>comes with a set of symptoms<br>poor physical metal or social wellbeing
what is an infectious diseasdisease caused by a pathogen<br>which causes harm to health of a host<br>can be passed from one organism to another
what are pathogensparasitic disease causing microorganisms<br>can be prokaryote/eukaryote<br><div> <div> <div> <div><ul><li> 1) Gain entry to host</li><li> 2) Colonise host tissue&nbsp;</li><li><div>3) Damage host’s tissues&nbsp;</div></li><li>4) Resist host defences&nbsp;</li></ul><ol> </ol></div> </div> </div></div>
how do u prevent disease from spreadingu needa break the disease transmission cycle
types of pathogensvirus<br>bacteria<br>protoctist<br>fungi
viruses structurenon cellular<br>no plasma membrane cytoplasm ribosomes<br>only dna or rna<br>capsid which is a protective coat<br>lipid envelope<br>some proteins may be present<br>
are all viruses parasiticYES<br>
how does virus reproduceinfecting living cells
how virus infect ppl"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Uses protein synthesising machinery </span>of host cell to replicate&nbsp;</div></li> </ul><div><ol><li>virus binds to cell</li><li>incoperate viral DNA/RNA into cell</li><li>use host cell robosomes ER golgi to produce viral proteins</li><li>produce more viruses</li></ol></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what do bacteria not hv"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">No membrane-bound organelles </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">No nucleus<br> </span>DNA lies free in cytoplasm in the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">nucleoid region&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what do bacteria hv"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Plasma membrane </div> </li> <li> <div>Cytoplasm </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Peptidoglycan cell wall </span></div> </li> </ul> <div>→ made of chains crossed linked by amino acids </div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">70S ribosomes </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Circular DNA </span></div> </li> <li> <div>DNA is <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">naked </span></div> <div>→not associated with proteins </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div><br></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what is a causative agent of cholerabacteria<br>specifically vibrio cholerae
what is a causative agent of malaria"<div> <div> <div> <div>Protoctist</div><div>specifically&nbsp;<span style=""font-style: italic;"">Plasmodium falciparum /&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-style: italic;"">P. malariae / P. vivax / P . ovale&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what is a causative agent of HIV/AIDS<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>(Retro)virus&nbsp;</div><div>specifically Human Immunodeficiency Virus&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is a causative agent of tuberculosis"bacteria<br>spec&nbsp;<span style=""font-style: italic;"">Mycobacterium tuberculosis / M. bovis&nbsp;</span>"
whats endemic?"<div> <div> <div> <div>a disease that exists permanently in a particular region or population.&nbsp;<br></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Malaria is a constant worry in parts of Africa.&nbsp;</span><br><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Malaria is endemic in Africa.&nbsp;</span><br><ul> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
whats epidemic?"<div> <div> <div> <div style=""display: inline !important;"">An outbreak of disease that attacks many peoples at about the same time and may spread through one or several communities. </div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Remember the SARS epidemic in Malaysia?&nbsp;</span></div><ul> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
whats pandemic?"<div> <div> <div> When an epidemic spreads throughout the world.&nbsp;</div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">HIV/AIDS is a worldwide pandemic.&nbsp;</span><br><ul> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
what does vibrio cholerae look like<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>comma-shaped, has flagella, motile&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
how is cholera transmissed"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Large numbers of <span style=""font-style: italic;"">Vibrio cholerae </span>found in faeces of infected people </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Infected person</span>'s faeces / sewage contaminates food / water. </div> </li> <li> <div>Houseflies land on faeces and contaminate food / water. </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Uninfected person </span>eats contaminated food / water.&nbsp;<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-19 at 13.09.01.png""></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how is cholera treated"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Oral rehydration therapy </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Use <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">oral rehydration solution (ORS) </span>that has glucose/salts </div> </li> <li> <div>Ensure that fluid intake = fluid losses in urine &amp; faeces </div> </li> <li> <div>Maintain osmotic balance of blood and tissue fluids </div> </li> <li> <div>Almost all treated patients survive&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how is cholera prevented"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Proper sewage treatment </span>to break transmission cycle </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Chlorinate water </span>to kill bacteria before drinking </div> </li> <li> <div>Drink bottled water </div> </li> <li> <div>Vaccination only offers short-term protection (no longer recommended)&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
why is it so hard to vaccinate against cholera?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Many different strains of <span style=""font-style: italic;"">Vibrio cholerae </span></div> </li> <li> <div>E.g. classical/O1, El Tor, O139 </div> </li> <li> <div>Each strain that caused a pandemic is more virulent than the last </div> </li> <li> <div>Adults can be reinfected and have cholera again&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"in humans what percentage of malaria is caused by&nbsp;<span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-style: italic; font-weight: 700;"">Plasmodium falciparum ?</span>"75%
"in humans what percentage of malaria is caused by&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">P. malariae, P. ovale</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">, </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">P. vivax</span><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-style: italic; font-weight: 700;"">?</span>"20%
how is malaria transmitted?thru a vector<br><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Organism that carries a disease from<br> a person to another/from an animal to a huma&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats the malaria vector?"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Insect vector = <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Female </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Anopheles </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">mosquitoes&nbsp;</span></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Only female take blood meals to supply eggs with nutrients -Mos takes a blood meal from <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">infected person </span>and then takes a blood meal from <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">uninfected person spreading the disease</span></div> </li> <li> <div>Also through blood transfusions, use of unsterile needles, and can pass across placenta from mother&nbsp;<br></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
how is malaria prevented"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• No vaccine for malaria</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">1. Use prophylactic / preventive drugs </span>(e.g. chloroquine)</div><div>&nbsp; <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">2. Reduce no. of mosquitoes </span></div> <div>• E.g. spray insecticides, spread oil over water surface to prevent mos breeding, breed fish that feeds on larva, spray <span style=""font-style: italic;"">Bacillus thuringiensis </span>bacteria to kill mos larvae etc. </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">3. Prevention of bites </span>(best method) </div> <div>• E.g. use mos nets, soak mos nets in insecticide, mos repellent, don’t expose skin when mos are active at dusk etc.&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the problems with treating/preventing malaria?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Drug-resistant </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Plasmodium </span>(e.g. chloroquine) </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Insecticide-resistant mosquitoes </span>(e.g. DDT)<br> – DDT is most common insecticide<br> – Insecticides used also killed other organisms </div> <div>– Reduction in mos also caused lost in immunity to malaria in local community, making them more vulnerable when the diseased returned. </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Global warming </span>has resulted in spread of mos<br> – More warm areas for mos to breed and survive&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
structure of HIV"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>It is a <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">RNA virus / retrovirus </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Contains single-stranded RNA as genetic material </div> </li> <li> <div>Has <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">protein coat</span>/capsid made of capsomeres </div> </li> <li> <div>Has outer <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">viral envelope </span>made of a lipid </div> <div>bilayer and proteins (mostly derived from host) </div> </li> <li> <div>Has viral glycoproteins on the outer envelope&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what enzymes does HIV have"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Reverse transcriptase </span>uses RNA as template to produce DNA<br> in host cell </div> </li> <li> <div>Protease: cleave/process new viral proteins&nbsp;</div> </li> </ol> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how is HIV/AIDS spread"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Through direct exchange of body fluids </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Virus is unable to survive out the human body </div> </li> <li> <div>Semen, vaginal fluids during <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">unprotected </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">sexual intercourse </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Blood transmission </span>via infected blood transfusion / contaminated </div> <div>syringes </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Mother to baby transmission </span>across placenta / breast milk </div> </li> <li> <div>Having multiple sex partners allows virus to spread more widely </div> </li> <li> <div>Anal intercourse increases risk of transmission </div> </li> <li> <div>Bcs less natural lubrication in the rectum, so rectal lining is easily damaged and virus can pass from semen into blood&nbsp;<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-19 at 13.22.06.png""></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what kind of infection does HIV/AIDS hv"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Slow infection </span>- virus can stay dormant for years&nbsp;</div></li><li> <div> <div> <div> </div></div></div></li><li>Changes surface proteins to hide from immune system&nbsp;<br></li><ul> </ul> </ul></div> </div> </div> "
how does HIV/AIDS infect the body"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>HIV infects cells of the immune system, called <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">helper T cells </span></div> </li> <li> <div>This destroys helper T cells / cause their no. to decrease </div> </li> <li> <div>Body is unable to defend itself against infection&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what r aids"Collection of opportunistic diseases associated with immunodeficiency caused by HIV =&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">AIDS&nbsp;</span>"
what are opportunistic infections caused by AIDS/HIV"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>oral thrush </div> </li> <li> <div>pneumonia </div> </li> <li> <div>cancers like Kaposi's sarcoma </div> </li> <li> <div>neurogenerative diseases like dementia </div> </li> <li> <div>tuberculosis (TB) </div> </li> <li> <div>malaria </div> </li> <li> <div>malnutrition </div> </li> <li> <div>weight loss </div> </li> <li> <div>diarrhoea </div> </li> <li> <div>fever </div> </li> <li> <div>sweating</div></li></ul></div></div> </div>"
how is HIV prevented"no vaccine<br><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Use of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">condoms, femidoms </span>and dental dams </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">HIV testing </span>promoted in high-risk groups (e.g. male homosexuals, prostitutes, injecting drug users, sex partners) </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Contact tracing </span>= where the person with HIV traces people he/she has put at risk of infection and that person to provided a HIV test </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Discourage needle sharing </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Donated blood is screened for HIV and heat-treated to kill viruses&nbsp;</span></div> </li><li><span style=""font-weight: 700;""> <div> <div> <div> </div></div></div></span></li><li>Control mother-to-child transmission using drugs<br></li><li><div style=""display: inline !important;""><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">HIV+ women </span>of high income countries <span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">should avoid breastfeeding </span>to reduce transmission </div><div>– BUT HIV+ women of low/middle income countries advised to breastfeed bcs milk provides protection against other diseases and lack of clean water outweigh the risk of transmitting HIV&nbsp;</div></li><ul> </ul> </ul></div> </div> </div> </div> "
problems w treating/preventing HIV<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>In Africa, difficult to reach people for widespread testing in rural areas </div> </li> <li> <div>Many symptomless carriers </div> </li> <li> <div>Drugs are expensive and cause many side-effects<br> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
what causes TB = tuberculosis in humans"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">M. tuberculosis&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what causes TB in cows, humans and other mammals?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">M. bovis&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how is TB transmitted"<div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-style: italic;"">Mycobacterium tuberculosis </span></div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">By aerosol infection </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Pathogen is in airborne droplets </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Infected person </span>coughs / sneezes </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Uninfected person </span>breathes in droplets&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul><div> <div> <div> <div> <span style=""font-style: italic;"">Mycobacterium bovis</span><br><ul><li><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">From infected cows / cattle</span></li><li>Eat undercooked contaminated <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">meat</span></li><li>Drink unpasteurised <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">milk containing bacteria&nbsp;</span></li></ul><ol> </ol></div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
where does TB mainly infectlungs<br>secondary in lymph nodes, bones and gut
how is TB prevented"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Bacillus Calmette</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">–</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Guérin (BCG) vaccine -&gt;&nbsp;</span>Derived from <span style=""font-style: italic;"">M. bovis</span></div></li> <li> <div>Isolate patients which are in infectious stages </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Contact tracing </span>and <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">TB screening </span>for early </div> <div>detection to prevent spread </div> </li> <li> <div>Cattle tested for TB </div> </li> <li> <div>Pasteurise milk&nbsp;<br></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
what r problems in treating/preventing TB"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Multiple drug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) and extremely drug- resistant TB (XDR-TB) </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Drugs like isoniazid is no longer effective </div> </li> <li> <div>Not completing the course of treatment / partial treatment of TB in patients increase risk of drug resistance&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
is there a correlation between AIDS and TB in terms of global distribution? why?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Countries where many people have AIDS, also have a high death rate from TB </div> </li> <li> <div>Many people who have AIDS die of TB </div> <div>WHY? </div> </li> </ul> <ul> <li> <div>TB is an opportunistic infection </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">People who are HIV+ are more susceptible to TB </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Dormant TB more likely to become active if person is HIV+&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are antibiotics"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Antibiotics are drugs used </div> </li> <li> <div>Usually derived from microorganisms </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">To kill / inhibit growth of bacteria </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Without harming the infected organism&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"what are&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Bacteriocidal </span>antibiotics&nbsp;&nbsp;"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>kill bacteira&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
"what are&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Bacteriostatic&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>antibiotics&nbsp;&nbsp;"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>inhibit bacterial growth&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
does antibiotic work on virusesnop
how does antibiotics work<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis </div> </li> <li> <div>Inhibit activity of specific membrane protein / glycoprotein </div> <div>→Block binding to cells </div> </li> </ul> <ul> <li> <div>Block specific enzyme action </div> </li> <li> <div>Inhibit protein synthesis and nucleic acid synthesis </div> <div>→Target enzymes that bacteria have, but humans don’t&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
how does bacteira form cell walls in absence of penicillin"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Bacterial cell wall is made of <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">peptidoglycans </span></div> </li> <li> <div>When bacteria cells grow, it secretes <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">autolysins </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Autolysins make tiny holes to allow the cell wall to stretch </div> </li> <li> <div>New <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">peptidoglycans </span>formed </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Peptidase </span>enzyme form <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">cross-links between peptidoglycan chains </span></div> </li> <li> <div>To form cell wall&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how does bacteira form cell walls in presense of penicillin"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Penicillin inhibits peptidase enzyme </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Stops formation of cross-links between peptidoglycan </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">polymers in the cell wall </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Autolysins make tiny holes to allow the cell wall to stretch </div> </li> <li> <div>New peptidoglycans formed but <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">cannot link up </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Cell wall is weaker </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Cells walls <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">unable to withstand </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">turgor pressure </span></div> </li> <li> <div>When water moves in by osmosis, bacteria <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">lyses and dies </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Penicillin is only effective when bacteria is growing&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how do we know which antibiotic is effective w diff bacteria"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Antibiotic discs can be placed in a Petri dish with growing bacteria. </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">The diameter of the zone of inhibition shows how effective the antibiotic is.&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
why does antibiotics no affect viruses"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Viruses <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">do not </span>have peptidoglycan cell wall, have protein coat </div> </li> <li> <div>Viruses <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">do not </span>have their own metabolism, rely on host cells </div> </li> <li> <div>Viruses have <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">no </span>cell structure / very few organelles →<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Very few sites for antibiotic to act on </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Viruses <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">live inside host cells</span>, out of reach of antibiotics&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how do antivirals work<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Usually target viral glycoproteins on viral envelope </div> <div>→Prevent binding of virus to host cells </div> <div>→Inhibit specific viral enzymes&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is antibiotic resistance"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>When antibiotics are no longer effective against bacteria </div> </li> <li> <div>Antibiotic resistance can be spread from bacteria to bacteria</div> </li></ul><div> <div> <div> <div> E.g.<br>Many bacteria have <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">penicillinase </span>enzymes can break down penicillin<br>Become <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">resistant to penicillin&nbsp;</span><br><ol><ul> </ul> </ol></div> </div> </div></div>&nbsp;<br><ul> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
what is antibiotic resistance caused by"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Spontaneous/random <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">mutation </span>in bacteria </div> </li> <li> <div>Mutation cause change in protein/production of new protein that cannot be targeted by antibiotic</div></li></ul><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Natural selection </span>enables resistance genes to spread </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Antibiotic is the selection pressure </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Antibiotics only kill bacteria that are non-resistant </div> </li> <li> <div>Resistant bacteria survive and reproduce </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Antibiotic resistance gene is spread </span>to next gen and other bacteria&nbsp;<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-19 at 13.53.39.png""></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div><ul> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
where are antibiotic resistance genes found inplasmids
what is vertical transmission<div> <div> <div> <div>→pass plasmids down to daughter cells by binary fission</div><div>a way to spread antibiotic resistance&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div>
what is horizontal transmission<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→pass plasmids to other bacteria by conjugation&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Bacteria can spread antibiotic resistance genes</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is the main cause that ppl do to cause antibiotic resistance"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Due to patients <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">not completing the course of antibiotics given </span></div> <div>→Treatment may not be completed so some susceptible bacteria survives </div> <div>→Bacteria replicates and have increased chance of mutation / becoming resistant&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is the consequence of antibiotic resistance"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Consequences: </span></div> <ul> <li> <div>Bacteria can carry several antibiotic resistance genes </div> </li> <li> <div>Develop <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">multiple resistance </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Become a “super bug” </div> </li> <li> <div>E.g. methicillin-resistant <span style=""font-style: italic;"">Staphylococcus areus </span>(MRSA) →Wounds do not heal and are continually infected with bacteria </div> </li> </ul> <ul> <li> <div>Cannot be killed/inhibited by common antibiotics </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Need to be controlled by stronger antibiotics&nbsp;</span></div> </li><li><div>→But we are running out of antibiotics!&nbsp;</div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the solution ro antibiotic resistance"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>We need to discover more <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">new antibiotics </span></div> </li> <li> <div>We can slightly alter/modify chemical structure of known antibiotics to produce new antibiotic </div> </li> <li> <div>BUT discovery takes time! </div> </li> <li> <div>The best solution is.... </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">PREVENTION! </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Only use antibiotics when prescribe </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Always finish the course of antibiotics&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how to determine if a compound is a primary,secondary or teritary alcohol?"by the amount of alkyl attached to the carbon in an alchohol compound<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-19 at 13.57.56.png"">"
how are chloroalkanes made?alcohol + PCl5 or HCL<br>
whats the reaction when u use PCl5 with an alcohol to make chloralkanes"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">ROH + PCl5&nbsp;-&gt;&nbsp;RCl + HCl + POCl3</span></div>"
whats the reaction when u use HCl with an alcohol to make chloralkanes"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">ROH + HCl&nbsp;-&gt;&nbsp;RCl + H2O</span></div>"
"whats the reaction when u use HCl with<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">&nbsp;2-methylpropan-2-ol</span>&nbsp;to make<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">&nbsp;&nbsp;2-chloro-2-methylpropane</span>""<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">(CH3)3COH + HCl&nbsp;-&gt;&nbsp;(CH3)3CCl + H2O</span></div><div><div>2-chloro-2-methylpropane can be purified via <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">distillation</span></u>.</div></div>"
what kind of alcohol react fastest w Hcl and slowestteritary -&gt; fastest<br>primary -&gt; slowest
what kind of reaction make haloalkanes&nbsp;&nbsp;subsitituion reaction&nbsp;<br>made from alcohol<br>alcohol and halide ion and acid catalyst
how is hydrogen bromide made"NaBr + H₂SO₄&nbsp;to form hydrogen bromide<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-19 at 14.04.48.png"">"
how are iodoalkanes made"<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">reacting an alcohol with PI3&nbsp;</span><br><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Using phosphorus triiodide (PI</span></u><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span></u><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">)</span></u></span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">3ROH + PI3&nbsp;-&gt;&nbsp;3RI + H3PO3</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">PI3 is made <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">in situ</span></u> under reflux with the alcohol, ‘red phosphorous’ and iodine.</span><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;""></span></u></div></div>"
what is red phosphorus"<div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><b><u>i</u></b>s just a specific form of phosphorous. Similar to carbon which comes in the form of graphite, diamond, buckminsterfullerene etc…</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><span style=""color: white;"">Red phosphorous can be found in matches</span><br>"
how are alkenes made"<span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">dehydration</span></u> of alcohols<br></span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">We can <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">eliminate</span></u> water from an alcohol to produce an alkene. Because we are eliminating water we call it <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">dehydration</span></u>.</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">The reaction involves the use of an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">acid catalyst</span></u> either <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">sulfuric acid</span></u> (H2SO4) or <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">phosphoric acid</span></u> (H3PO4)</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">C2H5OH -&gt; C2H4 + H2O</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"">Ethanol -&gt;&nbsp;Ethene + Water</span></div></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(0, 0, 255);""><br></span></div><div><b><span style=""color: rgb(0, 255, 0);"">*For <u>non-primary</u> alcohol chains longer than 3 carbons you can get different <u>positional isomers</u> of alkenes and you may also get <u>cis/trans isomers</u> so <u>check</u> for this too.</span></b></div>"
what r alkenes used for"<div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">Alkenes are mainly used to make <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">polymers</span></u> which can be used to make <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">plastics</span></u>.</span></div>"
what does the dehydration of non primary alcohols lead 2?"3 different alkenes<br><div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">The double bond can be formed <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">either side</span></u> of the carbon that did have the –OH hydroxyl group.</span></div><div><font color=""#0700ff"">1. but-1-ene</font></div><div><font color=""#0700ff"">2.Z-but-2-ene (cis isomer)</font></div><div><font color=""#0700ff"">3. E-but-2-ene (trans isomer)</font><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-19 at 14.11.44.png""></div>"
what happens if alcohol react with sodium"<span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">form a salt and hydrogen gas&nbsp;<br></span><div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">Sodium dissolves in alcohol to form a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">colourless solution</span></u> which, when evaporated, leaves a white solid powder. <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Fizzing</span></u> is observed (hydrogen gas)</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">The powder that remains after evaporation is <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">sodium alkoxide</span></u>. E.g. if ethanol is used then sodium ethoxide would be made.</span></div></div><div><div>2C2H5OH + 2Na -&gt; 2C2H5O-Na+ + H2 (<span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">The ethoxide ion is a strong <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">base</span></u> so this reaction can be used to <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">test for alcohols</span></u>.)</span></div></div>"
why do we combust alochols and what happensthey r a fuel<br>can genenerate energy<br>burn readily with light blue flame<br>when burned react w o2 in the air to make co2 and h2o<br>alcohol is being oxidised<br><div>C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) -&gt;&nbsp;2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)</div>
what happens when we oxidise alcoholsit can oxidise to aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids
how are alcohols oxidisedusing acificied potassium dichromate which is mild so is reduced itself<br>it will turn from orange to green (Cr3+)
what happens when primary alcohols oxidsed"<div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">can be oxidised to <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aldehydes</span></u> then <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">carboxylic acids</span></u></span></div>"
what happens when secondary alcohols oxidsed"<div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">can be oxidised to <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">ketones</span></u></span></div>"
what happens when teritary alcohols oxidsed"<div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">Can’t be oxidised using dichromate only <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">burning</span></u> them</span></div>"
what is used in oxidation of alcohols"<div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Distillation</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">reflux</span></u> is used in oxidation of alcohols</span></div>"
what happens when u oxidise primary alcohol (process)"<div><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Primary alcohols</span></u> are oxidised but the products produced are dependent on the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">method</span></u> followed. Here we can represent the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">oxidising agent</span></u> as <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">[O]</span></u>.</div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">Oxidation of primary alcohols produces an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aldehyde</span></u> then carboxylic acid. However it is <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">difficult </span></u>to just extract an aldehyde when heating just in a boiling tube.&nbsp;</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">We have to <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">remove</span></u> the aldehyde from the oxidising agent when it forms. We use <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">distillation</span></u> (aldehyde has lower boiling point than alcohol).</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">Use <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">reflux</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">excess</span></u> oxidising agent to make carboxylic acid</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Reflux</span></u> allows strong heating without losing <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">volatile </span></u>reactants and products. Aldehydes <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">evaporate</span></u>, <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">condense</span></u> and fall back into the flask.&nbsp;</span></div></div>"
what happens when u oxidise secondary alcohol (process)"<div><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Secondary alcohols</span></u> are oxidised to ketones. It is difficult to oxidise ketones further. Here we can represent the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">oxidising agent</span></u> as <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">[O]</span></u>.</div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">Use <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">reflux</span></u> and an oxidising agent to make a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">ketone</span></u>.</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">A <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">secondary</span></u> alcohol like propan-2-ol will oxidise to <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">propanone</span></u> when acidified potassium dichromate is added.</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-19 at 14.22.24.png""></div></div>"
how are esters made"<div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">An ester is produced when we react a carboxylic acid with an alcohol and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">sulfuric acid catalyst</span></u>.</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">have the -coo- group</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-19 at 14.24.33.png""></div>"
what kind of hydroxyl group react with iodine"<div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Hydroxyl</span></u> groups that have a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">methyl group</span></u> attached (CH3) react with iodine.</span></div>"
what happens in the iodoform reaction"<div>If we heat iodine in the presence of an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">alkali</span></u> with a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">methyl hydroxyl</span></u> group then we will produce a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">yellow precipitate</span></u> called <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">triodomethane</span></u> (CHI3)</div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(7, 0, 255);"">A <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">methyl hydroxyl</span></u> group only exists in the following circumstances.</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-19 at 14.25.48.png""></div></div>"
"what is tollens' reagent?"used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones
"how to make tollens' reagent?""1. silver nitrate colourless solution<br>2. add a few drops of naoh (pale brown precipitate forms)<br>3. add a few drops of dilute ammonia until precipitate dissolves<br>tollens' reagent formed"
"how do we use tollens' reagent?""add aldehyde/ketone to tollens' reagent and place in hot water bath<br>no bunsen burner cuz aldehydes and ketones are flammable"
"wat happen when u put aldehyde in tollers' reagent""tollers' reagent contains [Ag(NH3)2]+ and is added <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">warm</span></u> to…<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Aldehydes</span> – Tollens’ reduced to <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">silver</span></u> which coats the inside of the flask.</div>"
"wat happen when u put ketone in tollers' reagent""<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Ketones </span>– No silver precipitate formed</div>"
"whats fehling's solution?"oxidising agent used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones
"how to make fehling's solution"cu2+ ions dissolved in sodium hydroxide
what happens if u put aldehydes in fehling solution"<div>Add <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">warm</span></u> to…</div> <div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Aldehydes</span> – Fehling’s solution goes from <span style=""color: rgb(0, 32, 96); font-weight: bold;"">blue solution</span> to <span style=""color: rgb(192, 0, 0); font-weight: bold;"">brick red precipitate</span> (Cu2O)</div>"
what happens if u put ketones in fehling solutionremains blue
"whats brady's reagent""<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">or 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNPH)</span></u> can be used to identify a carbonyl group</span>"
"how does brady's reagent identify carboxyl group?""<div>Brady’s reagent is dissolved in <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">concentrated sulfuric acid</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">methanol</span></u> and then added to the substance under test. If a carbonyl group exists a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">bright orange precipitate</span></u> is formed. It only reacts with C=O in <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aldehydes and ketones</span></u> NOT in carboxylic acids.&nbsp;</div>"
"what is the organe precipitate produced during brady's reagent""<div>The orange precipitate is a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">derivative of a carbonyl compound</span></u> which is purified through <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">recrystallisation</span></u>. Different carbonyl compounds produce different derivatives. They have different <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">melting points</span></u> so they can be identified against a library of <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">known</span></u> melting points.</div>"
what happens if we heat iodine in the presense of an alkai with a methyl carbonyl group?"yellow precipitate called triodomethane produced<br><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">RCOCH3 + 3I2 + 4OH- -&gt; RCOO- + CHI3 + 3I- + 3H2O</span></div>"
what circumstances does a methyl carbonyl group exist?in ethanal<br>in ketones w methyl group
what happens when aldehydes and ketones reduced"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">to form primary and secondary alcohols</span>"
how aldehyde and ketone reduce"<div><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Reducing agents</span></u> such as solutions NaBH4 (also known as sodium borohydride OR sodium tetrahydridoborate(III)) <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">dissolved in methanol and water</span></u> can reduce aldehydes and ketones.<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 14.01.01.png""></div>"
how are hydroxynitrles made"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Potassium cyanide</span></u> reacts with carbonyl compounds&nbsp;</span>"
what kinda reaction produces hydroxynitriles"<div>The reaction occurs via a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">nucleophilic addition</span></u> mechanism so this means a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">nucleophile</span></u> (CN- ion) attacks the carbonyl group (C=O) and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">adds on</span></u> to make a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">hydroxynitrile</span></u> (molecule contains OH and CN group)</div>"
what does the cn- nucleophile come from?"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Potassium cyanide</span></u> is used to produce the CN- ions. When dissolved in <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">acidic solution</span></u> is dissociates to form K+ and CN- ions. – <span style=""font-weight: bold;"">KCN -&gt;</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp;K</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">+</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;""> + CN</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">-</span></span><span style=""font-weight: bold;""></span></div>"
STEPS ON HOW HYDROXYNITRILES is made"<div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Potassium cyanide</span></u> is used to produce the CN- ions. When dissolved in <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">acidic solution</span></u> is dissociates to form K+ and CN- ions. – <span style=""font-weight: bold;"">KCN -&gt;</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp;K</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">+</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;""> + CN</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">-</span></span><span style=""font-weight: bold;""></span></div></div><div>The CN- ion comes from potassium cyanide and is a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">nucleophile</span></u>.</div><div><div>Immediately, 2 electrons in the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">double bond</span></u> transfer to the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">oxygen</span></u>.</div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">The <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">positively charged carbon</span></u> is attacked by the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">cyanide ion</span></u>. The lone pair of electrons are donated from the CN- ion.</span></div></div><div><div><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Hydrogen cyanide</span></u> (HCN) can also be used and reacts in the same way as KCN however <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">no acid</span></u> is required.</div></div><div><div>As the potassium cyanide used is <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">acidified</span></u> there is a supply of <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">H</span></u><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">+</span></u><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;""> ions</span></u> in solution.</div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">A <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">hydroxynitrile</span></u> is formed&nbsp;</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 14.19.57.png""><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 14.37.26.png""></div></div>"
what happens if u use an unsymmetrical ketone or aldehyde to make hydroxynitrile?"APART FROM METHANAL<br>a mixture of&nbsp;<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">enantiomers</span></u> is produced (optical isomerism)</span>"
what is the generic equation for aldehyde in making hydroxynitrile"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">RCHO(aq) + KCN(aq) + H+(aq) -&gt; RCH(OH)CN(aq) + K+(aq)</span></div>"
what is the generic equation for ketone in making hydroxynitriles"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">RCOR’(aq) + KCN(aq) + H+(aq) -&gt;&nbsp;RCR’(OH)CN(aq) + K+(aq)</span></div>"
whats the risk in using potassium cyanide and wat can we do to reduce it"<div>Potassium cyanide is an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">irritant</span></u> and is very dangerous if <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">ingested</span></u> or <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">inhaled</span></u>.</div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">When potassium cyanide reacts with <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">moisture</span></u> it can form the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">toxic</span></u> gas, <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">hydrogen cyanide</span></u>.&nbsp;</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Wear a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">lab coat</span></u> to prevent clothing contamination</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Use a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">fume cupboard</span></u> to prevent exposure to toxic fumes</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Wear <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">safety goggles</span></u> at all times</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Wear <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">gloves</span></u> while handling</span></div></div>"
whats racemeates"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Molecules with <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">planar</span></u> profiles such as <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">double bonds</span></u> in C=C and C=O can make <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">racemic products</span></u>.&nbsp;</span></div>"
how do racemate reactions occur?"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">These reactions occur where we have an attack on the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">carbonyl group</span></u> (C=O) of <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">unsymmetrical ketones</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aldehydes</span></u></span></div><div>- nucleophile attack either above or below of the planar molecule resulting in 2 different&nbsp;<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">enantiomers</span></u></div><div><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 16.29.53.png""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;""><br></span></u></div><div>- even chance of nucleophile attacking from the top and bottom</div><div>- likely to get a 50/50 mixture of both enantiometers and hence we produce a racemic mixture of products<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 16.33.36.png""></div>"
what functional group does carboxylic acid hv-cooh<br>BOTH C=O AND O-H
what can make carboxylic acids"nitriles, aldehydes and primary alcohols<br>hydrolysis of nitriles<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 16.39.10.png"">"
what happenb when carboxylic acid react w carbonates?they are weak acids and react w carbonates to form carbon dioxide, salt and water<br>react with bases to form salts<br><br>weak acid so equ lies to the left as it dissociates poorly
ethanoic acid and magnesium"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2CH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">COOH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">(</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aq</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">)</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;""> + Mg</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">(s)</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp;-&gt;&nbsp;</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">(CH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">COO)</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">-</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Mg</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2+</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">(</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aq</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">)</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;""> + H</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">2(g)</span></div>"
ethanoic acid and ammonia"<div><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">CH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">COOH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">(</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aq</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">)</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;""> + NH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3(</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aq</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">)</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp;-&gt;</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">&nbsp;CH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">COO</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">-</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">NH</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">4</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">+</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">(</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">aq</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">)</span><span style=""font-weight: bold;""></span></div>"
HOW ESTER MADE"REACTING ALCOHOL WITH CARBOxylic acids and acid anhydires<br>SULFURIC ACID CATALYST<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 16.44.14.png"">"
how are acylchlorides formed"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Carboxylic acids</span></u> can be reduced to <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">alcohols</span></u> they can also be reacted to form <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">acyl chlorides</span></u></span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Carboxylic acids can be reduced however a powerful reducing agent must be used such as <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">LiAlH</span></u><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">4</span></u> (lithium aluminium hydride) in a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">dry ether solvent</span></u>.</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 20.45.34.png""></div></div>"
how can ester be hydrolysed2 ways<br>base hydrolysis<br>acid hydrolysis<br>
what happens during acid hydrolysis of ester"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Here we use <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">dilute acid</span></u> to split an ester into a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">carboxylic acid</span></u> and an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">alcohol</span></u>.&nbsp;</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">We can use <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">sulfuric or hydrochloric acid</span></u> and the reaction is conducted under <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">reflux</span></u></span></div></div><div><div>The addition of more water shifts equilibrium <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">right</span></u>, more <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">product</span></u> produced<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 20.46.33.png""></div></div>"
what happens during base hydrolysis of ester"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Here we use <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">dilute base</span></u> to split an ester into a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">carboxylate ion</span></u> and an <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">alcohol</span></u>.&nbsp;</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">We can use <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">sodium hydroxide</span></u> and the reaction is conducted under <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">reflux</span></u></span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 20.47.25.png""></div></div>"
what r esters used for"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><b>Perfumes and food flavorings - </b>esters hv sweet smells</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><u><b>Solvents-</b></u><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> esters r polar so polar compounds dissolve in ester. also low bp and evaporate easy can make glue</span></span><br></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><u><b>Plasticisers</b></u>-flexible</span><br></div>"
how to make aliphatic amines"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Aliphatic amines are made by reacting a halogenoalkane with <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">excess</span></u> ammonia</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><br></span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">for example chloroethane reacting w excess ammonia</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">1. ammonia is nucleophile that attacks carbon</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">2. intermediate is formed (alkylammonium salt) with N+ and Cl-</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">3. a second ammonia gives up a lone pair of electrons to hydrogen which breaks away from the salt</span></div><div><font color=""#150924"">4. primary amine and ammonium chloride salt is produced</font><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 20.50.47.png""></div>"
how are addition polymers formedjoined alkenes<br>since alkene is a monomer
types of polymersnatural -&gt; proteins and natural rubber<br>synthetic -&gt; poly(ethane) poly(propene)<br>
poly(alkenes) are <span class=cloze>[...]</span> molecules, normally non- polar and hence are unreactive.poly(alkenes) are <span class=cloze> saturated</span> molecules, normally non- polar and hence are unreactive.<br> poly(alkenes) are saturated molecules, normally <span class=cloze>[...]</span> and hence are unreactive.poly(alkenes) are saturated molecules, normally <span class=cloze> non- polar</span> and hence are unreactive.<br> how is poly(propene made)"we need the propene monomer<br>double bond opens up to form polymer<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-20 at 20.57.13.png"">"
what are plasticers"added to polymers to change their properties<br><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Plasticisers makes polymers more <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">flexible</span></u>. Plasticisers slide <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">between</span></u> the polymer chains pushing them apart.&nbsp;</span></div>"
how do plasticers work"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">This weakens the <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">intermolecular forces</span></u> between the chains. The chains can now <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">slide</span></u> over each other more and makes the polymer easier to <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">bend</span></u>.</span></div>"
which polymer is plasticers usually used on and why"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Plasticisers are commonly used to change the properties of <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">PVC – Poly(</span></u><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">chloroethene</span></u><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">)</span></u></span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">PVC is made from long, closely packed polymer chains that are <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">hard</span></u> but <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">brittle</span></u>. Used in drain pipes.</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">PVC that has <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">plasticiser </span></u>added is more <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">flexible</span></u>. It is used for electrical cable insulation and clothing.</span></div></div>"
can polymers be disposed of easily"NAUR<br>not biodegradable<br>so hv go landfill<br><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Landfill is useful for disposing of plastics that –</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Are too difficult to recycle</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Are too difficult to separate from other materials</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•There is not enough plastic to extract to make it economically viable</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Landfill is not very <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">sustainable</span></u> as large amounts of land is needed.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">It is becoming increasingly <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">expensive</span></u> to use land for waste disposal and there is a need to <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">reduce</span></u> our reliance on landfill.</span></div></div>"
what govern the properties of polymersIMF<br>INTER MOLECULAR FORCES
why are some polymer chains weaker"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Polymer chains which are shorter and have a lot of branching tend to be more <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">flexible</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">weaker</span></u>. They are also known as <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">low density</span></u> poly(ethene)</span></div>"
why are some polymer chains stronger"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Polymers with no or very little branching and long tend to be more <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">rigid</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">stronger</span></u>. They are also known as <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">high density</span></u> poly(ethene)</span></div>"
why does polar polyalkenes hv diff properties than non polar polyalkenes"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Some polyalkenes have <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">halogens</span></u> e.g. Chlorine (PVC – common name polyvinyl chloride). They can form stronger <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">permanent dipole-dipole</span></u> forces and so will different properties to other non-polar polyalkenes.</span></div>"
how are most plastics made and why is this bad? is there alternatives?"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Most plastics are made from crude oil which is a <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">non-renewable</span></u> source.</span></div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Recycling means reducing dependency on <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">crude oil</span></u> for making plastics.</span></div><div><br></div>"
what are the ways plastics are disposed?"<div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Other plastics can be&nbsp;<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">cracked</span></u>&nbsp;(polymer chain broken up) into&nbsp;<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">monomers</span></u>&nbsp;to be used as an&nbsp;<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">organic feedstock</span></u>&nbsp;for plastics or other substances</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Some plastics like poly(propene) can be&nbsp;<u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">re-moulded</span></u>&nbsp;into new objects.</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Incineration</span></u> (burning) waste plastics could be used if the plastics <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">can’t</span></u> be recycled. The energy from burning it can be used to <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">generate electricity</span></u>. the gases can be acidic so can be removed by flue gas scrubbers&nbsp;</span></div></div>"
how are biodegradable polymers made"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Biodegradable polymers are made from both <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">oil fractions</span></u> and <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">renewable</span></u> sources e.g. starch. They are <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">more expensive</span></u> than non-biodegradable plastics.</span></div>"
how do biodegrable plastics decomposenaturally<br>under certain conditions by orgasnisms&nbsp;
what r biodegradable polymers used for"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">We can <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">use</span></u> biodegradable plastics in frost protective sheets for plants. They are made from poly(ethene) and starch grains. Over time <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">micro-organisms</span></u> break down the polymer meaning you don’t need to dispose of the old sheeting.</span></div>"
advantage of biodegradable polymers"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Crude oil doesn’t need to be used which is non-renewable</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""><u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">Plant based</span></u> polymers degrade and release CO2. This CO2 is absorbed by plants used to make the polymer.</span></div></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Over the product’s lifetime plant based polymers use <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">less energy</span></u> to make than oil based ones.</span></div></div>"
how alkene -&gt; dihaloalkeneHalogen + 20 degree
how alkene -&gt; diolacidified KMnO4 at 20 c
how alkene -&gt; alcoholsteam h3po4 catalyst 60 atm 300c
how alkene -&gt; alkaneH2 Ni catalyst 150 c
how alkene -&gt; haloalkaneHX + 20c<br>x being halogen
how carboxylic acid -&gt; alcohol&nbsp;LiAlH4 forms primary alcohol
how aldehyde -&gt;&nbsp;carboxylic acidk2cr2o7 h2sO4 reflux
how aldehyde -&gt;&nbsp;alcoholNaBH4 in methanol and water
how ketone -&gt;&nbsp;alcoholNaBH4 in methanol and water
how alkane -&gt;&nbsp;haloalkaneX2 uv light<br>x = halogen
how haloalkane -&gt; alkeneKOH ethanol reflux
how alcohol -&gt; haloalkaneNaX H2SO4 20C<br>X = HALOGEN
how alcohol -&gt; iodoalkaneI2<br>red phosphorus<br>reflux
how alcohol -&gt; aldehydek2cr2o7 h2so4<br>heat primary alcohol in distillation kit
how alcohol -&gt; alkeneconc h2so4/h3po4&nbsp;<br>heat
how alcohol -&gt; ketonek2cr2o7&nbsp;<br>h2so4<br>heat primary alcohol in reflux kit
how haloalkane -&gt; alcoholwarm naoh h2o&nbsp;<br>reflux
how haloalkane -&gt; primary aminenh3 + heat
how haloalkane -&gt; carboxylic acid&nbsp;mg, dry ether, co2 in dilute acid
how haloalkane -&gt; nitrilekcn<br>ethanol reflux
how nitrile -&gt; primary amine"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">LiAlH4 + dilute H2SO4 <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">OR</span></u> H2, Ni/Pt catalyst, high temp and pressure <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">OR</span></u> Na, ethanol, reflux</span></div>"
how nitrile -&gt; carboxylic aciddilute hcl relfux
how aldehyde/ketone -&gt; hydroxynitrileKCN<br>H2SO4<br>AT 20 C
how aldehyde/ketone -&gt; esterCONC H2SO4<br>ALCOHOL<br>HEAT<br>AND CATALYST
how ester -&gt; carboxylic acid"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Dilute H2SO4, H2O, reflux and catalyst <u><span style=""font-weight: bold;"">OR</span></u> dilute NaOH, reflux</span></div>"
how ester -&gt; alcohol"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Dilute acid or alkali, reflux</span></div>"
how alcohol -&gt; ester"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Carboxylic acid, acid catalyst, heat OR acyl chloride</span></div>"
what does the cardiovascular system include"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">blood vessels, blood, lymph and heart&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what does the cardiovascular system needed for<div> <div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div>Transport of nutrients and oxygen around the body </div> </li> <li> <div>Disposal of waste materials (e.g. carbon dioxide, urea) </div> </li> <li> <div>Transport of hormones </div> </li> <li> <div>Circulate WBCs and RBCs in body&nbsp;</div> </li> </ol> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is a closed double circulatory system"<div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Closed</span></div><div><ul><li><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Blood is contained in blood vessels</span></li><li>Always in heart, arteries, veins or capillaries</li></ul></div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Double</span></div><div>• Blood <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">passes through the heart twice</span>, in one complete circuit&nbsp;</div> </div> </div>"
1 circut =&nbsp;2 circulations
what are the 2 circulations of a closed double circulatory system called"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Pulmonary circulation<br> </span>• Circulation through the lungs and heart </div> <div>2) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Systemic circulation </span></div> <div>• Circulation through other parts of the body and heart except the lungs&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are other circulatory systemsopen circulatory system<br>closed circulatory system
what types of blood vessels are thesearteries<br>capillaries<br>veins
where does arteries carry bloodaway from heart
where does veins carry bloodtowards heart
what type of blood do arteries transportoxygenated blood<br>except for pulmonary artery
what type of blood do veins transportdeoxygenated blood<br>except pulmonary vein
what do capillaries dothey are&nbsp;<b>exchange vessels</b>&nbsp;and they&nbsp;<b>bring blood close to tissues</b><br>they&nbsp;<b>link</b>&nbsp;arteries and veins
blood travels at a <span class=cloze>[...]</span> pressure in arteriesblood travels at a <span class=cloze> high</span> pressure in arteries<br> what is the apperance of arteriesoval shape (well defined)<br><b>thick wall<br>narrow lumen</b>&nbsp;in relation to wall thickness<br>folded endothelium
the arterial wall has <span class=cloze>[...]</span> layers.&nbsp;the arterial wall has <span class=cloze> 3</span> layers.&nbsp;<br> what are the 3 layers of the arterial wall"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Tunica intima / endothelium </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Tunica media </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Tunica externa&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ol> </div> </div> </div></div>"
Tunia intima has squamous epithelial cells which mean they are <span class=cloze>[...]</span>. It is one cell thick and has a smooth surface facing lumen.Tunia intima has squamous epithelial cells which mean they are <span class=cloze> flattened</span>. It is one cell thick and has a smooth surface facing lumen.<br> Tunia intima has squamous epithelial cells which mean they are flattened. It is one cell thick and has a <span class=cloze>[...]</span> facing lumen.Tunia intima has squamous epithelial cells which mean they are flattened. It is one cell thick and has a <span class=cloze> smooth surface</span> facing lumen.<br> Tunia intima has squamous epithelial cells which mean they are flattened. It is <span class=cloze>[...]</span> cell thick and has a smooth surface facing lumen.Tunia intima has squamous epithelial cells which mean they are flattened. It is <span class=cloze> one</span> cell thick and has a smooth surface facing lumen.<br> Tunia intima has <span class=cloze>[...]</span> epithelial cells which mean they are flattened. It is one cell thick and has a smooth surface facing lumen.Tunia intima has <span class=cloze> squamous</span> epithelial cells which mean they are flattened. It is one cell thick and has a smooth surface facing lumen.<br> Which arterial layer is the thickest?Tunica media
What are the 3 components of Tunia mediacollagen fibers<br>elastic fibers<br>smooth muscle
What are the 2 components of Tunia externacollagen fibers<br>elastic fibers
whats the role of collagen fibers in arteries"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Withstand high pressure<br> </span>• Prevents rupture of vessels&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the role of elastic fibers in arteries"<div> <div> <div> <div>• Allows vessel to <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">stretch </span>to <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">withstand high pressure</span><br></div> <div>• When blood enters at lower pressure, it <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">recoils </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">to give blood a small push to increase blood pressure </span></div> <div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Smooths out pulsatile flow </span>→<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Maintains blood pressure&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div>"
whats the role of smooth muscle in arteries"<div> <div> <div> <div>– many layers</div></div></div><div> <div> <div>Maintains blood pressure </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Contract / relax </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">to change volume of blood delivered </span>Keep blood moving forward&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div>"
what happen when smooth muscle relax-arterioles become wide (vasodilation)<br>-increase blood flow
what happen when smooth muscle contract-arterioles become narrow (vasoconstriction)<br>-reduce blood flow
Arteries further from the heart have less elastic fibers and <span class=cloze>[...]</span>Arteries further from the heart have less elastic fibers and <span class=cloze> more smooth muscles</span><br> Arteries further from the heart have <span class=cloze>[...]</span> elastic fibers and more smooth musclesArteries further from the heart have <span class=cloze> less</span> elastic fibers and more smooth muscles<br> why do arterioles have less elastic fibers and more smooth muscles?- further from heart (less pressure)<br>- smooth muscles can contract/relax to&nbsp;<b>contract volume of blood flow</b><br>-become narrower so&nbsp;<b>blood flow slows down</b><br>(allows more time for exchange of gases and nutrient w tissues)
whats the vessel diameter of capillaries7um
what are capillaries made of"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">e<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">ndothelial / squamous epithelial cells&nbsp;</span></span>"
what are the features of capillariesone cell thick&nbsp;<br>has pores/gaps between endothelial cells<br>small lumen diameter<br>high surface area
how are capillaries adapted for its functions"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">One-cell thick<br> </span>→Short diffusion distance </div> <div>2) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Has pores/gaps </span>between endothelial cells&nbsp;</div><div>→Allow some smaller components of blood to pass through</div><div> →E.g. water, ions, glucose →Allow formation of tissue fluid&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>3) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Small lumen diameter<br> </span>→Slows down flow of blood<br> →Bring RBC close to body tissue&nbsp;</div><div>→Blood pressure in capillaries are lower </div> <div>4) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Have high surface area<br> </span>→Network of capillaries form a capillary bed&nbsp;</div><div>→Allows more exchange&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
Veins transport blood with <span class=cloze>[...]</span> blood pressure. This means the blood flow is slower than in artery.Veins transport blood with <span class=cloze> low</span> blood pressure. This means the blood flow is slower than in artery.<br> Veins transport blood with low blood pressure. This means the blood flow is <span class=cloze>[...]</span> than in artery.Veins transport blood with low blood pressure. This means the blood flow is <span class=cloze> slower</span> than in artery.<br> whats the apperance of veins"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Irregular/ flattened oval shape </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Wide lumen </span>in relation to thickness of wall </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Thin tunica media<br> </span><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">less elastic tissue and less smooth muscle </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Tunica intima / endothelium not wavy&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the features of veins"<div> <div> <div> <div>1. Presence of <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">valves </span></div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">To prevent backflow of blood </span></div> <div>→Ensure blood flows towards heart </div> <div>→Valves close the pathway when blood travels opposite direction </div> <div>2. Surrounded by <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">skeletal muscles </span></div> <div>→When skeletal muscle contracts, pushes blood towards heart</div></div></div> </div>"
Blood is made up of <span class=cloze>[...]</span> plasma, 1% platelets and WBC and 44% RBCBlood is made up of <span class=cloze> 55%</span> plasma, 1% platelets and WBC and 44% RBC<br> Blood is made up of 55% plasma, <span class=cloze>[...]</span> platelets and WBC and 44% RBCBlood is made up of 55% plasma, <span class=cloze> 1%</span> platelets and WBC and 44% RBC<br> Blood is made up of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and WBC and <span class=cloze>[...]</span> RBCBlood is made up of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and WBC and <span class=cloze>44%</span> RBC<br> whats tissue fluid used formedium for exchange of materials between cells and blood<br>bathes cell
how tissue fluid formedformed from blood plasma<br>returned to blood evetually<br><br>due to diff in&nbsp;<b>blood pressure</b>&nbsp;at arterial n venus ends (arterial being<b>&nbsp;higher</b>)<br>results in&nbsp;<b>blood plasma flowing out</b>&nbsp;into tissue spaces through&nbsp;<b>endothelial pores</b>&nbsp;of capillaries to form tissue fluid. Since gaps are&nbsp;<b>small&nbsp;</b>filtration occurs so larger plasma proteins and RBC&nbsp;<b>cannot pass through</b>
wat is composition of tissue fluid<div> <div> <div> <div><ul><li>no rbc</li><li>lower wbc</li><li>more macrophages</li><li>no platelets</li><li>fewer large proteins</li><li>lower conc of O2</li><li>lower concentration of glucose</li><li>higher conc of CO2</li><li>low pressure</li></ul></div> </div> </div> </div>
how is tissue fluid eventually returned to blood"<b>blood pressure&nbsp;</b>at venous end is&nbsp;<b>lower&nbsp;</b>than arterial end<br><b>solute concentration is higher</b>&nbsp;in blood plasma of capillary due to large dissolved proteins so at venous end some tissue fluid returns to blood<br>so at venous end&nbsp;<b>some tissue fluid returns to blood<br><br></b><br><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">90% </span>is returned to blood, through endothelial gaps<br> <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">10% </span>moves into lymphatic vessels and becomes <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">lymph<br> </span>→Lymph is returned to blood via the subclavian veins near heart&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
where WBC and RBC made"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Both made in the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">bone marrow </span></div> </li> <li> <div>From same type of stem cells</div> </li><li><div>MULTIPOTENT STEMCELL&nbsp;</div></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what type of WBC are there"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1) Phagocytes</span></div> </li><li><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">&nbsp;2) Lymphocytes&nbsp;</span></div></li> </ol></div> </div> </div></div>"
whats oil rigoxidation is loss of electrons<br>reduction is gain of electrons
whats reducing agentslose electron (oxidise)<br>
whats oxi agentsgain electron (is red)
oxidation ox statesincrease<br>
reduction ox statesdecrease
group 1 ox numalways +1
group 2 ox numalways +2
aluminium ox numalways 3+
hydrogen ox num+1 except in hydrides where its -1
chlorine ox num-1 except if its in a compound with F and O its +1
fluorine ox num-1
oxygen ox num-2<br><br>except its -1 in peroxides<br>and +2 in OF2
whats disproportionation reaction"when compound simultanerously oxidised and reduced<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-01-23 at 18.36.48.png"">"
what happens during transpiration"<div> <div> <div> <div><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>During transpiration, water vapour diffuse out via stomata </div> </li> <li> <div>Water evaporates from mesophyll cell wall surface and <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">lowers water potential at leaves </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Roots have a higher water potential than leaves →Water moves <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">down water potential gradient </span>→Water moves up xylem from roots to leaves&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what does transpiration from leaves createtranspiration pull
how is tension set up in xylem vessels"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">H bonds </span>between water molecules<br> <span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Cohesion </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">between water molecules </span>in xylem and in root cells </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Adhesion </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">of water molecules to cellulose </span>cell wall of xylem vessels&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
where does cohesion occur"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">between water molecules </span>in xylem and in root cells&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
where does adhesion occur"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">of water molecules to cellulose </span>cell wall of xylem vessels&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens as a result of transpiration pull cohesion and adhesion?<div> <div> <div> <div>- creates a continuous column of water extending from root hairs to stomata in leaves</div><div>-cohesion adhesion causes cohesion tension in transpiration pull which causes trees to reduce in girth when rate of transpiration high</div><div>- capillary action occurs enabling substances to move against gravity in narrow space</div> </div> </div> </div>
what blocks apoplast pathway and what happens as a result"<div> <div> <div> <div>• Casparian strip at the endodermis block apoplast pathway&nbsp;</div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>So water and ions must pass through endodermal cell&nbsp;</div><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Solutes are actively pumped across membranes into xylem vessels in root</span></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>→This active transport requires ATP&nbsp;</div><div>• Xylem vessel in root increases<br></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>in solute concentration </div> <div>→Lowers water potential </div> <div>→Results in more water uptake from soil </div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Increases hydrostatic pressure </span>at roots&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what r factor affecting rate of transpiration"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Humidity<br> </span></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Wind speed </span>/ air movement<br> </div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Water availability&nbsp;</span></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Temperature<br> </span></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Light intensity<br> </span></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Stomatal aperture&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
How does wind speed affect transpiration?→ In moving air, water vapour around leaf is blown away&nbsp;<div>→ Steeper water potential gradient&nbsp;</div><div>→ High rate of diffusion of water vapour</div>
How does water availability affect transpiration?→ More water available, steeper water potential gradient<div>→ Reduced water availability causes stomata to close</div>
How does temperature affect transpiration?"→ Rise in temperature, higher kinetic energy<div><span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">&nbsp;→ Higher rate of evaporation from surface of spongy mesophyll</span></div><div><span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">&nbsp;→ BUT at very high temp, stomata closes so transpiration slows</span><br></div>"
How does light intensity affect transpiration?→ At high light intensity, increased rate of transpiration bcs stomata opens more widely due to increased photosynthesis&nbsp;<div>→ BUT at very high light intensity, stomata closes to prevent loss of water so transpiration (and photosynthesis) slows<br></div>
How does stomatal apereture affect transpiration?→ Increased width of stomatal aperture allows more water vapour to diffuse out
How to measure rate of transpiration"<div>Use a potometer!</div><div><br></div><div>Assume that</div><div><span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">• Rate of transpiration = rate of water uptake by plant</span><br></div><div><br></div><div>• Only an approximation, as not all water taken up is used for transpiration</div>"
When we perform a procedure to measure the rate of transpiration using a potometer, we always cut the leafy twig (or whatever plant) under water. Why?"<div>Cut underwater to prevent&nbsp;<span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">formation of airlock in xylem that will slow down transpiration</span></div>"
Process of measuring transpiration using a potometer1. Leafy twig cut in a slanted manner<div><div>2. Twig is put into a potometer</div><div>3. Expose to different sets of conditions for a set time</div><div>4. Measure rate of air bubble movement / rate of water loss</div></div>
What are Xerophytes<div>• Plants living in places</div><div><br></div><div>• With short supply of water</div><div><br></div><div>• Which have special structural adaptations&nbsp;</div><div>→ To reduce water loss</div>
What are the special adaptations for Xerophytes?1. Rolled leaves<div>2. Hairs / Trichomes<br></div><div>3. Sunken stomata<br></div><div>4. Stomata only present on lower/inner surface<br></div><div>5. Reduced no. of stomata<br></div><div>6. Leaves reduced to spines / needles / small leaves<br></div><div>7. Thick waterproof, waxy cuticle<br></div><div>8. Multilayered epidermis<br></div>
How does having rolled leaves help Xerophytes?"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ • Exposing tough, waterproof cuticle to the outside air</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Stomata enclosed in humid space within the rolled leaves&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">→ Reduce water potential gradient</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">between air space and atmosphere&nbsp;</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p>"
How does having hair/ trichomes help Xerophytes?"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ • In folded inner surface</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Trap water vapour / layer of moist air near leaf surface&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">→ Reduce water potential gradient between air space and atmosphere ❜</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p>"
How does having sunken stomata help Xerophytes?"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ • Minimise effect of wind</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Traps layer of moist air&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">→ Reduce water potential gradient&nbsp;<span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">between air space and atmosphere ❜</span></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p>"
How does having stomata only present on lower/inner surface help Xerophytes?"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ → Shaded, so reduces evaporation</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Surface directly exposed to air currents has no stomata ❜</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;""><br></p>"
How does having leaves reduced to spines or small leaves help Xerophytes?"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ → Reduces surface area for&nbsp;<span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">transpiration</span></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">Also added protection against animals ❜</span></p>"
How does having thick waterproof waxy cuticle help Xerophytes?"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ • Increased distance decreases rate of diffusion</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Reduced water loss through cuticle</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Waxy, reflects some light</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Reduces heat load and evaporation ❜</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">— <a href=""pdfefile:/bio%209700/7%20Transport%20in%20Plants.pdf?page=66&amp;rect=%7B%7B27.696000000000002,%20167.93000000000001%7D,%20%7B310.24799999999993,%20208.37%7D%7D&amp;id1=FC760733A0086B4DACC588B31A9FD0E1"">Page 66</a></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p>"
How does having multilayered epidermis help Xerophytes?"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ • Increase distance for diffusion of water vapour to cuticle ❜</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">— <a href=""pdfefile:/bio%209700/7%20Transport%20in%20Plants.pdf?page=66&amp;rect=%7B%7B27.696000000000002,%2058.463999999999999%7D,%20%7B319.12800000000004,%2047.04000000000002%7D%7D&amp;id1=FC760733A0086B4DACC588B31A9FD0E1"">Page 66</a></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p>"
Whats translocation give an example"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ • Transport of assimilates within plants&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">→ Soluble, organic substances&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">→ Made by plant via photosynthesis&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">→ E.g. sucrose, amino acids ❜</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">— <a href=""pdfefile:/bio%209700/7%20Transport%20in%20Plants.pdf?page=69&amp;rect=%7B%7B27.336000000000006,%20304.31999999999994%7D,%20%7B392.52000000000004,%20127.70000000000005%7D%7D&amp;id1=FC760733A0086B4DACC588B31A9FD0E1"">Page 69</a></p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;""><br></p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">Transported as phloem sap in phloem tissue</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p>"
Whats source"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ • Site of synthesis of photosynthetic products</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Loading of sucrose into sieve tube here</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• E.g. Mesophyll cells of leaves ❜</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">— <a href=""pdfefile:/bio%209700/7%20Transport%20in%20Plants.pdf?page=70&amp;rect=%7B%7B12.263999999999999,%20369.21399999999994%7D,%20%7B410.47399999999993,%20113.28600000000006%7D%7D&amp;id1=FC760733A0086B4DACC588B31A9FD0E1"">Page 70</a></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p>"
Whats sink"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ • Site where assimilates are stored/used for growth</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Unloading of sucrose from sieve tube here</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• E.g. Roots, fruits, tubers</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Can be below / above source ❜</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">— <a href=""pdfefile:/bio%209700/7%20Transport%20in%20Plants.pdf?page=70&amp;rect=%7B%7B12.263999999999999,%20153.13999999999993%7D,%20%7B676.66139999999996,%20361.58484000000004%7D%7D&amp;id1=FC760733A0086B4DACC588B31A9FD0E1"">Page 70</a></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p>"
Phloem sap is able to flow <span class=cloze>[...]</span> in a sieve tube. However it can only be in one direction at a timePhloem sap is able to flow <span class=cloze> upwards or downwards</span> in a sieve tube. However it can only be in one direction at a time<br> Phloem sap is able to flow upwards or downwards in a sieve tube. However it can only be in <span class=cloze>[...]</span> at a timePhloem sap is able to flow upwards or downwards in a sieve tube. However it can only be in <span class=cloze> one direction</span> at a time<br> What occurs near mesophyll cellsPhotosynthesis to produce glucose and convert it into sucrose
How does sucrose go from mesophyll cells to mesophyll cells nearer to phloem?1. Symplast pathway<div>2. Apoplast pathway</div>
What is required to load sucrose into sieve tubes?Since its active transport it requires ATP
How is sucrose loaded into sieve tubes"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ • H + ions in companion cells are pumped out&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">→ Into mesophyll cell wall / intercellular space&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">→ By a proton pump</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• H + ions gradient builds up&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• H + ions re-enter companion cells down conc. gradient&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">→ using the sucrose/H + co-transporter protein&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">→ Sucrose is cotransported together into companion cell&nbsp;<span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">against conc. gradient</span></p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">H+ ions transported via facilitated diffusion. Sucrose transported via secondary active transport</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">Sucrose diffuse from companion cell into sieve tube down the concentration gradient via plasmodesmata</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">— <a href=""pdfefile:/bio%209700/7%20Transport%20in%20Plants.pdf?page=72&amp;rect=%7B%7B38.351999999999997,%20174.64400000000001%7D,%20%7B319.51599999999996,%20186.476%7D%7D&amp;id1=FC760733A0086B4DACC588B31A9FD0E1"">Page 72</a></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p>"
How is the translocation of sieve tubes when its near source"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ → Presence of sucrose lowers water potential in sieve tube element</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">Water enters sieve tubes via osmosis</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">&nbsp;Down water potential gradient</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">&nbsp;Increases hydrostatic pressure in sieve tube near source ❜</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">— <a href=""pdfefile:/bio%209700/7%20Transport%20in%20Plants.pdf?page=75&amp;rect=%7B%7B15.672000000000002,%20193.46000000000004%7D,%20%7B355.41999999999985,%20237.67399999999998%7D%7D&amp;id1=FC760733A0086B4DACC588B31A9FD0E1"">Page 75</a></p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;""><br></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p>"
How is the translocation of sieve tubes when its near sink"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">❛ • Lower hydrostatic pressure i<span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">n sink&nbsp;</span></p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;""><span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">→ Due to removal of sucrose</span></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Phloem sap with sucrose move from region of high to low hydrostatic pressure&nbsp;</p><p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">→ Down hydrostatic pressure&nbsp;<span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">gradient</span></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">Towards sink</span></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">• Result in mass flow = movement of fluids down a hydrostatic pressure gradient ❜</p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">— <a href=""pdfefile:/bio%209700/7%20Transport%20in%20Plants.pdf?page=76&amp;rect=%7B%7B30.959999999999997,%2030.815999999999917%7D,%20%7B310.75200000000001,%20401.37400000000008%7D%7D&amp;id1=FC760733A0086B4DACC588B31A9FD0E1"">Page 76</a></p> <p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica; min-height: 13.8px;""><br></p>"
Water in sieve tubes near sink has higher hydrostatic pressure than xylem vessels. This results in water <span class=cloze>[...]</span> to xylem vessels down the hydrostatic pressure gradient.Water in sieve tubes near sink has higher hydrostatic pressure than xylem vessels. This results in water <span class=cloze> moving back</span> to xylem vessels down the hydrostatic pressure gradient.<br> Water in sieve tubes near sink has <span class=cloze>[...]</span> hydrostatic pressure than xylem vessels. This results in water moving back to xylem vessels down the hydrostatic pressure gradient.Water in sieve tubes near sink has <span class=cloze> higher</span> hydrostatic pressure than xylem vessels. This results in water moving back to xylem vessels down the hydrostatic pressure gradient.<br> Water in sieve tubes near sink has higher hydrostatic pressure than xylem vessels. This results in water moving back to xylem vessels <span class=cloze>[...]</span> the hydrostatic pressure gradient.Water in sieve tubes near sink has higher hydrostatic pressure than xylem vessels. This results in water moving back to xylem vessels <span class=cloze> down</span> the hydrostatic pressure gradient.<br> How is sucrose unloaded from sieve tubesSince sink has lower conc of sucrose than sieve tube<div>Sucrose move down its conc gradient</div><div>Transported to sink via diffusion</div>
What happens to sucrose when it is transported to sinkSucrose converted into glucose fructose starch<div>Catalysed by enzymes and used for respiration growth or storage</div>
Whats immunityProtection against diseases
Whats immune systemBody’s defence system
What are the lines of defence against diseases1. First line of defence<div>-&gt; external non specific</div><div>2. Second line of defence</div><div>-&gt; internal non specific immune response that involves phagocytes</div><div>3. Third line of defence</div><div>-&gt; internal specific immune response that involves lymphocytes</div><div><br></div>
What are antigensMacromolecules on celll surfaces&nbsp;
What types of antigens are thereSelf&nbsp;<div>Non self</div>
What are non self antigensMacromolecules that activates an immune response.
What are non self antigensMacromolecules that activates an immune response.
Where are non self antigens found onForeign material’s surface like pathogen<div>Surface membrane of infected host cells</div>
What do non self antigens stimulateProduction of antibodies
What are self antigensMacromolecules on cell surface membrane<div>-&gt; no antibodies produced</div>
Does self antigens trigger the body’s immune system?nop
What is immune responseBody immune reaction towards non self antigens
What is involved in an immune responseWBC made in bone marrow<div>Phagocyte (non specific defence)</div><div>Lymphocyte (mostly specific defence)</div>
What is the function of phagocyte"Patrol in blood tissue organs<div><span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent;"">Remove</span><span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;""> dead cell and pathogens by phagocytosis</span></div>"
What kind of defence are phagocytes involved inNon specific defence<div>Responds to many diff non self antiens</div>
Whats the appearance of phagocytelobed nuclei<div>Granular cytoplasm</div>
Whats the appearance of phagocytelobed nuclei<div>Granular cytoplasm</div>
How does phagocyte identify pathogens as non self?has receptor proteins on its membrane
What does phagocyte do when there is an infectionLarge num of phagocyte released from bone marrow and accumulate at site of infection
What happens after phagocyte digest pathogensPhagocyte in general are short lived (Hours-days)<div>Dies after digesting pathogens</div><div>Dead neutrophils form pus</div>
Macrophage appearance and how can they identify non self antigensLobed nucleus/kidney bean shaped<div>Larger than neutrophils</div><div>Has receptor proteins to identify as non self</div>
Where do monocytes circulate&nbsp;In blood
When and how do monocyte matureMature into macrophages when it leaves blood and enters organs
What is the role of macrophageInitiates/starts immune response
What is the mechanism for macrophages1. Has receptor proteins on cell surface to detect non self antigens. This is NON specific<div>2. They then engluf pathogen (phagocytosis) and fuse the phagocytic vacuole with lysozymes</div><div>3+4. They cut up the pathogen using lysozymes</div><div>5. Macrophage then act as APC (antigen presenting cells)</div><div>6. Some cell fragments releaed by exocytosis. APC can activate and stimulate lymphocytes</div>
What kind of immune response are lymphocytes involved inSpecific immune responses<div>-&gt; only responds to specific non self antigens</div><div>Accumulate at sites of infection</div>
What kind of immune response are lymphocytes involved inSpecific immune responses<div>-&gt; only responds to specific non self antigens</div><div>Accumulate at sites of infection</div>
What is the appearance of lymphocytes-smaller than phagocytes<div>-large round nucleus</div><div>-little cytoplasm</div>
What are the types of lymphocyte1. B lymphocytes<div>2. T lymphocytes</div>
Where do B lymphocytes matureMature in bone marrow
Does B lymphocyte produce antibodiesYes
Where do T lymphocyte matureThymus
Does T lymphocyte produce antibodiesno
Does T lymphocyte produce antibodiesno
What does specificity mean in relation to lymphocyteSpecific = each type of lymphocyte responds to 1 type of antigen only<div>Each B cell produces 1 type of antibody receptor which responds to only 1 type of antigen</div>
Only mature lymphocytes can <span class=cloze>[...]</span> in the blood and lymph and carry out immune responses.<div>Lymphocytes has telomerase to divide continuously</div>Only mature lymphocytes can <span class=cloze> circulate</span> in the blood and lymph and carry out immune responses.<div>Lymphocytes has telomerase to divide continuously</div><br> Only <span class=cloze>[...]</span> lymphocytes can circulate in the blood and lymph and carry out immune responses.<div>Lymphocytes has telomerase to divide continuously</div>Only <span class=cloze> mature</span> lymphocytes can circulate in the blood and lymph and carry out immune responses.<div>Lymphocytes has telomerase to divide continuously</div><br> Only mature lymphocytes can circulate in the <span class=cloze>[...]</span> and lymph and carry out immune responses.<div>Lymphocytes has telomerase to divide continuously</div>Only mature lymphocytes can circulate in the <span class=cloze> blood</span> and lymph and carry out immune responses.<div>Lymphocytes has telomerase to divide continuously</div><br> Only mature lymphocytes can circulate in the blood and lymph and carry out immune responses.<div>Lymphocytes has <span class=cloze>[...]</span> to divide continuously</div>Only mature lymphocytes can circulate in the blood and lymph and carry out immune responses.<div>Lymphocytes has <span class=cloze> telomerase</span> to divide continuously</div><br> How are B lymphocytes matured1. All B cells formed in bone marrow before birth (genes in B cells that code for antibodies code for diff type of antibodies in diff type of B cells)<div><br></div><div>2. Forms a specific antibody that acts as glycoprotein receptor on surface membrane of B cells -&gt; finds to specific antigen that is complimentary in shape</div><div><br></div><div>3. B lymphocytes divides and mature in bone marrow -&gt; Mature B lymphocytes circulate in blood and concentrate in liver spleen and lymph nodes</div>
How are B lymphocytes matured1. All B cells formed in bone marrow before birth (genes in B cells that code for antibodies code for diff type of antibodies in diff type of B cells)<div><br></div><div>2. Forms a specific antibody that acts as glycoprotein receptor on surface membrane of B cells -&gt; finds to specific antigen that is complimentary in shape</div><div><br></div><div>3. B lymphocytes divides and mature in bone marrow -&gt; Mature B lymphocytes circulate in blood and concentrate in liver spleen and lymph nodes</div>
What kind of proteins are antibodiesGlobular glycoproteins
How many polypeptide chains does antibodies hv4 polypeptide<div>2 light 2 heavy&nbsp;</div><div>Quaternary held tgt by disulfide gives stabiity</div>
What r the 3 regions of antibodiesFab Variable region<div>Fc Constant region</div><div>Hinge region</div>
how many variable regions does antibodies hv4 in total
what do variable regions provide2 identical antigen - binding sites
what are antigen binding sites"specific for binding antigens <br>→ <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Complementary shape to antigen&nbsp;<br></span>→ Shape determined by primary structure = <b>specific seq of amino acids<br></b>• R groups at antigen-binding site forms H bonds and ionic bonds with specific antigen<br><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Sequence of amino acids at the variable region is different for each type of antibody </div> </div> </div> </div></div>→Each type of antibody binds different antigens&nbsp;<br>"
what is constant region formed bylight and heavy chains
what does constant region do"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">When circulating in blood: binds to receptors on phagocytes</span></div></li><li><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">&nbsp;</span>When antibody acts as B cell receptor: attach to cell surface membrane of B cell&nbsp;</div></li><li>Gives antibody class</li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
what is hinge region held by?disulfide bridges
whats the hinge region for"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Gives flexibility </span>when binding to antigen&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the action of antibodies1. prevent entry into cell<br>-&gt; combine w viruses and bacterial toxin to prevent them to enter cell<br><br>2. attach to flagella<br>-&gt; of bacteria specifically to make them less active and easier for phagocytes to engulf<br><br>3. agglutination<br>-&gt; antibodies w multiple antigen sides will clump bacteria tgt to reduce chances of spread<br><br>4. lysis of pathogen<br>-&gt; punch holes in cell wall of bacteria causing burst by osmosis<br><br>5. opsonisation<br>-&gt; antibodies coat bacteria making it easier for phagocytes to ingest. phagocyte have receptor proteins for heavy polypeptide chains of antibodies<br><br>6. neutralise toxins<br>-&gt; antibodies combine w toxins neutralising them&nbsp;
what is the action of b lymphocytes"<div> <div> <div> <div>1. Pathogens invade<br></div></div><div><br></div><div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">2. Antigen presentation cell </span>formation </div><div><br></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">3. Only specific B lymphocytes has </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">receptors </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">with the </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">complementary shape </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">to </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">antigen </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">will be </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">activated </span>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Clonal selection </span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""><br></span></div> <div>4. B cell divides by <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">mitosis </span>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Clonal expansion </span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""><br></span></div> <div>5. Activated B cells develop into <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">plasma cells </span>and <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">memory cells<br> </span></div> </div> </div> </div>"
how long do plasma cells live n y&nbsp;short lived few weeks<br>dont divide<br>no telomerase
what do plasma cells do"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Produce and secrete antibodies </span>rapidly<br> → by exocytosis<br> → into blood plasma, lymph, lungs and stomach lining&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what does plasma cells hv an extensive network of?rer and golgi
how long does memory cells live<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Long-lived, remain in circulation</div><div>Has telomerase&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what kinda immunity does memory cells give"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Provides <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">long term immunity&nbsp;</span></div><div>Last for many years/lifetime&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what happens if antigen invades the body for the second time"memory cells enable <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">faster response </span>during 2nd invasion of same antigen,<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>as many memory cells are circulating&nbsp;</div><div>during 2nd invasion, it divides rapidly (clonal expansion)</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Form more plasma cells&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→ more antibodies&nbsp;</span></div><div>→Infection is destroyed before symptoms develop&nbsp;</div><div>→Body immune to pathogen&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"<img src=""IMG_2066.jpg"" width=""588""><br>Which peak shows the 1st exposure to antigen? Explain why."A<br>because its a slower response<br>only few B cells specific to antigen is present<br>Individual becomes ill in this scenario
"<img src=""IMG_2066.jpg"" width=""505""><br>Which peak shows the second exposure to antigen?Explain why and effects""B<br><div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Faster response </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Many memory cells circulating </div> </li> <li> <div>More cells specific for pathogen, higher </div> <div>chance of encountering pathogens quickly </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">More plasma cells formed </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">More antibodies produced </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">No symptoms developed&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how are t lymphocytes matured"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1) All T cells produced in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">bo</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">ne </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">marrow </span>before birth </div> <div>2) Maturation in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 51, 0);"">thymus </span>gland <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">→ </span>thymus shrinks after puberty </div> <div>• Produce specific <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">T cell </span>receptors on cell surface membrane </div> <div>→Binds to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">specific antigen that is complementary in shape</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""></span>→T cell receptor’s structure <span style=""font-style: italic;"">similar </span>to antibodies </div> <div>3) Mature T cells circulate in blood and lymph&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is the action of t lymphocytes"<div> <div> <div> <div>1. Pathogens invade<br></div></div></div><div><div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">2. Antigen presentation cell </span>formation </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">3. Only </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">specific </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">T lymphocytes has </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">receptors </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">with the </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">complementary shape </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">to </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">antigen </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">will be </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">activated<br> </span>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Clonal selection </span></div> <div>4. T cell divides by <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">mitosis </span>→<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Clonal expansion </span></div> <div>5. Activated T cells develop into <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">T helper cells </span>and <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">T killer cells&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what is the function of t helper cells"<div> <div> <div> <div>1) Secrete <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">cytokines </span>/ interleukins which....&nbsp;</div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">a)</span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Stimulate </span>specific <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">B cells</span></div></div><div> <ul> <li> <div>To divide and develop into <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">plasma cells &amp; memory B cells </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Increased <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">antibody levels</span></div></li></ul><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">b)Stimulate </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">macrophages</span></div><div>• To carry out phagocytosis more<div>vigorously </div><div><br></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">c)Stimulate </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">killer T cells<br> </span>• To divide and produce more toxins&nbsp;<br></div><div><br></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>2) Form T helper <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">memory cells </span></div> <ul> <li> <div>Secondary response </div> </li> <li> <div>Long term immunity&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what is function of cytotoxic t killer cells"<div> <div> <div> <div>1) Seeks out <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">infected host cells </span>(including APC, cancer cells) and pathogens and <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">destroys </span>them&nbsp;</div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">a) Attach </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">to surface of cells </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">‘</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">b) Punch’ holes </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">into cells</span></div></div></div><div><div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">c) Secrete toxins </span><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">into cells</span></div></div></div><div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">E.g. hydrogen peroxide, perforin&nbsp;</span></div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>2) Forms killer T <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">memory cells </span></div> <div>• Secondary responses<br> • Long term immunity as it is long-lived&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what is active immunity?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Own immune response is <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">activated </span></div> <div>– Own <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">lymphocytes </span>are activated by antigens<br> – Own <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">antibodies </span>are made<br> – Takes time, not immediate<br> – <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Memory cells </span>formed→results in <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">long-term immunity&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is passive immunity?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Immune response is <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">NOT activated </span>– Own lymphocytes cells not activated<br> – NO plasma cells to produce antibodies<br> – Protection is immediate </div> <div>– NO memory cells formed→only <span style=""font-weight: 700; font-style: italic;"">short-term immunity&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
" <div> <div> <div> <div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Active Natural Immunity&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div>""<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>E.g. Catching a cold </div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Natural</span>: Antigens from the environment&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
" <span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span><table> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Active Artificial Immunity </span></div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span></div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span></div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span></td><td><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);""> </span><div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Passive Natural </span></div> </div> </div> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><br></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> </tbody></table>""<div> <div> <div> <div>E.g. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Vaccination </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Artificial</span>: Antigens are introduced via injection into vein or muscle / consumed </div> <div>→ activate the immune response artificially </div> <div>Antigens can be <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">attenuated </span>/ made harmless (e.g. heat- treated, cut up, inactivated toxins)</div> <div>Antigen used could be dead or alive&nbsp;<br></div> </div> </div> </div>"
"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Passive Natural Immunity&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>""<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>E.g. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Maternal antibodies </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Natural</span>:<br> 1) Antibodies pass from mother to infant through <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">placenta&nbsp;</span></div><div>→remain for months </div> <div>2) <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Breast milk </span>that is colostrum-rich has antibody (IgA) that prevents growth of bacteria/viruses in the stomach of infant&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Passive Artificial Immunity&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>""<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>E.g. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Antibodies or antitoxins </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Artificial</span>: Antigens are introduced via injection </div> <div>Antibodies are collected from blood of donor / animals who are vaccinated or suffer from the same disease </div> <div>→Contains the specific antibodies against the specific antigen&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
What are features of effective vaccines?- provide sufficient antigens that mimic natural infections to form sufficient plasma and memory cells for long term protection<div><br></div><div>-give lifetime protection against pathogen so its unable to develop in immunized person</div><div><br></div>
What are features of effective vaccines?- provide sufficient antigens that mimic natural infections to form sufficient plasma and memory cells for long term protection<div><br></div><div>-give lifetime protection against pathogen so its unable to develop in immunized person</div><div><br></div>
What are features of effective vaccines?- provide sufficient antigens that mimic natural infections to form sufficient plasma and memory cells for long term protection<div><br></div><div>-give lifetime protection against pathogen so its unable to develop in immunized person</div><div><br></div>
What are features of effective vaccines?- provide sufficient antigens that mimic natural infections to form sufficient plasma and memory cells for long term protection<div><br></div><div>-give lifetime protection against pathogen so its unable to develop in immunized person</div><div><br></div>
What are features of effective vaccines?- provide sufficient antigens that mimic natural infections to form sufficient plasma and memory cells for long term protection<div><br></div><div>-give lifetime protection against pathogen so its unable to develop in immunized person</div><div><br></div>
What are features of ineffective vaccines?-do not mimic natural infections so no plasma or memory cells formed<div><br></div><div>-doesnt give lifetime protection which would require booster injections to stimulate secondary response in order to give protection</div><div><br></div><div>-does not provide sufficient protection against pathogen perhaps due to pathogen’s high mutation rate or the ability to hide from the immune syste</div>
Whats the aim of vaccinationTo vaccinate a high proportion of the population to achieve herd immunity
What are the two aims of vaccination?1. Mass vaccination<div>2. Ring vaccination</div>
What is mass vaccinationVaccinate a large number of people at the same time.
What is ring vaccination?Perform contact tracing with infected person<div>Vaccinate the area of community the person is in/ people who was in contact with the person.</div>
What is herd immunity?Effect of mass vaccination<div>Less chance of transmission of disease to reduce pool of infected people in the community -&gt; less people catch the disease</div><div><br></div><div>-protection of those unvaccinated or immunocompromised as disease do not spread//</div>
What are the common barriers to vaccination?<div>1) Poor response to vaccines&nbsp;</div><div>• People that are immunocompromised</div><div>• People who lack protein (malnutrition)</div><div>• Less antibodies made</div><div><br></div><div>2) Pathogens can mutate rapidly (antigenic variation)</div><div>• Form diff strain with diff antigens</div><div>• Memory cells are unable to recognise pathogen that has major changes in antigen structure</div><div><br></div><div>3) Pathogens can escape from immune system (antigenic concealment)&nbsp;</div><div>• By living inside cells / covering bodies with host proteins / suppressing immune system</div>
Why isnt TB eradicated?vaccination doesnt work in adults older than 35<div>A high percentage cover (abt 90%) is needed to achieve herd immunity which is not yet done in every country.</div><div><br></div><div>Its difficult for surveillance/to ensure vaccination due to high birth rates and high migration rates.</div><div>Latent TB is symptomless so ring vaccination is hard to do.</div>
Why cant we vaccinate against malaria?no effective vaccine<div>The pathogen causing malaria are protoctists which is a eukaryote. (Maaaaany more genes than bacteria and viruses)</div><div><br></div><div>They display different antigens on its cell surface for diff species/strains and diff stages of its life cycle.</div><div><br></div><div>Parasite also changes antigens during infection -&gt; diff genes coding for antigens switch on during infection</div><div><br></div><div>Plasmodium falciparum hides in liver and RBC.</div>
Why cant we vaccinate against cholera?<div>• No effective vaccines against cholera</div><div><br></div><div>• Oral vaccination only gave limited protection as it was excreted&nbsp;</div><div>Why?</div><div>• Many different strains of cholera → Bacterium mutates</div><div><br></div><div>• Vibrio cholerae lives in the host’s intestines → Beyond reach of antibodies</div>
What is monoclonal antibodyonly 1 type of antibody, specific for 1 antigen
"<div>The front of this card is blank.<br><a href='https://anki.tenderapp.com/kb/card-appearance/the-front-of-this-card-is-blank'>More information</a></div>""<div>The front of this card is blank.<br><a href='https://anki.tenderapp.com/kb/card-appearance/the-front-of-this-card-is-blank'>More information</a></div>"
Whats the problem with monoclonal antibodies<div>• B cells that divide by mitosis DO NOT produce antibodies</div><div><br></div><div>• Plasma cells that secrete antibodies DO NOT divide</div>
Whats the problem with monoclonal antibodies<div>• B cells that divide by mitosis DO NOT produce antibodies</div><div><br></div><div>• Plasma cells that secrete antibodies DO NOT divide</div>
Whats the solution to monoclonal antibodiesFuse plasma cells + cancer/myeloma cells → hybridoma cells that CAN divide and CAN produce antibodies
How are monoclonal antibodies made"<div>1) Inject foreign antigen (e.g.<span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">pathogen) into mice</span></div><div><br></div><div>2) Allow time for immune response to occur</div><div><br></div><div>3) Collect plasma cells from spleen</div><div><br></div><div>3) Fuse plasma cells with cancer cells to produce hybridoma cells → Use fusogen for fusion.</div><div><br></div><div><div>4) Clone hybridoma cells → Use HAT medium for hybridoma growth</div><div><br></div><div>5) Screen for cell secreting desired antibody → By separating cells and culture in individual wells&nbsp;</div><div>→ Select only one type</div><div><br></div><div>6) Grow hybridoma cells in large scale culture</div></div>"
How are monoclonal antibodies made"<div>1) Inject foreign antigen (e.g.<span style=""-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;"">pathogen) into mice</span></div><div><br></div><div>2) Allow time for immune response to occur</div><div><br></div><div>3) Collect plasma cells from spleen</div><div><br></div><div>3) Fuse plasma cells with cancer cells to produce hybridoma cells → Use fusogen for fusion.</div><div><br></div><div><div>4) Clone hybridoma cells → Use HAT medium for hybridoma growth</div><div><br></div><div>5) Screen for cell secreting desired antibody → By separating cells and culture in individual wells&nbsp;</div><div>→ Select only one type</div><div><br></div><div>6) Grow hybridoma cells in large scale culture</div></div>"
What are MABS used forMab = monoclonal antibodies<div><br></div><div>1. Diagnosis&nbsp;</div><div>2. Treatment</div>
How MABS diagnose-only can detect one antigen (specificity)<div>-&gt; can distinguish between diff pathogen/strains</div><div>-&gt; faster diagnosis rather than having to culture pathogens</div><div>-&gt; less labour intensive</div><div>-&gt; quicker diagnosis = quicker treatment</div><div><br></div><div>-can be tagged with fluorescent label/dye</div><div>-&gt; can detect location of tissues expressing antigen&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>-cheap safe easy to use fast accurate</div>
How MABS used in treatment&nbsp;-used to target specific diseased cell by binding to receptors on its cell surface.<div>-can kill cell by stimulating immune system</div><div>-can attach radioactive substance/drug to MABS to kill cell</div><div><br></div><div>-can bind to antigens on pathogens</div><div>-&gt; results in artificial passive immunity&nbsp;</div>
Problems of using MABS in treatment<div>Problems:</div><div>• Causes some side effects</div><div><br></div><div>• Antibodies made in animals recognised as non-self</div><div>• Trigger immune response in humans → Allergic reaction</div><div><br></div><div>• Remains in the body for short period of time as it is destroyed</div><div>• Need to be administered more than once in small amounts</div>
Whats the solution to the problems of using MABS in treatmen1. Alter genes that code for heavy and light chains of antibodies<div>-&gt; code for human antibodies instead of ice and rabbit’s</div><div><br></div><div>2. Changing type and position of sugar groups attached to heavy chains</div><div>-&gt; arrangement of sugar groups sae as human antibodies</div>
Function of phagocyte<div>• Patrol in blood, tissues and organs</div><div>• Remove dead cells and pathogens</div><div>&nbsp;→ By phagocytosis</div><div><br></div><div>-involved in non specific defense</div><div>-&gt; responds to many different non self antigens</div>
Function of phagocyte<div>• Patrol in blood, tissues and organs</div><div>• Remove dead cells and pathogens</div><div>&nbsp;→ By phagocytosis</div><div><br></div><div>-involved in non specific defense</div><div>-&gt; responds to many different non self antigens</div>
Appearance of phagocyte-lobed nuclei<div>-granular cytoplasm -&gt; due to many vesicles</div>
Neutrophilis featuresHas receptor proteins on its membrane to identify pathogens as non self<div>Has multi lobed nucleus</div><div><br></div><div>Released in large numbers from bone marrow and accumulate at site of infection</div><div><br></div><div>Short lived and dies after digesting pathogens (dead neutrophils form pus)</div>
"<img src=""IMG_2099.jpg"" width=""425""><br>what is this graph about"anitbody levels after vaccination
"<img src=""IMG_2099.jpg"" width=""521""><br>what happens at A"primary immune response slow build up and not very strong
"<img src=""IMG_2099.jpg""><br>what happens at B"secondary response stronger and more rapid than primary response
"<img src=""IMG_2099.jpg""><br>what does C represent"memory cells remaining
"<img src=""IMG_2099.jpg""><br>what does D represent"wheere the person is first vaccinated
"<img src=""IMG_2099.jpg""><br>what does E represent"infection by pathogen
"<img src=""IMG_2100.jpg"" width=""633""><br>what does this graph represent"antibody levels in the blood of fetus or infant
"<img src=""IMG_2100.jpg""><br>what does A represent"birth
"<img src=""IMG_2100.jpg""><br>what does B represent"total antibody
"<img src=""IMG_2100.jpg"">what does C represent"infant antibody
"<img src=""IMG_2100.jpg""><br>what does d show?"shows the maternal antibody passed from placenta to fetus<br>(it drops here in conc after birth showing protection is temp)
"<img src=""IMG_2101.jpg""><br>what is this graph abt"antibody levels after antibody injection
"<img src=""IMG_2101.jpg""><br>what does A represent"first injection
"<img src=""IMG_2101.jpg""><br>what does B represent"second injection
"<img src=""IMG_2101.jpg""><br>what does the graph show describe"the conc of antibody increases immediately but decreases over time<br>short term PRODUCTION<br>PAassive artifical immunity
monocyte featureslobed nucelus<br>larger than neutrophils<br>has receptor proteins on its membrane to identify pathogens as non self<br>
where do monocytes circulatein blood
what does monocyte mature intomacrophages when it leaves blood and enters organs
macrophages featureslong lived cells<br>found in organs such as liver lungs speen kidney lympjh nodes
where r lymphocytes produced<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Produced in bone marrow before birth&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Lymphocytes function<br> </div> </div> </div> </div></div>"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div> Involved in <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">specific immune responses </span></div> <div>→responds to only specific non-self antigens </div> <div>• Mature lymphocytes circulate in the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">blood and lymph </span></div> <div>→<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Accumulate at sites of infection&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
Lymphocytes appearance&nbsp;"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Smaller </span>than phagocytes </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Large round nucleus </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Little cytoplasm&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the 2 types of lymphocytes"<div> <div> <div> <div>Both made in <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">bone marrow, </span>but mature in different places and have different functions</div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">1.</span><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">B-lymphocytes (B cells)</span></div></div><div> <ul> <li> <div>Mature in <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">bone marrow </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Produces antibodies</span></div> </li></ul><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">2.T-lymphocytes (T cells)</span><br><ul> </ul> <ul> <li> <div>Mature in <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">thymus </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Does <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">NOT </span>produce antibodies&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div><div>&nbsp;<br></div> </div> </div> </div>"
how is WBC diff from RBC"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1) Contains <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">nucleus </span></div> <div>2) Mostly <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">larger </span>than erythrocytes (except for lymphocytes) </div> <div>3) <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">Spherical / irregular </span>in shape<br> • Do not have a biconcave disc shape </div> <div>4) Phagocytes have <span style=""font-weight: 700;"">granular cytoplasm&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how long does RBC live<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• RBCs are short lived (120 days)&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats another name for RBC"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">erythrocytes&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the function of RBC"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Function: <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">transport oxygen to body tissues&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
whats the features of RBC"<div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">1) Small and flexible&nbsp;</span></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">2) Biconcave Disc&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">3) No nucleus, no mitochondria, no ER&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
why r RBC small and flexible"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Diameter about <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">6-8</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">μ</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">m </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Able to squeeze through capillaries (7μm)</div> </li> <li> <div>Reduce diffusion distance&nbsp;<br></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
why r RBC hv biconcave disc<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Increases surface area </div> </li> <li> <div>For diffusion of oxygen to cells&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
why r RBC hv no nucleus mitochondria ER<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>More room for haemoglobin </div> </li> <li> <div>Maximise the number of oxygen carried by RBC&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
&nbsp; how oxyhaemoglobin made"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Hb bind with oxygen to form <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">oxyhaemoglobin </span>in lungs </div> </li> <li> <div>Hb + 4O2 → HbO8&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"<img src=""IMG_2103.jpg"" width=""417""><br>what is this curve?<br>what trend does it show us"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>The Haemoglobin Dissociation Curve&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>As partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) increases, percentage increases&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what will the Haemoglobin Dissociation Curve look like for capillaries in lungs&nbsp;"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>O2 supply high→so <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">pO</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">2 </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">is high </span>Hb is highly saturated with O2</div><div>so high curve&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what will the Haemoglobin Dissociation Curve look like for respiring tissues"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>O2 demand high for aerobic respiration→so <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">pO</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">2 </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">is low </span>Hb release O2 , Hb is less saturated with O2&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
雨后春笋⋯⋯比喻事物迅速大量地涌现出来
"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">家喻户晓</p>"家家户户都知道，人人都明白
"<div>The front of this card is blank.<br><a href='https://anki.tenderapp.com/kb/card-appearance/the-front-of-this-card-is-blank'>More information</a></div>""<div>The front of this card is blank.<br><a href='https://anki.tenderapp.com/kb/card-appearance/the-front-of-this-card-is-blank'>More information</a></div>"
遥遥领先远远地走在最前面，多指成绩
眼花潦乱<b>比喻事物复杂无法辨清</b>
眼花潦乱<b>比喻事物复杂无法辨清</b>
得心应手比𣈥技艺很纯熟或事情很顺利
得心应手比𣈥技艺很纯熟或事情很顺利
得心应手比𣈥技艺很纯熟或事情很顺利
A friend in need is a friend indeed患难见真情
Share bliss and misfortune together.有福同享，有难同当
If you live with a lame person you will learn to limp近朱者赤近墨者黑
fall in love恋爱
恋爱Lia\n a\i
现象Xia\n xia\ng
普遍Pû biàn
情侣Qíng lû
"<p style=""margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; font-stretch: normal; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; font-family: Helvetica;"">情景</p>"Qíng jîng
羡慕Xiàn mù
安慰Ān wèi
成为Chéng wéi
美好Mêi hâo
感情Gân qíng
危机Wēi jī
双方Shuāng fâng
"<div>The front of this card is blank.<br><a href='https://anki.tenderapp.com/kb/card-appearance/the-front-of-this-card-is-blank'>More information</a></div>""<div>The front of this card is blank.<br><a href='https://anki.tenderapp.com/kb/card-appearance/the-front-of-this-card-is-blank'>More information</a></div>"
伤心Shāng xīn
苦恼Kū nâo
赞成Zàn chéng
情感Qíng gân
处理Chû lî
确定Què dìng
phenomenon想象
widespread普遍
A pair of lovers情路
Scene情景
admire羡慕
comfort安慰
become成为
beautifu1美好
feeling感情
crisis危机
"<div>The front of this card is blank.<br><a href='https://anki.tenderapp.com/kb/card-appearance/the-front-of-this-card-is-blank'>More information</a></div>""<div>The front of this card is blank.<br><a href='https://anki.tenderapp.com/kb/card-appearance/the-front-of-this-card-is-blank'>More information</a></div>"
both-sides双方
sad伤心
distressed苦恼
agree-with赞成
emotion情感
handle处理
certain确定
one studies学业
after school课余
leaves one comments留言
学业Xué yè
课余Kèyú
留言Liú yán
Broadcast广播
diff and similarities异同
IQ智商
sensitivity敏感度
level高低
direct直接
preach桃树
express表达
"<div>The front of this card is blank.<br><a href='https://anki.tenderapp.com/kb/card-appearance/the-front-of-this-card-is-blank'>More information</a></div>""<div>The front of this card is blank.<br><a href='https://anki.tenderapp.com/kb/card-appearance/the-front-of-this-card-is-blank'>More information</a></div>"
good luck好运
Christmas tree圣诞节
feel grateful感恩
God of wealth财神
greeting card贺卡
What is imperialismExtending a country’s power/influence through colonization
What is MercantilismEconomic system of trade
Why was imperial expansion first considered in the 16th-18th century?Find new trading opportunities&nbsp;<div>Mercantilism: economic system of trade</div><div>To increase wealth -&gt; new lucrative market&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>However declined in 18th century&nbsp;</div>
Economic reasons for Imperialism-mercantilism was costly<div>-new economic theories emerging</div><div>-industrialization</div><div>-outlet for migration</div><div>-long depression&nbsp;</div><div>-competition for raw materials&nbsp;</div>
How is Mercantilism being costly being a reason for imperialism?maintaining control overseas possessions lost funds for countries<div><br></div><div>-eg : britain spent lots of money to maintain north america (able to retain canada but forced to accept USA independence)</div><div>-eg : collapsing spanish empire in latin america -&gt; brazilian independence from portugal 1827</div>
How were new economic theories emerging a reason for imperialism?-nations wealth shouldnt be judged by amount of gold/silver possessed -&gt; suggested imperialism was more profitable<div>-nations ability to increase its production dependent on investment in new methods</div><div>-gov control over economy wasnt necessary -&gt; wealthy more likely to invest without government interference</div>
How is Industrialisation being costly being a reason for imperialism?-Introduction of mass production -&gt; need to find new sources of raw materials and markets<div>-Entrepreneurs wanted new source of investments.</div><div><br></div><div>Britain was considered (Workshop of the World)</div><div><br></div>
Why was Britain considered workshop of the world-Produced goods quicker and cheaper than any other nation&nbsp;<div>-Development of steam powered machinery impacted UK textile industries</div><div>-New techniques for producing iron/steel</div><div>-Railway/steamship for efficient transport.</div>
How is The Long Depression being costly being a reason for imperialism?-During the depression there was a period of deflation (1873-96)<div>-Rapid industrialization across EU and US leads to production exceeding demand</div><div>-Leads to protectionism (need to open new markets to purchase exports)</div>
How is Competition for raw materials being costly being a reason for imperialism?-Identify and exploit new sources of raw materials like cotton in India, copper in South Africa etc
What are the political motives of imperialism&nbsp;-Growth of nationalism<div>-Imperialism as a social policy</div><div>-Strategic control of key regions</div><div>-International prestige&nbsp;</div><div>-National security&nbsp;</div>
What are the political motives of imperialism&nbsp;-Growth of nationalism<div>-Imperialism as a social policy</div><div>-Strategic control of key regions</div><div>-International prestige&nbsp;</div><div>-National security&nbsp;</div>
What are the political motives of imperialism&nbsp;-Growth of nationalism<div>-Imperialism as a social policy</div><div>-Strategic control of key regions</div><div>-International prestige&nbsp;</div><div>-National security&nbsp;</div>
<b><div>QUALITATIVE FOOD TEST ERRORS</div></b>"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;"">Difficulty</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> in judging colours especially if the</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">concentrations are low resulting in light colours</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•If heating, then </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;"">temperature is not constant</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">, as there is heat loss to the surrounding</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•Different molecules in the same solution,may interfere with the colours</span></div><br></b>"
"<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">QUALITATIVE FOOD TEST IMPROVEMENTS</span>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•In case of heating, </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;"">thermostatic water bath</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> to control the temperature and avoid the heat loss to the surrounding</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•Colour standard to help judging the colour</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•Use</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;""> black card/ white card</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> to help judging colours</span></div></b><br>"
<b><div>QUANTITATIVE FOOD TEST ERRORS</div></b>"<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•In case of determining unknown concentration: it can be between 2 known concentrations</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•Difficulty in </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;"">comparing colours&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•Temperature varies due to heat loss to the surrounding</span></div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•In case of vitamin C :</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;"">Drops fall on the walls</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> of the test tube</span></b><br>"
"<span style=""font-weight: 700;"">QUANTITATIVE FOOD TEST IMPROVEMENTS&nbsp;</span>""<b><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•Use more concentrations with </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;"">narrower range</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">(</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">smaller gaps between concentrations) or wider range(wider gaps between the concentrations), you can then plot a graph with the obtained results and find your unknown by reading off the graph, this provides more </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;"">accurate estimate</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> for the unknown</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•Use </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;"">colourimeter</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> or colour standards to help judge the colour better</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•Use black card or white </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;"">card</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> to enable you from</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">observing the colour difference</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•Use </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;"">thermostatic</span><span style=""font-weight: 400;""> water bath to avoid heat loss to the surrounding</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•In case of introducing drops , </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 153, 0); font-weight: 400;"">use wider test tube</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•Use graduated pipette for more accurate volumes</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">than the syringe</span></div><div><span style=""font-weight: 400;"">•Repeat and take average</span></div></b><br>"
HOW TO MAKE BENEDICTS TEST MORE RELIABLE- use of same vol of substance under test<br>- same vol of the reagent<br>- leave tubes in same water bath for same period of time
how to keep fair comparison in osmosis experiments?- use petri dishes of same size<br>- same vol of sucrose or any other sol<br>- same size of onion or potato<br>-leave them in sol in the same time
what are general precautions in osmosis expiments1. cover petri dishes during the experiment to void evaporation of water which can affect concentration of the solution<br>2. when using droppers or syringes use seperate dropper for each solution or wash and dry it after each step<br>3. during preparing slide of onion epidermal cells, lower the cover, slip generally to avoid trapping of any air bubbles
what errors can be made during osmosis experiments&nbsp;"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•</span><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Time tissues left in solutions is not enough to observe complete plasmolysis<br>•Evaporation of solution may take place and therefore change the concentration<br>•Difficulty in judging degree of plasmolysis<br>•Difficulty in cutting the samples into correct dimensions<br></span><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•</span><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Parallex error may occur during reading the lengths</span>"
what improvements can be made during osmosis experiments&nbsp;"<div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•</span><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Leave for longer time in the solutions</span><div></div></div></div><div><div></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Prepare more concentrations with narrower / wider range (give examples and method of dilution)</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Cover the petri dish to avoid evaporation of solution</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Prepare more than one sample in each solution</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Ensure that the tissues are completely immersed in the solutions</span></div></div>"
erros occuring during enzyme reactions"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">•Difficulty in judging the endpoint (in amylase, the colour with iodine is not clear, in renin the coagulation is not clear, colour of litmus paper with urease is not clear)<br>•Temperature/PH is not controlled (if they are not the factors under investigation)<br>•Bubbles of different sizes and are all counted as one,bubbles may be too fast for counting, gas expansion interfere with the results, small bubbles may be missed as not seen (in case of counting bubbles with catalyse (potato)or with yeast)<br>•Paper may stick to the walls and bottom of the test tube ( in case of litmus paper with urease, or paper dipped in catalyse then placed in hydrogen peroxide or paper dipped in iodine then placed in amylase using splint)</span>"
improvments for errors during enzyme reactions"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•</span><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Use colorimeter instead of judging colors or use black or white card against the tube for better color comparison<br>•Measure the volume of gas using gas syringe instead of counting bubbles<br>•Use wider test tubes( in case of beads or paper)<br>•Control temperature using thermostatic water bath<br>•Control pH using buffer</span>"
effect of heavy metals such as copper sulphate and lead nitrate in enzyme reaction"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">➢Can act as inhibitors.<br>➢May cause protein to clot or coagulate.<br>➢May denature proteins.<br>➢May breakdown bonds so that can alter tertiary and quaternary structures.</span>"
errors in agar reaction"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">•Difficulty in cutting the agar squares into equal dimensions<br>•Difficulty in judging the color change<br>•Agar is not of equal depth<br>•Pigmentation of the agar is not even<br>•Agar may be damaged during cutting</span>"
improvements in agar reaction"<div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Use moulds for preparing agar squares with equal dimension</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Use different indicator with clearer end point</span><div></div></div></div><div><div></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Use wider or narrower range of concentrations (In case of determining unknown)</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Use black card or white card below the beakers for better judgment of color</span></div></div>"
error in immboiliztion of enzyme beads formation reaction"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">•Beads are not of equal sizes<br>•Beads stuck to the sides of the tube and to each others<br>•Forceps causes damage the the beads<br>•Difficulty to introduce drops using syringe<br>•Test tube is not vertical and also test tubes are not of equal sizes (in case of catalyse beads and hydrogen peroxide)<br>•Temperature/PH is not controlled ( if they are not the factors under investigation)</span>"
improvements in immboiliztion of enzyme beads formation reaction"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">•Use sieve with equal size holes to produce beads with equal diameter<br>•Use wider test tubes<br>•Stain the beads for clearer movement<br>•Use resort stand to make the test tube vertical, use test tubes with equal sizes (incase of catalyse beads and hydrogen peroxide)<br>•Use spatula or spoon instead of forceps<br>•Control temperature using thermostatic water bath/ control PH using buffer</span>"
colour diffusion what is it&nbsp;"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Diffusion of pigment from inside the tissue (potato/beetroot) to the solution by the influence of salt or temperature( due to the damge of cell membrane/cell wall)</span>"
errors during colour diffusion&nbsp;"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">•Difficulty in judging intensity of diffused color<br>•Some pigments remain on the surface of the tissue despite washing<br>•Temperature is not controlled<br>•Time is not enough for the diffusion to take place<br>•There is narrow range of concentrations</span>"
improvements during colour diffusion&nbsp;"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">•Use color standards with degree of color and its name for better colour describtion , or numbered colour scale with images showing the color<br>•Use white/black card against the test tubes for comparing colors<br>•Control the temperature using thermostatic water bath<br>•Dry the samples with paper towel before placing them in the solutions<br>•Leave the samples for longer time in solutions•Use wider range of concentrationso the colors produced show difference</span>"
"what is ""density of solution"" experiment&nbsp;""<div><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">(a method for determining the concentration)I</span></div><div><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">In this method you pigment the unknown concentration by adding 2 drops of methylene blue to 5 cm3 of the unknown in a petri dish, u then take a drop of the pigmented solution and introduce it to test tubes of&nbsp;</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">prepared known concentration,the drop produced will move according to its concentration:</span></div><div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">•If the drop has higher concentration than the solution, it will move down</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">•If the drop has lower concentration than the solution, it will move up</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">•If the drop has same concentration as the solution , it stays the same<br></span></div></div>"
"errors in ""density of solution"" experiment&nbsp;""<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">•Difficulty in introducing drops by syringe<br>•The pigmentation is too dark/ or too light<br>•The drop ruptures (it releasesa flow which may be not clear)<br>•Too wide/narrow range of concentrations•Test tube is not vertical</span>"
"improvements in ""density of solution"" experiment&nbsp;""<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•</span><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">Use dropper instead of syringe<br>•Increase or decrease the drops of the stain ( to make the pigment lighter or darker)or use different stain<br>•Prepare wider/narrower range of concentration•Use resort stand to make the test tube vertical<br></span><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Use resort stand to make test tube vertical</span>"
errors in visking tube experiment&nbsp;"<div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Difficulty in opening and tying the visking tube</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Visking tubes is too short /or too long</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Difficulty in rinsing the visking tube ( water may enter inside it)</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Mixing is not constant</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">•Drops may not of equal volume</span><div></div></div></div><div><div></div><div><span style=""color: transparent;"">•Difficulty i judging color</span></div></div>"
improvements in visking tube experiment&nbsp;"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">•Make the visking tube longer or shorter<br>•Dry the visking tube with paper towel before placing in the beaker<br>•Mix using electronic mixer<br>•Use syringe instead of dropper to introduce equal volume of solution and indicator<br>•Use color standard/ or colorimeter</span>"
independent variable"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">-The variable that affects the results by the experiment</span>"
dependent variabledependent on independent variable
what do u do when they say plot graphline graph
what happen if they ask to plot a chartbar chart/histogram
rules in constructing a line graph"<a><div><div>1)&nbsp;independent variable → x-axis</div><div>2)&nbsp;dependent variable → y-axis</div><div>3) graph should be more than half of grid</div><div>4) use&nbsp;<strong>x</strong>&nbsp;or<strong>&nbsp;◉</strong>&nbsp;when plotting points</div><div>5) don't extrapolate unless mentioned</div></div></a>"
%error calc<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><a><div><div><strong>(measured value - actual value/ actual value) x 100</strong></div></div></a></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><a><div><div><strong>error = smallest division / 2&nbsp;</strong></div></div></a></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><div><div><div><br></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
what r systemic errors<a><div><div><strong>errors caused by lack of accuracy and precision</strong></div></div></a><br>
what r random errors<a><div><div><strong>result from difficulties in controlling standardised or dependent variables</strong></div></div></a><br>
what is cobalt chloride paper used for"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">➢It is used as an indicator for water.<br>➢The dry cobalt chloride paper (anhydrous )has a bluecolour.<br>➢In presence of water (when hydrated) its colour changes to pink or mauve.&nbsp;</span>"
what is hydrogen carbonate indicator used for"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">➢Its original colour is red.<br>➢Increase in concentration of carbon dioxide makes it yellow ( increase in concentration of carbon dioxide makes the medium acidic as carbon dioxide is acidic gas) .<br>➢Decrease in concentration of carbon dioxide makes it purple .<br>➢( removal carbon dioxide from the medium makes it alkaline).</span>"
what is methylene blue used for"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">➢methylene blue indicator is blue when oxygen is present<br>➢If oxygen is removed from the solution, the blue color disappears</span>"
what is bromothymol blue pH indicator used for"<span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">➢Bromthymol blue changes color over a pH range from 6.0 (yellow) to 7.6 (blue)<br>➢It is a good indicator of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) and other weakly acidic solutions</span>"
what is potassium permaganate used for"<div><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"">➢It is a strong oxidizing agent.&nbsp;</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">It dissolves in water to give </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">intensely pink or purple solutions</span></div><div><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">➢</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Concentrated&nbsp;</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">s</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">ulfuric acid&nbsp;</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">reacts with potassium </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">permengnate forming acidic solution</span></div><div><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">➢</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">Acidic&nbsp;</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">solutions of permanganate are&nbsp;</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">reduced&nbsp;</span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">to the faintly </span><span style=""background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">pink manganese(II)</span></div><div><div></div></div><div><br></div>"
what is low power diagramonly shows distributuon of tissues in a specimen
what is high power diagramshows cells and visible structures
what simple dilution"use stock sol to prepare all the other solutions<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 19.46.33.png"">"
whats serial dilution"u use stock sol to prepare sol 1<br>use sol 1 to prepare sol 2<br>and so on&nbsp;<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 19.47.23.png"">"
dilution formula for simple dilution"M1V1 = M2V2<br><br>M = CONC<br>V = VOL<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 19.49.37.png""><br>then add 2.5 cm3 of 4% sucrose then add 7.5 cm of water"
how to peform serial dilution if u want to half concentrationfor example 4% -&gt; 2% u needa put 5cm3 of 4% sucrose and 5% of water and so on and so forth
how to peform serial dilution if u want it to be 10x more dilutedstock solution and water in 1:9 ratio<br>so to make 4% -&gt; 0.4 add 1 cm3 of 4% glucose then 9cm3 of water
dict leaf low power plan diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.02.40.png"">"
dict root&nbsp; low power plan diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.05.57.png"">"
dict stem low power plan diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.09.44.png"">"
marram grass leaf xerophyte low power plan diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.12.59.png"">"
capillary low power plan diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.14.06.png"">"
artery low power plan diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.15.22.png"">"
vein low power plan diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.15.36.png"">"
trachea low power plan diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.16.16.png"">"
bronchus low power plan diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.17.26.png"">"
bronchiole low power plan diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.19.02.png"">"
alveolus low power plan diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.19.57.png"">"
potato tuber cells high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.22.55.png"">"
onion normal high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.23.45.png"">"
onion plasmolysed high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.24.08.png"">"
prophase high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.25.30.png"">"
anaphase high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.26.36.png"">"
metaphase high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.26.55.png"">"
telophase high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.27.10.png"">"
trichome high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.27.31.png"">"
guard cells and subsidary cells top view high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.28.08.png"">"
guard cells and subsidary cells side view high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.28.36.png"">"
palisade mesophyll high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.29.20.png"">"
spongy mesophyll high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.29.55.png"">"
xylem vessel cross section high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.30.39.png"">"
xylem vessel longitudinal section high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.31.05.png"">"
phloem sieve tube and companian cell cross section high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.31.40.png"">"
phloem sieve tube and companian cell longitudinal section high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.32.00.png"">"
chondrocytes (in cartilage) high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.32.47.png"">"
alveolus high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.33.09.png"">"
blood cell (red, monocyte, lymphocyte, neutrophil) high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.34.02.png"">"
coliated epithelial cells and goblet cell high power diagrams"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-15 at 20.36.08.png"">"
Why was growth of nationalism a political motive for imperialism1871: Borders set (only changed my war) so need to expand beyond country overseas.
Why was growth of nationalism a political motive for imperialism1871: Borders set (only changed my war) so need to expand beyond country overseas.
Why was imperialism as a social policy a political motive for imperialismIndustrialization means emergence of new working class<div>-&gt; which threatened political power of the wealthy</div><div><br></div><div>Government portrayed imperialism as beneficial to all</div><div>-&gt; method of diverting attention away from social, economic and political inequalities</div><div>-&gt; imperialism provided finance required to pay for social reform</div><div>-&gt; used to unite people behind aim : development of the economic and political power of their nation through overseas expansion&nbsp;</div>
Why was strategic control of key regions a political motive for imperialismPorts in colonized areas = protection of vital trade routs<div>For example the british port in cape colony.</div>
Why was strategic control of key regions a political motive for imperialismPorts in colonized areas = protection of vital trade routs<div>For example the british port in cape colony.</div>
Why was international prestiege a political motive for imperialismindication of nations greatness<div>Colonies were a status symbol</div>
Why was international prestiege a political motive for imperialismindication of nations greatness<div>Colonies were a status symbol</div>
Why was international prestiege a political motive for imperialismindication of nations greatness<div>Colonies were a status symbol</div>
Why was national security a political motive for imperialismeg britain occupation of egypt protected suez canal (vital of brit empire)<div>-&gt; quick</div><div>-&gt; cost effective</div><div>-&gt;shortened journey time to asia/africa</div>
Why was national security a political motive for imperialismeg britain occupation of egypt protected suez canal (vital of brit empire)<div>-&gt; quick</div><div>-&gt; cost effective</div><div>-&gt;shortened journey time to asia/africa</div>
What was the geographic scope of imperialism?-centered on africa and asia<div>-raw materials with trade links w far east</div>
What was the treaty of Berlin 1885&nbsp;Set out rules for EU nations to carry out their plans for African expansion<div>-&gt; attempt to avoid possible confrontation</div>
What is the humanitarian motives of new imperialism&nbsp;-Opposition to slavery<div>-Theory of racial superiority</div><div>-Social Darwinism</div>
What is the humanitarian motives of new imperialism&nbsp;-Opposition to slavery<div>-Theory of racial superiority</div><div>-Social Darwinism</div>
What is the humanitarian motives of new imperialism&nbsp;-Opposition to slavery<div>-Theory of racial superiority</div><div>-Social Darwinism</div>
What is the humanitarian motives of new imperialism&nbsp;-Opposition to slavery<div>-Theory of racial superiority</div><div>-Social Darwinism</div>
What is the technological motives of new imperialism&nbsp;-Medical advancement<div>-Infrastructure advancement</div><div>-Weaponry</div>
Why Britian want to participate in Scramble of Africa<div> <div> <div> <div>-Original concern: protect vital Indian Ocean trading routes<br>-Discovery of gold/diamonds in S. Africa brought Brit attention to Africa </div> <div>■ Encouraged by imperial adventurer Cecil Rhodes’ success&nbsp;</div><div>-Acted quickly to prevent others (ie. France, Germany) from gaining it&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;--&gt;1900: Controlled 30% of Africa’s population</div><div><div><div> <div>■ Included Enya, Nigeria, Malawi, Ghana, Egypt, Sudan etc.&nbsp;<br></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div>
Why France want to participate in Scramble of Africa"<div> <div> <div>○ Largest colonial empire in Africa (mainly west &amp; N. West Africa)<br><div style=""display: inline !important;"">○ &nbsp;Late 19th cent: French moved inland in search of raw materials (ie. palm oil, timber) &amp; </div><div>new markers</div><div style=""display: inline !important;"">○ &nbsp;French politicians determined to increase wealth/prestige after Franco-Prussian war </div><div>defeat (compensate loss of Alsace Lorraine)</div><ul> </ul>○ &nbsp;Deflect from domestic issues (eg. poor living/working conditions)&nbsp;<br><ul> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
Why Belgium want to participate in Scramble of Africastarted the scramble<br><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>○ King Leopold II of Belgium </div> <div>■ Financed colonisation of the Congo to exploit ivory &amp; rubber (high demand in Europe) </div> <div>● Enhance country’s prestige &amp; own wealth<br> ○ Started scramble of africa swhen asking for int recognition of his personal property in Congo&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
Why Portugal want to participate in Scramble of Africa<div> <div> <div> ○ &nbsp;Didn’t want to be left behind in race<br>○ &nbsp;Extended long-established claims to Angola &amp; Mozambique&nbsp;<br><ul> </ul> </div> </div> </div>
Why Germany want to participate in Scramble of Africa<div> <div> <div> ○ Unification delayed imperialistic ventures (unified in 1871 Franco-Prussian War)<br>Chancellor Otto von Bismarck focused on national security (ie. forming alliances; avoiding rivalry)<br>Didn’t want to be threatened by conflict with other nations<br>● Believed would inevitably occur if Germany adopted imperial policies</div><div>○ &nbsp;1881: Joined after pressure from businessmen &amp; industrialists<br>○ &nbsp;Late entry = more profitable nations gone</div><div>■ Acquired nations cost more than actual worth<br>○ Acquired nations: Namibia &amp; parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, Tanzania, Togo, Ghana&nbsp;<br> </div> </div> </div>
what is the benefit of european imperialism on africa<div> <div> <div> ● &nbsp;Developed states with administrative &amp; govt systems<br>● &nbsp;Provided educations for natives<br>● &nbsp;Created new system of transport, communications, infrastructure &amp; running telegraph wires across Africa<br><ul> </ul>● &nbsp;Provided medical care, hospitals, water &amp; sanitation systems<br><ul> </ul>● &nbsp;Introduced efficient farming methods &amp; more productive crops (ie. maize, pear, cotton, plantain etc.)&nbsp;<br><ul> </ul> </div> </div> </div>
what is the disadvantage of european imperialism on africa<div> <div> <div> <div>● Randomly partitioned according to needs of EU (didn’t take into account of existing boundaries)<br>&nbsp; ○ Refused to listen to opinions of local chiefs&nbsp;</div><div>● Killed/exiled African chiefs/kings who resisted<br>&nbsp; ○ Eg. Chief Mkwawa of Hehe beheaded for opposing German rule in Tanganyika<br>● Govt based on administrative hierarchy&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; ○ EU top, Africans below<br></div> ● &nbsp;Undermined African culture by introducing Western education, clothes, building &amp; religion<br>● &nbsp;Large scale exploitation of resources<br>&nbsp; ○ Supported EU industrial expansion; prevented development of<br>African industries&nbsp;</div><div>● Labour exploitation<br>&nbsp; ○ Eg 1. King Leopold used forced labour (ie. slavery)<br>■ Workers failing to meet quota = beaten, mutilated, killed<br>&nbsp; ○ Eg 2. Germans drove rebels into Kalahari Desert (died of thirst/starvation)<br>■ German soldiers poisoned desert wells&nbsp;<br> </div> </div> </div>
where can you find haeomoglobin in the body?primarly in red blood cells
what type of protein is haemoglobinglobular&nbsp;<br>made of 2 alpha globin chains and 2 beta globin chains<br>quaternary structure -&gt; each chain contains 1 haem group that has fe2+
what happens when haemoglobin binds w oxygenoxyhaemoglobin<br>Hb + 4O2 -&gt; HbO8
"why is the haemoglobin dissociation curve S shaped?<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-26 at 15.49.14.png"" width=""352"">""<div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"">Hemoglobin exhibits </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"">cooperative binding / allosteric effects</span><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"">, as oxygen binding increases the affinity of hemoglobin for more oxygen!</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);""><br></span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"">at low pO2 (from 2-8 at x axis) which is repsiring tissue</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"">1st O2 combine with haem group which changesd shape of Hb</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);""><br></span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"">at increasing pO2 (at 8-10 from x axis)</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"">binding of 2nd and 3rd o2 is easier than 1st. small increae in po2 results in lagre increase in percntage saturation</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);""><br></span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"">at high pO2 ( 12) at lung</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"">all haem groups fully occupied</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"">hb fully saturated&nbsp;</span></div><div><span style=""color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"">curve levels off</span></div> </div> </div> </div>"
why is the difference of pO2 from respiring tissues to lungs important to represent in a graph"<div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>pO2 in lungs are higher </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">pO</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">2 </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">in respiring tissues are lower</span></div></li></ul>as blood travel from CAPILLARIES in lungs to TISSUES<ul> </ul> </div><div>theres a small decrease in partial pressure pO2 which leads to a large decrease in percentage saturation</div><div>-&gt; allows more oxygen to be released (dissociate from Hb)</div><div>-&gt; affinity of Hb to oxygen decreases at low pO2</div><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-26 at 15.53.53.png"" style=""float: left;"" width=""297""> </div> </div>"
what affects affinity of Hb to O2?pO2<br>pCO2
how does pO2 affects affinity of Hb to O2?high pO2 increase affinity of Hb to O2
how does pCO2 affects affinity of Hb to O2?"higher partial pressures decreases affinity of Hb to O2<br>-&gt; results in Bohr effect/Bohr shift<br>where curve shifts to the right<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-26 at 15.55.51.png"">"
what is the bohr effect?"<div><div><div><div><div>Bohr effect <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">increases dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin in actively respiring tissues&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how bohr effect represnented on graph"where the afinity of Hb to O2 is affected by pCO2&nbsp;<br>high pCO2 decreases affinity of Hb to O2<br>therefore higher pO2 is needed to meet the same percentage saturation<br>and the curve shifts to the right<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-26 at 15.57.37.png"">"
what are the pO2 and pCO2 values of lung tissuehigher pO2 lower pCO2
what are the pO2 and pCO2 values of respiring tissue and effect"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>• Lower pO2, <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Higher pCO</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">2 </span></div> <div>→oxyhaemoglobin dissociates more readily </div> <div>→more oxygen to meet the demand for aerobic respiration&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
how does high Co2 decrease the affinity of Hb to O2?"<div> <div> <div> <div>1. CO2 diffuses from respiring tissue→blood plasma→RBC&nbsp;</div><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">2.<b> </b></span><b>Carbonic anhydrase </b></span>in cytoplasm of RBC converts CO2 to</div></div><div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">carbonic acid </span></div> <div>→This maintains a steep concentration gradient for diffusion of carbon dioxide from tissues to blood </div> <div>3. Carbonic acid <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">dissociates </span>into <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">hydrogencarbonate ions and hydrogen ions </span></div> <div>→decrease in pH&nbsp;</div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>4.&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">HCO</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">3</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">- </span>diffuse from RBC→blood plasma</div><div>&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Cl</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">- </span>move into RBC to balance out negative charge (<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">chloride shift)</span></div></div><div>5.&nbsp;<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">H</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">+ </span>combines with Hb to form <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">haemoglobinic acid </span>(HHb) <br>→Hb has higher affinity for H+ than oxygen<br></div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div> →H+ lowers affinity of Hb for oxygen<br> →HHb also prevents pH from decreasing / acts as buffer&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""><span style=""color: rgb(21, 9, 36);"">6. </span><b>Hb releases oxygen </b></span></div> <div>O2 diffuses from RBC→blood plasma→<span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">respiring cells</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-02-26 at 16.03.46.png""><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""><br> </span></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
incomplete combustionalkane -&gt; CO + H2O
complete combustionalkane -&gt; CO2+H2O
rectant and conditions needed for free radical substitution&nbsp;-UV light&nbsp;<br>-X2
what is initation step in making chloromethaneCl2 -&gt; 2Cl*<br>* = .&nbsp;
what is propagation step in making chloromethaneCl* + CH4 -&gt; CH3* + HCl<br>CH3* + Cl2 -&gt; CH2Cl* + HCl
what is termination step in making chloromethaneCl* + Ch3 -&gt; CH3Cl, CH2CL, CH3CL3<br>Cl* + Cl* -&gt; Cl2<br>CH3* + CH3* -&gt; C2H4
alkane to alkene reactioncracking<br>there is thermal and catalytic
alkane to alkene reaction conditionsfor catalyst its Al2O3 zeolite and heat
alkene to alkane reactionhydrogenation
alkene to alkane reaction conditionsH2 + Ni + heat
alkene to alkane reaction mechanism (use but-1-ene to butane)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 18.52.39.png"">"
test for alkene?bromine water
test for alkene reaction nameelectrophilic addition
test for alkene reaction conditionsX2, room temperature, shaken
test for alkene mechanism (use ethene as the example)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 18.54.30.png"">"
alkene to PVC polyethene reaction nameaddition polymerisation
alkene to PVC polyethene mechanism ( use ethene as example )&nbsp;"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 18.56.28.png"">"
alkene to diol reaction nameoxidation
alkene to diol reaction conditionscold, dilute KMnO4<br>water needed as well
alkene to diol colour changepurple/pink -&gt; colourless
alkene to diol mechanism (ethene as example)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.00.34.png"">"
alkene with hot concentrated KMnO4 produces what1) CO2 + H2O (if C bonded to two H2 atoms)<br>2) Aldehyde -&gt; COOH (further oxidation)<br>3) Ketone (2 R groups)&nbsp;
EXAMPLE QUESTION: write the products when (CH3)2C=CH2 undergoes hot concentrated KMnO4Ketone<br>CH3COCH3&nbsp;<br>and CO2 + H2O
EXAMPLE QUESTION: when an unknown compound is exposed to hot concentrated KMnO4, products formed are CO2, CH3CH2CO2H what is the alkene used to make it"but-1ene<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.05.44.png"">"
alkene to alcohol reaction nameelectrophilic addition<br>hydration
alkene to alcohol reaction conditionssteam, concentrated H2SO4<br>H3PO4, heat, 330C<br>Ni, heat
alkene to alcohol mechanism (ethene use as example)"<img alt=""Addition Reaction of Alkenes with Water: Easy exam revision notes for GSCE Chemistry"" src=""eq-ethene-water-01.gif"">"
alcohol to alkene reaction namedehydration&nbsp;<br>elimination
alcohol to alkene reaction conditionsAl2O3 heat<br>concentrated H2SO4/H3PO4
alcohol to alkene mechanism (use ethanol as example)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.14.27.png"">"
alkene to halogenoalkane reaction nameelectrophilic addition&nbsp;
alkene to halogenoalkane conditionsroom temperature<br>Hx acts as a base (proton acceptor)
alkene to halogenoalkane mechanism ( use propene)&nbsp;"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.18.13.png"">"
alkene to halogenoalkane mechanism ( use ethene)&nbsp;"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.18.51.png"">"
halogenoalkane to alkene reaction nameelimination
halogenoalkane to alkene reaction conditionsNaOH (enthanolic)<br>NaOH (aq) heat under reflux
halogenoalkane to alkene mechanism (use bromoethane)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.24.42.png"">"
halogenoalkane to amine reaction namenucleophilic substitution&nbsp;
halogenoalkane to amine reaction conditionsethanolic NH3&nbsp;<br>heat, pressure
halogenoalkane to amine mechanism (use bromoethane)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.26.27.png"">"
halogenoalkane to nitrile reaction namenucleophilic substitution&nbsp;
halogenoalkane to nitrile reaction conditionsethanolic KCN<br>heat under reflux&nbsp;
halogenoalkane to nitrile reaction mechanism (bromoethane)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.27.48.png"">"
nitrile to amine reaction namereduction
nitrile to amine reaction conditionsNa + ethanol<br>LiAlH4 in dry ether<br>H2 + Ni<br>
nitrile to amine mechanism (use ethanenitrile)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.31.53.png"">"
halogenoalkane to alcohol reaction namenucleophilic substitution&nbsp;<br>Sn1 for teritary halogenoalkane<br>Sn2 for primary halogenoalkane&nbsp;
halogenoalkane to alcohol Sn2 mechanism (bromoethane used)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.34.41.png"">"
halogenoalkane to alcohol Sn1 mechanism (2 bromo 2 methyl propane)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.35.20.png"">"
alcohol to halogenoalkane reaction namenucleophilic substiution&nbsp;
alcohol to halogenoalkane reaction conditions<div>many reactants can be used</div><div><ul><li>HX or KBr + H2SO4/H3PO4 (produces H2O)</li><li>PCl3 + heat (produces H3PO3)</li><li>PCl5 + room temp (produces HCl + POCl3)</li><li>SOCl2 (produces HCl + SO2)</li></ul>all above heat under reflux</div>
alcohol to halogenoalkane mechanism of ethanol with H2SO4 + KBr or HX"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.40.39.png"">"
alcohol to halogenoalkane mechanism of ethanol with PCl3 + heat"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.41.03.png"">"
alcohol to halogenoalkane mechanism of ethanol with PCl5"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.41.15.png"">"
alcohol to halogenoalkane mechanism of ethanol with SOCl2"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.41.34.png"">"
alcohol -&gt; CO2 +H2O reactioncombustion + heat
alcohol -&gt; Na Alkoxide + H2 reactionNa reaction&nbsp;<br>alcohol test<br>u can see bubbling
alcohol to aldehyde reactionoxidation of&nbsp;<b>primary&nbsp;</b>alcohol&nbsp;
alcohol to aldehyde reaction conditionsCrO7 2- -&gt; Cr3+<br>- dilute H2SO4, acified K2Cr2O7
CrO7 2- -&gt; Cr3+ colour changeorange to green
alcohol to aldehyde reaction mechanism (Use ethanol)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.45.05.png"">"
aldehyde to alcohol reaction nameforms <b>primary alcohol<br></b>reduction
aldehyde to alcohol reaction conditionsNaBH4 in water<br>LiAlH4 in dry ether
aldehyde to alcohol reaction mechanism&nbsp;"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.47.01.png"">"
alcohol to ketone reactionoxidation<br>forms&nbsp;<b>secondary&nbsp;</b>alcohol
alcohol to ketone reaction conditionsCr2O7 2- -&gt; Cr3+<br>dilute H2SO4<br>acidifed K2Cr2O7
alcohol to ketone reaction mechanism (use butan-2-ol)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.52.27.png"">"
ketone to alcohol reaction namereduction
ketone to alcohol reaction conditionsNaBH4 in water<br>LiAlH4 in dry ether
ketone to alcohol reaction mechanism (propanone used)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.54.59.png"">"
aldehyde to nitrile reaction namenucleophilic addition
aldehyde to nitrile reaction conditionsNaCN/KCN in acid (in situ)<br>produces hydroxynitriles
aldehyde to nitrile reaction mechanism (ethanal used)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 19.57.44.png"">"
tests to check for aldehyde"tollen's<br>felhing's"
"how does tollen's work&nbsp;"aldehyde oxidised<br>tollens reduced<br>Ag+ -&gt; Ag (silver mirror formed)<br>Ag+ oxidising agent<br><b>Ag mirror + -COOH</b>
"how does felhing's work&nbsp;"aldehyde oxidised to carboyxlic acid<br>Cu2+ in alkaline -&gt; Cu+<br><b>+ -COOH<br>blue to red</b>
ketone to RCOCI3 reaction namehalogenation
ketone to RCOCI3 reaction conditionsI2, NaOh
aldehyde -&gt; ketone to RCOCI3 reaction mechanism (ethanal)&nbsp;"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 20.02.39.png"">"
RCOCI3 to CHI3 + ROO- Na+ reaction namehydroylsis&nbsp;
RCOCI3 to CHI3 + ROO- Na+ reaction conditionsNaOH
RCOCI3 to CHI3 + ROO- Na+ mechanism"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 20.04.10.png"">"
Iodoform featuresmp 119c<br>yellow ppt<br>CHI3
how is iodoform formedtriiodomethane with methyl ketome group forms it -&gt; test for ketones)
2,4 DNPH usetest for ketone
what reaction is ketone -&gt; 2,4 DNPHcondensation
positive 2,4 DNPH testdeep orange ppt
ketone with 2,4 DNPH mechanism (proponaone)&nbsp;"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 20.06.36.png"">"
nitrile to COOH reaction namehydrolyisis&nbsp;
nitrile to COOH reaction conditionsdilute HCl/H2SO4<br>heat under reflux<br>NaOH
nitrile -&gt; COOH mechanism with acid hydrolysis (propanenitrile)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 20.09.23.png"">"
nitrile -&gt; COOH mechanism with alkali hydrolysis (propanenitrile)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 20.10.39.png"">"
aldehyde to COOH reaction nameoxidation
aldehyde to COOH reaction conditionsHEAT UNDER REFLUX<br>KMnO4 (salt)<br>dilute H2SO4<br>Acifidied K2Cr2O7
aldehyde to COOH reaction mechanism (propanal)"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 20.14.02.png"">"
COOH to aldehyde reaction namereduction
COOH to aldehyde reaction conditionLiAlH4 (dry ether)
COOH to ester reaction nameesterification
COOH to ester reaction conditionsconc h2so4<br>alcohol reflux<br>condensation
COOH to ester reaction mechanism propa1nol ethanoic acid"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 20.17.49.png"">"
ester to COOH reaction namehydrolysis<br>acid hydrolysis<br>alkaline hydrolysis<br>
ester to COOH reaction conditionacid hydroylsis&nbsp;<br><ul><li>acid h2so4 dilute</li><li>equllibrium established</li></ul><div>alkaline hydrolysis</div><div><ul><li>dilute NaOh</li><li>irreversible</li><li>salt made</li></ul></div>
ester to COOH reaction acid hydrolysis mechanism (ethyl proponoate)&nbsp;"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 20.21.43.png"">"
ester to COOH reaction alkaline hydrolysis mechanism (ethyl proponoate)&nbsp;"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-03 at 20.22.21.png"">"
COOH neutralisation (ch3cooh)CH3COONA + H2O
COOH metal reaction(CH3COO)2Mg + H2
COOH carbonate reactionCH3COONa + Co2 + H2O
what is 85% of co2 used for?hydrogencarbonate ions<br>used for&nbsp;<br>- converting co2 to carbonic acid (carbonic anhydrase enzyme helps in this)<br>- carbonic acid dissociates to hco3- +h20 then diffuse from rbc into plasma<br>
what is 5% of co2 ions used for?-dissolve in blood blasma and remain as co2 molecules
what is 10% of co2 used for-carbaminohaemoglobin<br>diffuse into RBC and bind to terminal amine of Hb to form carbaminohaemoglobin
what is the pco3 and o2 levels in aveoli consideredconsidered to be low pco2 and high 02
what happens when hhb released its h+ ionh+ ion binds 02 to form oxyhaemoglobin
process of hydrogencarbonate ions from blood capillary to lung1. hydrogencarbonate ion diffuses back into rbc and binds with h+ to convert back to carbonic acid which is converted back to co2 + h2o to diffuse into aveloli<br>2. dissolved co2 in blood plasma diffuse into alveoli<br>3. co2 from carbaminohaemoglobin diffuse into alveoli&nbsp;
what muscle is the heart made ofcardic muscle
why is the walls of ventriles thicker than atria walls<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Because ventricles need high force to pump blood to the whole body&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700;"">The left ventricle has a thicker wall than the right. </span>WHY?&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Because the right ventricle only pumps blood to the lungs, left </div> <div>ventricles pumps blood to the entire body </div> </li> <li> <div>If the right ventricle pumps with too high pressure, tissue fluid may accumulate in lungs&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
"what r&nbsp;<span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0); font-weight: 700;"">Coronary arteries&nbsp;</span>"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>the blood vessels that supply cardiac muscle with oxygenated blood&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
whats normal heart rate75 bpm
average length of one cardic cycle0.8s
3 stages in cardic cycle1. atrial systole<br>2. ventricular systole<br>3. diastole
what does systole meancontraction/pumping
what does diastole meanrelaxtion/filling
length of atrial systol0.1
what happens during atrial systoleventricles relax
what valves are open during atrial systoleatriventricular valves
where does blood flow from in atrial systoleatria
where does blood flow to in atrial systoleventricles
what valves are closed in atrial systole<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Valves in vena cava and pulmonary veins, semilunar valves&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
length of ventricular systole0.3
what happens in ventricular systoleventriles contract<br>atria relax
valves that are open during ventricular systolesemiulunar valves
where does blood flow from during ventricular systoleventriles
where does blood flow to during ventricular systoleaorta and pulmonary artery
what valves are closed during ventricular systoleatrioventricular valves&nbsp;
length of diastole0.4
valves that are open during diastole<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Valves in vena cava and pulmonary veins, atrioventricular valves&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
where does flow form during diastole<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Vena cava and pulmonary veins&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
where does flow to during diastole<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Atria and trickles into ventricles&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
valves that are closed during diastole<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Semilunar valves&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is the artial pressure during artial systole"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Atrial</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""> </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">pressure</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""> </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">&gt; Ventr</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">ic</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">u</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">lar</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""> </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">press</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">u</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">re&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is the ventricular&nbsp; pressure during artial systole<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Lower than atrial pressure but increasing as blood fills heart&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is the pressure in arteries during artial systole<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>High, but slowly decreasing as blood flows to entire body&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is the artial pressure during ventricular systole<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Much lower than ventricular pressure&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is the ventricular&nbsp;pressure during ventricular systole"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ventr</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">ic</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">u</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">lar</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""> </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">press</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">u</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">re</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);""> </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">&gt; Atrial pressure </span>High, rapidly increasing.&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what is the pressure in arteries during ventricular systole<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>High, also rapidly increasing as blood is pumped through aorta&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is the artial pressure during diastole<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Low, but increasing as blood fills heart&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is the ventricular pressure during diastole<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Low, but increasing as blood fills heart&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
what is the pressure in arteries during diastole"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Pressure in arteries &gt; Ventricular pressure </span>High, but slowly decreasing as blood flows to entire body&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the changes in blood pressure in atria, ventricles and arteries?"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Changes with stage of cardiac cycle </div> </li> <li> <div>Usually measure the pressure on the <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">left side </span></div> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">of heart</span>→Left atrium, left ventricle, aorta </div> </li> <li> <div>Due to higher pressure and larger diff in pressure </div> <div>compared to right side Generally: </div> <ul> <li> <div>Atrial pressure is relatively low because it has thinner walls and exert less force </div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Atrial pressure </span>increases <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">during atrial systole </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ventricular pressure </span>increases during <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">ventricular systole </span></div> </li> <li> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Aortic pressure </span>increases during <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">ventricular systole<br> </span></div> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"<img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-16 at 01.22.03.png""><br>what happens here 1-9""<div> <div> <div> <ol> <li> <div>Atrial contraction begins </div> </li> <li> <div>Blood enters ventricles </div> </li> <li> <div>Ventricular systole begins; </div> <div>AV valves close </div> </li> <li> <div>Ventricles contract </div> </li> <li> <div>Semilunar valves open; </div> <div>Blood flows into arteries </div> </li> <li> <div>Semilunar valve closes </div> </li> <li> <div>Ventricles empty and relax </div> </li> <li> <div>AV valves open; </div> <div>Blood starts to fill atria </div> </li> <li> <div>Blood trickles into ventricle </div> </li> </ol> <div><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(201, 51, 38);"">*</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(235, 162, 33);"">* </span>Pressure slightly increases when valves close&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div>"
why is the change in pressure of blood vessels pulsatingdue to ventricular contraction
what is sytolic pressuremax blood pressure in arteries
what is diastolic pressuremin blood pressure in arteries
what is myogenic + give example"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Myogenic = contraction initiated by muscles itself, not by </div> <div>nervous impulses from outside&nbsp;</div><div><div> <div> <div> <div> <div>Cardiac muscles are <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">myogenic<br> </span></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the locations that waves of electrical impulse pass through in the heart to initate/ coordinate cardic cycle"<div> <div> <div> <div><ol><li><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Sinoatrial node (SAN)&nbsp;</span></li><li><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Atrioventricular node (AVN)&nbsp;</span></li><li><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Purkyne tissue&nbsp;</span></li></ol></div> </div> </div> </div>"
what does sinoatrial node (SAN) determine"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Determines rhythm of heart </div> </li> <li> <div>Also called <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">pacemaker </span></div> </li> <li> <div>Found at the wall of the right atrium&nbsp;</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are the first 2 steps that SAN initates&nbsp;"<div> <div> <div> <div style=""display: inline !important;"">1. SAN / pacemaker sends out waves of excitation / <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">electrical impulses </span></div><div>2. Impulses <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">spreads across atria </span>→Both atria contract simultaneously →Result in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">atrial systole</span></div><ol> <div>• But <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">non-conducting tissue </span>prevents impulses from reaching the ventricles </div> </ol>→So atria and ventricles do not contract at the same time&nbsp;</div><div>• Wave of excitation passed to AVN&nbsp; (atrioventricular node)<br></div> </div> </div>"
where is avn foundbetween atria
what does avn act as"<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Prevents atria and ventricles from contracting at the same time </div> </li> <li> <div>Acts as a <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">relay station&nbsp;</span></div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>"
what are steps 3-4 that avn initates"<div> <div> <div> <div style=""display: inline !important;"">3. There is a <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">time delay </span>of ~0.1-0.2 seconds →Allows atria to empty<br>→And ventricles to fill </div><div>4. AVN <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">sends wave of excitation to ventricles</span></div>• Wave of excitation passed to Purkyne tissue&nbsp;<br></div> </div> </div>"
what is purkyne tissue<div> <div> <div> <div> <ul> <li> <div>Tiny bundles of connecting fibres </div> </li> <li> <div>Found at base of ventricles<br> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div></div>
what are steps 5-6 that purkyne tissue initates"<div> <div> <div> <div style=""display: inline !important;"">5. Purkyne tissue conducts excitation to <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">base of septum </span>/ ventricles </div><div>6. <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Electrical impulses spreads upwards </span>in ventricle walls </div><div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">→</span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Ventricle muscles contract from base upwards </span></div><div>→Ventricles force blood up from base </div><div>→Result in <span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">ventricular systole&nbsp;</span><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-16 at 01.26.32.png""><br></div><ul> </ul> </div> </div> </div>"
what is the refractory period"<div> <div> <div> <div> <div><span style=""color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"">Period of insensitivity to any stimulation </span>• ~0.4seconds<br> • Atrial and ventricular muscles relax<br> <span style=""color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">• </span><span style=""font-weight: 700; color: rgb(0, 112, 192);"">Diastole&nbsp;</span></div> </div> </div> </div></div>"
"what is ecg<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-16 at 01.27.25.png"">""<div> <div> <div> <div>Electrocardiography&nbsp;</div><div> <div> <div> <div> Used to measure heart rate and regularity<br>Records wave of electrical activity<br>P = atrial systole</div><div>QRS = ventricular systole<br><ul> </ul>T = diastole&nbsp;<br><ul> </ul> </div><div><div> <div> </div></div><img src=""Screen Shot 2023-03-16 at 01.27.25.png""><br></div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div> </div>"
how do u calculate heart rate in bpm from an electrocardiogram<div> <div> <div> <div> <div>1. Find how long 1 cardiac cycle is&nbsp;</div><div>ex 1 cardiac cycle = 0.8 s </div> <div>2. Find how many cardiac cycles occur per minute </div> </div> </div> <div> <div> <div>ex 1 min ÷ 0.8 s = 60 s ÷ 0.8 s = 75bpm&nbsp;</div> </div> </div> </div></div>
draw the cycle for the bohr effect"<img alt=""Transport of Carbon Dioxide"" src=""Transport-of-Carbon-Dioxide.png"">"
whats cooperativity&nbsp;when o2 molecule combine w iron atom it causes a conformational change (3d shape change) let second o2 bind more easier so on and so both
what chloride shifthco3- diffuse out of RBC into plasma with cl- going into RBC to balance charge
1. trend of atomic radii of period 3 elements across the period<br>2. give a reason why1. overall decrease<br>2.&nbsp;<br>- number of protons (the nuclear charge) and the number of electrons increases across the period.<br>-&nbsp;elements in a period all have the same number of shells (so the shielding effect is the same)<br>-&nbsp;as you go across the period the nucleus attracts the electrons more strongly pulling them closer to the nucleus because of this, the atomic radius (and thus the size of the atoms) decreases across the period
1. trend of atomic radii of period 3 ions across the period<br>2. give a reason why1. decrease<br>2.&nbsp;<br>- cations have lost their valence electrons which causes them to be much smaller than their parent atoms ; anions opp<br>-&nbsp;less shielding of the outer electrons and&nbsp;increasing nuclear charge<br>
1. trend of melting across period 3<br>2. reason why"1. decrease&nbsp;<br><img alt=""The Periodic Table - Melting Point Graph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Melting-Point-Graph.png"" width=""236""><br>2.&nbsp;<br>- mp increase from Na to Al bc Al has stronger metallic bonding ( Na will donate 1 electron to sea of delcolaised electron but Al will donate 3)<br>- Si highest mp due to giant molecular structure ; strong covalent bonds<br>- P, S, Cl and Ar non metallic and exist as simple molecules<br>- covalent bonds within molecules (intramolecular) strong but but between r weak idid (intermolecular)"
1. trend of electronegativity conductivity period 3<br>2. Why?1.&nbsp;Electrical conductivity refers to how well a substance can conduct electricity. It increase up to Al then decrease<br>2. - Going from Na to Al -&gt; increase in num of valence electrons donated to sea of electron bc of this more electrons move around Al -&gt; better conducter than Na<br>- Due to giant molecular structure of Si no delocalised electron that can carry charge -&gt; no good charge ; same w P and SA
Mg with Oxygen - chemical equation<br>1.reaction conditions<br>2. reaction severity<br>3. flame<br>4. product2Mg (s) + O2 (g) -&gt; 2MgO (s)&nbsp;<br>1. Heated<br>2. Vigourously<br>3. Bright white flame<br>4. White solid
Si with Oxygen - chemical equation<br>1. reaction conditions<br>2. reaction severity<br>3. flame<br>4. productSi (s) + O2 (g) -&gt; SiO2 (s)<br>1. Powdered Si, Heated strongly<br>2. Slowly<br>3. Bright white sparkles<br>4. White powder
S with Oxygen - chemical equation<br>1. reaction conditions<br>2. reaction severity<br>3. flame<br>4. productS (s) + O2 (g) -&gt; SO2 (g)<br>1. Powdered S is heated<br>2. Gently<br>3. Blue flame<br>4. Toxic fumes
Si with Chlorine - chemical equation<br>1. reaction conditions<br>2. reaction severitySi (s) + 2Cl2 (g) -&gt; SiCl4 (l)<br>1. Heated<br>2. Vigorously
Mg with Chlorine - chemical equation<br>1. reaction conditions<br>2. reaction severityMg (s) + Cl2(g) -&gt; MgCl2 (s)<br>1. Heated<br>2. Vigorously
Na with Cold water - chemical equation<br>1. reaction conditions<br>2. reaction severity<br>3. pH of solution2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) -&gt; 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)<br>1. Cold Water<br>2. Vigourous. Hydrogen gas is given off.<br>3. strongly alkaline pH 14 due
Mg with Cold water - chemical equation<br>1. reaction conditions<br>2. reaction severity<br>3. pH of solutionMg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)<br>1. Cold water<br>2. Extremely slowly<br>3.&nbsp;weakly alkaline (pH 11). magnesium hydroxide is only slightly soluble
Mg with Hot water&nbsp;When magnesium is heated, it reacts vigorously with steam (water) to make magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas: Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)
Oxidation number of oxides in Period 3"<img alt=""The Periodic Table - Table 1_Oxidation Number of the Period 3 Oxides, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Table-1_Oxidation-Number-of-the-Period-3-Oxides.png"">"
Period 3 oxides with water (MgO, SO2, SO3, P4O10)"<img src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Table-1_Reaction-of-Period-3-Oxides-Water_1.png"">"
Acidic and Basic nature of Period 3 Oxides"<img alt=""The Periodic Table - Table 1_Acid - Base Behaviour of Period 3 Oxides &amp; Hydroxides, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Table-1_Acid-Base-Behaviour-of-Period-3-Oxides-Hydroxides.png"">"
Reaction of period 3 Oxides with acid/base table&nbsp; (Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P4O10, SO2, SO3)"<img src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Table-2_Acid-Base-Behaviour-of-Period-3-Oxides-Hydroxides_1.png"">"
Explain the acidic and basic nature of Period 3 elemtns looking at structure bonding and electronegativity"<img alt=""The Periodic Table - Table 3_Acid - Base Behaviour of Period 3 Oxides &amp; Hydroxides, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Table-3_Acid-Base-Behaviour-of-Period-3-Oxides-Hydroxides.png"" width=""480""><br>The difference in electronegativity between oxygen and Na, Mg and Al is the largest <br>Electrons will therefore be transferred to oxygen when forming oxides giving the oxide an ionic binding <br>The oxides of Si, P and S will share the electrons with the oxygen to form covalently bonded oxides<br>&nbsp;The giant ionic and giant covalent structured oxides will have high melting points as it is difficult to break the structures apart<br><br>Oxides of Na and Mg (ionic) will produce alkaline as O2- will become hydroxide OH-<br>1. O2-(aq) + H2O(l) → 2OH-(aq)<br><br>Oxides of P and S (covalent) will produce acidic as these oxides react with water they from acid.<br>Eg. SO3 reacts with water as follows:<br>&nbsp;SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)<br>The H2SO4 is an acid which will donate a H+ to water:<br>&nbsp;H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+ (aq) + HSO4-(aq)<br><br>Al and Si are insoluble and when they react with hot concentrated alkaline solution they act as a base and form a salt<br>- Al can also react with acidic solution to form salt and water (amphoteric)"
Period 3 hydroxide with base/acid (Na, Mg, Al)NaOH is a strong base and will react with acids to form a salt and water: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) <br><br>Mg(OH)2 is also a basic compound which is often used in indigestion remedies by neutralising the excess acid in the stomach to relieve pain:<br>&nbsp;Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) <br><br>Al(OH)3 is amphoteric and can acts both as an acid and base:<br>Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq) → AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) <br>Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq) → NaAl(OH)4(aq)
1.Reaction of P3 chlorides in water<br>2. exxplain in terms of bonding and electronegativity"<img alt=""The Periodic Table - Table 1_Reaction of Period 3 Chlorides &amp; Water, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Table-1_Reaction-of-Period-3-Chlorides-Water.png""><br>2.&nbsp;<br>NaCl and MgCl2 do not react with water as polar water molecule as the polar water molecules are attraction to the ions dissolving the chlorides and breaking down the giant ionic structure.<img alt=""The Periodic Table - Hydration of Sodium Chloride, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Hydration-of-Sodium-Chloride.png"" width=""110""><br><br>Aluminium Chloride -&gt; two forms<br>- AlCl3 as giant lattice with ionic bonds<br>- Al2Cl6 as a dimer with covalent bonds<br><br>Silicon Chlroide<br>- SiCl4 hydrolysed in water -&gt; releases white fumes of HCl in a rapid reaction<br>SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) → SiO2(s) + 4HCl(g)<br>- SiO2 seen as white ppt<br>- forms acidic sol<br><br>Phosphorus (V) Chloride<br>- PCl5 also hydrolsyed&nbsp;<br>-SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) → SiPCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) → H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(g)2(s) + 4HCl(g)"
period 3 trend in electronegativity"<img alt=""The Periodic Table - Electronegativity Graph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Electronegativity-Graph.png"" width=""203""><br>- atomic num increases, increase in nuclear charge<br>- across period, increase num of valence shells but shielding same<br>- increase in electronegativity as electron more attracted to nucleus"
period 3 trend in bonding and structure"<img alt=""The Periodic Table - Table 4_Properties of the Elements in Period 3, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Table-4_Properties-of-the-Elements-in-Period-3.png""><br>- Na Mg Al metallic -&gt; giant lattice<br>- Si giant molecular cuz giant<br>- P to Ar is simple intra strong inter weak"
period 3 chloride structure and bonding trend"<img alt=""The Periodic Table - Chemical Periodicity Table 2_Bonding in Period 3 Chlorides &amp; Oxides, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Chemical-Periodicity-Table-2_Bonding-in-Period-3-Chlorides-Oxides.png""><br>Going across Period 3, their chlorides and oxidised become more covalent and their structure shifts from a giant ionic to a simple molecular structure <br>Their reactions with water become more vigorous as a result of this as it becomes easier to hydrolyse the chlorides and oxides"
click the picture"<img alt=""The Periodic Table - Flowchart, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Flowchart.png"">"
"how to approach this question<br><img alt=""The Periodic Table - Worked example - Deducing the position of an element in the Periodic Table, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.1-The-Periodic-Table-Worked-example-Deducing-the-position-of-an-element-in-the-Periodic-Table.png"">"<ul><li><strong>Step 1:&nbsp;</strong>‘Element X forms a chloride, which reacts with water to form a solution of pH 1’<div>The low pH of the solution formed suggests that the chloride is a non-metallic chloride (group 13 to 17)</div></li></ul><ul><li><strong>Step 2:&nbsp;</strong>‘The oxide does not dissolve in or react with aqueous sodium hydroxide’<div></div>Since aluminium oxide does reaction with sodium hydroxide, element G cannot be Group 13</li></ul><ul><li><strong>Step 3:&nbsp;</strong>It forms an oxide which has a melting point of 1610 °C’<div>This suggests a giant molecular (covalent) structure which corresponds to Group 14</div></li></ul><ul><li><strong>Step 4:&nbsp;</strong>Element X cannot be carbon (which is in Group 14) as carbon dioxide is a gas whereas the element X oxide is a solid (with a melting point of 1610 °C)</li></ul><ul><li><strong>Step 5:&nbsp;</strong>Element X is therefore a Group 14 element in Period 3 or lower</li></ul><ul><li>Note that this is an example of predicting the position of an element based on its physical and chemical properties</li></ul>
group 2 reaction w oxygen, flame test, water, dilute HCL, dilute H2SO4 (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra)"<img alt=""Group 2 - Table 1_Reactions of Group 2 Elements, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.2-Group-2-Table-1_Reactions-of-Group-2-Elements.png"">"
group 2 reaction w oxygen and water chemical equations&nbsp; (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra)"<img alt=""Group 2 - Table 2_Reactions of Group 2 Elements, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.2-Group-2-Table-2_Reactions-of-Group-2-Elements.png"">"
group 2 reaction w dilute HCl and dilute sulfuric acid chemical equations (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra)"<img alt=""Group 2 Elements with HCl and H2SO4"" src=""2.2.3-Group-2-Elements-with-HCl-and-H2SO4.png"">"
general equation of metal with&nbsp;<br>1. oxygen<br>2. water<br>3. hydrochloric acid<br>4. sulfuric acid1.&nbsp;2M (s) + O2 (g) → 2MO (s)<br>2.&nbsp;M (s) + 2H2O (l) → M(OH)2 (s) + H2 (g)<br>3.&nbsp;M(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MCl2(aq) + H2(g)<br>4.&nbsp;M(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MSO4(aq) + H2(g)
reaction of grp 2 oxide w water"- all grp 2 is basic except BeO amphoteric<br>- solubility if hydroxides increase down group<br><img alt=""Group 2 - Table 1_Reactions of Group 2 Oxides, Hydroxides &amp; Carbonates, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.2-Group-2-Table-1_Reactions-of-Group-2-Oxides-Hydroxides-Carbonates.png"">"
reaction of grp 2 metal w acud"- form colourless sol of metal salts<br><img alt=""Group 2 Elements with HCl and H2SO4"" src=""2.2.3-Group-2-Elements-with-HCl-and-H2SO4.png""><br>if with sulfuric acid grp two metals become less and less soluble&nbsp;"
reaction of grp 2 hydroxides with hcl"<img alt=""Group 2 - Table 3_Reactions of Group 2 Oxides, Hydroxides &amp; Carbonates, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.2-Group-2-Table-3_Reactions-of-Group-2-Oxides-Hydroxides-Carbonates.png"">"
reaction of grp 2 carbonates"- all except beco3 insoluble in water<br>- form soluble chloride salts, water and co2<br><br><img alt=""2-2-group-2---table-4-reactions-of-group-2-oxides-hydroxides-and-carbonates"" src=""2-2-group-2---table-4-reactions-of-group-2-oxides-hydroxides-and-carbonates.png"">"
thermal decomp of carbonatesXCO3 (s) -&gt; XO (s) + CO2 (g)
thermal decomp of nitratesX(NO3)2 (s) -&gt; XO (s)&nbsp; +&nbsp;&nbsp; 2NO2 (g)&nbsp; +&nbsp;&nbsp; ½O2 (g)<br>2X(NO3)2 (s) -&gt; 2XO (s)&nbsp; +&nbsp; 4NO2 (g)&nbsp; +&nbsp;&nbsp; O2 (g)
trend in thermal stability&nbsp;As you move down Group 2, the thermal stability of carbonates and nitrates increases, requiring more heat to break them down.<br>Smaller positive ions at the top of the group polarize anions more than the larger ions at the bottom. <br>The higher the charge and the smaller the ion, the greater the polarizing power. As a result, increased polarization leads to a higher likelihood of thermal decomposition, as the bonds in carbonate and nitrate ions become weaker.
group 2 chemical trend"<img alt=""Group 2 - Ionisation Energy Group 2 Elements, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.2-Group-2-Ionisation-Energy-Group-2-Elements.png"" width=""331""><br>the reactivity of Group 2 metals increases as you go down the group due to the decrease in ionization energies, making it easier to remove the outer two electrons. This trend is influenced by factors such as increased shielding effect and larger distances between the outermost electrons and nucleus, which outweigh the higher nuclear charge. This increased reactivity is demonstrated through faster hydrogen gas production with dilute hydrochloric acid and a greater reactivity with oxygen, as seen with Barium, which must be stored in oil to prevent reactions with oxygen in the air."
group 2 physical trend"Going down the group, the elements become larger as the outer two electrons occupy a new principal quantum shell which is further away from the nucleus<br><img alt=""Group 2 - Atomic Radius Group 2 Elements Chart, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.2-Group-2-Atomic-Radius-Group-2-Elements-Chart.png""><br>The melting point of the elements decreases going down the group as the outer electrons get further away from the nucleus.<br>This means that the attraction between the nucleus and the bonding electrons decreases causing a decrease in melting point<br>As you go down the group, the density of the alkali earth metals increases<br><img alt=""Group 2 - Density Group 2 Elements Chart, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.2-Group-2-Density-Group-2-Elements-Chart.png"">"
trend in solubility alkalinity in grp 2 hydroxideincrease for solubility<br>alkalinity increases<br>
trend in solubility in grp 2 sulfatessolubility
colours of grp 17 down the group (F, Cl, Br, I)"<img alt=""Group 17 - Halogen Colours, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.3-Group-17-Halogen-Colours.png"">"
volatility&nbsp;"how easy a substance can evaporate<br><img alt=""Melting &amp; boiling points of the Halogens"" src=""paste.png""><br>- melting boilingpoints of group 17 elements increase going down the group indicating elements become less volatile&nbsp;<br>- going down the group, the boiling point of the elements increases which means that the volatility of the halogens decreases"
grp 17 trend in bond strength"- decrease<br>- in a covalent bond the bonding pair of electron is attraction to the nuclei on either side and it is this attraction that holds the molecule tgt<br>- going down the group, the atomic size of the halogen increases<br>- bonding pair electrons get further away from the halogen nucelus and therefore less strongly attracted towards in<br><br><img alt=""Group 17 - Bond Enthalpy Graph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.3-Group-17-Bond-Enthalpy-Graph.png""><br>- higher bond enthalpy = stronger bond (eception flourine) -&gt; so small that when two atoms of flourine get tgt lone pairs get so close they cause repulsion counteractoing the attracting between bonding pair of electron and two nuclei&nbsp;<br>"
votability&nbsp;"In summary, Group 17 elements, also known as halogens, are non-metals and exist as diatomic molecules at room temperature. They have simple molecular structures with weak van der Waals' forces between the diatomic molecules, caused by instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces. As you go down Group 17, the number of electrons in the molecules increases, leading to stronger van der Waals' forces. Consequently, melting and boiling points increase, while volatility decreases down the group."
halogen relative reactivity as oxidising agentsstrong ox agents with ox decreasing down group 17<br>due to decreasing electron affinity as u go down the group - making it harder for the larger halogens to gain and attract electrons
halogen reaction with hydrogen and relative reactivityH₂ + X₂ → 2HX<br>- reactivity decreases as the bond strength between hydrogen and the halogen atom decreaes due to the increasing atomic size and weaker electrostatic attraction between the bonding electrons and the larger halogen nucleus
halogen relative thermal stabilities of hydrogen halides and explanation in terms of bond strengthsThe thermal stability of hydrogen halides decreases as you go down Group 17. This trend can be explained by the bond strength between the hydrogen and halogen atoms. As you go down the group, the bond strength decreases due to the increasing atomic size of the halogen and weaker electrostatic attraction between the bonding electrons and the larger halogen nucleus. As a result, hydrogen halides with larger halogen atoms (e.g., HI) are less stable and more prone to thermal decomposition than those with smaller halogen atoms (e.g., HF).
Relative reactivity of halide ions as reducing agents:Halide ions act as reducing agents, with their reducing power increasing as you go down Group 17. Iodide (I⁻) is the strongest reducing agent, followed by bromide (Br⁻), chloride (Cl⁻), and fluoride (F⁻). This trend is due to the increasing ease of losing electrons as you go down the group, as the larger anions have weaker attraction between their nuclei and outermost electrons.
Reactions of halide ions with:<br>(a) Aqueous silver ions followed by aqueous ammonia:"<div><pre><code>`<span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">X</span>⁻(aq) + <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">Ag</span>⁺(aq) → <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">AgX</span>(s)` <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">The</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">precipitates</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">have</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">different</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">colors</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">and</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">solubilities</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">in</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">aqueous</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">ammonia</span>, <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">which</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">can</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">be</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">used</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">to</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">distinguish</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">between</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">halide</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">ions</span>: <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">-</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">Silver</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">chloride</span> (AgCl) <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">is</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">a</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">white</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">precipitate</span>, <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">soluble</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">in</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">dilute</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">ammonia</span>. <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">-</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">Silver</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">bromide</span> (AgBr) <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">is</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">a</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">cream</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">precipitate</span>, <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">soluble</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">in</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">concentrated</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">ammonia</span>. <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">-</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">Silver</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">iodide</span> (AgI) <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">is</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">a</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">yellow</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">precipitate</span>, <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">insoluble</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">in</span> <span style=""color: rgb(220, 198, 224);"">ammonia</span>. </code></pre></div><br>"
Reactions of halide ions with:<br>(b) Concentrated sulfuric acid:"<pre><code>- Chloride (<span style=""color: rgb(255, 160, 122);"">Cl⁻</span>): `<span style=""color: rgb(245, 171, 53);"">2</span>Cl⁻ + H₂SO₄ → HCl + HSO₄⁻` (<span style=""color: rgb(255, 160, 122);"">only</span> hydrogen chloride is formed) - Bromide (<span style=""color: rgb(255, 160, 122);"">Br⁻</span>): `<span style=""color: rgb(245, 171, 53);"">2</span>Br⁻ + H₂SO₄ → Br₂ + SO₂ + <span style=""color: rgb(245, 171, 53);"">2</span>H₂O` (<span style=""color: rgb(255, 160, 122);"">bromine</span>, sulfur dioxide, and water are formed) - Iodide (<span style=""color: rgb(255, 160, 122);"">I⁻</span>): `<span style=""color: rgb(245, 171, 53);"">6</span>I⁻ + H₂SO₄ → <span style=""color: rgb(245, 171, 53);"">3</span>I₂ + S + <span style=""color: rgb(245, 171, 53);"">6</span>H₂O` (<span style=""color: rgb(255, 160, 122);"">iodine</span>, sulfur, and water are formed)</code><img alt=""Group 17 Table 2_Reactions of Halide Ions, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Chemistry revision notes"" src=""2.3-Group-17-Table-2_Reactions-of-Halide-Ions.png"" style=""font-family: Arial;""></pre>"
Disproportionation reactions of chlorine with cold and hot aqueous sodium hydroxide:<div>Chlorine reacts with cold and hot aqueous sodium hydroxide in&nbsp;<a>disproportionation reactions</a>, where it undergoes both oxidation and reduction. The&nbsp;<a>balanced chemical equations</a>&nbsp;for these reactions are:</div><ul><li><div>Cold aqueous sodium hydroxide:<br><code>Cl₂ + 2NaOH → NaCl + NaClO + H₂O</code></div></li><li><div>Hot aqueous sodium hydroxide:<br><code>3Cl₂ + 6NaOH → 5NaCl + NaClO₃ + 3H₂O</code></div></li></ul><div>In both reactions, chlorine changes oxidation numbers, from 0 in Cl₂ to +1 in NaClO and -1 in NaCl.</div>
<strong>Use of chlorine in water purification:</strong><div>Chlorine is used in water purification due to its ability to kill bacteria. When chlorine is added to water, it forms&nbsp;<a>hypochlorous acid</a>&nbsp;(HOCl) and&nbsp;<a>hypochlorite ions</a>&nbsp;(ClO⁻), which are active species responsible for killing bacteria. The reaction can be represented by the following equation:</div><div>``Cl₂ + H₂O ⇌ HOCl + Cl⁻ + H⁺`</div><div>Both HOCl and ClO⁻ are effective disinfectants, oxidizing and destroying the cellular structures of bacteria and other microorganisms.</div>
<strong>Lack of reactivity of nitrogen</strong><ol><li><div><strong>Lack of reactivity of nitrogen:</strong><br>Nitrogen is relatively unreactive due to the strength of its&nbsp;<a>triple bond</a>&nbsp;(N≡N) and lack of polarity. The triple bond requires a significant amount of energy to break, making it difficult for nitrogen to participate in reactions. Additionally, the bond is nonpolar because the two&nbsp;<a>nitrogen atoms</a>&nbsp;have the same electronegativity, so there is no net dipole moment.</div></li></ol>
<b>Ammonia and ammonium ion:</b><br>a)&nbsp;<b>Basicity of ammonia using the Brønsted–Lowry theory:</b>Ammonia (NH₃) is a weak base according to the Brønsted–Lowry theory, which defines a base as a proton (H⁺) acceptor. Ammonia has a lone pair of electrons on its nitrogen atom, which can accept a proton to form the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺).
"<span style=""color: rgb(223, 220, 216); background-color: rgb(32, 34, 36);"">(b)&nbsp;</span><strong>Structure of the&nbsp;<a>ammonium ion</a>&nbsp;and its formation by an acid–base reaction:</strong>"<div>The ammonium ion (NH₄⁺) has a tetrahedral structure, with the nitrogen atom at the center and four hydrogen atoms surrounding it. The ion is formed when ammonia acts as a base and accepts a proton (H⁺) from an acid during an acid–base reaction. For example:</div><div><pre><code>`NH₃ + H⁺ → NH₄⁺`</code></pre></div>
(c)&nbsp;<strong>Displacement of ammonia from&nbsp;<a>ammonium salts</a>&nbsp;by an acid–base reaction:</strong><br>Ammonia can be displaced from ammonium salts by reacting them with a strong base. During the reaction, the base provides a hydroxide ion (OH⁻) that reacts with the ammonium ion to produce ammonia and water. For example, when ammonium chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide:<br><pre><code>`NH₄Cl + NaOH → NH₃ + NaCl + H₂O`</code></pre>
<strong>Oxides of nitrogen and their&nbsp;<a>catalytic removal</a>:</strong><div>Oxides of nitrogen, such as&nbsp;<a>nitric oxide</a>&nbsp;(NO) and&nbsp;<a>nitrogen dioxide</a>&nbsp;(NO₂), can be produced both naturally (e.g., by lightning and&nbsp;<a>microbial processes</a>) and from human activities (e.g., burning fossil fuels in internal combustion engines). In order to reduce air pollution, these oxides are removed from the exhaust gases of internal combustion engines using catalytic converters. The catalysts promote the reduction of NO and NO₂ to nitrogen and oxygen:</div><div>``2NO + 2CO → N₂ + 2CO₂`</div><div>``2NO₂ + 4CO → N₂ + 4CO₂`</div>
<strong>Formation of peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and photochemical smog:</strong>Atmospheric oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO₂) can react with unburned hydrocarbons to form peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), which is a component of photochemical smog. The formation of PAN is facilitated by sunlight, leading to the creation of smog in urban areas with high levels of air pollution.
Role of NO and NO₂ in the formation of acid rain: equation<strong>2NO(g) + O₂(g) ⇌ 2NO₂(g)<br></strong><div><strong>NO₂(aq) + H₂O(l) + 1½O₂(g) → 2HNO₃(aq)</strong></div>
Nitrogen oxide as a catalyst<ul><br></ul><div><div><div><ul><li>Acid rain also contains&nbsp;<strong>dilute sulfuric acid</strong>&nbsp;(H₂SO₄)</li><li>Sulfur(IV) oxide (SO₂) is another pollutant found in the atmosphere</li><li>When SO_2&nbsp;is oxidised, it forms SO₃&nbsp;which reacts with rainwater to form dilute sulfuric acid as follows:</li></ul><div></div><div><strong>SO₃(g) + H₂O(l) → H₂SO₄(aq)</strong></div><ul><li>Nitrogen oxides can&nbsp;<strong>directly&nbsp;</strong>cause acid rain but can also act as&nbsp;<strong>catalysts&nbsp;</strong>in the formation of acid rain</li><li>NO₂&nbsp;catalyses the oxidation of SO₂&nbsp;to SO₃:</li></ul><div></div><div><strong>NO₂(g) + SO₂(g) → SO₃(g) + NO(g)</strong></div><ul><li><ul><li>The formed NO gets oxidised to regenerate NO₂:</li></ul><div></div></li></ul><div></div><div><strong>NO(g) + ½ O₂(g) → NO₂(g)</strong></div><div></div><ul><li>The regenerated NO₂&nbsp;molecule can get again oxidise another SO₂&nbsp;molecule to SO₃&nbsp;which will react with rainwater to form H₂SO₄</li></ul><div></div><div></div></div></div></div><div><div><div><br></div></div></div>
click"<img alt=""The Human Thorax, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""The-Human-Thorax.png"">"
describe<br>- trachea<br>- lungs<br>- bronchi<br>- bronchioles<br>- alveoli"<img alt=""Thorax Structures Table, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Thorax-Structures-Table.png"">"
what is cartilage&nbsp;<br>- its purpose<br>- where is it found?- Cartilage is a strong and flexible tissue found in various places around the body<br>-&nbsp;These rings help to support the trachea and ensure it stays open, while allowing it to move and flex while we breathe. Cartilage also supports the bronchi, though it does not form c-shaped rings here<br>- form c shaped rings<br>- arranged along trachea, not usually found in bronchioles&nbsp;
what is ciliated epithelium&nbsp;Ciliated epithelium is a specialised tissue which lines all of the tubes of the airways; each cell has small projections of cilia which sweep mucus, dust and bacteria upwards and away from the lungs and the epithelium itself
what are goblet cell<br>- function<br>- where is foundGoblet cells can be found scattered throughout the ciliated epithelium in the trachea, and also in the bronchi, though usually not in the bronchioles <br><br>They are mucus-producing cells that secrete viscous mucus which traps dust, bacteria and other microorganisms and prevents them from reaching the lungs
what is squaemous epithelium&nbsp;<br>- where is it found<br>- what is used for-The alveoli have a lining of thin squamous epithelium, that allows for gas exchange <br>-The squamous epithelium forms the structure of the alveolar wall and is very thin and permeable for the easy diffusion of gases
purpose of smooth musculeSmooth muscle can be found in the walls of the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles<br>It helps to regulate the flow of air into the lungs by relaxing when more air is needed and constricting when less air is needed
purpose of elastic fibersElastic fibres, sometimes known as elastin, are found in the lining of the airways and in the walls of the alveoli <br>The role of elastic fibres is to recoil and enable the structures of the airways to regain their original shape, e.g. the alveoli stretch to accomodate air during inhalation, and then recoil to their original shape during exhalation
why aveolus surrounded by extensive network of capillariesCarbon dioxide diffuses out of the capillaries and into the alveoli to be exhaled, while oxygen diffuses the other way from alveoli and into the capillaries to be carried around the body<br>These capillaries have a diameter of around 3-4 µm, which is only wide enough for one red blood cell to travel through at any one time This ensures that there is sufficient time and opportunity for gas exchange to occur
"what is this<img alt=""Cartilage SEM, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Cartilage-SEM.png"">""cartilage&nbsp;<br>- you can tell by ""glassy appearance""<br>- no nerves no blood vessels<br><img alt=""Cartilage micrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Cartilage-micrograph.png"">"
"<img alt=""Ciliated Epithelium Photo Micrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Ciliated-Epithelium-Photo-Micrograph.png"">what is this&nbsp;<img alt=""Ciliated Epithelium Electron Micrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Ciliated-Epithelium-Electron-Micrograph.png"">"cillated epithelium<br>- can tell bc of distinctive narrow cell bodies and hair like cilia located along apical layer<br>- cilia tiny projections
"what is this (arrows)<br><img alt=""Goblet Cell Light Micrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Goblet-Cell-Light-Micrograph.png"">"goblet<br>- can tell as Goblet cells can be found scattered among the ciliated epithelium of the trachea and bronchi <br>- They are distinctive in the epithelium due to their lack of cilia (although they still have some microvilli projecting outwards)
what is this&nbsp;
"what is this&nbsp;<img alt=""Squamous Epithelium Light Micrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Squamous-Epithelium-Light-Micrograph.png""><img alt=""Squamous Epithelium Electron Micrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Squamous-Epithelium-Electron-Micrograph.png"">"squaemous epithelium<br>
"what is this&nbsp;<img alt=""Smooth Muscle Light MIcrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Smooth-Muscle-Light-MIcrograph.png""><img alt=""10. Smooth Muscle Electron Micrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""10.-Smooth-Muscle-Electron-Micrograph.png"">"smooth muscle<br>- can tell cuz bellow ciliated epithelium<br>- tightly packed<br>- doesnt show cross stripes under microscope
"what is this<br><img alt=""Capillary Photomicrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Capillary-Photomicrograph-.png"">"capillaries<br>-tiny diameter
"what is this&nbsp;<img alt=""Trachea Electron Micrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Trachea-Electron-Micrograph.png""><img alt=""Trachea Light Micrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Trachea-Light-Micrograph.png""><img alt=""Trachea Cross Section, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Trachea-Cross-Section.png"">"trachea<br>- can tell cuz large lumen<br>- inner most cell r ciliated epithelia&nbsp;
"what is this&nbsp;<img alt=""Bronchi Cross Section, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Bronchi-Cross-Section.png"">"-Bronchi are distinctive from the trachea because their lumen is narrower; 8.7mm instead of 18mm <br>-However, like the trachea, they are lined by ciliated epithelium
"what is this&nbsp;<img alt=""Bronchiole Photomicrograph, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Bronchiole-Photomicrograph.png"">"Bronchioles<br>- 1mm less in diameter<br>- smooth muscule and cuboidal epithelium found in walls
"what is this&nbsp;<img alt=""Alveoli, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Alveoli.png"">"alveoli<br>- sponge like under microscope cuz of air spaces
what makes up the wall of trachea"- bundles of smooth muscule fibers<br>- cliliated epithelium with glands<br>- tracheal lumen<br>- cartilage<br>- connective tissue<br>- tracheal wall<br><img alt=""Wall of Trachea, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Wall-of-Trachea.png"">"
what makes up the wall of bronchus"- have cartilagge hoops<br>- gland ducts<br>- airway<br><img alt=""Walls of the Bronchus, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Walls-of-the-Bronchus.png"">"
name function of following<br>- cililated epithelium cell<br>- goblet cell<br>- mucuous gland<br>- cartilage<br>- smooth muscle<br>- elastic fibers<br>- squaemous epithelium"<img alt=""Structures &amp; Functions in the Gas Exchange System Table, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Structures-Functions-in-the-Gas-Exchange-System-Table.png"">"
describe gas exxchange process"<ol><li><div>Air is inhaled into the lungs and travels through the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles before reaching the alveoli.</div></li><li><div>Oxygen in the air diffuses across the thin walls of the alveoli, from an area of high concentration in the alveoli to an area of lower concentration in the surrounding capillaries.</div></li><li><div>The oxygen binds to hemoglobin molecules in red blood cells within the capillaries, and the oxygen-rich blood is carried away from the lungs through the pulmonary veins.</div></li><li><div>At the same time, carbon dioxide from the body's tissues diffuses from the capillaries to the alveoli, from an area of high concentration in the blood to an area of lower concentration in the alveoli.</div></li><li><div>The carbon dioxide is then exhaled out of the lungs during expiration, completing the process of gas exchange.</div></li></ol>"
features of alveoli and importance"<img alt=""Table_ Features of the Alveoli, downloadable AS &amp; A Level Biology revision notes"" src=""Table_-Features-of-the-Alveoli.png"">"