C.R. Woodcock · J.S. Mason Editors. Bulk solids handling : an introduction to the practice and technology BULK SOLIDS HANDLING An Introduction to the Practice and Technology Prepared by Thames Polytechnic Bulk Solids Handling Unit and edited by C.R.WOODCOCK, DipTech, MSc, PhD, CEng, MIMechE Principal Lecturer, School of Engineering, Thames Polytechnic and J.S. MASON, BSc, PhD, CEng, FIMechE, FIMarE, MIMinE Head of School of Engineering, Thames Polytechnic Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 1987 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Blackie & Son Ltd in 1987 ~) First published 1987 Al/ rights reserved. No parc of chis puhlication may he reproduced. stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in anyform or hy any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the Puhlishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Bulk solids handling: an introduction to the practice and technology. 1. Bulk solids handling 1. Woodcock, C.R. Il. Mason, J.S. III. Thames Polytechnic. Bulk So/ids Hand/ing Unit 621.8'6 TS180.8.B8 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Woodcock, C.R. Bulk solids handling. Bibliography: p. lncludes index. 1. Bulk solids handling. 1. Mason, J.S. Il. Title. TS180.8.B8W66 1987 629.04 85-29147 ISBN 978-1-4757-1360-2 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-1358-9 ISBN 978-1-4757-1358-9 (eBook) Phototypesetting by Thomson Press (1) Ltd, New Delhi and Preface An understanding of the properties and the handling characteristics of liquids and gases has long been regarded as an essential requirement for most practising engineers. It is therefore not surprising that, over the years, there has been a regular appearance of books dealing with the fundamentals of fluid mechanics, fluid flow, hydraulics and related topics. What is surprising is that there has been no parallel development of the related discipline of Bulk Solids Handling, despite its increasing importance in modern industry across the world. It is only very recently that a structured approach to the teaching, and learning, of the subject has begun to evolve. A reason for the slow emergence of Bulk Solids Handling as an accepted topic of study in academic courses on mechanical, agricultural, chemical, mining and civil engineering is perhaps that the practice is so often taken for granted. Certainly the variety of materials being handled in bulk is almost endless, ranging in size from fine dust to rocks, in value from refuse to gold, and in temperature from deep-frozen peas to near-molten metal. Almost everyone has seen a belt conveyor in operation-perhaps carrying grain on the local farm, or stone and rock from a nearby quarry-but how many would know that belt conveyors are now being developed to transport bulk solids at rates in excess of 30 000 tonnes per hour? The domestic vacuum cleaner is a familiar machine in which dust particles are conveyed through a pipe in a stream of air, but few people would appreciate that large lumps of coal and rock, and even fish, can be transported in a similar way. Examples of bulk solids handling can be found in almost every kind of industry and the problems associated with the design, installation and operation of plant for the storage and transport of materials in bulk are many and varied. No book can be a substitute for the technical skill acquired through long experience in the industry. Nevertheless, we have attempted to present here a foundation of knowledge, generally with a practical rather than an academic emphasis, upon which expertise in various specialized aspects of bulk solids handling can be developed subsequently. Governments of many nations are now recognizing that the education and training of engineers in many fields should include some study of the technology of bulk solids covering the properties, storage, flow and transport of a wide range of materials in particulate or granular form. In the United Kingdom, for example, recent initiatives emanating from the Department of Industry have led to conferences, courses, and various publications aimed at promoting a greater awareness of the unique features of bulk solids. The School of Engineering at Thames Polytechnic, and in particular the staff of its iv PREFACE Bulk Solids Handling Unit, have been deeply involved in these initiatives from the outset and this book is the result of a clearly perceived need for an introduction to the subject that would identify and set out a structure for the area of study that is becoming known by the convenient, if not entirely accurate, title 'Bulk Solids Handling'. Many specialist treatments are already available: works on particle technology, hopper design, fluidization, dust control, pneumatic conveying, and others, can be found on library shelves and in most cases these are excellent and valuable works of reference for the experienced engineer. However, for the student and for the engineer who requires an overview of the emerging discipline of bulk solids handling, supported by an adequate coverage of fundamentals, this book should provide essential reading. In common with most books of similar size and scope, this one should really be regarded as the product of a team effort. We, as authors and editors, would unhesitatingly acknowledge the contributions, both direct and indirect, of our colleagues in the Bulk Solids Handling Unit at Thames Polytechnic, notably Dr David Mills and Dr Alan Reed. In their various ways the academic and technician staff of the School of Engineering, together with many of our postgraduate and undergraduate students, have played some part in the events leading up to the conception, preparation and, ultimately, the production of this book. Although it is perhaps a little unfair to mention individuals by name, we do gratefully acknowledge the patient and tolerant efforts of Mrs Pam Colley in undertaking the massive task of typing the manuscript. Finally, our sincere thanks and appreciation goes to our respective families, especially to our wives Angela and Fran, for the patience, understanding and considerable fortitude that they have shown during the months that this book has been in preparation, and indeed during the many years that we have both been so deeply involved in the multitude of activities arising out of our interest in the fascinating subject of Bulk Solids Handling. CRW JSM Contents PART 1 CHARACTERIZATION, FLOW AND STORAGE 1 The nature of bulk solids Introduction Sampling 1.2.1 Obtaining a gross sample 1.2.2 Preparing laboratory and test samples 1.3 Voidage and bulk density 1.4 Particle density 1.5 Particle size 1.5.1 Definition of 'size' and 'size distribution' 1.5.2 Measurement of particle size 1.6 Particle shape 1.7 Surface area 1.8 Particle hardness 1.9 Cohesion and adhesion 1.9.1 Angle of repose 1.9.2 Shear strength 1.9.3 The shear cell as a means of determining shear strength 1.9.4 Wall friction 1.9.5 Measurement of wall friction 1.9.6 Arching phenomena 1.10 Moisture content 1.11 Explosiveness 1.12 Notation References and bibliography 1.1 1.2 2 Gravity flow of bulk solids 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Introduction Pressure distribution in a bulk solid 2.2.1 Bulk solid at rest 2.2.2 The effect of flow on the pressure distribution Flow of bulk solids from hoppers 2.3.1 Introduction 2.3.2 Core flow 2.3.3 Mass flow 2.3.4 Obstructions to gravity flow 2.3.5 Predicting the solids discharge rate Flow of bulk solids in chutes 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.2 Flow patterns in straight inclined chutes 2.4.3 Flow patterns in curved chutes 2.4.4 Chute design Flow of bulk solids in vertical pipes 2.5.1 Introduction 2.5.2 Mode of flow 2.5.3 Flow control-J-valves and L-valves Notation References and bibliography 1 1 3 3 4 7 9 10 10 15 25 26 28 29 31 33 35 39 40 41 43 44 45 46 47 47 49 49 52 54 54 54 55 55 56 64 64 65 68 69 74 74 76 79 81 82 VI CONTENTS 3 Dynamics of fluid/solids systems 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Introduction Flow through beds of fixed particles 3.2.1 Characteristics of flow in porous media 3.2.2 The prediction of pressure-drop across a fixed particulate bed Settling behaviour of particles 3.3.1 Motion of a spherical particle settling in a stationary fluid 3.3.2 The settling of non-spherical particles 3.3.3 The settling of concentrations of particles (hindered settling) 3.3.4 Classification and sorting of particles Fluidization 3.4.1 The fluidization process 3.4.2 The prediction of minimum fluidizing velocity 3.4.3 Entrainment of particles from a fluidized bed 3.4.4 The porous membrane, or distributor 3.4.5 The influence of particle size and density Spouted bed behaviour Gas/solids flow in pipes 3.6.1 Introduction 3.6.2 The flow of gas/solids suspensions in horizontal pipes 3.6.3 The flow of gas/solids suspensions in vertical pipes 3.6.4 Flow around 90" bends 3.6.5 The prediction of pressure-drop in flowing gas/solids suspensions Liquid/solids flow in pipes 3.7.1 Flow characteristics of liquid/solids mixtures (slurries) 3.7.2 Non-Newtonian flow models for homogeneous suspension 3.7.3 The modelling of heterogeneous suspensions Notation References and bibliography 4 The design of storage bins and hoppers 4.1 4.2 Introduction Hopper geometry 4.2.1 Shape 4.2.2 Overall dimensions 4.3 Outlet size and cone angle 4.3.1 Jenike's 'flow-no flow' criterion 4.3.2 Flow Functions and flow factors 4.3.3 Outlet dimension and cone angle 4.4 Period of storage and time consolidation effects 4.4.1 Caking 4.4.2 Testing for time consolidation 4.4.3 Practical ways of minimizing time consolidation 4.5 The effect of moisture 4.6 Overcoming space limitations 4.6.1 The use of low-friction linings 4.6.2 Changing hopper shape 4.7 Structural design 4.8 Control and measurement of discharge rate 4.9 Feeders 4.9.1 Introduction 4.9.2 Belt feeders 4.9.3 Apron feeders and rotary feeders 4.9.4 Rotary table feeders 4.9.5 Screw feeders 4.9.6 Vibratory feeders 4.10 Discharge aids 4.10.1 Introduction 84 84 84 84 85 91 91 95 98 98 99 99 104 109 109 110 113 116 116 117 122 124 125 138 138 139 148 150 152 154 154 156 156 159 162 162 165 166 168 169 170 171 171 172 173 175 176 178 180 180 181 183 184 185 187 187 187 CONTENTS 4.10.2 Pneumatic methods 4.1 0.3 Vibrational methods 4.10.4 Mechanical methods 4.11 Notation References and bibliography 5 Dust control 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 Introduction Dust as a hazard to health 5.2.1 Dust particle size 5.2.2 Dust concentration limits Dust suppression 5.3.1 Elimination of dust 5.3.2 Control of dust dispersion Gravity and inertial separators Air cleaners-cyclones 5.5.1 Principle of operation 5.5.2 Prediction of collecting efficiency 5.5.3 Prediction of pressure-drop 5.5.4 Cyclone selection Air cleaners-wet washers or scrubbers 5.6.1 Principle of operation 5.6.2 Low pressure-drop wet washers 5.6.3 High pressure-drop wet washers Air cleaners-filters 5.7.1 Mechanism of filtration 5.7.2 Filter media 5.7.3 Bag filters-design and selection 5.7.4 Filter cleaning Air cleaners-electrostatic precipitators Notation References and bibliography 6 Explosion hazards 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Introduction Characteristics of dust explosions 6.2.1 Ignition 6.2.2 Explosibility limits 6.2.3 Expansion effects and explosion pressures Measurement of explosion parameters Explosion risks and system design 6.4.1 Minimizing sources of ignition and prevention of ignition 6.4.2 Containment 6.4.3 Explosion relief venting 6.4.4 Detection and suppression Static electricity Conclusion References and bibliography vu 188 192 198 200 201 203 203 204 204 208 208 208 209 211 213 213 215 218 218 218 218 220 222 224 224 226 227 230 232 233 233 235 235 238 238 239 240 241 246 248 249 250 253 256 258 258 PART 2 MECHANICAL HANDLING 7 Belt conveyors 7.1 7.2 Introduction Features of belt conveyors 7.2.1 Belt construction 7.2.2 Idlers 7.2.3 Drive arrangements 260 260 261 261 265 268 CONTENTS V111 7.2.4 The power unit 7.2.5 Loading and discharge arrangements 7.2.6 Belt cleaners 7.3 Belt conveyor design 7.3.1 The bulk solid to be transported 7.3.2 Belt speed 7.3.3 Belt width 7.3.4 Belt tension 7.3.5 Idler spacing 7.3.6 Power requirements 7.4 Belt conveyor variants 7.4.1 The cable belt conveyor 7.4.2 Belt conveyors without idlers 7.4.3 Closed-belt or pipe conveyors 7.4.4 Sandwich belts 7.5. Notation References and bibliography 8 Bucket elevators 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Introduction Principal types of bucket elevator 8.2.1 Centrifugal discharge elevators 8.2.2 Continuous bucket elevators 8.2.3 Pivoted buckets 8.2.4 Profiled-belt elevators Design and selection of bucket elevators 8.3.1 Design features 8.3.2 Loading 8.3.3 Discharge 8.3.4 Capacity 8.3.5 Driving power Notation References and bibliography 9 Chain and flight conveyors 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 Introduction Drag conveyors En-masse conveyors 9.3.1 Design features 9.3.2 Performance calculations 9.3.3 Applications of en-masse conveying Tubular drag conveyors Apron conveyors Aerial ropeways Notation References and bibliography 10 Screw conveying 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Introduction Principle of operation of screw conveyors The enclosed screw or 'auger' conveyor I0.3.1 Constructional features 10.3.2 Prediction of the performance of an auger conveyor The industrial screw conveyor or 'U-trough' conveyor 10.4.1 Constructional features 10.4.2 The conveyed product 271 272 273 274 274 275 277 281 284 284 289 289 290 291 293 295 296 298 298 300 300 301 303 304 305 305 308 309 312 315 316 317 318 318 318 321 321 323 325 327 328 331 333 334 335 335 337 338 338 340 342 342 344 CONTENTS I 0.5 10.6 10.7 10.4.3 Conveyor selection 10.4.4 Conveyor power 10.4.5 Inclined screw conveyors Vertical screw conveyors Conclusion Notation References and bibliography 11 Vibratory conveyors 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Introduction Movement of a bulk solid in a vibrating trough 11.2.1 The motion of the trough 11.2.2 The motion of bulk material in the trough 11.2.3 Average conveying velocity 11.2.4 The influence of the design parameters 11.2.5 Two-phase trough motion Design features 11.3.1 Drive mechanism 11.3.2 Mounting systems Applications of vibratory conveying Spiral elevators Notation References and bibliography IX 345 349 351 354 356 356 357 358 358 361 361 365 367 369 370 370 370 374 375 376 378 379 PART 3 PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC TRANSPORT 12 Basic pneumatic conveying systems 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Introduction Modes of conveying-dilute-phase and dense-phase Low-pressure pneumatic conveying systems 12.3.1 Positive-pressure systems 12.3.2 Negative-pressure (vacuum) systems 12.3.3 Combined negative/positive pressure systems High-pressure systems 12.4.1 General features 12.4.2 Single blow tank systems 12.4.3 Twin blow tanks and continuously operating systems 12.4.4 Long-distance conveying Low-velocity conveying and the use of supplementary air feeds 12.5.1 General features 12.5.2 Plug-forming systems 12.5.3 Plug-limiting systems 12.5.4 Air-injection and booster systems References and bibliography 13 Components of pneumatic conveying systems 13.1 13.2 Introduction The air supply 13.2.1 General requirements 13.2.2 Fans and turbo-blowers 13.2.3 Roots-type blowers 13.2.4 Sliding-vane rotary compressors 13.2.5 Screw compressors 13.2.6 Reciprocating compressors 13.2.7 Vacuum pumps 380 380 386 386 386 390 392 392 392 393 396 398 399 399 401 403 405 407 408 408 408 408 409 411 411 412 414 416 CONTENTS X 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 Feeding devices 13.3.1 Rotary valves 13.3.2 Screw feeders 13.3.3 Venturi feeders 13.3.4 Gate Jock valves 13.3.5 Blow tanks 13.3.6 Entrainment devices for vacuum systems The pipeline Disengaging and collecting devices Notation References and bibliography 14 Pneumatic conveyor design 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Introduction General design procedure 14.2.1 Conveying velocity and volumetric air flow rate 14.2.2 Solids mass flowrate and solids loading ratio 14.2.3 Pipeline diameter 14.2.4 Pressure-drop 14.2.5 Stepped pipelines 14.2.6 Selection of the air mover Summary of preliminary design procedure for dilute-phase systems Designing from available test data 14.4.1 Conveying characteristics 14.4.2 Scaling for pipe size and conveying distance Notation References and bibliography 15 Air-assisted gravity conveying 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 Introduction The flow of fluidised solids Practical air-assisted gravity conveying Design parameters for air-gravity conveyors 15.4.1 Slope of channel 15.4.2 Conveying distance 15.4.3 Width of conveying channel 15.4.4 Air requirement Properties of bulk solids for air-gravity conveying Air-float conveyors for horizontal and upward transport Energy consumption of air-gravity conveyors Notation References and bibliography 16 Hydraulic conveying 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Introduction Components of a hydraulic conveying system 16.2.1 Pumps 16.2.2 Slurry preparation plant 16.2.3 The pipeline 16.2.4 De-watering equipment System design 16.3.1 General design approach 16.3.2 Flow characreristics and pressure-drop Recent development References and bibliography 17 Capsule transport 17.1 Introduction 417 417 425 426 427 428 431 433 436 436 436 438 438 439 439 441 442 443 446 446 447 448 448 449 454 454 456 456 458 461 465 465 466 466 468 470 472 475 476 476 478 478 481 481 485 486 487 489 489 490 491 492 494 494 CONTENTS 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 Index Capsule transport in a pneumatic pipeline 17.2.1 General features of a pneumo-capsule system 17.2.2 The capsules 17.2.3 The pipeline 17.2.4 The air supply 17.2.5 Loading and unloading stations Capsule transport in a hydraulic pipeline 17.3.1 General features of a hydro-capsule system 17.3.2 The capsules 17.3.3 The pipeline 17.3.4 The water supply and pump system 17.3.5 Injection and ejection of capsules Size of capsule fleet Notation References xi 498 498 499 501 502 503 504 504 504 505 505 508 508 510 510 513 ... when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind: it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the state of SCIENCE, whatever the matter may be. (Lord Kelvin, as Sir William Thomson, speaking on 'Electrical Units of Measurement' at the Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 3 May 1883.) (Arab proverb, freely translated as: 'Experience without learning is better than learning without experience'.) 1 The nature of bulk solids 1.1 Introduction A bulk solid consists essentially of many particles or granules of different sizes (and possibly different chemical compositions and densities) randomly grouped together to form of a bulk. The 'nature' of such a material-that is, its appearance, its 'feel', the way it behaves in various circumstances, and so onis thus dependent upon many factors, but principally upon the size, shape and density of the constituent particles. The nature of a bulk solid, described in terms of appropriate characteristics, is an essential consideration when designing or selecting equipment for its handling or storage. There are innumerable examples in industry of problems that have been attributable to insufficient attention being paid to the properties of the bulk solid involved. Failure of a material to discharge from a storage hopper, blockage of a pneumatic conveying line and uncontrollable flushing of material through a weigh-feeder are typical of such problems. In this chapter some of the principal parameters that are used to describe bulk solids and their behaviour will be introduced. When attempting to describe a bulk solid it is important to understand that the characterization can be on two levels: (i) By means of features descriptive of the behaviour of the material in its normal bulk form; for example, the way in which it compacts, its flow properties, the influence of moisture and electrostatic charging (ii) By means of features of the constituent particles such as their size, density, hardness, shape and surface texture. At the present time our level of knowledge is not sufficient to enable a reliable prediction to be made of the behaviour of a bulk solid solely from the characteristics of its constituent particles. Nevertheless, research in this field is progressing, and by continually seeking correlations between the observed behaviour of various materials in the bulk form and measured particle characteristics, a valuable database is being compiled for the benefit of designers and users of bulk handling equipment. There are many descriptive terms and numerical parameters that can be used in the characterization of particulate and granular bulk solids, and these may refer both to the appearance of the material and to its behaviour in various circumstances. A first step in determining the characteristics of an unfamiliar material is to consider its behaviour in very general terms; for 2 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 1.1 A 'materials personality test' helps to establish the behavioural features of a bulk solid 'Neurotic' materials } have poor flowability have too much flowability are sticky or tacky tend to pack or bridge 'Sadistic' materials are } abrasive corrosive toxic explosive hot 'Masochistic' materials are friable degradable contaminable 'Schizophrenic' materials are hygroscopic susceptible to electrostatic charge } } they move awkwardly they attack their surroundings they suffer from their surroundings they change their behaviour pattern example, does it 'flow' easily or is it 'sticky'? Is it fragile? Is it abrasive? Corrosive? Explosive? And so on. The 'Materials Personality Test' (Table 1.1 ), which is believed to have appeared originally in an Australian publication, conveniently summarizes these features of bulk solids behaviour. Although purely descriptive terms are essential when communicating information on bulk solids, they are unlikely to be sufficient on their own. Numerical parameters are required to characterize a bulk solid in a quantitative manner and so to enable the designer of a handling system, in the light of his past experience, to match the system to the product and to assess the likelihood of problems occurring. Some of the more important of these parameters will be considered in more detail in this chapter. Attention will then be turned to some of the measurable characteristics of the constituent particles. Useful particle properties include size, shape, surface area, density and hardness, whilst more esoteric features such as surface texture may also have some value when attempting to predict the behaviour of a bulk material from a study of its particles. In this book an attempt is made to define the common usage of various properties of particles and bulk solids and to describe briefly examples of currently available equipment and techniques for their measurement. A very large amount of literature has been published on this aspect of particle technology and for further information the reader would be well advised to begin with one of the recent specialist guides or textbooks such as references [1] or [2]. Much useful information on the sampling, testing and description of very coarse materials such as mineral aggregates, which are generally beyond the scope of this book, can be found in the series of British Standards under the overall classification of BS 812 [3]. THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 3 Before proceeding, some discussion will be undertaken on the essential need for reliable methods of obtaining representative samples of material for testing. 1.2 Sampling The majority oflaboratory techniques for determining the properties of a bulk solid and of its constituent particles naturally require only a very small sample, usually to be taken from a large amount of material. Even a minute sample may contain many thousands of individual particles and in order to appreciate the difficulties of guaranteeing a representative sample, one needs only to imagine trying to collect from, say, a one-tonne load of material, a few hundred particles for analysis by microscope! There is little point in going to a great deal of trouble to determine accurately the size distribution or the flow properties, for example, of a bulk solid, if the sample used is not truly representative of the larger mass of material from which it was taken. In many processes involving the movement of a bulk solid, such as flow into a hopper or on to a heap on a flat surface, significant segregation by size and/or density can occur (Figure 1.1). Thus, there must be immediate doubt cast on any sample taken by scoop or similar device from a large quantity of stationary material. Where possible the sample should always be taken from a moving stream of the material in question by diverting the whole stream for a series of short intervals of time spaced over the period of flow of the complete batch. Once a 'gross sample' (perhaps a few kg) has been obtained in this way it will be necessary in the laboratory to further reduce it to a size suitable for whatever measurement technique is to be used. 1.2.1 Obtaining a gross sample Typical situations where it is necessary to take a sample from a large quantity of a bulk material include: (i) A moving stream of material; e.g. quality control of a product during a continuous process (ii) A static batch of material; e.g. in bags, in a bin or in a lorry or rail-wagon. Figure 1.1 Segregation in a poured heap. 4 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING It is almost always better to sample from a moving stream of material than from a static batch, where this is possible, in order to minimize the influence of segregation of particles during previous handling. In general, a careful consideration of where segregation (and other spurious influences on the homogeneity of the material, such as moisture) would be most likely to occur can be of great help when deciding on the most appropriate sampling technique. Thus, for example, when obtaining a sample from a moving conveyor belt, care must be taken to avoid the effects of segregation of the material as it was fed on to the belt. Sampling only part of the cross-section of the moving stream could well be misleading, although taking a vertical 'slice' out of the conveyed material would probably be better than 'skimming off' a sample from the top. The best approach, however, is to sample the whole stream for a short period of time. Even then, the possibility of variation of the stream with time should not be overlooked, so that the sampling technique finally adopted may be to divert the whole stream for a series of short intervals during the conveying of a complete batch of material. Usually the easiest place to carry out such sampling is at the discharge end of the conveyor. Sampling from a static batch of bulk solid should always be regarded as a poor alternative to sampling from a moving stream. Procedures can be developed so that the worst potential errors are avoided. Thus, for instance, no material should be taken from anywhere near a free surface. Various designs of sampling probe are available commercially and, where one of these is used, a number of samples should be taken from different regions within the batch of material and mixed to form the gross sample. Once the gross sample has been obtained, preferably from a moving stream of the bulk solid, it will have to be 'divided' by one of the following methods to yield a smaller sample suitable for laboratory use. 1.2.2 Preparing laboratory and test samples As mentioned previously, a gross sample would typically be several kilograms. For laboratory use it must be reduced in such a way that the final sample has the same size distribution as the gross sample and is in all respects Figure 1.2 'Cone-and-quartering'. THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 5 representative of the bulk material originally sampled. When reducing the gross sample the main difficulty is again to avoid the effects of segregation. A widely adopted method of preparing a laboratory sample is by 'cone-andquartering' (Figure 1.2) in which a conical heap of material is carefully divided into four equal parts, two of these being re-mixed and formed into a smaller conical heap which is again divided into four, and so on. Although this method does reduce the effects of segregation it is still very sensitive to operator skill and, where possible, some form of mechanical sample divider is preferable. Many types of sample divider are available, such as chute splitters (Figure 1.3) and table samplers (Figure 1.4), but perhaps the most reliable is the rotary sample divider or 'spinning riffier' (Figure 1.5) which is capable of reducing a gross sample of material down to several (typically eight or sixteen) 'equal' samples for laboratory use, with minimum dependence on operator skill. In many laboratory techniques for characterizing a bulk solid, the test sample required is extremely small and further reduction of the laboratory sample is necessary. For a free-flowing powder the spinning riffier should give an acceptable sample down to one gram, but for cohesive materials, obtaining a final test sample even of this size is not easy. One approach is to make up paste of the laboratory sample in a suitable liquid and then to use a modified cone-and-quartering technique. An alternative method, especially with very fine powders, is to carefully mix the laboratory sample into a liquid dispersant to form a suspension, a small quantity of which can then be extracted with a pipette. Commercial models of suspension sampler are available which are claimed to give more consistent samples than simple pipetting. Figure 1.3 Sample divider (riffier). 6 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 1.4 Table sampler. mass flow hopper_ 16-way dividing head Figure 1.5 Rotary sample divider (or 'spinning riffier'). 7 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 1.3 Voidage and bulk density The shape of particles constituting a bulk solid obviously depends upon the manner of their production but, irrespective of whether they are of regular or irregular shape, when they are packed together in random orientation there will be a certain amount of free space between them. Thus a bulk solid is really a combination of particles and space, the percentage of the total volume not occupied by the particles usually being referred to as the 'voidage' or 'void fraction'. Thus volume of voids voidage, s = ----,--c-------=-----=-:----:---:--:total volume of particles and voids or vvoids (1.1) s=-----'-'-''--Vsolids + Vvoids and, in a bed of material having unit volume, the actual volume of solid particles, or 'fractional solids content', is (1 - s). Sometimes the term 'porosity' is applied to bulk solids to mean the same as 'voidage'. However, it is probably advisable to reserve this term as a description of the structure of individual constituent particles. Thus we can define the particle porosity as the ratio of the volume of pores within a particle to the volume of the particle (inclusive of pores). When quantifying either the voidage of a bulk solid or the porosity of its constituent particles, it might be necessary to avoid ambiguity by stating whether the values quoted are inclusive or exclusive of closed pores. Typical values of the voidage in static bulk materials consisting of monosized spheres would range from 0.26 (that is, 26%) for regular hexagonal packing, to 0.48 for regular cubic packing (Figure 1.6). For closely graded irregular particles in random packing arrangements the voidage would normally lie between these extremes, a high voidage corresponding to a loose packing. A reasonable average figure would be around 0.4 for spheroidal• (a} regular hexagonal: Figure 1.6 E ~ 0.26 (b} regular cubic: f ~ Packing arrangements for monosized spheres. 0.48 8 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING particles, but where a material consists of particles of extremely irregular shape, especially if they are also of very small size (i.e. fine cohesive products), the voidage could be much higher. A quantity ofparticulate or granular material will have an apparent density, usually termed 'bulk density', which can be defined as the mass of the material divided by its total volume (particles and voids). Thus b ulk d ensI.ty, Ph = + + msolids mvoids --"'='----___;_= vsolids vvoids (1.2) Writing pP as the 'true' density of the solid particles and Pr as the density of the fluid in the void spaces, it can be shown that an expression for the bulk density is Pb =(pp- PrHl- t:) + Pr (1.3) For dry bulk solids the void spaces would, of course, usually contain air, and thus the density Pr would be negligible compared with pP so that the relationship between bulk density and particle density becomes (1.4) Clearly a knowledge of the bulk density of a product is essential in order to design storage vessels, conveying systems and the like. Determination of this parameter from a sample of the material concerned involves measurement of the mass of the sample and its total volume. The measurements are essentially straightforward, the problems arising more from the need to decide the conditions under which the volume should be measured than from the actual measuring techniques. It has been mentioned that the voidage (and therefore the bulk density) of a particulate material depends upon the packing arrangement. Therefore it is necessary to qualify any stated value of bulk density with an indication of the condition of the material concerned. For example, 'loose' or 'poured' bulk density might refer to a measurement for which the sample of product was carefully poured into a measuring cylinder to determine its volume. Alternatively, adopting a technique in which the sample was packed by dropping the cylinder vertically a number of times from a height of one or two centimetres on to a table could yield a value of'packed' or 'tapped' bulk density. Note that the bulk density of a mixture of particles of different sizes will depend upon the extent to which the smaller particles are able to fit into the spaces amongst the larger ones. Determination of voidage involves the separate measurements of the total volume of the sample and the volume of the solid particles alone. The most direct method of measuring the total volume is by pouring the sample into a calibrated measuring cylinder and reading the volume from the scale, but note the need to specify the condition of the product, as explained previously. The THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 9 determination of the volume of the particles will be discussed more fully in the next section, but usually involves some form of fluid displacement technique using a standard density bottle or a more sophisticated instrument such as an air-comparison pycnometer. Difficulties arise with particles that are porous or have internal voids (such as coke), since the definition of particle volume becomes uncertain. 1.4 Particle density It is important that the distinction between the bulk density of a particulate solid and the 'true' particle density is clearly understood. For a single particle the density is defined as the mass of the particle divided by its volume, so that for a bulk material the average particle density can be determined by dividing the mass of material by the true volume occupied by the particles (not including the voids). The determination of particle density thus involves the measurement of the mass of a quantity of bulk solid and of the volume occupied by its constituent particles, the latter measurement usually presenting the greatest difficulty. For products oflarge particle size the density can be determined simply by noting the volume ofliquid displaced by a known mass of particles in a partially filled measuring cylinder. Fine powders require the use of a specific-gravity bottle or air-comparison pycnometer. The specific-gravity bottle (or density bottle) is a small flask fitted with a ground-glass stopper which has a capillary hole running axially through it to permit excess fluid to escape as the stopper is inserted into the bottle. The normal procedure for use of the bottle begins with the determination of its volume by carefully measuring the mass of distilled water to just fill it. A sample of particulate material of known mass is then placed in the bottle and, by weighing, the volume of distilled water required to just fill the bottle is determined. Subtraction of this volume from the previously found volume of the empty bottle thus allows the volume of the particle sample to be calculated. Precautions should of course be taken against errors resulting from incomplete dispersion of the sample, moisture on the outside of the bottle, temperature variations and dissolving of the particles! A more detailed description of this method can be found in [4], Part 2. For products that are soluble, fragile or very light, the air-comparison pycnometer is almost essential. This commercially available instrument consists basically of two identical cylinders connected through a valve and each containing a piston, a differential pressure indicator and an output scale reading volume in cm 3 (Figure 1.7). With the connecting valve closed, any movement of the reference piston must be duplicated by an identical movement of the measuring piston in order to maintain a null reading on the differential pressure indicator. After setting the zero (tare) on the instrument, the volume of any material placed in the measuring cylinder will be shown by 10 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING top reference piston measuring piston zero V (tare) Figure 1.7 scale The principle of the Beckman air-comparison pycnometer. the position of the measuring piston for a null reading of the differential pressure indicator. It should be noted that all these methods yield the average particle density of the bulk solid. The densities of different constituent particles in a blended product can only be determined with any certainty by measuring them before blending. it also should be noted that values of particle density obtained by an air displacement method (such as the air-comparison pycnometer) may differ slightly from those obtained by liquid displacement when the particles involved have open pores, formed, for example, by air occlusion during crystal growth. In general, the density determined for a porous material would be an 'apparent density' which could be defined as the mass of a particle divided by its volume including closed pores but excluding open pores. If the particles are immersed in a viscous fluid their average effective density would be the mass of the particles divided by their volume including both open and closed pores (that is, considering the boundary of the particle to be its external surface). The 'true density' of a porous particle should thus be defined as its mass divided by its volume excluding both open and closed pores. 1.5 Particle size 1.5.1 Definition of'size' and 'size distribution' Various terms are used to give a qualitative indication of the size of particles constituting a bulk solid, the word 'size' here being used loosely to mean some sort of average dimension across the particle. Naturally such terms are not precise and tend to vary in usage from one industry to another. Nevertheless, it helps to introduce the subject of particle characterization if the typical ranges THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 11 Table 1.2 Qualitative terms used to describe the size of bulk solids Descriptive term Typical size range Coarse (or broken) solid Granular solid 5-IOOmm 0.3-5mm Particulate solid: coarse powder fine powder superfine powder ultrafine powder Coal, aggregates, etc. Granulated sugar (0.3-0.Smm); rice (2-3 mm). 100-300/lm 10-100/lm 1-10/lm < lJlm Table salt (200- 300 /lm) Icing sugar ( ~ 45 Jlm) Face powder Paint pigments Examples of size covered by terms such as 'granular material', 'fine powder', and so on, are appreciated. Table 1.2 sets out approximate ranges and, in order to assist the reader to visualize these, some familiar bulk solid materials are quoted as examples. A mass of monosized, spherical particles can be described by a single dimension-the particle diameter-and a mass of spherical particles of varying size can be described by an 'average' particle diameter together with some information on the distribution of sizes about that average value. However, where the particles are non-spherical it becomes necessary to define more carefully the parameters used for size and shape. (It may be remarked that 'size distribution' is more a property of the bulk solid than of its constituent particles. However, it is obviously convenient and relevant to discuss the term at this stage along with characteristics of individual particles such as size, shape, hardness, etc.) In order to represent the size of an irregularly shaped particle by a single quantity it is customary to use an 'equivalent diameter', corresponding to the diameter of a sphere that exhibits the same behaviour as the particle under certain conditions or that has the same value of some other descriptive characteristics. Thus, for example, a 'volume diameter', d., can be defined as the diameter of a sphere having the same volume as the particle. That is to say, (1.5) where vp is the volume of the particle. (It may be noted that for a cube of unit side, the 'volume diameter' is 1.241, compared with the maximum dimension of the cube, which is 1.732.) In general, the manner of describing the particle size depends upon the method of measurement, and it follows that the type of particle 'diameter' used should depend upon the reason for specifying it! For instance, if a particulate solid is to be used as a catalyst, the surface area of the particles is the significant 12 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING quantity and therefore it is the 'surface diameter' that should be used for particle size: A ds = ( ~ n )112 = 0 564A . (1.6) 1 2 sp1 where Asp is the surface area of the particle. (Again, note that for the cube of unit side, the 'surface diameter' is 1.382, so that the ratio djd. is 0.898.) In general industrial practice it is of course likely that the equivalent diameter used would correspond to the diameter of a sphere that exhibits the same behaviour when subjected to a specified sizing technique. For instance, the diameter used could be that of a sphere which just passes through the same square sieve aperture, or which falls at the same velocity in a fluid (sedimentation-the 'Stokes diameter'), or which has the same projected area (microscopy). Indeed, the definition of particle diameter may be so specific to a method of size analysis that it has little meaning when applied to a single particle; for example, Feret's diameter, used in microscopy, is the distance between parallel tangents on opposite sides of the particle. Many other 'equivalent diameters' may be defined and further examples are listed in [2]. The ratio of any pair of the listed 'diameters' (often known as a 'shape factor') is found to be fairly constant over quite wide size ranges for any one material which has been produced in the same way or derived from the same source. Thus it is possible, for instance, to correlate analyses in which the coarser fraction of a material has been subjected to a sieve analysis and the sub-sieve fraction has been sized in some other way. Typical values of these ratios, quoted in [5], are given in Table 1.3, but it should be emphasized that caution is required in the use of these figures, especially where the particles of the material are of extreme shapes. In an industrial situation it is probable that bulk solids comprising a large number of particles of non-uniform size would be encountered. In order to describe such materials completely, it is necessary to determine the particle size distribution. This information may be presented in tabular form, but it is generally more convenient to present it graphically as a histogram or as a fractional percentage plot. Table 1.3 Particle diameter conversion factors [5, Parts 3, 4] To convert Multiply by Sieve diameter to projected area diameter Sieve diameter to Stokes diameter Projected area diameter to sieve diameter Projected area diameter to Stokes diameter Stokes diameter to sieve diameter Stokes diameter to projected area diameter 1.40 0.94 0.71 0.67 1.07 1.50 13 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS (f) (f) "'u-<= c Ql g "0 "ji: ~ c~ 0"' Q; Q. particle size 100 Ql Ol "'c ~ ..... 80 ··~ I\ ·- . Ql u Q; Q. 60 (f) (f) "' E ~~~- ~~ ~r--· 20 E ::J u ' -~ ~ 1/ > ::J 'undersize 0 V V I I I -- -~-~ 40 Ql ro / I\ ~ ·-1~ oversize / I ' ....... ~mern particle size ---~ Figure 1.8 Graphical methods of presenting particle size distribution. (Top) Relative percentage frequency distribution by mass. (Bottom) Plots of cumulative percentage under- and over-size. Once the size distribution has been measured (for example, using one of the methods described in the next section), it is relatively simple to develop a suitable histogram by constructing rectangles over each class interval, the widths of which would usually be chosen in geometric progression. The area under each rectangle is proportional to the percentage of particles in that class so that a smooth curve through the histogram would yield a frequency distribution (Figure 1.8). An alternative, and often more useful approach is to present the data as a cumulative graph in which particle size is plotted along the horizontal axis and the ordinate represents cumulative percentage undersize or oversize (Figure 1.8). The principal advantage of this latter type of graph is that values not determined experimentally are reliably predicted. 14 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING surface - mean diameter volume - surface mean diameter ...... 0 ........ 0 \ I r same volume same surface area -0 volume - mean diameter same volume ~~ /_ / ~ CJO =oonoooooooo~aOO O average surface area for the mixture average volume for the mixture Figure 1.9 Three examples of definitions of 'mean particle size' for a mixture of non-uniform non-spherical particles. Also, the 'median size' (that is, the 50% size, or mid-point of the distribution) can be read off directly. The mass median mentioned above is probably the most commonly used method of indicating the 'average size' of particles constituting a bulk solid, since for the majority of materials it is the easiest to determine. However, it may happen that the median is not the most appropriate parameter and a number of alternative definitions of average particle size could be used. The one chosen would normally be dictated by its relevance to the situation concerned. Three examples will be considered; definitions are illustrated in Figure 1.9. (i) Surface mean diameter is defined as the diameter of a particle having a surface area equal to the average for all the particles in the mixture. This parameter is clearly relevant to processes in which the surface area of the bulk solid is a critical factor. The average surface area of a number of particles can be expressed as 1 2 Asm = N "L(nds) (1. 7) where d. is the diameter of a sphere having the same surface area as the corresponding particle. Thus the diameter of this particle of average surface area (the 'surface mean diameter') is given by A dsm = ( ~ 1t )112 = (-"Ld 1 )112 N 2 s (1.8) (ii) Volume-mean diameter is defined as the diameter of a particle having the THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 15 average volume for the mixture. By similar argument to the above, the 'volume-mean diameter' is given by 6V dvm = ( ____lllll 1! )1/3 = (-1 "Ld 3)1/3 N v (1.9) where dv is the diameter of a sphere having the same volume as the corresponding particle. (iii) Volume-surface mean diameter is defined as the diameter of a particle having a ratio of volume to surface equal to the average for the mixture (that is, the diameter of a sphere having the same volume as the particle of average surface area for the mixture). Although the definition is somewhat unwieldy, this parameter tends to be biased towards the lower end of the size range and therefore offers a useful advantage over the more commonly used median size in situations where the finer fraction of particles has disproportionate influence on the behaviour of the bulk solid (e.g. fluidization, gravity flow from hoppers and in chutes, etc.). From the above definition it can be seen that the volume-surface mean diameter is given by dvsm = "Ld3 "Ld: d:m d;m (1.10) A very convenient approximation that allows the volume-surface mean diameter to be determined easily from a sieve analysis on a bulk solid is dv•m ~ ( r. :.r 1 (1.11) where x is the mass fraction of particles passing through sieve aperture of size d•. 1.5.2 Measurement of particle size There are many methods of determining the particle size distribution of bulk solids. British Standards exist for a number of these [5], [6] and the underlying principles of a wide variety of sizing methods are discussed in depth in [2]. A summary of the approximate range of application of the more familiar techniques and equipment is given in Table 1.4. Sieve analysis. The most popular (and cheapest) method of particle size analysis, especially with relatively coarse materials, is sieving. A test sieve generally consists of a woven wire screen (with square apertures) rigidly mounted in a shallow frame (Figure l.lOa), but for coarse materials the sieve screen is more usually a perforated plate with either round or square holes. Traditionally the sieve size is specified by the number of apertures per unit length (the 'mesh'), but current practice is to quote the actual dimension of the 16 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 1.4 Some familiar methods of size analysis and their approximate range of application Approximate useful range Method Sieving: dry wet Electrical sensing zone (Coulter counter) Laser diffraction spectrometry Sedimentation and elutriation Optical microscopy Electron microscopy 50 Jlm-100 mm 10 jlm-100 mm I Jlm-800 Jlm 2 Jlm-75 Jlm I Jlm-150 Jlm O.QI Jlm-1 Jlm aperture in J.lm (Table 1.5). The sieve sizes used in an analysis should be selected to conform to a series, or for more accurate work, a ~ series. A wide variety of types of sieve is available commercially. Apart from the standard woven mesh sieves and the perforated plate sieves for coarser materials, a range of electro-formed sieves is manufactured for the size analysis of very fine products (less than about 45 J.lm). Specially designed sieves have been produced for specific applications, such as the measurement of flakiness index [7] and grain size of cereals (Figure 1.1 Ob). The lower size limit for material on a wire mesh sieve is around 50 J.lm, although with special techniques sieving down to about 10 J.lm is possible. The recommended mass of sample to be used on standard 200 mm (8-inch) diameter sieves is 50 g for materials of particle density between 1200 and 3000 kg/m 3 , and 100 g for materials of density greater than 3000 kg/m 3 . The test procedure involves introducing the sample to the top of a stack, typically consisting of up to eight sieves which are graduated from the coarsest at the top to the finest at the bottom. The stack is then shaken or vibrated (manually or mechanically) for a set period of time in order to distribute the material through the sieves. Finally, the mass of material retained on each sieve is determined by careful weighing. A detailed procedure for manual sieving is set out in a British Standard [6], but it is now far more usual to make use of automatic sieve shakers (Figure 1.1 Oc). For materials that are cohesive or susceptible to electrostatic charging, or that prove for any other reason to be difficult to distribute through the sieve stack, 'wet sieving' is possible. In this system water or other liquid is introduced via a spray header into the top sieve, and washes the product downwards before being extracted from a drain in the pan at the bottom of the stack. The overall size range of the sample can be specified by stating two sieve sizes; one through which the whole sample passed and the other on which the whole sample would be retained. Information could also be quoted on the proportion of the sample between any two sieve sizes, or the full size J2 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 17 b Figure 1.10 Bulk solids characterization by sieving. (a) A selection of standard woven mesh sieves. (b) Grain sieves for agricultural use. (Sieves for flakiness measurement are similar). (c) A variable-speed electromagnetic sieve shaker in use. (Photos by courtesy of Endecotts Ltd.) distribution could be plotted as illustrated in Figure 1.8. Further guidance on sieve analysis techniques may be found in [1], (2], [6] and [8]. Sedimentation and e/utriation. Various methods of size analysis have been developed which rely on observation of the sedimentation rate of a suspension of particulate material in a suitable liquid. Elutriation methods are somewhat 18 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 1.5 Relationship between standard sieve numbers and Jlm Size of sperture (Jlm) 44 45 53 60 62 63 74 75 88 90 100 105 120 125 140 149 150 170 177 180 200 210 250 297 300 350 355 360 385 BS Fine Mesh (BS 410; Table I) 350 300 240 200 170 US Bureau of Standards 270 200 120 60 52 44 200 170 120 72 (DIN 4188) 100 230 140 85 German Standard 325 150 100 American Society for Testing of Materials 100 80 80 70 60 50 100 80 40 30 70 60 50 24 20 45 40 16 similar but are based on the measurement of the proportion of the product which is carried off by an upward flow of gas (usually air) in a vertical column at a known velocity. For small particles having the same density, the rate of settling is approximately proportional to the square of the particle diameter, and consequently the concentration at a fixed depth in a sedimenting suspension will vary with time in a manner that depends upon the size distribution of the particulate material (Figure 1.11). For a discussion relevant to sedimentation analysis of the theory of particles settling in a gravitational field, the reader is referred to Chapter 3. One of the most convenient and reliable commercially available instruments using this principle of size measurement is the photosedimentometer. For this instrument a suspension of the material to be sized is prepared in a suitable liquid dispersant. This suspension, contained in a tall tank of opticalquality glass, is placed into the photosedimentometer and a narrow beam of light of pre-set intensity passed through it on to a photocell. The attenuation of 19 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS Table 1.5 (Contd.) Size of sperture (Jlm) 420 430 490 500 540 590 600 700 710 750 835 840 850 1000 1005 1020 1190 1200 1400 1405 1500 1680 2000 2380 2400 2800 2820 3350 3355 4760 BS Fine Mesh (BS 410; Table I) 36 US Bureau of Standards American Society for Testing of Materials German Standard (DIN 4188) 40 14 12 30 35 11 30 25 10 25 22 8 20 20 18 16 18 6 16 14 12 5 14 4 10 8 12 10 10 8 7 6 7 5 6 4 this beam of light is continuously recorded and will initially indicate a high concentration for the homogeneous suspension. The intensity of the light falling on the photocell will begin to increase from the moment that the largest particles, falling from the free surface, pass through the beam, and will tend towards a maximum as the finest particles reach the level of the light beam. The variation of the photocell output with time thus allows the size distribution to be determined, provided that the particle density and the viscosity and density of the liquid dispersant are known. A refinement of this instrument is a scanning device which speeds up the analysis by allowing the light beam to scan the suspension vertically at a rate of 10 mm/min. The wide-angle scanning photosedimentometer (WASP), which gives a readout in the form of a pen-recorder trace showing the variation of the optical density of the suspension with time, is illustrated in Figure 1.12. Sedimentation techniques generally are appropriate for bulk solids that are too fine to be analysed by sieving but not so fine that they take an inordinately 20 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING -1 H . •. ··:· .·: . ·.·.:·.· .· .. · ..... --Xl· ;_;:.:;;: :, (c) Figure 1.11 sensitivity controls • • • 0 • :: •• 0 ••• : -x- Concentration at XX begins to decrease: largest particles have settled distance H in time since sedimentation started. Sedimenting suspension: largest particles settling at fastest rate. Concentration at XX still unchanged. Homogeneous suspension. Sedimentation begins. \1$~,~~ ::: ~- ....... : -X (d) Concentration at level XX continuing to decrease. Time period since start allows determination of smallest particle size to fall to XX from the free surface. Differential sedimentation of a polydisperse material. -"'--m~-~-----i~~o ~-----=--~-- ~f---- pen recorder - stirring rod --------1f----.l4.1L-~ sedimentation tank --;--..oo 11 zero adjustment ~ Lk~W===~JI~Hl:i~lt:~-::::ilfrUI~ F--r---photocell i t - - - l(.iil photocell ----------"1-----11 1 \ _1 -i:i 1....___ _ _ _ _ _ time clock 1 I 1 I I 1 :: 0' ' :~+--\l,----------......------11 J.l -: / :- ;=~1\ : 1 I II 11 \light source ' I ~~: lr----1 scanning motor ' I I Ill ---H+-- 1: : l,-<~ lA .-, ~ I 1 n "" ' I 1 I I I I 1 I IL---:;tw-=------111 11 \bench neutral density filters (for setting sensitivity) r------ manual scan/return L.J-+------+ L---~,---j Figure 1.12 The wide-angle scanning photosedimentometer ('WASP'). 21 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS Table 1.6 Approximate upper size limits for particles in sedimentation analysis Critical diameter (Jlm) Material Sand (pP = 2700 kg/m 3) PVC (pp= 1400kg/m 3) Settling in air Settling in water Settling in ethylene glycol 31.6 39.4 60 97.2 560 1000 long time to settle under gravity in the selected dispersant. The exact size range that can be determined by photosedimentation depends principally upon the dispersant used and the density of the particles but, as an example, for sand settling in water, measurement over the range 2-60 .urn should be possible. The upper end of this range could be extended considerably if a more viscous dispersant such as ethylene glycol were to be used (Table 1.6). Optical microscopy. As a technique for size analysis of particulate solids, optical microscopy has become well established for particles ranging in size from about 0.8 .urn up to 150 .urn. It has the advantage of allowing examination and measurement of individual particles of the material in question, and the method can often be used where other techniques fail. Disadvantages may be summarized as: (i) Difficulty of obtaining a very small representative sample for study (ii) Small depth of focus (iii) Time-consuming procedure for counting particles. The basic procedure for size analysis uses a microscope fitted with a micrometer stage, and an eyepiece in which a glass disc engraved with a suitable scale is positioned against the field stop. This ocular scale is calibrated against a linear scale engraved on a microscope slide by bringing the two images into sharp coincidence, and the engraved slide is then replaced by a slide carrying the prepared powder sample. The sample is scanned in strips, each particle being sized and counted as its image passes over the scale. A linear scale in the eyepiece gives Feret's diameters of the particles examined, but a number of alternative forms of graticule have been developed which enable the particle images to be compared with engraved circles, thus giving projected area diameters. One of these, shown with its relative dimensions in Figure 1.13, has been adopted as the British Standard graticule ([5], Part 4). The full procedure to be followed when carrying out a size analysis can be found in various publications, for example, [5] Part 4; [9], but a summary is given below. (i) With the graticule in place in the microscope eyepiece, adjust the B 22 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Relative dimensions of British Standard Graticule Numerical value (units) ~ 0 os 0 7 1 T ~ Grid length Grid breadth Distance between calibration marks Diameter of circle I 2 5 0 4 o3 o2 grid length (mm) o' 3 4 5 6 7 Figure 1.13 (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) 64 45.3 60.4 1.00 1.41 2.00 2.83 4.00 5.66 8.00 British Standard graticule (BS 3625: 1963) (Ref. 2, Part 4). magnification so that the diameters of the reference circles correspond to the size range of the particles to be examined Select a suitable regular pattern of sample fields in order to cover the whole sample of powder on the slide (this step is simplified by using a suitably engraved slide or counting cell) Adjust the micrometer stage to position the graticule in the centre of the first sample field For particles within the graticule area (and on the boundary lines on two adjacent sides) count the number within each size class by visual comparison with the graticule circles Repeat the counting of particles in this way with the graticule positioned at the centre of each field area in turn until the whole sample of powder on the slide has been scanned. The Coulter counter. The Coulter counter, the best known commercially available instrument for size analysis of particulate materials by the electrical sensing zone technique, was originally developed by W.H. Coulter for counting blood cells. A recent British Standard ([5], Part 5) describes the method in detail and gives useful information on suitable electrolytes. The Coulter technique enables the number and size of particles suspended in an electrically conductive liquid to be determined by making the suspension flow through a small orifice on either side of which is immersed an electrode. As any particle passes through the orifice it increases the resistance between the electrodes momentarily and thus generates a voltage pulse, the magnitude of which is a function of the volume of the particle. These pulses are electronically scaled and counted and from the resulting data the size distribution of the suspended particulate material can be determined. For 23 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS particles of diameter within the range 2-40% of the orifice diameter it is found that the magnitude of the voltage pulse is directly proportional to the particle volume and it is on this principle that the reliability of the Coulter counter depends. A range of orifice sizes is available, so that the Coulter counter is well suited to the measurement of particle sizes in the sub-sieve range (less than 75 ,urn) down to about 1 ,urn. With special techniques this range can be extended up to 800 ,urn and down to 0.6 ,urn or even less. Almost any kind of material may be analysed using the Coulter technique (except for some organic compounds that are too soluble in any electrolyte), although the use of dispersants is often required. Figure 1.14 shows diagrammatically the basic components of a Coulter counter. In operation the stopcock A is opened so that the action of the vacuum pump causes the electrolyte to flow from the beaker through the orifice and also draws mercury up into the siphon. The stopcock is then closed, but the effect of the mercury siphon restoring its balance causes the flow of electrolyte through the orifice to continue. Electrical contact of the advancing mercury column with probes mounted in the glass tubing causes counting of the voltage pulses to begin automatically and to stop after a pre-determined volume of electrolyte (typically 0.5 ml) has passed through the orifice. The voltage pulses are amplified and fed to a threshold circuit having an Orifice to vacuum pump + Voltage pulse generated as particle passes through IS directly proportional to the volume ol the part1cle for particles having diameters in the range 2-40% of the orifice diameter counter 'start' counter 'stop' Figure 1.14 Diagrammatic representation of a basic Coulter counter. 24 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING adjustable threshold level. If this level is reached or exceeded by a pulse, the pulse is counted. By taking a series of counts at selected threshold levels, data are directly obtained for plotting cumulative frequency (larger than stated size) against particle size. Laser diffraction spectrometry. During the early 1970s methods were described for determining the size distribution of a sample of fine particulate material by measuring the diffraction that occurs as a beam of light passes through a suspension of the sample. Since that time the technique has been improved to the point where the laser diffraction spectrometer (LDS) is commercially available from several manufacturers in a form that allows a reliable size analysis to be made by a semi-skilled operative in just a few minutes. Although very costly, these instruments offer significant advantages in that special electrolytes are not required and calibration is unnecessary. However, there have been doubts expressed about discrepancies between analyses carried out on the LDS and results from other size-measurement techniques. The principle of laser diffraction spectroscopy is quite complex and only a simplified explanation can be given here. The angle of diffraction of a beam of light passing through a suspension of particles depends essentially upon the wavelength of the light and the size of the particles. Thus a beam of monochromatic light (from a laser source) passing through a suspension of monosized particles would be diffracted through a specific angle (Figure 1.15a) which is not dependent on the position or movement of the particles. If this light then passes through a lens it will be drawn to a focus in the form of an annular ring on the focal plane (Figure 1.15b ). For a mixture of particles the 0 (a) Laser light diffracted by uniform-sized particles focal plane laser light _ . ,_ _i-"-2' ~ so' lid particles (b) Light patterns formed at focal plane of lens Figure I. IS The principle of laser diffraction spectrometry. 25 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS measuring cell laser suspension (ultrasonically and/or mechanically stirred) - photodetector and processor output (VDU and/or printer) - --- - Figure 1.16 The elements of a laser diffraction particle sizer. incident light beam will be diffracted in a complex manner, but the result will be a radially symmetrical pattern of light on the focal plane of the lens, the intensity of this light at any radius being a function of the proportion of particles of a corresponding size. Electronic analysis of the light pattern on the focal plane can thus yield a size distribution of particles in the suspension. The smallest particle size that can be measured is generally about 1 Jlm, since the particles must be larger than the wavelength of the incident light, which is 0.63 Jlm for a He-Ne gas laser. The top size limit is set by the smallest diffraction angle that can be detected (the diffraction angle being inversely proportional to particle size) and in practice is usually around 200 Jlm. Figure 1.16 illustrates the essential components of a typical commercial LDS system. The instrument may be used directly on-line or may incorporate a vessel in which the suspension is prepared and maintained in a dispersed state by, for example, an ultrasonic oscillator. The particles are carried in the suspension through a measuring cell where they are illuminated by a laser beam. The diffracted light is collected by a system which may consist of a lens and some kind of photosensitive detector, the electrical output from which is analysed by a microprocessor. Finally the output data may be displayed on a VDU screen or provided as hard copy from a printer. 1.6 Particle shape Experience has shown that the shape of the constituent particles in a bulk solid is an important characteristic as it has a significant influence on their packing and flow behaviour. Some means of describing the shape of a non-spherical particle is therefore necessary. Various terms such as acicular, flaky, nodular, and so on, have been used to give a qualitative indication of the general shape of particles; indeed, such terms have been defined in a British Standard [10]. For example, particles may be described as 'flaky' when they have a thickness (smallest dimension) of less than 0.6 of their mean sieve size. A 'flakiness index' can be measured using special sieves having elongated slots [7]. Defining the shape of non-spherical particles in mathematical terms is not easy, but many 26 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING attempts have been made to established the use of shape factors to indicate the extent to which particles differ from the spherical. Probably the most commonly used of these shape factors is the 'sphericity' f/1., defined as the reciprocal of the ratio of the surface area of a particle to that of a sphere of the same volume: fjJ = • surface area of sphere } f h o t e same vo1ume surface area of particle It will be noted that f/1. must be less than unity and that f/Js = nd; = (dv) 2 (1.12) d5 Asp where Asp is the surface area of the particle. Thus the 'volume diameter' dv is always less than the 'surface diameter' d. for a non-spherical particle. Also, from equations (1.5) and (1.6), 1241 V p113 ) 112 0· 564A sp fjJ = ( . s 2 = V 2 13 4 838-p. A sp (1.13) Clearly the determination of sphericity requires the measurement of the volume and the surface area of particles. Such measurements are not easy and must normally be carried out by separate and indirect means which yield average values for a group of particles. It follows that the resulting value of f/J. will also be an average, but this gives little useful information about a bulk solid that comprises particles differing widely in shape. Although in certain chemical processes, for example, it might be essential to have a knowledge of the shape of particles constituting a bulk solid, for the majority of bulk handling systems such detailed information is not necessary. Indeed, most storage vessels and conveyors would be designed without any consideration of the particle shape of the bulk material concerned. The difficulty in obtaining (and interpreting) quantitative data on particle shape is discouraging, but a valuable alternative approach involves the use of a lowpower microscope with suitable photographic attachments. Micrographs (Figure 1.17) can convey information which could alert the designer at an early stage to potential problems. For instance, the structure of the particles might appear to be fragile, indicating that degradation of the product during conveying could be a significant problem; a fibrous appearance could warn of a tendency of the particles to lock together, causing flow problems from hoppers; or sharp, angular particles could be the cause of excessive wear damage to the pipeline and the components. 1.7 Surface area The surface area of certain finely divided bulk materials, such as catalysts and paint pigments, is of considerable importance during the processing and use of 27 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS c: lOO~m d 500 ~m Figure 1.17 Micrographs of a few typical bulk solids showing a range of particle shapes. (a) Dry sand. (b) Polypropylene powder. (c) Wheat flour. (d) Hardboard fluff. these materials and various techniques have therefore been devised to measure this property. In general, these techniques yield the 'specific surface' of the material, which is usually defined as the surface area per unit volume, but may be defined as surface area per unit mass. For a single particle the volume specific surface is thus given by sp = (nd;) / (~d?) from which 6 sp =A-d (1.14) 'f's v but measurements on samples of a bulk solid would of course yield an average value for the material. An indication ofthe specific surface can be deduced from a knowledge of the particle size distribution and other known characteristics ([4], Part 3). Indeed, because the specific surface is inversely proportional to particle size, this parameter is sometimes used to indicate the 'fineness' of a powder. The most common type of instrument for measuring the surface area of powders and particulate materials is the permeameter. This actually yields the 28 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING specific surface of the material, and surface area is readily determined by dividing the result by the particle density. Various designs of permeameter are available, but their general principle of operation involves passing a known quantity of air through a prepared plug of powder and the specific surface calculated from the measured pressure-drop across the plug. The best known models of permeameter, all of which are described in [2] and [ 4], Part 2, are the Lea and Nurse constant flowrate instrument, the Fisher sub-sieve sizer, the Rigden constant-volume apparatus and the Blaine constant-volume apparatus. Various other instruments are available for the determination of the specific surface of powders, involving, for example, gas adsorption techniques ([4], Part 1). 1.8 Particle hardness A knowledge of the hardness of the particles constituting a bulk solid is valuable when a handling installation is being designed since it will give an indication of the need to take steps to avoid undue erosive wear of the system components. Generally speaking, the harder the particles, the more abrasive the product will be on the materials from which the handling installation is constructed. In common with many other characteristics of bulk solids and their constituent particles, the problem with particle hardness is one of measurement. Static indenters of the Vickers, Rock well or Brinell type are oflittle or no use for the determination of hardness of small particles, and current practice is usually to make comparative measurements of hardness by simple scratch tests. A semi-quantitative 'scale of hardness' was first proposed in 1822 by Table 1.7 Mobs scale of hardness Mobs scale hardness Material Chemical formula Talc Mg 3 (0Hh·(Si20sh 2 Gypsum CaS0 4 ·2H 20 3 Calcite Fluorite Apatite CaC0 3 CaF 2 Ca 5 (P0 4 lJ(Cl, F) Feldspar Quartz Topaz KA1Si 3 0 8 Si0 2 Al 2F 2 Si0 4 Corundum Diamond c 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Al 2 0 3 Explanation Very soft, can be powdered with the finger Moderately soft, can scratch lead Can sera tch fingernail Can scratch a copper coin Can scratch a knife blade with difficulty Can scratch a knife blade All products harder than 6 will scratch window glass 29 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS hardness nos. u Qi ~ .>< () 0 a: Qi c ~ ~ Q) .>< () > 0 10 4 E () C1l 70 750 50 500 30 10 250 100 103 ::> ~ a. () Ol () (J) >- C1l ~ ·.:: 0 ~ 10 2 ~ C1l a. C1l 10 1 2 3 ~ E ::> a. (J) N "0 ~ Q) 5 4 6 Mohs number "0 N C1l a. er .s 7 8 ::> c ::> ~ 0 () 9 "0 c 0 E C1l '6 10 Figure 1.18 The relationship between the M ohs scale of hardness and the Vickers, Brinell and Rockwell C scales. F. Mohs, who selected ten mineral standards beginning with the softest, talc (M ohs hardness 1), and ending with the hardest, diamond (M ohs hardness 10). Table 1. 7 lists the M ohs hardness standards and indicates the type of simple scratch tests that can be used to give a guide to the hardness of a particulate bulk solid. Since the M ohs scale proved to be too coarse and, with the original natural materials, insufficiently reproducible to form the basis of a standard measurement of the hardness of general engineering materials, alternative tests were developed. These were mostly of the static indentation type (such as Vickers and Brinell) and consequently, metal hardness came to be specified in terms of the value indicated by either of these methods; e.g. 400 Vickers Pyramid (VPN), 380 Brinell Hardness Number (BHN). Fortunately, sufficient research has been undertaken to relate the various values of the hardness parameters to the Mohs scale, and vice versa (Figure 1.18). 1.9 Cohesion and adhesion One of the first features to become apparent when handling a bulk solid may be described in one word as its 'flowability'. This can be regarded as the summation of a number of different effects, but is essentially concerned with 30 a BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 500 ~m b 500~m Figure 1.19 PVC powder showing the effect of electrostatic charging. (a) Uncharged. (b) Charged. the forces of attraction or 'cohesion' between constituent particles. Thus, when these forces of attraction are low, the bulk material can be made to flow easily under the influence of gravity with the particles moving as individuals relative to one another. Dry sand and granulated sugar are familiar examples offree-flowing bulk solids. However, high interparticle cohesive forces, which may be caused by moisture or electrostatic charging, and are especially pronounced in very fine materials, result in a tendency for agglomerates to form so that the material flows in an erratic manner as 'lumps', if indeed it flows at all (Figure 1.19). Examples of familiar cohesive bulk solids which usually exhibit this sort of behaviour are wheat flour, cocoa powder and icing sugar. The general term 'flowability' has been used in a qualitative sense to describe whether a bulk solid is free-flowing or cohesive. The assessment of the probable flow behaviour of a bulk solid is very much a matter of judgement based on experience, but there are various tests which can be carried out to provide quantitative evidence to assist this judgement. Thus, for example, 'cohesion' can be formally defined as the resistance of a bulk solid to shear at zero compressive normal stress, and a test can be designed to determine this quantity. When designing systems involving the flow of bulk solids from hoppers or in chutes, or in fact in any situation where a bulk solid slides in contact with a fixed boundary surface, the property of adhesion is important. Whereas cohesion is defined in terms of interparticle attractive forces, adhesion describes the tendency of solid particles to 'stick' to a containing surface, such as a wall of a hopper or the side and bottom surfaces of a channel or chute. Quantitative measurements of adhesion between a bulk solid and any desired type of wall material can be made in similar tests to those used for sliding under specified conditions. A measurement that is often used, incorrectly, as an indication of flow behaviour is the 'angle of repose' that the free surface of a bulk material takes up when the gravitational slippage occurs. Certainly, this is a convenient and THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 31 usually reproducible characteristic of bulk solids, but for the determination of flow behaviour of such materials the appropriate tests are those involving the use of some kind of shear cell, as described later in this chapter. 1.9.1 Angle of repose When a quantity of bulk solid is allowed to form a heap, or when slippage of material occurs so that a sloping surface is exhibited, the angle of the free surface may take any value up to some maximum which depends principally upon the nature of the bulk solid concerned. To some extent the value of this maximum angle also depends upon the way that the sloping surface is formed, but with a standardized test procedure it is found to be reasonably consistent for a given bulk solid. Thus it is possible to define an 'angle of repose' as the limiting natural slope of the free surface of a bulk solid observed during a specified test procedure, and this can be regarded as a property of the material concerned. Many methods have been devised for measuring the angle of repose of bulk solids, but it is important to recognize that the value determined will depend not only upon the condition of the bulk solid (for example its moisture content or level of electrostatic charge) but also upon the test procedure adopted and the skill of the operator. Several different methods are illustrated in Figure 1.20. The most commonly used method yields a value of'poured' angle of repose, which is the angle between the horizontal and the sloping side of a heap of the material poured gently from a funnel on to a flat surface (Figure 1.20a). The technique probably giving the best repeatability is that illustrated in Figure 1.20f, in which a circular platform of known diameter (typically around 75 mm; 3 inches) is supported over a circular hole in a flat base plate and surrounded by a cylinder of suitable diameter and height. After carefully filling the cylinder with the bulk solid to be tested, the operator unplugs the hole beneath the circular platform and, when flow through the hole has ceased, removes the cylinder. Measurement of the height of the cone of material remaining on the platform then allows the 'drained' angle of repose to be calculated. It is reasonable to regard the angle of repose of a bulk solid as crude evidence of its likely flow behaviour, as follows: Angle of repose 25-30° 30-38° 38-45° 45-55° > 55° Very free-flowing Free-flowing Fair flowing Cohesive Very cohesive However, whilst it is true that this gives a useful qualitative guide to the flow properties of a bulk solid, the approach should certainly not be relied upon 32 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (a) Heap poured on flat surface (c) Rotating cylinder (e) Cylinder with hole in base (b) Tilting table (d) Box with removable side (f) Heap on circular platform Figure 1.20 Methods of measurement of angle of repose. where more appropriate tests are available. In fact, it is generally safer to treat angle of repose only as an indicator of the contours of heaps of the material. Thus, for example, the angle of repose of a bulk solid is required in order to determine the ullage space in hoppers or bins, the cross-sectional area of material transported on a belt conveyor, the surface topography of stockpiles, and so on. 33 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 1.9.2 Shear strength As with continuous material, the application of any force to a bulk solid tending to cause shear deformation will result in an opposing resistive force. As the magnitude of the applied force is increased, a point will be reached where the bulk solid begins to deform with the constituent particles sliding relative to one another (Figure 1.21). The limiting value of the resistive shear stress (when the bulk solid is on the point of sliding) may be termed the 'shear strength' of the material. Naturally the magnitude of the consolidating force on the bulk solid will have a major influence on the shear strength, and other factors having an effect will include the nature of the particles themselves, the packing arrangement and the prior history of the material. A plot ofthe relationship between the normal compressive force, F N• and the shear strength, Sr, is commonly called the 'yield locus' for the bulk solid concerned. A simple and convenient model of the yield locus, illustrated in Figure 1.22, is (1.15) .1(' shear plane Figure 1.21 Crushing of compacted, but unsupported, column of powder. typical cohesive material free-flowing (non-cohesive) material compressive (or consolidating) force, FN Figure 1.22 The linear or Coulomb model for shear strength of a particulate material. 34 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING "X ~~"2 ""1 "1 (a] Compressive and shear stresses Figure 1.23 "2 (b] principal stresses Stresses on an element of material. in which p is the coefficient of internal friction and T. is an 'apparent tensile strength', i.e. the value ofFN (negative) for which the shear strength is zero. The limiting value of Sr for F N equal to zero ( = p T.) is often used as the definition of the 'cohesion' ofthe bulk solid. Thus for a non-cohesive (free-flowing) material, pT. = 0 and the yield locus is the straight line (1.16) which passes through the origin. A convenient graphical treatment of the relationships between the shear and normal (consolidating) stresses in bulk solids involves the use of the Mohr circle of stress. To illustrate the application of the Mohr circle, consider an element of bulk solid subjected to consolidating and shear stresses as shown in Figure 1.23a. The principal stresses are rr 1 and rr 2 acting on planes inclined at angles e and e + 90° to the plane of (J" X as shown in Figure 1.23b, where (1.17) and ( 1.18) Figure 1.24 illustrates the manner in which these stresses can be represented by the use of the Mohr stress circle. Note that changing the consolidating or the shear stresses on the element of bulk solid will result in changes in the radius and/or centre of the Mohr circle. Thus, for example, increasing the applied stresses to the point of sliding of the bulk solid will result in a 'limiting' stress circle, and a series of such limiting circles at different combinations of consolidating and shear stresses will have an envelope that corresponds to the so-called 'yield locus' (Figure 1.25). Note that the limiting Mohr stress circle passing through the origin defines the 'unconfined yield stress', rrc, which represents the strength of the material at the free surface. Referring to 35 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS p Figure 1.24 The Mohr circle of stress. general Mohr stress circle normal stress, Figure 1.25 a Yield locus for a consolidated bulk solid. Figure 1.21, the unconfined yield stress can be regarded as the force per unit area applied to the top of the column of powder at the point of collapse. 1.9.3 The shear cell as a means of determining shear strength More than one type of shear-testing device has been proposed but probably the most familiar is the translational 'shear cell' developed by Jenike [11]. The Jenike shear cell (Figure 1.26) consists of a circular base of 95.3 mm (3iinch) diameter, a shearing ring which rests on top of the base, and a cover which has a loading bracket attached to it. For tests at higher consolidating pressures a smaller cell is used (63.5 mm; 21 inch diameter). It has been mentioned previously that the shear strength of a bulk solid is a function of its prior history. For this reason it is important that a 36 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING normal load, FNt shear plane (area A) Figure 1.26 The Jenike shear cell. normal load, FN Figure 1.27 A typical yield locus, as obtained from tests using a shear cell. consistent procedure is adopted for preparation of the sample to be tested. A detailed description of this setting-up procedure may be found in textbooks such as [12], but basically it involves filling the cell with material and consolidating it with a combination of vertical loading and horizontal shearing using a special mould ring and twisting top cover. Once prepared, the shear cell (Figure 1.21) is fitted with the test cover and the required vertical load applied. A horizontal thrust is then applied by means of an electromechanically driven loading stem at a constant strain-rate of 2.3 mm/min (0.09 inchjmin), and the shearing force is continuously recorded. This procedure is repeated for several different values of the applied normal force so that a graph can be plotted of the maximum (yield) shear stress recorded against the normal load (Figure 1.27). This graph is the 'yield locus' for the bulk solid at the tested condition. Various data can be determined from the yield locus plot of Figure 1.27. Drawing a Mohr circle tangential to the measured yield locus and passing through point M, which corresponds to the initial consolidating load (when preparing the specimen in the shear cell), gives the major consolidating principal stress FN(G) (Jmc=~ (1.19) THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 37 where A is the area of the shear cell and F N(GJ is the value of the normal load at the point G on Figure 1.27. Again, a Mohr circle drawn through the origin gives the unconfined yield stress as = (J c FN(F) (1.20) A Both of these parameters are of importance when designing for solids flow, as will be explained in Chapters 2 and 4. The slope of the yield locus at any point defines the dynamic 'angle of internal friction', cp, at that condition. (Note that in practice there is usually found to be some variation of cjJ with the consolidating load, shown by a slight curvature of the yield locus.) On Figure 1.27 the 'effective yield locus' is also shown. This is a straight line tangential to the Mohr circle for the initial consolidating load and passing through the origin. The slope of this line defines the 'effective angle of internal friction'. For a full investigation of the flow properties of a bulk solid, graphs such as Figure 1.27 should be prepared for a range of initial consolidating loads, resulting in a series of yield loci. The influence of the time of storage on the flow behaviour of a bulk solid can be studied by applying the initial consolidating load to the specimen in the shear cell for a set duration before carrying out the test procedure. The resulting plot of shearing force against normal load is then termed the 'time yield locus'. The translational type of shear tester, such as the Jenike shear cell, is subject to a number of limitations, the most serious of which is that it is only suitable for use with fine particulate materials. The maximum shear displacement obtainable with a translational cell is about 6 mm and the top size of particles that can be allowed is therefore around 3 mm. In order to achieve unlimited strains, rotational shear testers have been developed, such as the torsional cell (Figure 1.28a) used especially in studies of soil mechanics, and, more recently, the annular or ring shear cell (Figure 1.28b). The torsional shear tester itself suffers from the major disadvantage that the stress distribution within the sheared material is undefinable, and the annular shear cell would therefore appear to be the most reliable means of investigating the flow characteristics of bulk materials. - I (a) Torsional Figure 1.28 (b) Annular (ring) Principle of torsional and annular shear testers. 38 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (+1------------,~- r-' l counterweight(s) ~~-=v additional weight(s) __ /_ ___ _ calibration Figure 1.29 The Portishead ring shear cell. Figure 1.29 illustrates in detail the arrangement ofthe Portishead ring shear cell as originally devised by Walker [13, 14]. It consists essentially of an annular trough having an inner diameter of 152mm (6 inches) and an outer diameter of254mm (10 inches). An annular shoe fits inside the trough, centred on an axial spindle and having a minimum radial clearance of about 3 mm. Radial vanes integral with the underside of the shoe ensure that the bulk material sample is held while material in the slowly rotating trough shears against it. The speed of rotation ofthe trough is about 1.5 revolutions per hour, and the compaction pressure on the bulk sample in the trough can be adjusted by adding weights to the shoe or to the counterbalance hanger. A force transducer bearing against a radial torque arm fitted to the shoe allows the shear stress on the bulk sample to be continuously monitored. Details have been published [15] of tests undertaken with a much larger shear cell, having a diameter of approximately one metre, which allows the flow properties of materials having particles of up to 50 mm to be investigated. The procedure for carrying out shear tests begins by loosely packing the test sample into the trough and then shearing it under the selected normal load in order to achieve the required state of compaction. The total torque required to just shear the material can then be measured for number of different normal loads (Figure 1.30). Since the total shear torque is given by f Ro ~otal shear = (1 R · 2rr: RdR R; (1.21) 39 THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS ~-f-- ---- ~-~- I .8 c;; c 0 :;::; 0 a. 0 a. QJ c;; u UJ ~1 - -~ r--- i v-- ~--- I- f---· - I er , bi a \ v I v-- \ \ -- d.r/' ··- r-- \ 1 scale proportional to displacement- Figure 1.30 Typical output record from load transducer as a sample is sheared at a series of increasing normal pressures from the same consolidating pressure. (Points a, b, c and d indicate the yield strength in each case). values of the yield stresses can be readily calculated and used to plot yield loci and flow functions as previously described. Two recently published papers [16, 17] attempt to compare data on bulk solids flow behaviour obtained from a translational (Jenike) shear cell and an annular (Portishead) shear cell. These suggest that, although there is a broad agreement between the flow functions obtained from the two test procedures, there is also evidence that the correlation of results may be to some extent machine- and/or material-dependent. 1.9.4 Wall friction A similar linear model to that suggested for the internal friction of bulk solids (equation 1.15) can be used to represent the relationship between the normal force, F N• pressing a particulate material against a constraining surface, and the shear force, Sw, required to cause the material to slide along that surface. Thus (1.22) where f-Lw is the 'coefficient of wall friction' and the constant Cw is a parameter defining the adhesion between the bulk solid and the containing surface or wall (Figure 1.31). The line represented by equation (1.22) is termed the 'wall yield locus' and for most bulk solids is found to be below the yield locus for the same material. Also, the angle of wall friction (tan- 1 f-Lw) is generally less than the angle of internal friction (tan- 1 f-L). The linear model of equation (1.22) is found to be a reliable representation of the behaviour of dry bulk solids on dry surfaces, and for such cases the value of the constant Cw approaches zero. 40 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING // yield locus 'y / // -wall yield locus (slope llw ) // // angle of wall friction - tan" 1 11 w 1£--.....l....- normal load, FN Figure 1.31 'Wall yield locus' for a bulk solid in contact with a plane surface. 1.9.5 Measurement of wall friction Tilting plate method. In this method a thin layer of the bulk solid concerned is carefully laid on to a horizontal plate made of the required wall material. The plate is then slowly tilted and the angle recorded at which the layer of bulk solid slides off. In contrast to conventional solid friction, the angle of the plate is a function of the weight of the powder bed, increasing as the weight of the bed decreases. An appropriate test procedure is therefore to adjust the thickness of the layer of bulk solid on the plate until the sliding angle is in the range 40-90°. It should be ensured, however, that the layer of material is not so thick that internal collapse occurs before the layer slides. Writing equation (1.22) as mg mg . (1.23) A Sin IX= JlwACOSIX + Cw where m is the mass of the bulk solid on the plate, A is the nominal contact area and IX is the angle at which sliding occurs, it can be seen that a plot of (mg/A) COSIX ( = FN) against (mg/A) sin IX ( = Sw) should give a straight line of slope Jlw and intercept Cw. The angle of wall friction, </Jw, is equal to tan - l Jlw· Shear cell method. An alternative to the tilting plate is an adapted shear cell in which the base of the cell is replaced by a flat plate made of the wall material under investigation (Figure 1.32). The recommended procedure is to load the top cover up to the maximum required value of the consolidating force and decrease the load in a series of steps, recording the maximum shear force (to initiate sliding) at each step. The wall yield locus can then be plotted as a graph of normal load F N against shear force Sr as described above for the tilting plate method. THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS normal load, FN t 41 twisting cover shear load, S f ~ =:::::;::ll·------d-~ Figure 1.32 Jenike-type shear cell set up for determination of wall yield locus. 1.9.6 Arching phenomena One of the most important practical consequences of the cohesiveness of a bulk solid is that the material can develop sufficient 'strength' to form a stable 'arch' (or 'bridge' or 'dome') over an opening, even when the opening is very large in comparison to the particle size of the bulk solid concerned. It is for this reason that a knowledge of the flow behaviour of bulk solids is essential when designing storage containers and other components of bulk handling installations. One of the main purposes of the test procedures described in the previous sections is to establish the conditions under which arching can occur, in order, for example, to design a hopper which will discharge its contents under gravity without the flow becoming obstructed. As explained earlier, the main factors contributing to the tendency of a bulk solid to form a stable arch across an opening are the presence of very fine particles or of moisture, both of which increase the cohesiveness of the material. Compaction during storage also tends to increase the strength of the material and so aggravate the flow situation. It is important to understand that two forms of stable arch can occur across an opening. A simple 'mechanical arch' can develop directly as a result of interlocking of particles that are of large size compared with the opening (Figure 1.33a). However, this problem can usually be avoided by ensP.-ing that the hopper outlet is at least ten times the largest particle size. A 'cohesive arch' (Figure 1.33b) is somewhat more difficult to predict as it forms as a result ofthe consolidation and strength of a cohesive bulk solid and can therefore occur even with materials of very fine particle size. Much of the research undertaken in the field of bulk solids handling has been aimed at gaining an insight to the conditions necessary for a stable cohesive arch to occur so that reliable techniques for the design of bins, hoppers and other components could be developed. In section 1.9.2 it was explained how the shear strength of a particulate bulk solid is a function of the consolidating pressure. Of special significance to the 42 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (a) Mechanical arch (b) Cohesive arch Figure 1.33 Arching phenomena in bulk solids. material C, showing typical effect of material C ~ Q) ·;;, l r 'instantaneous' material 8 , flow functions "0 Q) c c0 () c ::l material A (free-flowing) major consolidating stress ~ Figure 1.34 Typical Flow Functions for bulk solids. ability of a bulk solid to form a cohesive arch is the 'unconfined yield stress' which represents the strength of the material at the free surface. For a freeflowing (non-cohesive) material, such as dry sand, the unconfined yield stress is zero and therefore a cohesive arch could not occur. The flow behaviour of a cohesive bulk solid can be conveniently illustrated by a plot of unconfined yield stress against the major consolidating (normal) stress, this plot being termed the 'Flow Function' of the material. In order to plot a Flow Function a series of yield loci must first be drawn, using results obtained from a shear tester as outlined in section 1.9.3. Each yield locus determines one point on the flow function. Thus, on Figure 1.27, a Mohr circle tangential to the yield locus and passing through the origin gives the unconfined yield stress (point F) and a second Mohr circle tangential to the yield locus at M, corresponding to the initial consolidating load, gives the major consolidating stress (point G). THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 43 Figure 1.34 illustrates Flow Functions for three typical bulk particulate solids. Material A is free-flowing, therefore having no cohesion, and the Flow Function coincides with the horizontal axis. Material B is slightly cohesive and material C is more cohesive still; both of these materials acquiring greater strength as the consolidating stress is increased. Note that other factors such as moisture content, storage time and vibration can influence the strength of the materials, effectively moving the Flow Function either up or down. Although the tests described for the determination of flow properties of bulk solids are relatively straightforward, the interpretation of the test data is not easy. It is beyond the scope of this book to deal with the real intricacies of bulk solids flow behaviour, but some further discussion on gravity flow will be undertaken in Chapter 2 and the application of these various concepts and measurements to the design of storage hoppers will be further developed in Chapter 4. 1.10 Moisture content In the large and varied industry concerned with the handling, processing and storage of bulk solids there can be few areas where the moisture levels of these materials are not important. In addition to causing effects such as chemical change, deterioration of quality and so on, moisture can have a dramatic influence on the flow behaviour of bulk solids, and therefore moisture analysis is one of the most frequently performed tasks in their characterization. It is usual to express the moisture content in terms of the percentage of water to dry solids. Thus . mass of water mOisture content= fd I'd ( x 100%) (1.24) mass o ry so 1 s However, an alternative definition gives moisture content in terms of the percentage of water to wet solids: . mOisture content= mass of water ( x 100%) total mass of solids and water (1.25) A simple method for determining the moisture content of a bulk solid is to weigh a sample of the material and then place the sample in an oven for an appropriate length of time to dry it thoroughly. The decrease in the mass of the sample should correspond to the mass of water originally in the sample so that, by the first definition above, the moisture content can be calculated from: . initial mass of sample- final mass of sample f ( x I 00%) mOisture content= fi 1 ma mass o samp1e ( 1.26) Where the moisture content is low it matters little which of the above definitions is used. 44 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING It should be noted that water may be present in a bulk solid in two forms: (i) 'Surface moisture', which is present only on the surfaces of the particles (ii) 'Inherent moisture', which exists as water of crystallization within the structure of the particles. When the surface moisture has increased to the point where all the interparticle voids are filled with water, the bulk solid is said to be 'saturated'. The method of oven-drying suffers from the disadvantage of taking several hours to perform, and a number of faster methods of moisture measurement have been developed. These rely upon a number of different techniques such as infrared absorption, microwave absorption, nuclear magnetic resonance, ultrasonics, conductivity, gas evolution and chemical methods. Probably the most widely used methods are still those based on heating the sample to drive off the moisture, as in the oven technique described above. A refinement that has recently become popular is the 'moisture balance' which consists essentially of a conventional electronic top-pan balance adapted so that the pan is contained in an enclosed chamber. The sample of material on the pan is subjected to infrared radiation and its mass continually monitored as the moisture is driven off. The time taken to dry a sample of bulk solid for a moisture analysis can be greatly reduced by using a fluid bed dryer in place of an oven. This method is particularly suited to heat-sensitive products as it offers a relatively short residence time and a uniform temperature distribution with an absence of 'hot-spots'. 1.11 Explosiveness Many bulk particulate solids, when dispersed in air to form a dust cloud, constitute a potentially explosive mixture which may be ignited by a naked flame, a hot surface or an electrical discharge. The range of products that are hazardous in this respect is quite wide and includes common foodstuffs such as sugar, flour and cocoa; synthetic materials such as plastics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals; metals such as aluminium and magnesium; and traditional fuels such as coal and wood. Other products such as sand, alumina and certain paint pigments are non-combustible and therefore present no danger. Of those products that are combustible, research has shown that it is only the fraction of the bulk having a particle size less than about 200 11m that causes the existence of an explosion hazard. The picture is further complicated by the fact that the risk of an explosion occurring depends upon parameters such as product-toair concentration and minimum ignition temperature and energy. Tests have been devised to determine the 'explosiveness' of a bulk solid in terms of these parameters, and for many products the results are freely available-see, for example, [18]. The whole subject of explosion hazards existing during the handling of bulk solids is covered in more detail in Chapter 7 and some THE NATURE OF BULK SOLIDS 45 guidance is given on the precautions that can be taken to reduce the risk associated with dust explosions. 1.12 Notation A Asm Asp Cw da d. dsm d. dvm dvsm FN g N m msolids mvoids Sr sp SW Ta vp Vpm V.olids vvoids X IX E e J.1 J.lw Pb Pc Pp al,a2 ac a me ax,ay r Area Average surface area of one particle in a group Surface area of a single particle Adhesion parameter (equation 1.22) Sieve aperture dimension 'Surface diameter' of a particle 'Surface mean diameter' of one particle in a group 'Volume diameter' of a particle 'Volume mean diameter' of one particle in a group 'Volume-surface mean diameter' of one particle in a group Normal compressive force Gravitational acceleration (specific gravitational force) Number of particles Mass Total mass of particles in a bulk solid Mass of fluid in void space in a bulk solid Shear strength Specific surface (surface area per unit volume) Shear force at wall Apparent tensile strength Volume of a single particle Average volume of one particle in a group Total volume of particles in a bulk solid Volume of void space in a bulk solid Mass fraction Angle Voidage or void fraction Angle of plane of a 2 to vertical Coefficient of internal friction Coefficient of wall friction Bulk density Density of fluid Density of solid particles Principal stresses U nconfined yield stress Major consolidating principal stress Compressive stresses in x and y directions Shear stress BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Angle of internal friction Sphericity of a particle Angle of wall friction References and bibliography References 1. The Bulk Solids Physical Property Test Guide, British Materials Handling Board (1983). 2. Alien, T. (1981) Particle Size Measurement, 3rd edn., Chapman and Hall, London. 3. BS 812: 1975, 1976, Sampling and testing of mineral aggregates, sands and fillers. British Standards Institution, London. 4. BS 4359, Methods for the determination of the specific surface area of powders Part 1: 1985. Nitrogen adsorption (BET method). Part 2: 1982. Air permeability methods. Part 3: 1979. Calculation from particle size distribution. (Withdrawn 1985). British Standards Institution, London. 5. BS 3406, Methods for determination of particle size distribution. Part 1: 1986. Guide to powder sampling. Part 2: 1984. Gravitational liquid sedimentation methods for powders and suspensions. Part 3: 1963. Air elutriation methods. Part 4: 1963. Optical microscope method. Part 5: 1983. Electrical sensing zone method (the Coulter principle). Part 6: 1985. Centrifugal liquid sedimentation methods for powders and suspensions. British Standards Institution, London. 6. BS 1796: 1976, Methods for the use of BS fine-mesh test sieves. British Standards Institution, London. 7. BS 812, Section 105. 1: 1985, Flakiness index. British Standards Institution, London. 8. Test Sieving Manual, Endecotts Ltd., London (1977). 9. Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain ( 1967) Characterisation and Manipulation of Powders, Pharmaceutical Press, London. 10. BS 2955: 1958, Glossary of terms relating to powders. British Standards Institution, London. 11. Jenike, A.W. (1964) Storage and Flow ofSolids, Bull. No. 123, Utah Engg. Exp. Station, Univ of Utah. 12. Brown, R.L. and Richards, J.C. (1970) Principles of Powder Mechanics, Pergamon, Oxford. 13. Walker, D.M. (1967) A basis for bunker design. Powder Technol. 1, 228-236. 14. Carr, J.F. and Walker, D. M. (1967/68) An annular shear cell for granular materials. Powder Technol. 1, 369-373. 15. Bagster, D. F. (1981) Tests on a very large shear cell. Bulk Solids Handling I (4), 743-746,742. 16. Wilms, H. and Schwedes, J. ( 1985) Interpretation of ring shear tests. Bulk Solids Handling 5 (5), 1017-1020. 17. Reed, A.R. and Arnold, P.C. (1985) A comparison between techniques for measuring the flow properties of ordinary portland cement. Zement-Kalk-Gips 38 (11), 671-674. 18. Palmer, K.N. (1973) Dust Explosions and Fires, Chapman and Hall, London. Recommended further reading Alien, T. (1981) Particle Size Measurement, 3rd edn., Chapman and Hall, London. The Bulk Solids Physical Property Test Guide, British Materials Handling Board (1983). Brown, R.L. and Richards, J.C. (1970) Principles of Powder Mechanics, Pergamon, Oxford. 2 Gravity flow of bulk solids 2.1 Introduction A good understanding of the nature of bulk solids flow is an essential prerequisite to the design of virtually any system involving the storage or handling of such materials. Observation of a bulk material discharging from a hopper or flowing under gravity along a steeply inclined channel will immediately suggest similarities to the behaviour of liquids. Whilst there are certainly some similarities between the flow characteristics of bulk solids and liquids, the analogy is one that it is unwise to pursue. In general it is more appropriate to model a bulk solid as a plastic solid than as a fluid continuum. The main features of liquids which are not shared by bulk solids are as follows: (i) At rest, liquids cannot sustain shearing stresses. This is most clearly demonstrated by the fact that bulk solids can be formed into a stable heap whereas liquids at rest always have a horizontal free surface. (ii) Changes of pressure in a liquid at rest are transmitted uniformly to all other points in the liquid. (iii) Shear stresses that occur in a flowing liquid are dependent upon the rate of shear and independent of the mean pressure of the liquid. In contrast, bulk solids at rest can transfer shearing stresses and, in many cases, possess sufficient cohesive strength after consolidation to retain their shape under pressure. Furthermore, when a bulk solid 'flows' slowly the shearing stresses within it are dependent upon the mean pressure to a much greater extent than the rate of shear. These distinctive features of liquids and bulk solids can be illustrated and compared by considering the distributions of pressure on the internal surfaces of two identical cylindrical containers; one filled with a bulk solid, the other filled with a liquid having the same (bulk) density. In Figure 2.la the pressure distributions due to the bulk solid and the liquid are shown and the much greater stresses that exist in the liquid near the bottom of the container are immediately apparent. The reason for this difference lies in the fact that there is no shearing stress at the walls of the liquid container, and therefore the whole weight of the liquid is taken on the horizontal base, whereas a significant proportion of the weight of the bulk solid is carried on the vertical walls. The manner in which internal stresses are transmitted through the bulk solid and the liquid are illustrated in Figure 2.1 b in which the effect of 48 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING liquid bulk solid (a) Pressure distributions due to weight alone bulk solid liquid (b) Excess pressures due to additional free surface loading Figure 2.1 Pressure distributions in liquids and bulk solids. increasing the loading on the free surfaces of each are shown. In the case of the liquid, the excess load is transmitted uniformly throughout, so that all of this excess load is, in fact, actually carried on the base of the container. However, at the base of the bulk solid container there is no change as a result of the additional loading on the free surface. As explained in Chapter 1, the ability of a bulk solid to flow may be regarded GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS 49 as the summation of a number of different effects, but it is essentially concerned with the forces of attraction between constituent particles. Thus, when these forces of attraction are low, the bulk material can easily be made to flow under the influence of gravity with the particles moving as individuals relative to one another. Dry sand and granulated sugar are familiar examples of free-flowing materials. However, the high interparticle forces, which may be caused by such effects as moisture or electrostatic charging and are especially pronounced in very fine materials, result in a tendency for agglomerates to form so that the material flows in an erratic manner as 'lumps', if indeed it flows at all. Examples of cohesive materials which usually exhibit this sort of behaviour are flour and cocoa powder. The assessment of the flow characteristics of a bulk solid (i.e. whether it is 'free-flowing' or 'cohesive') is very much a matter of judgement based on experience, but some of the various tests that can be undertaken to provide evidence to assist this judgement have been described in Chapter 1. Having established a method of predicting whether a bulk solid is likely to flow or not, it is now helpful to gain some insight into the patterns of flow behaviour that might be observed in various situations. In this chapter, therefore, attention is given firstly to the usual form of pressure distribution that would exist in a bulk material at rest (for example in a storage hopper or silo) and to the changes that occur in that pressure distribution at the start of, and during, flow. Descriptions are given of the types of flow pattern that may be seen in gravity discharge of a product from hoppers of different configuration, and also in gravity flow in inclined chutes and channels. Discussion of the somewhat intractable problem of predicting the flow rate in such circumstances is considered to be largely beyond the scope of this book and only a brief introduction will be attempted. In fact, although prediction of flow rate is important, it is likely to be secondary to the task of ensuring unobstructed flow, since in many cases the actual rate is controlled independently by a valve or feeder downstream of the chute or hopper outlet. The flow behaviour of bulk materials suspended in a stream of air, or at least under the dominant influence of air or some other fluid medium, is dealt with as a separate topic (in Chapter 3) and provides an essential foundation to the understanding of the pneumatic conveying systems described in detail in Chapters 12-17 of this book. 2.2 Pressure distribution in a bulk solid 2.2.1 Bulk solid at rest The pressure distribution that would exist within a quantity of bulk solid contained in a hopper or bin is of interest when designing the container for strength, but does not have a direct influence on the pattern of flow from the container. Nevertheless, a good understanding of the pressure distribution 50 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING T ~ llw Pr 1rD dh Figure 2.2 Analysis of forces on an elemental 'slice' of bulk solid in a cylindrical bin. under storage and flow can prove to be a valuable aid when assessing the likelihood of obstructions to flow occurring. It has already been explained that the pressure distribution within a bulk solid is different from that within a liquid in a similar container. The main cause of this is the frictional forces between the solid particles and the walls of the containing vessel which means, in effect, that these walls are supporting part of the weight of the bulk material. Also as a result of this frictional effect, the lateral pressure on the containing walls is generally less than the 'hydrostatic' pressure due to the head of material (Figure 2.1 ). In order to develop a model for the pressure distribution existing within a column of particulate material contained in a cylindrical vessel, consider first the equilibrium of a thin horizontal 'slice' as shown in Figure 2.2. At distance h below the free surface of the bulk solid, the lateral pressure is p, and the vertical pressure, due to the overlying head of material, is Pv· In general, for particulate materials, the ratio of p, to Pv is found to be approximately constant, so that (2.1) Pr = kpv where k is a constant less than unity. Now for the elemental slice of material, of diameter D and thickness dh (Figure 2.2), the vertical forces acting are those resulting from pressure (difference)= ~D 2 dpv n gravity = pbg4.D 2 dh wall friction = J.lwp,nDdh GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS 51 where Pb is the bulk density of the particulate material and f.lw is the coefficient of friction at the walls. Then for equilibrium of this element n 2 n 2 pbg4D dh- 4D dp.- f.lwp,nDdh = 0 Pbgdh - dpv - 4f.1;Pr dh = 0 4f.1wkPv) dh -dp.=O ( pbg--D- from which Integration then gives where C is a constant of integration. Now Pv = 0 for h = 0, so that and from which l _ 4f.1wkP. = exp( _ 4f.1wkh) D pbgD Rearranging this to give an expression for p, leads to Pr = P;:~ ( 1 - exp ( - 4 f.1~kh)) (2.2) This is one form of the well-known Janssen formula for radial pressure on the vertical wall of a cylindrical bin containing a bulk solid. It may be noted that for tall bins h is large compared with D, so that pbgD p,max=-4f.lw (2.3) 52 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING = "'3: increasing bin diameter Q) -o <fl- eet oo. c c:.a gtii'-' ro~ ~~ :>>- <f) rJl '-' ~ Cl. height of bulk solid above point p (h] Figure 2.3 Relationship between the pressure at a point on the wall of a cylindrical bin and the height of material above that point, from equation (2.2). and (2.4) Figure 2.3 illustrates the relationship between the pressure at a point on the wall of a cylindrical bin and the height of material above that point, as predicted by equation (2.2). 2.2.2 The effect of flow on the pressure distribution There are many records of serious mechanical damage occurring to bulk solids storage vessels, notably grain silos, as a result of an apparent physical weakness of the vertical walls. Investigations subsequently showed that the problem was basically due to the failure of the designer to appreciate that during discharge of the material from the bin or silo the lateral pressures developed could be considerably greater than existed with the material at rest. Tests on models have suggested that the so-called 'overpressure' on the side wall may be as much as three or four times the static pressures. The maximum possible lateral pressure during flow is a function of the height of the bulk solid in the bin, being given simply by Prmax = pbgh, where Pb is the bulk density of the material. The transient pressures occurring on the sloping and vertical sides of storage vessels during emptying are a complex phenomenon and it is only in relatively recent years that progress has been made towards a satisfactory explanation. The following description of the varying pressure 53 GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS 'peaked' field -'switched' field (a} Static Figure 2.4 (b} Dynamic Static and dynamic stress fields in a bulk solid contained in a storage bin. distribution within a bulk solid discharging from a storage vessel is attributable to Jenike and Johanson. During the filling of a bin an active state of pressure exists, as the material tends to settle and thus contract vertically under the increasing load. The lines of principal stress are almost vertical and form a 'peaked' or 'static' stress field as shown in Figure 2.4a. When the bin outlet is opened and flow begins, the material expands in the vertical direction, but it must contract laterally in order for flow to continue through the converging hopper section. The principal stresses now tend to align themselves with the lateral contractions of the bulk material, becoming almost horizontal across the outlet of the hopper and forming an 'arched' or 'dynamic' stress field in this region. The change from a static to a dynamic stress field occurs quite rapidly, the effect travelling upwards through the bulk solid as a shock disturbance or 'switch' which may appear on the side wall as a narrow band of higher pressure (Figure 2.4b). This 'overpressure' is necessary to maintain equilibrium, since the dynamic pressures existing below the level of the switch are less than the static pressures that existed initially. The switch, with its associated band of higher pressure, travels upwards at least to the transition where the conical and cylindrical sections of the bin intersect, reaching a higher level in a free-flowing material than it will in a cohesive one. Where there is a considerable height of bulk material in a bin, the peak pressure occurring at the transition can be very large. Above the level of the switch the material is undisturbed and a static stress field still exists. 54 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 2.3 Flow of bulk solids from hoppers 2.3.1 Introduction The flow patterns occurring as a bulk particulate material discharges under gravity from a hopper have been investigated by many research workers using a number of different experimental techniques. One common approach has been to carefully fill the hopper with layers of differently coloured particles so that changes in the stratification could be observed during the flow. Such work helped to give an insight to the nature of gravity flow of free-flowing and of cohesive materials and allowed the influence of the wall angle and the outlet size to be determined. It became evident that the flow patterns could be conveniently classified into two groups which are now generally known as 'core flow' (alternatively 'funnel flow' or 'plug flow') and 'mass flow'. 2.3.2 Core flow In core flow from a bin, the discharge of the bulk solid is essentially irregular, with material sloughing off the free surface and falling through a vertical channel which forms within the bin (Figure 2.5). The material around this central channel is stationary. Core flow bins tend to be relatively short with rather more shallow wall slopes than would usually be associated with mass flow. Such bins are sometimes deliberately designed for situations where the headroom is severely limited, but often they are the result of ignorance about the advantages of mass flow. The main characteristics of core flow, most of which are generally regarded as undesirable, may be listed as follows: (i) First-in, last-out sequence of flow Figure 2.5 Patterns of discharge from hoppers. GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS 55 (ii) If the bulk solid has a tendency to spoil, cake or degrade with time, this will happen in the non-flowing region (iii) For materials which segregate on charging, there is no re-mixing in the hopper (iv) Flow rate tends to be erratic with a widely varying density of the feed (v) The erratic flow rate may cause fine powders to become aerated and 'flood' (vi) 'Rat-holing' (described in section 2.3.4) will occur if the non-flowing material consolidates sufficiently to remain stable after the flow channel has emptied out. Nevertheless, core flow may be acceptable in situations where segregation is unimportant, deterioration of stored material is not likely to be a problem and the outlet is sufficiently large to ensure flow without the help of a discharge aid (Chapter 4). 2.3.3 M ass flow The most important single distinguishing characteristic of so-called 'mass flow' is that every particle of the bulk material in the hopper begins to move when the outlet is opened (Figure 2.5). A hopper designed for mass flow would generally be recognized by the steep wall slopes of the converging section, the absence of sharp transitions and the relatively large outlet to the feeder or flow control valve. For most purposes mass flow is regarded as the ideal, or at least the preferable, flow pattern. The beneficial properties of mass flow may be listed as follows: (i) Channelling, hang-ups, surging and flooding are absent (ii) Flow is uniform, and steady flow (independent of the head of material in the bin) can be closely approached (iii) The bulk density of the drawn solid is constant, and practically independent of the head of material in the bin (iv) Pressures are relatively uniform across any horizontal section of the bin (v) There are no dead regions within the bin (vi) A first-in first-out flow pattern can be obtained (vii) Segregation of the bulk solid is kept to a minimum. 2.3.4 Obstructions to gravity flow The two principal types of flow obstruction encountered in practice are (i) A 'rat-hole' or 'pipe' (Figure 2.6a), and (ii) A cohesive arch or bridge (Figure 2.6b). A third type of obstruction, which can occur when the size of the bulk solid is 56 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (a) 'Rathole' or 'pipe' Figure 2.6 (b) Cohesive arch Obstructions to flow from hoppers. large in comparison to the outlet of the hopper, is a 'mechanical arch' formed simply by the particles or lumps of material becoming interlocked across the converging section above the outlet. Both the rat-hole and the cohesive arch are characteristic of cohesive materials, the former generally occurring in core-flow hoppers and the latter in the mass-flow type. These obstructions occur when the bulk solid has gained, within the constraints of the bin, enough strength to support itself, and therefore both are impossible in free-flowing (non-cohesive) materials. Arching can also occur in a core-flow bin, forming at the top of a cylindrical void extending from the hopper outlet upwards into the bulk solid. When designing storage vessels for bulk solids the primary aim is usually to ensure that a reliable steady flow of the material will be maintained when the outlet is opened. With most materials this aim can be achieved by correct design, particularly with regard to the slope of the converging walls and the size of the outlet, as explained in Chapter 4, but with very cohesive materials the use of some form of discharge aid may be advisable, or indeed essential. 2.3.5 Predicting the solids discharge rate An important step in the process of designing a bin or silo for the storage of a bulk material is the estimation of the unrestricted rate of discharge, under gravity, ofthe material when the outlet is opened. It is necessary thus to ensure that the material is capable of being discharged at a rate in excess of the required rate, as it is then a relatively simple matter to install some kind of feeder beneath the outlet port in order to exercise control over the flow rate. Because of the complex nature of the gravity flow of bulk solids there is as GRA VJTY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS 57 yet no single convenient method that will lead to a consistently reliable prediction of discharge rates for the full range of materials and various designs of bins and hoppers. Indeed, for materials of a fine cohesive nature no method has yet been developed that could be confidently recommended to the designer of storage vessels. As gravity flow takes place in the converging hopper towards the outlet opening, the bulk material is in dynamic equilibrium and a force balance on an element of material in this region should lead to an expression for the rate of discharge. There are various effects that will influence the solids flow rate, including the cohesive forces amongst the particles, the frictional effects between the moving particles and the hopper surfaces, the pressure gradients in the interstitial air and, consequently, the local air flow patterns and resulting drag forces on individual particles. An adverse pressure gradient across the outlet opening can cause a significant reduction in the solids discharge rate, and thus the actual flow rate obtained may depend upon whether the top of the storage vessel is open or closed and also upon the depth of bulk material above the outlet opening. In some cases it may be beneficial to modify the pressure gradient in the vicinity of the hopper outlet by injecting air into the hopper during discharge. However, it should be noted that excessive air injected into fine materials could well cause fluidization and uncontrollable flooding from the outlet. Some examples of techniques that can be applied to the gravity flow from conical hoppers of non-cohesive materials and, to some extent, of coarse cohesive materials, will now be introduced. However, as mentioned previously, the underlying theory is often extremely complex and beyond the scope of this book. The reader wishing to pursue this subject is recommended to begin with references [ 1- 3]. Relatively simple equations, for rough order-of-magnitude assessment of the discharge rate of coarse, free-flowing materials from circular and rectangular outlets are recommended in a recently published British code of practice [ 4]. These are as follows. For a circular orifice: ms = 0. 58p g 0 · 5(D c b k pp d )0 · 25 kp (2.5) For a rectangular orifice: m.= 1.03ppg 0 · 5 (L- kPdP)(DP- kPDP)1. 5 kp (2.6) where Pb is the bulk density of the discharging material, De is the diameter of the outlet (or, for a plane-flow hopper, DP is the width of the outlet and Lis its length), dP is the particle diameter, kP is a shape factor (with values of 1.6 for spherical particles up to about 2.4 for non spherical ones) and kp is a factor equal to (tan {3)- 0 · 35 for {3 < 45o or equal to unity for {3 > 45°. Of the various approaches to be found in the literature dealing with the gravity flow of bulk solids from storage hoppers, only four will be discussed here: Carleton [5], Williams [6] and Johanson [7] for mass flow and Zanker 58 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 2.1 Summary of methods for predicting discharge rates from hoppers Method(s) Application Non-cohesive materials - coarse ( > 500 I'm approx.) (Mass flow) Remarks {i) British Code of Practice [ 4] Simple to use-circular and rectangular orfices (ii) Williams [6] Most widely applicable since wall friction effects are allowed for (Significant for flow through small orifices) Simple to use-graphical solution available (iii) Carleton [ 5] Non-cohesive materials - fine (Mass flow) Carleton [ 5] Suitable for cases where the bin surcharge is small Non-cohesive materials (Core flow) Zanker [8] Core flow: discharge from circular orifice Cohesive materialscoarse Johanson [7] Requires shear test data Cohesive materialsfine No reliable method yet available [8] for core flow. Table 2.1 summanzes the applications of each of these prediction techniques. Carleton method. The expression derived by Carleton [5] relates the linear velocity u0 of particles in the discharge stream to the properties of the particles and of the interstitial fluid, and the geometry of the hopper outlet (Figure 2.7). This expression can be written in the form 4pPd5f3 sin fJ(u513)3 + !Opf13 111!3 Dc(u513)2- g = 0 (2.7) which is seen to be a cubic equation in u5 13 . Although an iterative solution of this equation should not be particularly difficult, it will clearly be useful to have a simple graphical technique for the determination of u0 from a specified set of independent variables. Since the interstitial fluid is likely to be air under normal atmospheric conditions, the relevant parameters are the diameter d and density pP of the particles, the diameter De of the hopper outlet and the angle fJ that the hopper wall makes the vertical. Figure 2.8 is a line chart developed from equation (2.7) and from which values of u 0 can be readily determined. The procedure to be followed when using the Carleton method to estimate the discharge rate of free-flowing particles from a hopper can be summarized as follows: 59 GRA VJTY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS Figure 2.7 Parameters used in the Carleton method for estimating the discharge rate of freeflowing particles from a conical hopper. Properties of particles: d, average diameter; pP, density. Properties of interstitial fluid: p,, density; Jl.r, viscosity. 0 0 C\J 1000 --------- Pp (kg;m') Uo 0 (cm;s) 9 8 7 6 Figure 2.8 Line chart for the solution of the Carleton equation, equation 2.7, from [5]. (i) Note the parameters defining the hopper geometry, i.e. the diameter of the outlet opening and the angle of the wall to the vertical. (ii) Determine, for the bulk material, the average particle diameter and the density of the particles. (iii) Use the line chart (Figure 2.8) to determine a value for the linear velocity of the material in the outlet opening. (Note that if the hopper is not 60 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING discharging into air at normal atmospheric conditions, the line chart will not be valid and an iterative solution of equation (2.7) will be needed.) (iv) Calculate the mass flow rate of the bulk material from (2.8) where pb is the bulk density of the discharging material. Although this method is relatively easy to use it does appear to suffer from some drawbacks. Probably the principal source of inaccuracy in the Carleton method is its failure to take into account wall friction effects which could have a significant influence where the discharge takes place through a small orifice. In such situations the Williams method, described below, is likely to be more reliable. Another weakness in the Carleton model is that no allowance is made for interstitial air flows resulting from adverse pressure gradients that develop during the emptying of a hopper. This may not cause a great error when the hopper surcharge is small, but for large surcharges the flow rate of material may be substantially overestimated. A more complex modelling approach, such as that proposed by Arnold et al. [I] should be adopted in such cases. Williams method. This approach [6] takes into account the friction effects between the flowing material and the hopper wall, and is therefore likely to give a more reliable prediction for cases in which the outlet opening is small (less than about 20 mm). However, no allowance is made for the influence of interstitial air flows on the discharging particles. The model proposed by Williams is thus based on the mass flow of homogeneous material consisting of relatively large particles which offer no appreciable resistance to air flow. Analysis of this model does not lead to a single unique value of discharge rate, the result being instead in the form of upper and lower limits of the solids mass flow rate. The upper limit in fact corresponds to zero wall friction and the lower limit to the specified value of the angle of friction at the sloping wall of the hopper. The difference between these limits is said to be sufficiently small that their mean gives an estimate of the discharge rate which is accurate enough for practical design purposes. For the full analysis leading to expressions from which these upper and lower limits can be computed the reader should consult [6], but for convenience the data are presented here in a simplified form, using charts for materials having angles of internal friction of 20-50°. An expression for the solids mass flow rate is (2.9) where Pb is the bulk density of the material, De is the diameter of the hopper opening and Kh is a coefficient which is a function of the wall slope of the hopper, the angle of internal friction of the bulk solid and the angle of friction 61 GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS 3.0 1 1' 2.0 \~ 1---- upper limit \ c ~ f</ Ql ~ 1--~~~J----__::'"......~~ 0 Q; 0 2 (,) 0 ;;::: ~----1----+----+-- -.! c: .g 10.~~ ~---1----="'""'-=c.:;-~~:::-_ 5 ;:: -= ~ =<1> ~g 0.5 ~-+-- - ///lower limits ~"0 o~ <1> ~ If\.. ~ ~~ .r:: c . :,.::: 1 0 Ql ~ Q; 0 (,) ;:: 0 0> .;: ~ ~ t--......;;;::::: r--"::::::1 I--- - tO ·-· 0 20 40 30 10 wall slope {3 (degrees) wall slope {3 (degrees) (b) (a) Angle of internal friction, <t>- 20° <t> = 30° 2.0~-~-~----r-----. .r:: :,.::: c Ql ~ .r:: :,.::: Q; 0 ~ (,) (/) ;:: <1> Ql 0 (;, Ql 3 0 c) q:, 40 30 20 wall slope {3 (degrees) 10 ~ 40° ;:: -G- c<1> ·c::; ;;:: Q; 0 (,) ;:: 0 0 10 20 30 40 wall slope {3 (degrees) (d) <t> = 50° Figure 2.9 Charts giving upper and lower limit values of flow coefficient Kh in equation 2.9 [6]. at the wall. Values of Kh giving upper and lower limits of the solids mass flowrate can be determined from the appropriate charts in Figure 2.9. Zanker's nomograph. A very convenient method of obtaining a rapid estimate of the rate of discharge of a granular or particulate bulk solid from a circular 62 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING mean particle diameter, d (mm) .t:::. U1 0) N W !,,,,j,,,,j,,,,j,l!!l!!lll!l!jl!!lll;;,,!,,,,],,,,j,,,,(,, ,( ,)'-/ / // /angle of internal friction. <P (degre:) g; c;Ni5.g I\ '')<1~,),,, I I ~ ~ I I I I I \,,I I I I I I I C3 l I I t I I 1""1 I II I 1/1 I I I 11 11 I11 "I I I I I I 11 I! . . . 0 0w 0 0 0 w (Jl/ 0 0 00 0 0.:' .b. ::; 0 .t::>. J'\) 001 g _. (J1 8 g gg \particle density p0 \ 1 11 11 I I' I ill I <.n <.n 0 II II I \ 0 0 0\\:1 l (J) o o (Jl o o I I I I 11 3 ) l 11 11 I g g m \ (tonnes/hou~) & g I j l l l l l l l l l l l 11111 I I -"{OCO-.J ° (kg/ni w solids flowrate oooo gooo . g .p. a o II I I I II I I I I I 0w 0 "' <.n 0 "' 0 0 <.n I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I <.n 0 0 0 I "'0 diametor of outlet opening, D (mm) Figure 2.10 Zanker's line chart for estimating the discharge rate of a granular bulk material in core flow through a circular orifice [8]. GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS 63 orifice has been presented by Zanker [8] in the form of a line chart or nomograph. It is based on an empirical relationship, proposed initially by Franklin and Johanson, which can be written . PvD~ m=-------'------(6.288 tan fJ + 23.16)(dv + 1.889) s (2.10) where Dc is the diameter of the orifice, fJ is the angle made by the hopper wall to the vertical, dv is the mean particle diameter and n is an exponent. For angular particles the value of n is about 2.5, ranging up to 3.3 for spheres, and it is suggested that, in the absence of more reliable information, the value of the angle of friction should be taken as 10% greater than the angle of repose of the material concerned. The Zanker line chart is reproduced (replotted in SI units) as Figure 2.10 and its use is summarized as follows: (i) On the left -hand scales, join the values for particle diameter dv and angle of internal friction c/J, and extend the line to the first pivot line. (ii) Move to the second pivot line in the direction indicated by the oblique tielines. (iii) Join the resulting point to the appropriate value of particle density and extend this line to the third tie-line. (iv) On the right-hand scales, join the values for orifice diameter and index n, and extend the line to pivot line 4. (v) Join the points on pivot line 3 and pivot line 4, and where the resulting line crosses the scale of solids flow rate read off the value required. Johanson method. For the discharge of a fine cohesive bulk solid from a hopper the model proposed by Johanson [7] is based on a continuously failing arch that is in dynamic equilibrium. In order for the arch to fail, the strength of the material in the arch, caused by the consolidation stress in the vicinity of the hopper opening, must be overcome. In Chapter 4 it is shown that the condition for continuous, unobstructed flow of material from a hopper is that the ratio of major consolidating stress to the unconfined yield strength (<J 1/<JJ is less than a certain critical value which depends upon the geometry of the hopper in addition to the flow properties of the bulk solid. These ratios are termed 'flow factors' (JJ) so that for ff.ctuai > ffcritic•'' flow will occur because a stable cohesive arch cannot be sustained. Johanson's method of analysis leads to the expression m_ p - nD 2 [___!!__cl!_( 1 _ ffcrit )] 112 b 4 4 tan fJ ffactual (2.11) for the mass flow rate of material from a conical hopper, where Dc is the outlet diameter of the hopper and fJ is the slope that the wall makes with the vertical, 64 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 0.55~------r-----~------~------~------~ c Q) ·c; Qi 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 angle of hopper wall to vertical {3 (degrees) Figure 2.11 Chart for coefficient Kp in equation (2.12) [7]. Pb is the bulk density of the discharging material and g is the specific gravitational force. The method of Johanson for estimating the rate of discharge of a cohesive bulk solid can be summarized as follows: (i) Determine the critical flow factor (ffcrit) for the hopper (see Chapter 4). (ii) Determine the value of the bulk density of the discharging material at the consolidating stress a 1 existing at the hopper opening. An approximate value of bulk density may be used initially in order to determine the consolidating stress from (2.12) where the coefficient K Pis a function of the ratio of the volume of the arch to its perimeter and can be determined from Figure 2.11. Materials flow property graphs will then need to be consulted for the actual value of bulk density at the consolidating stress given by equation (2.12). (iii) From the instantaneous Flow Function (FF) of the material (see section 1.9.6), determine the yield strength a c associated with the consolidating stress a 1 and then calculate the actual flow factor ffactua 1(adac). (iv) Use equation (2.11) with the values offfcrit• ab and ffactual> obtained from the steps above, to calculate the discharge rate m. 2.4 Flow of bulk solids in chutes 2.4.1 Introduction There are many instances in bulk solids handling installations of gravity flow of a particulate or granular material along an inclined channel or chute. For GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS 65 example, where a bulk solid is to be discharged at a point below and to the side of a hopper outlet, it would be common practice to rely on gravity flow through a simple transfer chute. In such situations both straight and curved chutes are used but, unfortunately, failure to understand the fundamental principles of bulk solids flow often results in unsatisfactory chute performance. Amongst common applications of transfer chutes for bulk materials, perhaps the most familiar occurs at the loading point of a belt conveyor. In this case it is important that the horizontal velocity component of the material leaving the chute is matched to the velocity of the belt in order to minimize the acceleration of this material and so effect reductions in power consumption and belt wear. Other situations may require that the exit velocity is as large as possible and of a direction to obtain the maximum possible 'throw' of the flowing material. Thus it is important that the design of gravity-flow chutes and channels is undertaken in the light of a clear appreciation of the characteristics of flow in such situations if the desired performance is to be achieved. In this section attention is directed to the characteristics of steady flow of non-cohesive bulk solids in straight and curved chutes. Patterns, or modes, of flow are described and an introduction is given to the complex problem of modelling the flow in order to design chutes for specific purposes. Much of the presently available information on flow in chutes and channels has been presented by Roberts and his colleagues, for example [9], and by Savage [10], and readers wishing to undertake a more detailed study are directed to these sources. Little has been published on the flow behaviour of fine powders and cohesive bulk solids, although Roberts and Scott [9] have drawn attention to the characteristically different motion of such materials when compared with cohesionless products. They report that alumina moves in a series ofblockwise shears with each block elongating and decreasing in thickness as the velocity along the channel increased. Similar types of flow have been observed by Woodcock and Mason [11] in air-assisted gravity conveyors, which are described in Chapter 15. Gravity flow in vertical channels and pipes is regarded as a special case and will be discussed in section 2.5. 2.4.2 Flow patterns in straight inclined chutes As for liquids flowing along inclined channels, bulk solids in gravity flow may be expected to exhibit two possible modes: varied flow or uniform flow. However, the analogy between liquids and bulk solids must not be taken too far. The terms 'fast' and 'slow' have been used to describe flow conditions that are observed to occur in enclosed chutes [9] but these terms do not correspond exactly to 'rapid' and 'tranquil' flow, used conventionally to describe liquid flow in channels. 66 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING e slope lies between the angle of repose and the angle of internal friction (b) 'Slow flow' Figure 2.12 Modes of flow in a straight inclined chute [9). If a particulate bulk solid is fed into a steeply inclined straight chute or channel of constant width, 'fast flow' occurs, with the material accelerating, and consequently the depth of the flowing bed decreasing, until some steady condition is achieved at which the downward component of the gravity force is balanced by the various drag forces on the particles (Figure 2.12a). If the slope of the channel is decreased the rate of acceleration will also decrease, since the component of the gravity force on the material must be smaller. As the slope of the channel approaches the angle of internal friction (cp) of the bulk solid, the flow tends to become uniform. This condition of fully-developed flow at 67 GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS constant depth (or 'slow flow') is observed in straight chutes or channels at relatively shallow inclinations, normally only in the very restricted range between the angle of repose (a) and the angle of internal friction (c/J) of the bulk solid concerned (Figure 2.12b). free fall zone due to 'vena contracta' effect ideal case ,;~~\-~ I surge wave (c) Transition from fast to slow flow (d) Slow flow angle of repose (e) Choked flow condition: Oc too large Figure 2.13 Modes of flow in a circularly curved chute [9]. 0,, chute cut-offangle; 0, 0 , optimum value of cut-ofT angle; Or, limiting value of 0, for 'fast' flow. 68 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Placing an obstruction near the downstream end of a chute in which a bulk solid is flowing in the fast mode can cause a surge wave or stationary jump (sometimes called a 'granular jump') to occur in much the same way as a hydraulic jump occurs in a flowing liquid. 2.4.3 Flow patterns in curved chutes The general flow patterns that may be observed when a bulk solid flows through a curved, enclosed chute are illustrated in Figure 2.13 [9]. As with straight inclined chutes, two modes of flow have been observed to occur, termed 'fast flow' and 'slow flow' according to whether the stream of material is accelerating or travelling at a uniform (slow) velocity. Figure 2.13a shows the general case of fast flow in which the particulate material first accelerates as it falls freely from a hopper into the chute, but then decelerates as a result of the curvature of the channel and the decreasing slope of the bottom surface. It should be noted that there exists an 'optimum cut-off angle' (Bco in Figure 2.13b) at which the velocity of the stream is a maximum and the stream thickness is a minimum. Ideally the chute should be terminated at this optimum cut-off angle, since any additional length of chute will result in an increase of stream thickness, frequently leading to an unstable flow condition (Figure 2.13a). Where the cut-off angle exceeds the optimum value, it is quite possible for the thickness of the stream at the lower end of the chute to increase to the point where the flowing material comes into contact with the top surface of the chute. The velocity ofthe stream of bulk material will then be considerably reduced and a surge wave travels upstream as illustrated in Figure 2.13c. This surge wave indicates a change from 'fast' to 'slow' flow as the channel becomes completely full of the bulk solid which is then in contact with all four internal surfaces (Figure 2.12d). It should be noted that even a temporary obstruction to fast flow in a chute having a cut-off angle greater than the optimum value can be sufficient to initiate a change to slow flow. Indeed, if the cut-off angle is too large (Figure 2.12e) the chute may become choked and flow cease altogether, or flood over the sides if the chute is not enclosed. In order to ensure that fast flow is maintained in a curved chute, the cut-off angle should not exceed some limiting value ef which depends upon the sliding friction between the particulate material and the internal surfaces of the chute. Figure 2.14 shows the typical form of relationship between the solids flowrate and the cut-off angle for the two modes of flow. When the flow in the chute is 'fast', the rate is governed by the size and type of the outlet from the bin or hopper feeding the chute. However, in slow flow the chute itself restricts the rate, behaving effectively as an extension of the bin or hopper. 69 GRAVITY FlOW OF BULK SOLIDS Ql 2' C1l £ u (/) "0 fast flow Figure 2.14 [9]. ef ~I slow flow cut-off 1 angle, Oc Typical discharge graph for a circularly curved chute fitted to a flat-bottomed bin 2.4.4 Chute design There is relatively little published information on the modelling of gravity flow in inclined channels and the design of transfer chutes for bulk solids. The following approach is a simplified form of that presented by Roberts and Scott [9]. It is generally recommended that transfer chutes should be designed to ensure a stable 'fast' flow condition throughout the length of the chute and therefore the analytical model of the flow should enable the designer to predict the variation along the chute of the velocity and cross-sectional area of the bulk solids stream. The main features of the model are: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) The flow is steady with the material behaving as a continuum There is no drag on the free surface of the flowing bed The flow is not affected by interparticle effects within the bed The bulk density is uniform throughout the flowing bed. For the general case of gravity flow in a curved chute Figure 2.15 illustrates the forces that would affect the motion of an element of the flowing bulk material. Now for steady flow ms = pbAu =constant (2.13) where Pb is the bulk density of the flowing stream, A is its cross-sectional area and u is its velocity along the chute. Then since any variation in the bulk density is to be ignored, we can write (2.14) 70 Figure 2.15 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Forces acting on an elemental mass of bulk solid flowing under gravity in a curved chute [9]. where A 0 is the cross-sectional area of the flowing stream as it enters the chute and u0 is the velocity at this point. Also, for the direction perpendicular to a radius of curvature (i.e. along the chute), the equation of motion for the elemental mass is !5m g cos() - F 0 = du !5mdt (2.15) For this simplified model the drag force F 0 comprises only the wall friction effect and therefore it can be written as (2.16) where 11E is an effective friction coefficient and F N is the normal force on the element. For a chute of rectangular cross-section, taking the pressure distribution to be of the simple form shown in Figure 2.16a, an expression for f.1E is JlE = f.lw( 1 + k ~) (2.17) where f.lw is the coefficient of friction at the wall, k is the ratio of the lateral pressure to the major normal pressure at the wall, B is the width of the chute and H is the depth of the flowing bed. Experimental work carried out by Roberts and others using a variety of bulk materials showed that a more reliable model is obtained by replacing the coefficient k with the expression (2.18) 71 GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS 1-- 8 H H (a) Rectangular cross·sect10n Figure 2.16 (b) C1rcular cross-section Distributions of pressure on the interior surfaces of chutes (Roberts' model). where K Eo is the effective linear pressure gradient down the wall surface at zero velocity and C is an 'intergranular stress constant'. Noting also that H = (u 0 /u)H 0 , equation (2.17) becomes (2.19) If the chute is of circular cross-section a similar approach, based on the pressure distribution shown in Figure 2.16b and supported by experimental work, suggests that equation (2.19) can be used, with B equal to the diameter of the chute and suitable values taken for the parameters kEo and C. Now referring to Figure 2.15, the normal force on the flowing element of bulk solid is given by FN = bm(gsin8+ ~) (2.20) and combining with equation (2.16) gives F 0 =,uEbm(gsin8+ ~) (2.21) Substituting for F 0 in equation (2.15) and rearranging leads to ~~ = g (COS 8 - .UE Sin 8) (2.22) If .UE is taken to be constant (for example, at a value corresponding to the average stream thickness along the chute) equation (2.22) can be solved for the cases of straight inclined chutes (for which R = oo) and circularly curved chutes (R =constant). 72 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Thus, for straight inclined chutes, noting that du du dt ds -=U- where s is the distance measured along the chute from the entry point, equation (2.22) becomes udu = g(cos (}- f-LE sin (J)ds (2.23) and integration then yields a velocity distribution as u = [u6 + 2gs(cos (}- f.LEsin (})] 112 (2.24) The solution of the corresponding equation for circularly curved chutes is much more difficult, but Roberts and Scott [9] give u=[ 2iR 4f.LE + l {sin(J(l-2f.l~)+3f.LECOS(J} + exp(- 2f.LE(J) ( u6 - 6f.l Rg 1 4/-l~E+ )]112 (2.25) Using equations (2.24) or (2.25) together with the continuity equation (2.14), the variation of the stream thickness along the chute can be investigated. Allowance can be made for the curvature (concave or convex) of the free surface of the flowing stream by using an appropriate value of the surcharge angle when developing expressions relating the depth H of the flowing bed to its cross-sectional area. For a chute of rectangular cross-section (Figure 2.17a) in which the surcharge surface is parabolic, the cross-sectional area of the bed is given by B H (a) Rectangular cro ss-section (b] Circular cross-sectio n Figure 2.17 Calculation of cross-sectional area of bulk solids stream in transfer chute. GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS 73 and since H 1 = H -Btan.?c we have A .?c-1 H=-+--Btan.?c B (2.26) .le In the case of a circular cross-section, again with a parabolic surcharge, the cross-sectional area is B2 [ A=4 tan~~.1 (1-cosc:)) + (c:5-sinc:5)] 3 2 (2.27) where the angle c:) defines the contact perimeter. Also, an expression for the depth of the bed is (2.28) The following general guidelines can then be given for the design of transfer chutes in order to ensure stable 'fast' flow conditions. (i) Identify the requirements in terms of direction and magnitude of the exit velocity. (The overall cross-sectional dimensions of the chute (B and H 0 ) are likely to be dictated by the upstream feed arrangement, which would also fix the bulk solid mass flowrate and therefore the entry velocity u 0 ). (ii) Estimate, from equation (2.17) or (2.19), an average value of J.iE· Values of the unknown parameters should be determined experimentally if possible, but failing this, a preliminary assessment of chute performance may be made with J.lw = 0.46 and k = 0.3 in equation (2.17). (iii) (a) For a straight inclined chute, equation (2.24) is used to determine the longitudinal velocity profile, and then equation (2.26) allows the variation of the bed thickness to be determined. (b) For a circularly curved chute the cut-off angle should normally be designed to correspond to the optimum value for minimum thickness and maximum velocity. The value, which is principally influenced by the radius of curvature of the chute, the initial velocity of the bulk· solids stream and the effective wall friction J.iE, can be determined from equation (2.25) by setting the derivative dujde equal to zero and solving fore [12]. Typical data for the variation of cut-off angle and stream velocities at cutoff with radius of curvature, initial velocity and effective wall friction are shown in Figure 2.18. As explained in section 2.4.3 the maximum cut-off angle should not exceed the limiting slope angle Or which is given approximately by ef =tan- l J.iE at exit. Note that for a chute of circular cross-section it is recommended that the flow is restricted to ensure that the chute fullness at any point in the deceleration zone does not exceed half [9]. 74 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING ~ en Q) Q) 60 60 0, Q) 3 0 50 ""'() Q) c;, c "' 40 ?::; () E 30 :J E c.0 radius of curvature R (m) initial velocity u0 (m/s) (a) Optimum cut-off angle ~ en ~ 0 () :J ::= 2 .41---+---+-H'--I't.f---1------1 ? ::; () E E2.2 c. 0 o; ::- 2.0 1---+--H-H----+--j.....------1 ·c::; 0 Qi > 1. 8 0 1. 0 radius of curvature R (m) 1. 80!::--J-..L-L..L~--L...Ll+.l-1.--'-~--LJ.J initial velocity u0 (m/s) (b) Velocities at optimum cut-off Figure 2.18 Charts showing typical optimum cut-off data for flow in circularly curved chutes [12]. Typical predicted performance curves for straight inclined and circularlycurved chutes are illustrated as Figures 2.19 and 2.20. 2.5 Flow of bulk solids in vertical pipes 2.5.1 Introduction Very little information is available on the flow of particulate bulk solids under gravity through vertical pipes. It has been suggested [3] that dry material can 75 GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS distance down chute, s (m) Figure 2.19 Typical predicted performance curves for straight inclined chutes [12]. 0.6 I (/) (/) (]) ICD ~ (]) 0.5 u E (]) --o E <l> eo- <I>::::> .:::{i 0.3 0.2 ~\ I m = 2.87 .............. f..,. ~~ I ---- ! Oco 0.1 10 20 I 30 40 50 position along chute, § a: 0.25 / 0.5 0.75 _,--:::::;. ~ 1.0 'o, I (/) 0 I tonnes/hour u 0 = 0.315 m/s flb; 1000 kg/m' ~ 0.4 c-"' :.c.~ I "'~B 0 .651 60 70 80 (]) :; (U > :; u 0 (/) ::::> '6 ~ 90 0 (degrees) Figure 2.20 Typical predicted performance curves for circularly curved chutes of circular crosssection [9]. discharge from a filled open-ended vertical pipe two or three times faster than through a circular aperture of the same size positioned in the centre of a flatbottomed bin. Consequently it would not be possible to obtain steady plug flow through a vertical pipe fitted to the base of a flat-bottomed container because the pipe could not be filled at a rate to match the potential maximum outflow. Nevertheless, it seems likely that the discharge from a hopper or flatbottomed container could be increased by fitting a vertical stem to the outlet 76 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING and evidence suggests that, especially with fine particulate materials, the rate of discharge rises as the length of the stem is increased. 2.5.2 M ode of flow Observations of a fine cohesionless bulk solid flowing under gravity in a vertical tube show a number of quite distinctive features. Figure 2.21a Figure 2.21 Gravity flow of a fine cohesionless bulk solid in a vertical pipe from a flat-bottomed container [9]. 77 GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS illustrates the entry region to a vertical pipe from a flat-bottomed container. Within the container the movement of the bulk material is likely to follow the 'tulip' pattern first reported by Brown and Hawksley [3], but once the particles enter the discharge zone they are able to fall under gravity through the orifice into the pipe as a smooth stream. The cross-section of this stream initially decreases as it accelerates but, after a short distance, particles begin to come into contact with the pipe wall and soon a condition of more or less stable plug flow will be attained. At this point there may be observed what appear to be 'bubbles' rising up the pipe through the downward flowing material. This effect is probably due to 'free fall surfaces' developing within the flow. The existence and motion of a free fall surface can be readily demonstrated by filling vertical tube with fine sand, sealing the top end and allowing the sand to discharge from the lower end (Figure 2.22). Immediately sand particles will fall from the lower surface of the plug and as a result this 'free fall surface' moves slowly upwards (Figure 2.22b). At the same time the whole plug of sand begins to slide downwards, the upper free surface and the lower free surface approaching each other until they meet (Figure 2.22d). This behaviour occurs only because of the low-pressure region existing at the top of the pipe; any air entering this region (for example if the closing seal is removed) will cause the sand plug immediately to fall out of the pipe. It is thus evident that, where a container discharges through a vertical pipe, the flow behaviour in the pipe will be greatly influenced by interstitial air flows and therefore by the size and density of the particles, the length and diameter of the pipe and the conditions existing in the exit region of the feed container. pipe filled with sand sand 'plug' moves slowly down the pipe (d) (a) 'free-fall surface' moves up the pipe Figure 2.22 'Free-fall surface' in a cohesionless bulk solid discharging under gravity from a vertical pipe. 78 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 2Q) E ro }19 u Q) o_ 0. }13 --~- -___ - --== . . -- 0.0 2 ~-~~~-[-~-ll~lllll!lll-1-ll-~-~-~-~-~-1-1 ,_0.01-- - ~----=: 1.5 0.5 2 pipe length (m) Figure 2.23 Experimental data for the flow of two different sizes of sand particles through vertical pipes fitted to a flat-bottomed container [13]. Mean particle size of sand:--206 Jlm, --- l12J1m. Tests carried out at Thames Polytechnic [13] seem to confirm that the rate of discharge from a circular aperture in the centre of a flat-bottomed bin can be substantially increased if a vertical downpipe is fitted, the amount of the increase being mainly a function of the length of the pipe and its diameter. The effect is particularly marked for very fine free-flowing products in smalldiameter downpipes. Figure 2.23 shows, for example, the results for two different sizes of fine sand discharging from a flat-bottomed container through vertical pipes of various sizes and lengths. It has been suggested, from observations of downward flow in relatively large standpipes [14], that the maximum flow rate that can be attained will depend upon the extent to which the flowing bulk solid can become compacted. Aeration of the material needs to be undertaken with care in order to reduce the chance of flow-obstructing 'pseudo-bridges' developing in the standpipe. Some measure of flow control can be exercised by allowing an influx of air near the top of the vertical pipe, but a more effective method, allowing 79 GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS complete shut-off of the flow, involves the use of a non-mechanical valve, such as a 'J-valve' or 'L-valve' at the lower end of the pipe. 2.5.3 Flow control: ]-valves and L-valves Essentially these types of so-called 'non-mechanical valve' rely on the natural angle of response of a bulk solid which prevents it from flowing under gravity past a bend, or a series of bends, in a pipe. Thus, an obstruction develops and the flow stops (Figure 2.24a). In order to re-start the flow, air is introduced to (a) ::. -_ ~.- air in (b) Figure 2.24 Non-mechanical valves (L-valve and J-valve) for the flow control of bulk solids in vertical pipes. (a) The valves in the 'closed' condition. (b) The addition of air reduces the angle of repose of the bulk solid and effectively 'opens' the valve. 80 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING the static material in the vicinity of the bend, reducing its angle of repose and so permitting it to negotiate the bend. The flow of the bulk solid should then continue smoothly until the air supply to the valve is stopped, and when this occurs the bulk solid flow will also cease. It should be noted, however, that whether the flow ceases initially or not will be very much dependent upon the capacity of the bulk solid to retain air in its interstices and so maintain, for a time, a 'fluid' state. A typical application of 1- or L-valves is to feed directly into a dense-phase (fluidized-bed) environment, but they are also suitable for feeding into a dilute-phase system such as a pneumatic conveying line or the freeboard above a fluidized bed. Much of the work on the development and performance of non-mechanical valves has been undertaken by Knowlton and Hirsan [15, 16], who state that the maximum flow rate obtainable is a function of the length of the vertical downcomer above the L-valve or J-valve, and suggest techniques for determining the length of downcomer needed in order to achieve a specified flow rate. Some insight to the operation of the device can be gained by recognizing that, in a steady-flow condition in (for example) an L-valve, the pressure-drop over the downcomer must be equal to the pressure in the L-valve plus that in the outlet pipe since both the inlet to the system and the outlet are open to L'::.p downcomer Figure 2.25 Pressure-drops in an L-valve controlled system. 81 GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS atmosphere (Figure 2.25). However, the pressure that can be sustained at the bottom of the downcomer will be limited, its maximum value depending upon the fluidization characteristics of the material in the downcomer. Up to this maximum value the pressure-drop in the downcomer will adjust itself until it exactly balances the pressure-drop in the L-valve and outlet pipe. Increasing the air supply to the aeration point on the L-valve will tend to increase the solids flow rate until either the limiting pressure in the downcomer is reached or the maximum discharge rate into the top of the downcomer is reached. In the latter case the flow in the downcomer becomes dilute and free-falling occurs. Excessive aeration to the L-valve will result in 'bubbling' of the material in the downcomer which, in extreme cases, can cause complete stoppage of the flow~a situation known as 'gassing up'. A design procedure, based on the work of Knowlton and Hirsan, can be summarized as follows: (i) Select a suitable horizontal length to stop the flow. In order to keep the pressure-drop in the valve as low as possible, this length must be a minimum, which can be calculated by simple trigonometry based on the pipe diameter and the angle of repose of the bulk solid. (ii) Using experimental data, or an appropriate correlation, estimate the pressure-drop in the valve and outlet pipe at the desired solids flow rate. (iii) Using fluidization data for the bulk solid, estimate the maximum permissible pressure-drop per unit length in the downcomer (Ap/Llmax· (iv) Calculate the minimum length of the downcomer from the expression L . = Ap(L valve+ outlet mm (Ap/L)max pipe) (2.27) (v) Determine from experimental tests the required flow rate of air to the aeration tap, which should be positioned about 75-100 mm above the centre line of the horizontal section of the valve. 2.6 Notation A Ao B c Cross-section of flowing stream in chute Cross-section of flowing stream in chute at entry Width of channel Constant of integration; 'intergranular stress constant' in equation (2.18) Diameter of storage container or pipe Diameter of outlet (circular-section hoppers) Width of outlet (rectangular-section hoppers) Particle diameter Drag force on element of bulk solids stream 82 m. n Pr Pv R s u Uo IX f3 (j e BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Normal force on element of bulk solids stream Flow factor Gravitational acceleration (specific gravitational force) Depth of flowing bed in channel Vertical distance Coefficient in equation (2.12) Hopper factor in equation (2.9) Constant in equation (2.1); ratio of lateral to normal pressure on an element in a flow bulk solids stream Effective linear pressure gradient, normal to flow direction, of flowing bulk solids stream Hopper factor in equations (2.5), (2.6) Particle shape factor in equations (2.5), (2.6) Length of outlet (rectangular section hoppers) Solids mass flow rate Exponent in equation (2.10) Lateral (radial) pressure Vertical pressure Radius of curvature of channel Distance measured along chute Velocity of flowing stream in chute Velocity of solids; velocity of flowing stream at entry to chute Angle of repose of a bulk solid Angle of hopper wall to vertical (i.e. half-included angle) Angle of arc of contact of bulk solids stream in channel Angle of inclination of straight channel; radial angle of curved (measured from horizontal) Chute cut-off angle Optimum value of chute cut-off angle Limiting value of (Jc for 'fast flow' Surcharge angle of bulk solids stream in channel Effective friction coefficient Viscosity of fluid Coefficient of wall friction Bulk density Density of fluid Angle of internal friction of a bulk solid References and bibliography References 1. Arnold, P.C., McLean, A.G., Roberts, A.W. (1979) Bulk Solids: Storage. Flow and Handling, TUNRA Ltd, Univ. of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia. 2. Jenike, A.W. (1964) Storage and Flow of Solids, Bull. No. 123, Utah Engg. Exp. Station, Univ. of Utah. GRAVITY FLOW OF BULK SOLIDS 83 3. Richards, J.C. ( 1966) 'Bulk solids in motion', in The Storage and Recovery o(Particulate Solids, IChemE Working Party Report, Institution of Chemical Engineers, London. 4. Draft Code o( Practice for the Design of Silos, Bins, Bunkers and Hoppers, 2nd edn., British Materials Handling Board (1985) edn. 5. Carleton, A.J. (1972) The effect of fluid drag forces on the discharge of free flowing solids from hoppers. Powder Technol. 6, 91--96. 6. Williams, J.C. ( 1977) The rate of discharge of coarse granular materials from conical massflow hoppers. Chem. Engg. Sci. 32, 247-255. 7. Johanson, J.R. (1965) Method of calculating rate of discharge from hoppers and bins. Trans. Min. Engrs AIME 232,69-80. 8. Zanker, A. (1975) Estimating the flow of solids through openings. Process Engg (July) 66-67. 9. Roberts, A.W. and Scott, O.J. ( 1981) Flow of bulk solids through transfer chutes of variable geometry and profile. Bulk solids Handling 1 (4) 715-727. I 0. Savage, S.B. ( 1979) Gravity flow of cohesion less granular materials in chutes and channels. J. Fluid Mechanics 92 (I) 53-96. 11. Woodcock, C.R. and Mason, J.S. (1977) The flow characteristics of a fluidised PVC powder in an inclined channel, in Proc. Int. Powder and Bulk Solids Handling and Processing Conf, Chicago, May 1977, 466--475. 12. Roberts, A.W. and Arnold, P.C. (1971) Discharge-chute design for free-flowing granular material. Trans. ASAE 14 (2), 304-308, 312. 13. Bishop, A.W. ( 1982) A study of the flow of bulk solids through vertical downpipes and the effect of downpipes on the discharge rate of hoppers. Unpublished report, Thames Polytechnic, London. 14. Dries, H.W.A. (1980) Packed-bed solids downflow in a cat. cracker standpipe: solids compaction effects and flow instabilities, in Proc. Powder Europa Con{, Wiesbaden, January 1980. 15. Knowlton, T.M. and Hirsan, I. ( 1978) L-valves characterised for solids flow. Hydrocarbon Processing 57, 149-156. 16. Knowlton, T.M. and Hirsan, I. (1980) The effect of system parameters on the operation of dense-phase vertical lift lines and J-va1ves, in Proc. Pneumotransport 5, BHRA Con f., London, 1980, Paper E3. Recommended further reading Brown, R.L. and Richards, J.C. (1970) Principles o( Powder Mechanics, Pergamon, Oxford. Arnold, P.C., McLean A.G. and Roberts, A.W. (1979) Bulk Solids: Storage, Flow and Handling, TUNRA Ltd., Univ. of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia. 3 Dynamics of fluid/solids systems 3.1 Introduction In modern industry there is an increasing number of situations where particulate and granular materials are handled in bulk, and there is a greater awareness than ever before of the importance of safety and efficiency in processing and handling such materials. Designers and plant operators, perhaps schooled in traditional fluid mechanics involving only liquids and gases, thus have a considerable task in understanding and predicting the unfamiliar flow characteristics of bulk solids. Chapter 2 dealt with the flow behaviour of dry bulk solids under gravity. Although there is inevitably a considerable overlap, it is convenient to make a distinction between gravity flow and the motion of two-phase (gas/solids or liquid/solids) systems. In this chapter, therefore, attention is given to the modelling of a number of readily identifiable flow situations involving the relative motion of solid particles and fluids: flow through beds of fixed particles, particles settling in fluids, fluidization and spouting, and finally twophase flow in pipes. Each of these is directly relevant to some practical measuring, handling or processing operation involving particulate or granular materials, and an attempt has been made to present the models in a way that will be immediately useful to a practising engineer. The mathematics underlying these models has been deliberately kept to the minimum consistent with providing a satisfactory prediction of flow behaviour but, for students and research workers who wish to attempt to unravel the mysteries of, for example, pneumatic conveying, references are given to more specialized works. 3.2 Flow through beds of fixed particles 3.2.1 Characteristics of flow in porous media The flow of fluids through beds composed of stationary granular particles frequently occurs in industry (especially the chemical industry) and in the design of process plant there is often a need for the prediction of pressure drop as a fluid flows through such a bed. Examples of fluid flow through fixed particulate beds include catalysis and filtration. One method of determining the specific surface of a fine particulate material involves an investigation of the resistance of a fixed bed of the powder to fluid flow. Petroleum engineers DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 85 and civil engineers have an interest in the flow of water and oil through soils and porous rock formations. The mechanical engineer might find himself involved in any of these problems, and an awareness of the approach to investigating fluid flow through porous media could often prove to be useful. It could be suggested that the permeation of a fluid through a bed of packed particles can be regarded either as an 'internal flow' of fluid in the interconnecting channels between the particles, or as an 'external flow' around the particles. The majority of authors writing on the subject have chosen to regard permeation as an internal flow problem, probably because the approach is then valid for both 'consolidated' porous media (solid materials with holes) and 'unconsolidated' porous media (consisting of separate particles packed together). Various attempts have been made to develop theoretical and semi-empirical formulae which would enable the pressure-drop across a fixed particulate bed to be predicted. The work that seems to have achieved the greatest acceptance is that of Carman [1] whose extensive study has more recently been augmented by Ergun [2]. Upon their work is based much of the analytical modelling subsequently proposed by various authors and leading to expressions for the pressure-drop across a fixed particulate bed in terms of the properties of the flowing fluid and of the solid particles within the bed. 3.2.2 The prediction of pressure-drop across a fixed particulate bed The principal variables influencing flow behaviour in packed beds are the rate of fluid flow, the density and viscosity of the fluid, the closeness and orientation of packing, and the size, shape and surface of the particles. The variables concerning the packed solids are the voidage ~: 0 , and the size and shape of the particles, which are conveniently characterized by the parameters volume diameter dv and sphericity <Ps· The specific surface of the bed Sb can be expressed in terms of the other parameters as (3.1) but note that this expression assumes that negligible surface area is lost due to contact between the surfaces of particles in the bed. In general, the particles in a bed would not be of uniform size. Although this analysis is developed on the basis of monosized particles, the more usual case of particles of similar shape but non-uniform size could be covered by the use of a volume-surface mean diameter dvsm in place of dv. For a cylindrical bed of solid particles (or a bed of any other uniform crosssection) the voidage, or porosity, can be written D 86 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING where A is the total cross-sectional area of the bed and Ae is the average effective cross-sectional flow area of the voids. If the total volumetric flow rate of fluid through the bed is V, the effective mean axial component of velocity in the voids (called the 'interstitial velocity') will be v v1 u u =-=-·-=e Ae A ~>o eo where u is the mean approach velocity, or 'superficial velocity', of fluid. Now the effective length le of a fluid path through the interstices of the bed (the actual distance that the fluid travels) will be greater than the height of the bed H. If the bed is modelled as a set of discrete flow passages, each oflength le, the velocity of the fluid in them will necessarily be greater, and can be expressed as , U =U /e U le -=-·eH e0 H (3.2) Furthermore, if the flow in these passages is laminar, we can write an expression for the pressure-drop based on the Poiseuille equation for laminar flow in circular pipes, thus (3.3) where A is a hydraulic radius of the void passages, f.1 is the viscosity of the fluid and k is a constant. Now hydraulic radius is defined as A= flow area wetted perimeter and multiplying by the length of the void passages this could become . A= volume of fluid in bed wetted surface ---------:c------:c--- total volume of bed - volume of solid particles wetted surface That is, , eo Sb (3.4) A=- Substituting for u~, from equation (3.2), and for A in equation (3.3), we have /e) (Sb) e Apb = kf.l ( -u ·- /e - e0 H 0 2 DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 87 and writing this expression becomes (3.5) or (3.6) where sp is the specific surface of the particles within the bed. Equations (3.5) and (3.6) are forms of the generally accepted CarmanKozeny equation for fluid flow in packed beds. The quantity k' may be regarded as an empirical coefficient, the value of which depends mainly upon the particle shape and size distribution. From many practical investigations it has been found that k' normally lies within the range 3.5-5.5. It may be useful to eliminate Sb from equation (3.5) using equation (3.1). Thus or, writing k" = 36 k', (3.7) Again, k" is an empirical coefficient whose value is normally about 130-200. The value given by Ergun [2] from correlations of his own experimental data and that of other researchers is 150. The foregoing analysis is based on laminar flow through the bed, but as the velocity of the fluid is increased the nature of the flow between the particles changes gradually from laminar to turbulent. (Turbulence is likely to occur initially in the larger channels, extending eventually to the smaller ones.) A modelling approach will be therefore required to extend the validity of equation (3.7) into the turbulent-flow regime. An alternative approach leads to an expression for pressure-drop in terms of the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid, which is thus analogous to the familiar Darcy formula for head loss in closed conduits (see section 3.5). A force balance across a bed of fixed particles gives ApbAe = RbSb Vb = Rb(l - s 0 )Sp Vb 88 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING where Rb is the resistance per unit area of the bed surface and Vb is the volume of the bed. Now Ae x (depth of bed)= volume of voids= e0 x (volume of bed) 0 • . A =e 0 e volume of bed eo vb =-depth of bed H and thus (3.8) It is convenient now to define a 'friction coefficient' for the void passages, by drawing an analogy between the wall shear stress in circular pipes and Rb for the packed bed; thus (3.9) Now SP = 6/d.tf;, so that from equation (3.8) !!pb eo d.tf;, Rb=~·--·-H 1-e 0 6 and substituting for Rb and for u~ (from equation 3.2) in equation (3.9) we get kc=~· tf;,e6 3 1 - e0 (H)z!!Pb. le H d.2 PrU (3.1 0) It might be expected that kc would be a function of a Reynolds number of the form 4A.pru~/J.l, and such a Reynolds number can be derived by substituting for )._and u~ from equations (3.4) and (3.2) and combining with equation (3.1) as Re - 2. if;, . le . Prd.u 3 1- e0 H J.1 b-----~- (3.11) For most practical examples of beds of fixed particles, it is found that the ratio le/H is effectively constant and is usually dropped from the dimensionless Reynolds number and friction coefficient terms. Thus, we have the definitions Reb = 2 if;, Prd.u 3 1- e0 J.l -·--·~- (3.12) and (3.13) DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 89 Rearranging equation (3.13) we have Ll - 3k 1 Pb- r ,~, Bo .PrHu2 3 d '1-'sBo (3.14) v and since this expression has been developed from a general analysis of the flow through a packed bed, it should be applicable whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, provided that an appropriate value of the coefficient kc is used. For the case of laminar flow the pressure-drop can be expressed by the Carman-Kozeny equation, (3.7) and an expression for kc can then be developed by combining the equations (3.14) and (3.7) to eliminate Llpb/H. Thus, from which 1- £ 0 . J1 kr_- -1 k" -3 cf>s Pcdvu (3.15) As mentioned previously, a typical value of k" for many real particulate or porous beds would be about 150, giving kr-- 100 3Reb (3.16) As might be expected, for highly turbulent flow the value of kc tends to become constant (the pressure-drop becoming proportional to u2 ) and an empirical relationship has been proposed by Ergun [2] which seems to correlate with available experimental data quite well: 100 kc =3-Reb + 0.58 (3.17) This expression is shown in Figure 3.1, plotted to a log-log scale indicating that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in the packed bed occurs over a range of values of Reb given approximately by 10 < Reb < 1000. Substituting equation (3.17) into equation (3.14), we get a general equation 90 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING I" kt = 100 3 Reb ~ "" 10 0.58 ~ "" ~ -, ' ::-::-' 0.1 0.1 + 10 Reb Figure 3.1 Dimensionless plot of friction coefficient, k,, against Reynolds number, Reb, for flow through a packed bed, as defined by equations (3.13) and (3.12). After Ergun [2]. for pressure drop as !!pb = 1- ~ 0 . PrU 2 ( 100 H rP.E~o dv Reb + 1. 75 ) (3.18) which on expanding becomes the full Ergun equation + 1 751- Eo .PrUz ---- !!pb = 150(1- £o)2 .f.1U H r/J;~:6 a; viscous effect . r/J.e6 dv ________..... (3.19) kinetic energy effect It will be noted that this expression represents the pressure-drop as the sum of the viscous effect (as modelled by the Carman~Kozeny equation) and the kinetic energy effect. As mentioned previously, the pressure-drop across a bed of particles of nonuniform size could be predicted with this equation ifthe volume diameter dv is replaced by the volume-surface mean diameter dvsm· One of the major difficulties in the prediction of pressure-drops in flow through particulate beds is the variability of the voidage with particle size, shape, packing arrangement and, possibly, surface texture. Variation of density in gas flow also causes difficulties in the analysis. The Ergun equation DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 91 (equation 3.19) is just one of many correlating expressions that have been proposed. In most, if not all, of these expressions information is required on the sphericity </J. and the voidage e0 of the particulate bed. If this information is not available for the material concerned, it must be determined experimentally or estimated. For fine particles the voidage is most easily determined from a knowledge of the particle density and the bulk density: 1 - Pb (3.20) Pp but for large particles it should be noted that the effective voidage may be considerably higher than the value determined in this way in situations where the average diameter of the particles is more than a few percent ofthe diameter of the containing vessel. The reason for this is, of course, the relatively large interstices adjacent to the wall of the vessel. The determination of sphericity is more difficult and the reader is referred to Chapter 1 for further information. B0 = 3.3 Settling behaviour of particles There are many processes of industrial relevance in which solid particles are in relative motion within a fluid environment and settling or sedimentation is one of the most important. In this section some of the simplest analytical models of sedimentation are introduced in order that the rates at which particles of specified characteristics would settle in a fluid can be predicted. It should be noted that most of the models available actually relate to a single particle in an infinite expanse of fluid and thus ignore the possible influence of other particles or nearby containing walls. In situations where the concentration of particles is fairly low such effects are likely to be minimal and the 'single particle models' should give a reasonable estimate of the settling velocity. However, at high levels of solids concentration the motion of any particle will inevitably be influenced by the presence of others, and the condition known as 'hindered settling' exists, in which the settling rates may be significantly reduced. 3.3.1 Motion of a spherical particle settling in a stationary fluid At any instant, following its release from rest, a particle falling under gravity in a stationary fluid will be acted upon by three forces (Figure 3.2). These are the gravitational force, F G (=mass of particle x g); the buoyancy force or upthrust, F u (=mass of displaced fluid x g); and the drag force, F 0 . The general equation of motion can then be written as du F G - F u - F 0 = mP dt (3.21) where mP is the mass of the particle and du/dt is its acceleration. 92 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 3.2 Forces on a falling particle. Provided that the particle is completely surrounded by the fluid, the gravity force and the buoyancy force will remain constant, but the drag force F 0 will change, increasing as the particle accelerates from rest. It is clear from equation (3.21) that as F 0 increases the acceleration of the particle will decrease until a condition is achieved in which the net downward force on the particle (Fa- F u) is exactly balanced by the drag force F 0 . The acceleration of the particle will then be zero and the steady velocity so reached is called its 'terminal velocity' or 'free-fall velocity'. Although for large objects, and for smaller bodies of extremely low density, the time taken to reach terminal velocity may be significant, in the majority of situations involving particulate materials the acceleration period is virtually zero and for most models of settling behaviour it is ignored. For a particle falling at its terminal (steady) velocity, the drag force can be expressed as Fo=Fa-Fv (3.22) and if the particle is spherical with diameter d and density pP (3.23) where Pr is the density of the surrounding fluid. It is convenient to express the drag on a settling particle in terms of its velocity, and dimensional analysis can be used to set up an appropriate equation in the form F o = C 0 Ap!PrU 2 (3.24) where AP is the projected area of the particle (which for a sphere is nd 2 /4) and C 0 is a 'drag coefficient'. The dimensional analysis will have shown that C 0 is a function of the particle Reynolds number, defined by ReP= udjv, where v is the kinematic viscosity of the surrounding fluid. The form of the relationship between these two dimensionless parameters has been the subject of much experimental investigation. Combining equations (3.23) and (3.24) and rearranging leads to an DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 93 expression for the terminal velocity of a spherical particle settling in a fluid as _ [4gd(pp- Pr)J 112 Ut- 3prCD (3.25) Clearly the usefulness of this expression for the prediction of settling rates depends upon a knowledge of the drag coefficient C0 . Where the particles are very fine, and especially if the viscosity ofthe fluid is relatively high, the motion of the particle will be predominantly influenced by viscous effects. Under these conditions the drag force on the particle is conveniently modelled by Stokes's law as F0 = 3ndprvu (3.26) and combining equations (3.24) and (3.26) then leads to 24 Co=ReP (3.27) Substitution for C 0 in equation (3.25) yields the expression Ut= gd 2 (Pp- Pr) 18pr v (3.28) which gives an accurate indication of the terminal velocity of a fine spherical particle settling under gravity in a viscous fluid. The error in this predicted value of ut increases as the particle Reynolds number ReP increases and inertial effects begin to be significant. This is illustrated in a dimensionless plot of C 0 against ReP (Figure 3.3) which shows the result of experimental investigations covering a full range of flow conditions involving spheres moving in incompressible fluids. It is unlikely that Reynolds numbers above 10 5 would be encountered in practical bulk solids handling situations, but this is still much greater than the range of validity of Stokes's law, corresponding to the straight line C 0 = 24/ReP shown in Figure 3.3. The usually accepted limit for Stokes's law in ReP= 0.2 which, for example, would be the value for a 60 J.lm diameter grain of sand settling in water or a 30 11m grain settling in air, and would give an error of about 5% in the predicted value of terminal velocity. The form of the full relationship between C 0 and ReP for spheres is not easily modelled mathematically, and the usual approach is to adopt one of a number of expressions each covering a range of values of ReP (Figure 3.4). For ReP< 1000, the Schiller and Naumann model C 0 = 24 (1 ReP + 0.15Re~· 687 ) (3.29) seems to be generally preferred, although it does suffer from the disadvantage that it cannot be used to derive an explicit expression for the terminal velocity ut. 94 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 1\ 0 102 I'\ (.) 1'\ c:ii -o"' 0 c Ql ~t\. 10 Stokes law .,. c 0 =24Rep 1 ' "() ~0 (.) ~"'-t-... -1-0.01 0.1 10 Reynolds number, Rep Figure 3.3 Dimensionless plot, from experimental data, of drag coefficient against Reynolds number for spheres moving in incompressible fluids. ~ ~ ~ Stokes law c0 =24 Rep-1 ~ VCD = _g±_(1 +0.15Rep · ~' Rep 0 687) ', '~ -o 6 /Co=18.5Rep · 0.01 0.1 ' c 0 =0.44 / ~' ............ ' .... 10 Reynolds number, Rep Figure 3.4 Some mathematical models of the relationship between C 0 and ReP. DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 95 From the set of equations C 0 -- 24 ReP tor ReP < 0 .2 (3.30) l' Co=~ Re 0 · 6 for0.2 <ReP< 500 (3.31) for 500 < ReP < 2 x 10 5 (3.32) p and C0 = 0.44 the following expressions for terminal velocity can be derived having, of course, the same ranges of validity: ut= gd2(pp-pf) 18 PrV l' d1.14[g(pp-Pr)J0.71 _ ut - 0.153 043 v · Pc ut= 1.73 [ (3.33) tor ReP< 0.2 dg(p - Pr) ~r Jo.5 for 0.2 < ReP < 500 for 500 <ReP< 2 x 10 5 (3.34) (3.35) In order to use the above approach it is necessary first to estimate the particle Reynolds number ReP in order to determine which of the equations is the more appropriate. Since the terminal velocity ut appears in the Reynolds number as well as in the drag coefficient, the method becomes somewhat inconvenient, and this has resulted in the development of an alternative technique involving plots of ReP against C 0 Re; and C0 /ReP. The significance of these combinations of dimensionless parameters is that 3 C R 2 _ 4d g(pp- Pr) o eP3 2 PrV (3.36) which is independent of the terminal velocity and C0 4g(pp- Pr)v ReP= 3pru~ (3.37) which is independent of the particle diameter. The chart (Figure 3.5) thus allows the terminal velocity to be determined for a spherical particle of known size, or the size of a particle to be estimated when its terminal velocity is known. 3.3.2 The settling of non-spherical particles Where the terminal velocity of a non-spherical particle is known, as for example in the results of a sedimentation analysis, the equations given in the 96 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING \ \ 1\ / I\ \ V \ \. eo / V 10 / 1 0.1 V / 10 V Rep / I\. V /V ;/ / / 1\ c 0 Rep2 / / a. ()Cll a:Q) 1\ \ / V '\ "'\ '\ V '\ \ '\ '\. "' '\ 0.4 4 10 Reynolds number, Rep 40 100 10-3 400 Figure 3.5 Chart for the determination of terminal velocities of spherical particles of known diameter, or the diameter of particles settling at a known velocity. previous section can be used to determine an 'equivalent diameter' of the particle. In the case of fine particles settling in a viscous fluid this approach would yield the so-called Stokes diameter, which is defined as the diameter of a spherical particle of the same density as the measured particle and which would settle at the same terminal velocity in the same fluid. Comparatively little has been published on the terminal velocities of nonspherical particles, and virtually nothing on such particles falling in air. The main work on the subject is probably that of Pettyjohn and Christiansen [3]. Their extensive experimental study dealt only with isometric particles having cfJ. > 0.67, but covering a wide range of particle size and density, and resulted in the suggestion that in the laminar flow region the terminal velocity could be 97 DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS given by multiplying the value for spherical particles by a factor K, where K, 0.366loge = o.b~s (3.38) Some caution should be exercised when applying this result to particles settling in gases, since Pettyjohn and Christiansen worked only with liquids, and also there is likely to have been a significant wall effect. At Reynolds numbers above about 2, orientation effects may be significant and the influence of sphericity predicted by equation (3.38) appears to become increasingly unreliable. A proposal by Hawksley [4] was that the C 0 v. ReP relationship for spherical particles could be used for irregularly shaped particles provided that C 0 and ReP are redefined as follows: C' = cp 4gd(pp- Pr) D (3.39) 3prU~ s and 1 du, #. (3.40) Re'=--·P V The scarcity of recent experimental data on terminal velocities of irregular particles, especially in gases, is very evident, but the chart reproduced as Figure 3.6, based on Hawksley's approach using equations (3.39) and (3.40) gives some indication of the behaviour of non-spherical particles. I .1. sphenctty, 4> 5 105 Q) Cl (.) < 103 c: ~ o/ /. ~V /;~ 102 //. ~ en Q) ~~ y ~ /::: I:?P "0 Q) E :<:(.) 10 < v~ ~ ... ....:"""~ ~y ~ /, Gi ::J --;~ ~ 1.~~~y .0 E / o.~~LL 104 <'>IV -!!.. //: o.i~V/' ;?"'" 0.4 0.6 C\Jo. a: /' I ...._~ ~,::.P~ 0.1 0.2 0.5 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 Reynolds number, Rep Figure 3.6 Terminal velocity correlation for non-spherical particles [ 4]. 500 98 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 3.3.3 The settling of concentrations of particles (hindered settling) Where a concentration of particles is settling in a stationary fluid It IS inevitable that the motion of any individual particle will be affected by its near neighbours. The terminal velocity of the particle, as previously defined, will be reduced to an extent that it is a function of the voidage fraction of the suspension. In spite of the different conditions, it is not unreasonable to suggest that the models for free settling could be applied if suitably modified to take account of the lower actual settling velocities that would normally occur. Thus, writing the density of the suspension as p its apparent kinematic viscosity as v., and the reduced settling velocity as u" the coefficient of drag and the Reynolds number become 5, C _ 4gd(pp - Ps} 0 3psu? (3.41) and usd Re=P Vs (3.42) Most of the experimental investigations into hindered settling seem to have been concerned particularly with the change in sedimentation rate that occurs, and the relationship between this change (decrease or increase) and the voidage of the suspension. Alien [5] gives a detailed discussion of concentration effects, but a typical form [ 6] of the correlation for settling velocity IS (3.43) where ~>s is the voidage of the suspension and n is an index which is a function of ReP and has a value of 4.65 for ReP < 0.2. 3.3.4 Classification and sorting of particles Reference has been made in Chapter 1 to the use of the sedimentation technique, and also of elutriation, in the determination of the size distribution of a particulate bulk solid. Clearly these methods could be adapted to provide a means of classifying particles by size, or sorting them by density. If the particles are introduced into an upward-flowing fluid, those for which the terminal velocity is identical to the velocity of the fluid should be held stationary whilst larger (or more dense) particles will fall and smaller (lighter) particles will rise. Adjusting the fluid velocity to a suitable value can thus allow, for example, two different minerals to be 'un-mixed'. The major practical difficulty lies in ensuring that the velocity of the upward-flowing fluid is reasonably uniform, but if this can be achieved it is possible to separate particles that are quite close 99 DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS bulk solid A bulk solid B a; (ij () (/) "' 0 v - :::J particle diameter, d (log scale) Figure 3.7 Separation of two bulk solids from a mixture using an upward-flowing fluid stream. in size and/or density. Figure 3. 7 illustrates the relationship between terminal velocity and particle size for two bulk solids, denoted A and B, the material A having the higher value of density. If a mixture of these two materials is being sorted in a fluid stream having a uniform velocity u, all particles of material A having diameter greater than dA will fall whilst those of material B with diameter less than d 8 will rise. Thus, for satisfactory separation into two pure fractions it would be necessary to prepare the mixture so that all the particles are between the size limits dA and d 8 . In order to sort materials A and B having particle sizes outside this range, it would be necessary to increase or decrease the velocity of the upward-flowing fluid, or to use a fluid of higher or lower density. 3.4 Fluidization 3.4.1 The fluidization process As described in section 3.2, if a fluid is passed upwards through a supported bed of solid particles or granules at a relatively low flow rate, it will merely filter through the interstitial voids without disturbing the packing arrangement of the bed. As the superficial velocity (that is, the volume flow rate per unit cross-sectional area of the fluidizing vessel when empty) of the fluid upwards through the stationary bed is gradually increased, the pressure-drop across the bed increases (Figure 3.8a). For a given bed, the pressure-drop across it would depend only on the flow rate of the fluid, in most cases the 100 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING transition ''"' bod "''m~ I fluidized bed regime ;-~--~------~~----- ~ c:0 -o Ql 3 "'"' ~ c. Umf superficial gas velocity (a) The varia lion of pressure drop across the bed '-~ (b) 'Fixed' bed t (cl Incipient fluidization ,_~ t (d) Bubbling bed Figure 3.8 The fluidization behaviour of an 'idealized' bed of uniformly-sized spherical particles. relationship being approximately proportional. This system is termed a 'fixed' or 'packed' bed (Figure 3.8b), and corresponds to the case discussed in section 3.2. As the superficial velocity continues slowly to increase, a stage will be reached at which the pressure-drop approaches the magnitude of the downward gravity force per unit cross-sectional area of the bed of particles. If the bed is not restrained on its upper surface, there will be a slight expansion of DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 101 the bed accompanied by a rearrangement of the particles as each one tends to 'float' separately in the upward flow of fluid. This rearrangement brings the particles towards a state corresponding to the loosest possible packing in the bed, which is now on the point of becoming 'fluidized'. Further increase in the superficial velocity of the fluidizing agent will cause little, if any, change in the pressure-drop across the bed, but will cause the bed to expand, thus allowing additional spaces between the particles through which the fluid can pass (Figure 3.8c). At still greater superficial velocities the excess fluid tends to pass through the bed as a series of voids or bubbles (Figure 3.8d) until eventually a stage is reached where the interstitial velocity of the upward flowing fluid approaches the terminal velocity of individual solid particles. These particles then tend to become entrained in the flow, being carried upwards from the surface of the bed, and the system approaches a condition equivalent to that of pneumatic transport. At the point where the individual particles or granules first become buoyantly supported in the flow the bed is said to be in a condition of 'incipient' or 'minimum' fluidization. In this condition the bed exhibits many fluid-like characteristics; for example, it will flow from a hole in the side of the containing vessel, light objects can be 'floated' on its surface whereas heavier objects will sink, and the surface will remain horizontal if the vessel is tilted. The fluidization technique has found widespread acceptance in industry as a means of ensuring continuous contacting between a particulate or granular solid and a stream of gas or liquid, one of the first applications being for the gasification of powdered coal. Fuel requirements in World War II provided the impetus for a rapid development in the petroleum industry of the fluid catalytic cracking process, and the knowledge gained during such development, combined with the results of technological research, led to a considerable improvement in the understanding of fluidized-bed behaviour. Many other processes making use of the advantageous properties of fluidized beds have been developed in industry, including drying, mixing, plastic coating, fluidized combustion and bulk solids transport. For a review of some of these applications see, for example, [7]. The onset of fluidization is conventionally illustrated on a plot of the pressure-drop across the bed against the superficial velocity of the fluidizing agent, and for an 'ideal' bed of uniformly sized spherical particles the relationship between the pressure drop Ap and the superficial velocity u might be expected to follow linear paths as shown in Figure 3.8a. Note that at a given superficial velocity the pressure-drop across the bed may be significantly different when increasing the flow from zero than when decreasing from a fluidized state, because of the looser packing of the particles in the latter case. The 'minimum fluidizing velocity', umr• is defined as the point at which the bed of particles becomes fully supported, from this loosest packing arrangement. Particulate bulk solids that might typically be encountered in industrial situations generally do not behave in this idealized manner, but may show a 102 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING "--~ [a) Incomplete fluidization caused by non-uniform air distribution '-~ t ,_~ (c) Intermediate channelling Figure 3.9 t (b) Channelling, resulting from poor air distribution or cohesive powder [d) Slugging t Behaviour of poorly-fluidized beds. variety of characteristics depending upon factors such as particle size and size distribution, particle shape, degree of cohesiveness, and so on. Some kinds of 'imperfect fluidization' are illustrated in Figure 3.9 including partial fluidization, where a portion of the bed remains unfluidized (Figure 3.9a), channelling (Figure 3.9b), intermediate channelling (Figure 3.9c) and slugging (Figure 3.9d). The type of plot that might be obtained of pressure-drop against superficial velocity in each of these cases is shown in Figure 3.1 0. Note that Figure 3.10 f represents the form of plot that would usually be obtained with materials that fluidize reasonably well, the length of the smooth curve joining the 'packed-bed' and 'fluidized-bed' regimes depending largely upon the range 103 DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS L:.p 17 L:.p :; "ml u (a) L:.p u (b) L:.p u (cl / L:.p u (d) / L:.p I I I I I I I (e) u Ufs :/ (f) u Figure 3.10 Pressure variation in fluidized beds. (a) Ideally fluidizing materials; (h) materials exhibiting moderate channelling; (c), (d) more severely channelling materials; (e) cohesive materials exhibiting 'slugging' behaviour; (f) materials having wide size distribution. of particle sizes present in the material. Where the particle size distribution is very wide, or where the material consists essentially of a mixture of two or three powders of relatively uniform size, segregation may occur as a result of the finer particles becoming fluidized before the coarser ones. Such behaviour can cause several peaks to occur on the plot of pressure-drop against superficial velocity. 104 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 3.4.2 The prediction of minimum fluidizing velocity Many different correlations have been proposed to enable the minimum fluidizing velocity for a given bulk solid to be predicted. None of these is entirely satisfactory since there are a number of variables, such as particle shape and size distribution, and (especially with very fine particles) interparticle forces that are virtually impossible to take adequately into account. Perhaps it could be said that as direct measurement of umc for a given sample of bulk solid is not usually difficult, there is little need to be excessively concerned with methods of predicting it. Nevertheless, a quick indication of a probable value of umc is often useful and a considerable amount of energy has been expended by a number of workers in searching for a reliable correlation. Figure 3.8c illustrates the bulk solid in the condition described as 'incipient fluidization': the bed of particles is in an expanded state with each particle notionally 'floating' in the fluid stream and separate from its fellows. A particulate solid in this fluidized state exhibits a number of fluid-like characteristics including, for example, the ability to flow through a hole in a retaining wall. Naturally, the tendency for a bulk solid when aerated to flow in the manner of a fluid has resulted in the widespread use of aeration as a 'flow aid', for example, to assist 'difficult' materials to discharge from hoppers. An interesting refinement of this technique is the continuous aeration of a bulk solid in an inclined channel which allows the material to 'flow' steadily along the channel even when its slope is as little as two or three degrees, as described in Chapter 15. The behaviour of a bulk solid in various flow situations is strongly dependent upon what may loosely be called the 'nature' of the material. Fluidization is one such flow situation, and the 'quality' of fluidization obtainable, or indeed, whether the fluidized state can be achieved at all, is dependent on several characteristics of the bulk solid, notably particle size and density, and cohesiveness. In the following section the phenomenon of fluidization is modelled as a bed of monosized spherical particles subjected to an upward flow of fluid. In this way correlations are introduced to allow prediction of the lowest fluid velocity required to ensure that a material becomes fluidized, i.e. the so-called 'minimum fluidizing velocity'. One of the simplest approaches involves extending the model for fluid flow through a bed of fixed particles, considered in section 3.2, by allowing the fluid flow rate to increase to the point where the bed becomes fluidized. When this condition has just been attained, the bed of solid particles will be fully supported by the upward-flowing fluid, and the total gravity force can then be expressed as Wb =(pp- Pc)gAH(1- c) (3.44) where pP and Pc are the densities of the solid particles and of the fluidizing medium respectively, A is the cross-sectional area of the fluidized bed, and H and B are the depth and voidage of the bed. 105 DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS The term H(l -e) remains constant irrespective of the expansion of the bed, so that the equation can be written in terms of the conditions at the onset of fluidization as (3.45) If the gravity force per unit area of the fully supported bed is regarded as being balanced by the pressure drop across the bed, that is, without any supporting contribution from either the distributor surface or the walls of the vessel, we can write (3.46) At the condition where the bed is on the point of becoming fluidized it is not unreasonable to suppose that the expressions developed for flow through a packed bed might still be valid. Thus !lpb could be expressed in terms of one of the correlations developed in section 3.2. For example, using the Ergun model, we have from equation (3.19) (3.4 7) Combining with equation (3.46) and rearranging, we get Pr(Pp- Pr)gd; = 150 ( 1 - Emr)Prdvumf 112 </J; E~r J1 + 1. 75 (~1 3 ) </J,Emr (Prdvumf ) J1 2 (3.48) Now the left-hand side of this equation is a form of Archimedes number for the bed: A rb = Pr(Pp - Pr)gd; J1 2 (3.49) and the right-hand side is a function of the bed Reynolds number at the minimum fluidization condition: Prdvumf Remr=--/1 (3.50) Thus equation (3.48) can be simplified to a relationship between these two dimensionless parameters as (3.51) 106 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING This expression tends to be inconvenient to use in this form because of the shortage of readily available information relating to the sphericity 4J. and the voidage Bmr· However, Wen and Yu [8] have pointed out that smr increases as 4J. decreases, and also smr is nearly independent of the particle diameter, and they go on to show that available experimental data correlates reasonably well with the expressions (3.52) and (3.53) It has subsequently been suggested that this approach is not entirely satisfactory [9]; nevertheless, substitution of these values into equation (3.51) does lead to a very convenient correlation between the Archimedes and Reynolds numbers for the bed at the minimum fluidizing condition. Thus Re~r + 67.3Remr- 0.0408Arb = 0 (3.54) For approximately spherical particles, Richardson [9] suggests a value of 0.4 for Bmr and arrives at a similar expression relating Remr and Arb as Re~r + 51.4Remr- 0.0366Arb = 0 (3.55) In order to apply this correlation to non-spherical particles, Richardson comments that the 'diameter' used must be that of a sphere with the same specific surface as the particles, that is, 4J.dv. This means effectively multiplying the Archimedes and Reynolds numbers for spherical particles by 4J; and 4J. respectively, so that, for example, equation (3.55) would become (3.56) However, this appears to result in a very considerable underestimate of Umr for non-spherical particles. It is clearly not easy to predict the behaviour at incipient fluidization of irregular particles. A decrease in the sphericity of an isolated particle would cause an increase in the drag exerted on it at a given velocity. However, in a bed of particles a decrease in sphericity would normally be accompanied by an increase in the bed voidage, which in turn would cause a reduction in the interstitial velocity. The effects might be expected to oppose each other to some extent so that particles of the same size and density should in general become fluidized at around the same value of superficial fluid velocity. There is thus good justification in using a correlation, such as equation (3.54) or (3.55), that is independent of 4ls and smr· 107 DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS ~ .,,,~ t- .....,.., t- ~ '7/ ~- 't- ~/. / ~/. / / t- r10 entrainment r- ~/ / A~// - Q) a: 'E A~' ~-,/ '/ / / r- ci .Q :::J c 10- 1 <J) "0 ~/. ///,// - I! '/.~~ 0 c >- Q) a: //' 6 // ~'l-,. / t- E / / ~/ / tt- a: // ~-/ / r- Q) ~~ ~'/ t- c. le'/// _,1 -;.-// 10- 2 '/ / ~ - f- r- ~// '// / ~/ /V / V / 14 / ,.. . / / / ""(. 'o.6 7 / V I .. . .. m1mmum flu1d1zat1on 10 3 V f- 4 f- f- I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 10 Archimedes number, Ar Figure 3.11 Correlations of Reynolds number against Archimedes number for isolated particles at terminal velocity, and for a bed of particles at a condition of minimum fluidization. An empirical correlation rather similar to these two, but which is perhaps a little more reliable, has been proposed by Baeyens and Geldart [10] as Arb = 1823Re~r + 21.7Re!r (3.57) This expression is shown in Figure 3.11 as a plot of Remr against Arb, and whilst some caution should be exercised because of the unreliable correlation between cp, and Emr• a fairly quick assessment of the minimum fluidizing 108 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING velocity of a material may be made from this graph by first calculating Ar b' and then reading off a value of Remr and from this estimating umr· The foregoing analysis is a general one, endeavouring to cover the whole range of flow behaviour from laminar through transitional to turbulent. However, at normal atmospheric pressures and temperature the fluid flow through a bed of solid particles tends to be laminar for particles having diameters less than about 500 ,urn. For such relatively fine particles, viscous effects predominate and the expressions for minimum fluidizing velocity can therefore be simplified by ignoring the kinetic energy term. Thus, for example equation (3.47) reduces to (3.58) and combining with equation (3.46) gives a; </J;c~r Pp-Pr g Umr=-·---·---·150 1 - Emr Pr V (3.59) Following Wen and Yu [8] in eliminating </J. and Emr using equation (3.52), we find - 61 Umr-. X to-4d;g Pp- Pr ---V Pr (3.60) The same form of equation is easily derived from Stokes's Law for the drag force on an isolated particle in a laminar flow region, writing k as the ratio of the drag force on a single particle in a packed array to the drag force on a single isolated particle, so that (3.61) which on rearranging gives (3.62) Comparison with equation (3.60) suggests that the value of k would be around 90. Recent experimental work suggests that the numerical constant in equation (3.60) is too low and a better prediction of minimum fluidizing velocity is given by Umr = 8 X 10_4d;g .PP- Pr V Pr (3.63) although in general this form of equation is inclined to overestimate umr for DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 109 bulk solids having a very fine particle size, and to underestimate umc for coarser materials. For fluidization with air at normal ambient pressure and temperature, /1 can be taken into the numerical constant along with g, and noting that Pc« pP, the expression becomes (3.64) A value of C' of 420 seems to give the most reliable prediction of umc for a range of different powders from around 50 Jlm to around 500 Jlm. Thus (3.65) giving umc in m/s with pP in kg/m 3 and din metres, and this expression serves as a useful rule of thumb to estimate minimum fluidizing velocity. 3.4.3 Entrainment of particles from a fluidized bed Where the upward velocity of a gas through a fluidized bed exceeds the terminal velocity of the particles (that is, the velocity of free fall of the particles in the gas) it is likely that these particles will tend to become entrained in the gas stream leaving the surface of the bed. In order to predict the occurrence of entrainment it is therefore helpful to be able to estimate the terminal velocity of the particles, and modelling techniques for this purpose have been discussed in section 3.3. The curves shown in Figure 3.11 for predicting the entrainment of particles from the free surface of a fluidized bed are plotted from the equation 0 344 _ 18ReP [ ArrPs 1 + 0.15 (Re~) rPs · ] J (3.66) which is derived by combining equations (3.29), (3.36), (3.39) and (3.40), noting that Ar = ~C 0 Re~. Although it may happen that entrainment of particles from the bed surface does not become significant until the bed is fluidized at velocities well in excess of the terminal velocity of a single particle, at higher velocities the quantity of material entrained can increase rapidly. 3.4.4 The porous membrane, or distributor In all processes involving the fluidization of a bed of solid particles some form of distribution device is needed to introduce the fluidizing agent to the bed. Although it would be possible to use a pipe grid at the base of the bed, for gas fluidization the more widely used method is to construct the vessel with some form of gas plenum chamber at the bottom, separated from the main container by a porous or perforated plate. The design of this distributor plate, 110 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING particularly with regard to the material from which it is constructed and the pressure-drop across it, can vary over a wide range. For example, some applications are suited to the use of metal plates perforated with a small number of relatively large holes across which the pressure-drop would be very small, whilst at the other end of the scale (that is, high pressure-drop) would be found porous distributors such as ceramics, sintered metal and plastics, and woven cotton and polyester materials. Considerable interest surrounds the influence of the pressure-drop across the distributor, or more specifically, the ratio of this pressure-drop to that across the fluidized bed, on the 'quality' of fluidization. Clearly the stability of the fluid bed system is an important criterion, and it is worth considering how this might be defined and how it depends upon the ratio of the distributor resistance to the bed resistance. Suppose that a disturbance occurs, in the nature of a localized increase in gas velocity, in a uniform bed of dry particles in a condition of incipient fluidization. This disturbance will cause the bed in this region to expand, resulting in a fall in the local pressure-drop through the bed, and consequent rise in pressure-drop through the distributor as more gas tries to force its way through the potential 'channel'. The system is stable if the combined pressuredrop across the bed and distributor rises with an increase in the local gas velocity in the bed. However, if this combined pressure-drop were to fall, there would be a further increase in the local gas velocity, tending to establish a channel through which most of the fluidizing gas could flow, causing the rest of the bed to defluidize. In general it may be said that the resistance to gas flow offered by the distributor should be great enough to ensure stability of the fluidized bed system without being so high that blower power becomes excessive. Although there appears to be some disagreement as to how the optimum pressure-drop should be determined, the consensus suggests that the pressure-drop through the distributor should be at least 15% ofthat across the particle bed. In fact the stability of the fluidized bed may also be influenced by the size and density of the particles in it, and, although very little experimental data is available, Figure 3.12 gives an indication of the way in which the minimum required distributor pressure-drop would vary with these properties. 3.4.5 The influence of particle size and density It has long been accepted that the size and density of particles, and also the size distribution, can have a significant influence on the behaviour of a bed of fluidized material, and it is well established that, in general, the minimum fluidizing velocity decreases and the bed expansion ratio increases with decreasing particle size and density. It should, however, be noted that the apparent influence of particle size can be distorted by the method of determining the mean size. Thus, for example, the use of the median size, 111 DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS "' Q) .0 Cl 0 -o.;, :;20 Cl) Cl) ~ Cl 0 ~16 c:"' Q) 0 Q; Cl "'12 Cl) 1000 "'0 ~ ~ B Cl) Cl) 0 t "' Cl ~ 4 1---- --r----- -t-----t --- 0, :; Cl) Cl) Q) a. 200 300 500 mean particle diameter d v ( 11mJ Figure 3.12 Minimum pressure drop required across distributor for bed of spheroidal particles fluidized with air at a condition close to normal ambient, based on an equation by Siegel [11]. defined by (3.67) where da is the particle size from sieve analysis and x is the mass fraction of particles of that size, tends to under-emphasize the influence of the fine particles, which may in fact have a pronounced effect on the particle surface area per unit volume of the bed, and therefore on its fluidization behaviour. A more relevant size is the volume surface mean diameter, which is conveniently (though not exactly) expressed as dvsm ~( L ;J 1 (3.68) Probably the most useful recent work dealing with fluidization characteristics of different types of particulate bulk solids has been that of Gel dart [ 12] who 112 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING showed that the behaviour of a fluidized particulate material can generally be classified into one of four recognizable groups. These groups are characterized by the difference in the densities of the solid and the fluidizing medium, and by the mean particle size; and the salient features of the groups may be summarized as follows. Group A. Generally includes materials of small particle size and/or low particle density (less than about 1400 kg/m 3 ). Powders in this group show considerable expansion of the bed between the minimum fluidizing velocity umc and the 'minimum bubbling velocity' umb• and relatively slow settling of the bed when the flow of the fluidizing medium is shut off. At velocities above umb the bed bubbles freely and at higher velocities axisymmetric slugging tends to occur. At velocities higher still, the slugging movement is continually collapsing so that the upward flowing fluid is forced to track upwards through angled crevices to the top surface of the vigorously turbulent bed. Group B. Including most materials in the mean particle size and density ranges 40-500 Jlm and 1400-4000 kg/m 3 , this group would typify the generally accepted model of fluidized bed behaviour. At fluid velocities above umc the expansion of the bed is small and bubbling occurs at or just above this minimum fluidizing velocity. Collapse of the bed is rapid when the fluid flow is shut off. As the velocity is increased the bed bubbles freely, and eventually tends to a form of asymmetric slug flow. Group C. This includes cohesive powders that are difficult to fluidize satisfactorily because of high interparticle forces resulting from very small particle size, electrostatic effects or high moisture content. Attempts to fluidize such materials usually result in the formation of stable channels or in the whole bed rising as a plug, although some success may be achieved with the aid of mechanical vibrators or stirrers. Group D. Including materials having large mean particle size and/or high particle density. Fluidization behaviour is in some respects similar to powders in Group B, but beds of Group D materials can generally be made to exhibit the phenomenon known as 'spouting' (see section 3.5) if the gas is admitted centrally. These zones of behaviour are conveniently illustrated on a plot of (pp- Pc) against d (Figure 3.13). The empirical boundary between materials of Groups A and C is indistinct as there are many factors that can influence the cohesiveness of these fine powders, including electrostatic charging, moisture content and particle shape. From a knowledge of the mean particle size and particle density of a bulk solid it is possible to make a reasonably reliable estimate of the minimum DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS M 113 2000 E Cl 25 1000 Cl Q. <I) 0 500 c <I) ~ i5 ?: <ii c 200 <I) "C 100 500 1000 5000 mean particle diameter (,m) Figure 3.13 Geldart's classification of fluidization behaviour according to size and density of the particulate material: for fluidization with ambient air [12]. fluidizing velocity using one of the correlations presented in this chapter. However, it should be recognized that, although these two properties generally have the major influence on the fluidization characteristics of the material, there are other variables which may also have a significant effect. Thus, for materials that are cohesive, have a very wide size distribution, or are prone to electrostatic charging, especially those of very fine particle size, the use of simplified mathematical models to predict umr could be quite misleading. There are many commercial applications of fluidization, and a useful discussion of some of these is given in [7]. In the case of air-float conveying (described in Chapter 15) the direct part played by the phenomenon of fluidization is evident. In pneumatic conveying by pipeline, especially in dense- and medium-phase, fluidization is still involved, although the exact mechanism is less clearly defined. 3.5 Spouted bed behaviour The phenomenon known as 'spouting' can occur in a bed of granular material when an upward flowing jet of air is admitted centrally at the bottom ofthe bed (Figure 3.14). It can be regarded as a combination of two distinct regimes of gas/solids flow: a central core moving upward at relatively high velocity in which the solid particles are widely dispersed, and the surrounding main part of the bed in which the densely packed particles move slowly downwards. The whole mass of bulk solid is constantly in motion and the spouted bed thus 114 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING fountain _ level ol natural free surface spout (high velocity) annular bed (low velocity) Figure 3.14 A typical arrangement of spouted bed. fixed bed flow ----·~1---- spout developing - - varying degrees ol initial compaction / / / / / ~"""' / / / - ..,..,...-- - ........ ' -- --, minimum spouting \ I I '- -~ steady-sta(spouting superficial air velocity Figure 3.15 Typical relationship between pressure-drop and air flow rate for a spouted bed. DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 115 provides an alternative to fluidization for contacting fluids with a coarse granular material. Various applications of the spouting phenomenon occur in industry, the commonest involving the drying of granular bulk solids such as grain and wood chips. As with fluidization, the most important single factor in the design of a spouted bed system is ensuring that the flow rate of fluid supplied to the bed is correct. Various correlations for minimum spouting velocity have been proposed and some of these are introduced here. Other important design considerations relate to the geometry of the spouting vessel, the pressure-drop across the bed, and so on, and for further information on these aspects the interested reader is referred first to the work of Mathur and Epstein [13, 14]. Figure 3.15 shows the typical form of relationship between the pressuredrop and air flow rate for a spouted bed as the flow rate is increased from zero to the condition of steady-state spouting. As with a conventional fluidized bed the system initially corresponds to flow through a bed of fixed particles and the pressure-drop is nearly proportional to the flow rate. Eventually a point will be reached at which the particles at the apex of the conical base of the vessel (where the velocity is greatest) begin to rise. Further increase of the air flow rate will cause the channel or spout formed at the bottom of the vessel to extend upward into the bed and, since the concentration of particles in this spout is much lower than in the rest of the bed, there will be a decrease in the overall pressure-drop. Continuing to increase the air flow rate will result in further upward extension of the internal spout although, because of the increase in the depth of the bed caused by displacement of particles from the central region, the fall in overall pressure-drop could be less marked. When the air flow rate is sufficient to cause the spout to break through the surface of the bed there will be a sudden decrease in the overall pressure-drop to the value corresponding to steady-state spouting and this value will be more or less unaffected by further increases in airflow. It should be noted that the peak value of pressure-drop reached will be largely dependent upon the packing of the granular bed so that for the most loosely packed bed there may be virtually no observable peak at all in the plot of l'lp against air flow rate. The usually accepted correlation for the prediction of minimum spouting velocity urns is an empirical equation involving the densities of the flowing fluid and the particles, together with relevant dimensions of the spouting vessel: d (D· )n ·2gH{(pp-pr)/pr} Ums=D · D~ 0 (3.69) where d is the effective diameter of the granules, Di and D0 are the diameters of the inlet and the main vessel, H is the height of the bed surface above the inlet, and Pv• Pr are respectively the densities of the granules and the fluid. Leva [15] gives the following values of the index n: for D0 = 150 mm, n = 0.33 (independent of cone angle); for D 0 = 600 mm, n = 0.23 (for 45o cone) n = 0.13 (for 85° cone). 116 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 3.6 Gas/solids flow in pipes 3.6.1 Introduction The entrainment of solid particles in a high-velocity flow of gas is such a familiar concept, with examples ranging from sandstorms to domestic vacuum cleaners, that no-one is surprised that a pneumatic conveying system works. Yet, in order to design and construct an installation that will be reliable and efficient, it is necessary to have some appreciation of the mechanism of flow of gasjsolids suspensions in pipes. Despite considerable study and research into various aspects of gas/solids flow, the subject remains very much an art, and the successful design and installation of pneumatic handling plant owes a great deal to practical experience. It is becoming increasingly evident that only limited progress can be made in scientific studies of gas/solids flow because of the very large number of variables that are involved, variables that include, for example, velocities of conveying gas and of solid particles, pressure and temperature of the conveying gas, size, shape and density of solid particles, and so on. Even the study of the flow of homogeneous (single-phase) fluids is largely empirically based and clearly there can be little hope of developing a set of practical and reliable mathematical formulae to describe completely the flow behaviour of two-phase gas/solids suspensions. Such progress as can be made towards an understanding of the flow of gas/solids suspensions will be through observation and analysis of actual working pneumatic conveying systems, in industry as well as in research laboratories. With the accumulation of a sufficient store of practical knowledge, techniques are being developed for the interpolation and extrapolation of relevant data to enable the behaviour of a gas/solids suspension to be predicted with reasonable confidence. As more experience is gained in handling a wider range of materials, the level of understanding of the interrelationships amongst the relevant parameters will increase. For this reason, publication of accurate performance figures for industrial pneumatic conveying plant is as important as that of the results of academic research into the flow behaviour of gas/solids suspensions. However, in order to make the best use of such data to design and commission an installation that will be reliable and efficient, it is obviously necessary to have some understanding of what is happening inside a pipeline carrying a flowing gas/solids suspension. In this section the nature of twophase, gas/solids flow in pipes is described in the light of actually observed behaviour, and some of the suggested mechanisms of flow that have been proposed to explain this observed behaviour are discussed. Finally, the important but difficult matter of predicting the pressure-drop occurring as a gas/solids suspension flows along a pipe is considered in some detail. Because of the increasing industrial importance of pneumatic conveying as a DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 117 means of transporting bulk solids a large proportion of this book is devoted to the design and operation of practical pneumatic conveying systems (p. 380). 3.6.2 The flow of gas/solids suspensions in horizontal pipes Flow patterns existing in two-phase, gas/solids suspensions travelling along horizontal pipes tend to be very complex and are principally dependent upon the velocity of the gaseous phase, the ratio of the mass flow rate of solids to the mass flow rate of gas (i.e. the 'solids loading ratio', sometimes rather misleadingly called 'phase density') and the nature of the particulate solid material being conveyed. From visual observation of gas/solids flow in a glass pipe, Wen [16] described the manner in which the flow pattern changed as the solids loading ratio increased (see Figure 3.16).1t seems reasonable to suggest that three principal categories of stable gas/solids flow may be encountered in horizontal pneumatic transport: (i) When the solid particles are conveyed in a uniformly dispersed phase. (ii) When the conveyed material mainly occupies the lower part of the conveying line and assumes the form of a moving layer, or moving 'dunes' of solid particles. (iii) When the density of the flowing suspension approaches the bulk density of the conveyed material. This would represent a true 'mass-flow' situation somewhat reminiscent of the 'extruded flow' of a soft plastic material. The transition from (i) to (ii) and from (ii) to (iii) occurs as the gas velocity is decreased or the solids flow rate is increased, and is due to the continued deposition of solid particles from the flowing suspension. Actual values of the solids loading ratio for these three categories of stable flow cannot, of course, be exactly specified since they are influenced by a number of other factors, but dispersed- or dilute-phase flow would typically be observed with solids loading ratios of less than five whilst the characteristics of dense-phase flow would tend to be seen when the solids loading ratio ranges from about 25 up to a value of several hundreds. Methods of prediction of pressure-drop will be discussed in a later section, but it may be emphasized at this stage that the tendency for the solid material to be concentrated in the lower part of a horizontal pipeline makes it unwise to compare pressure-drop data for suspension flow in horizontal pipes with corresponding data obtained in vertical flow, except perhaps at very high conveying velocities where the particles would be widely dispersed. Also, pressure-drop correlations proposed by various investigators must be used with caution and only for the limited region of the experimental programme upon which the correlation is based. If extrapolation is absolutely necessary, careful analysis of the actual flow conditions to be encountered must be carried out. It should, at this stage, be understood that the different flow patterns E 118 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING immature slug flow homogeneous flow slug flow degenerate homogeneous flow .. . . . 2 .~·..:,;; :'.::..<;·;·. ~:.;; ,:·.: ·.":·;.;:,::;<•::.::,.) degenerate slug flow immature dune flow • • • • • •• 3 •• 0 • j;.~k;;;~.;;; • -~ ~- .:. . . :·...;·:;;;;;,~ • • • •• : • . ' ·• •· : : · :·: dune flow ripple flow degenerate dune flow pipe plugged flow direction Figure 3.16 Flow patterns in horizontal pipelines [16]. illustrated in Figure 3.16 may be observed at different points along the same pipeline. Changes in the cross-sectional area of the pipe will affect the velocity and therefore may change the flow pattern. However, even in a pipe of uniform cross-section, the decreasing pressure of the conveying gas will cause its velocity to increase so that, in an extreme case, the flow could change from dense-phase (at low velocity) at the entry to the pipe, to a very dilute phase, with widely dispersed particles travelling at high velocity at the outlet end. A useful qualitative presentation of dilute-phase gas/solids flow in a horizontal pipeline has been given by Zenz and Othmer [17] in the form of a so-called 'phase-diagram' which is a log-log plot of the average pressure gradient along the pipe against the superficial gas velocity (based on the total 119 DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS a; (ij Cl <f) 0> 0 D ~mp=o (gas flow in empty pipe) saltation velocity us for solids flow rate p1 m Wmp ~I IL [+--- L__.: --~---------------- mg average superficial velocity of gas, ug in pipe length L (log scale) Figure 3.17 'Phase diagram' for horizontal gas/solids flow. cross-sectional area of the pipe) for various solids concentrations. This approach is developed in Figure 3.17 which illustrates the fundamental fact that for any bulk particulate material being transported along a pipeline the value of the pressure gradient at any point must be somewhere between the values for the same air flow rate, (i) through the empty pipe, and (ii) through the pipe when plugged with the bulk solid. The first of these two conditions is quite easily modelled as the flow of a single-phase compressible fluid, as described in section 3.6.5, and the second corresponds to flow in a packed bed, which was discussed in section 3.2. The two lines of Figure 3.17 marked as mP = 0 are for the flow of gas in an empty pipe and through a packed bed of the bulk solid 120 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING concerned, and thus represent two boundaries of the area within which any actual flow condition ofthe product must lie. It should be noted, however, that this does not imply that the area defines flow conditions that could actually be achieved, as whether a certain flow condition is possible or not depends upon the properties of the bulk solid in a manner that is not easily modelled or predicted. The two lines denoted mP = 0 therefore represent the flow of gas alone, whilst mP 1 , mP 2 , ... represent increasing solids mass flow rates. Thus, for example, suppose the solid particles are introduced at a rate mP 1 into a gas flowing along a pipeline at a superficial velocity uH. The increase in frictional resistance due to the particles causes the pressure-drop per unit length to increase from point B to point C 1 . If the superficial gas velocity is now reduced (effectively increasing the solids loading ratio) the concentration of particles per unit length of the pipe will increase until eventually a point will be reached (D tl where the particles begin to settle out at the bottom of the pipe. This phenomenon is known as 'saltation' and the value of the superficial gas velocity at this point (u,) is known as the 'saltation velocity'. Note, however, that this saltation velocity may be a function of the mass flow rate of solids, so that points D 2 , D 3 ••. correspond to saltation velocities for solids mass flow rates mP 2 , mP 3 ... Further reduction of the gas velocity will cause more solid material to settle out until a substantial non-moving layer develops on the bottom of the pipe. Transport will continue above this deposited layer, with the actual gas velocity significantly greater than the superficial velocity because of the reduced area, but there will be a sharp increase in the pressuredrop (from D to E). After passing through the various intermediate stages illustrated in Figure 3.16 as the amount of deposited material increases, the pipe eventually becomes full of particles and a condition of true mass flow may be attained, with the pressure-drop approaching that corresponding to the value for packed-bed flow. The actual mechanism of two-phase gas/solids flow at high solids loading ratios and low velocities (i.e. below the saltation velocity) is still far from being fully understood, although recently reported experimental investigations, particularly at Thames Polytechnic in the UK [18-20] have done much to improve this situation. The proposal of Geldart [ 12] for characterizing the fluidization behaviour of bulk solids, which was described in section 3.4.5, is now well established and it is hardly surprising that various research workers, notably Dixon [21, 22], remarking on certain similarities between gas fluidization and dense-phase gas/solids flow, have attempted a similar classification for pneumatically conveyed materials. Although originally based on empirical formulae relating to flow in vertical pipes, Dixon's so-called 'slugging diagrams' may well have relevance to non-suspension gas/solids flow generally. Figure 3.18 shows the slugging diagram for flow in a 2-inch (50 .urn) diameter pipe. Group A materials (powders) and Group D materials (granules) both tend to convey "0 ·u; cQ) ~ '5 £ Q) g Q) ~ Q la. ~ Ci E C'1 500 1000 I c 20 \ \ \ \ 500 ,,,, \\,, ,,,, ,, ,,,, mean particle size d ( flml 100 \\ ' \ \ \ 1000 \ '' \\ \ ,, \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ' \ D \ \ \ ' \ '\ strong axisymmetric slugs Figure 3.18 Slugging diagram for 50-mm (2-inch) pipe. 50 // // /// // // // // // weak asymmetric slugs (dunes) ,,,, ,,,, ,,,, ,,,, ,,,, ,,,, 8 ,,,, ,,,, \\,, A ,, ,,,, ,,,, \ \ pressure (bars) no slugging ~ '/ '/ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ / ~ ~ :/. 24 \ \ \ '\ ' ' '\ -<: n N - "' :: "' "'...,-<: "'m t"" 8 -----"'0 t"" c 8 'T1 'T1 "'0 :: z > 0 122 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING well in dense-phase, but their mode of flow is very different. The significant feature of Group A materials is that they have the capability of retaining air in the void spaces for some time after the supply of air has been discontinued. This means that, once aerated, these products have a persisting fluid-like quality which enables them to 'flow' very readily along a pipeline without slugging. The granular bulk solids of Group D usually exhibit a natural tendency to form slugs of up to a metre or so in length which travel along the conveying line shedding material from the back of the slug and picking up material at the front. Materials falling into Group B do not retain air and in general can only be conveyed in dense phase at relatively high velocities if unstable slugging behaviour is to be avoided. Finally, there are the Group C powders to be considered: these are likely to be cohesive and therefore unsuitable for simple dense-phase conveying, although it may be possible to transport such materials in special systems which are designed to provide additional air at successive points along the conveying line. For descriptions of various types of pneumatic conveying systems with 'air addition' see Chapter 12. 3.6.3 The flow of gas/solids suspensions in vertical pipes At high values of the superficial gas velocity and low solids loading ratios it could reasonably be expected that the flow of a gas/solids suspension would be essentially the same in horizontal and in vertical pipelines, with the solids having an approximately uniform dispersion throughout the flowing gas. There would be no significant difference in the pressure gradient in these two situations. Likewise, if the pipeline were to be packed with stationary particles with the gas flowing through the interstitial voids, the pressure-drops for horizontal and vertical orientation would not be discernibly different. A useful qualitative representation of vertical gas/solids flow, similar to that described previously for horizontal flow, is shown in Figure 3.19. As before, the line AB (rhp = 0) represents the flow of gas in an empty pipe, line A' B' (also having mP = 0) represents the flow of gas through a stationary bed of particles in the pipe, and mP 1 , mP 2 ... represent increasing solids mass flow rates. The Upper partS Of the lineS mPl' mp2 ... COrrespond tO fully dispersed flOW at relatively high gas velocities in which the flow conditions are similar to those for horizontal flow. As the gas velocity is reduced the frictional resistance at the pipe wall decreases. Also, the solids concentration increases, causing the static head to increase. From point C to point D the decreasing wall friction is the predominant effect and the net result is to decrease the total pressure-drop. Further reduction in the superficial gas velocity causes a sharp rise in the total pressure-drop as the increasing static head now predominates over the decreasing wall friction. As the solids concentration increases towards point E the bulk density of the suspension becomes so great that the particles can no longer be supported by the drag effect of the upward-flowing gas and the DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS '' (j) (ij u '' '' ' 123 E2 <ll Cl 0 0 _J .<: 0> c: ~ ()) c. ·a. .S c. 0 u ()) 5 <ll <ll ()) a. )/''""" choking velocity for A average superficial velocity of gas. ug in pipe length L (log scale) Figure 3.19 'Phase diagram' for vertical gas/solids flow. suspension then collapses into a slogging state. This phenomenon is called 'choking' and the superficial gas velocity at which it occurs (u.h) is described as the 'choking velocity'. The choking velocity represents the condition in which the gas stream is carrying the maximum concentration of solids in dilute-phase flow for a given solids loading ratio and therefore is analogous to the saltation velocity in horizontal transport. At gas velocities below the choking velocity the solid material tends to settle towards the lowest point in the pipeline and continuous conveying ceases. Before leaving this discussion on the so-called 'phase diagrams', it is perhaps worth commenting upon the interpretation of such diagrams. Firstly, it should be clearly understood that the diagrams represent relationships between average conditions over a specified length L of the pipe: they do not represent 124 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING the varying instantaneous conditions existing at successive points along the pipe. Nevertheless, it is important to appreciate that the flow along the pipe is changing as a result of the frictional pressure drop which causes a decrease in density and consequently an increase in velocity. This means that although a point on the phase diagram might appear to suggest a satisfactory flow condition, the actual flow giving this average point could vary from an impossibly low velocity at the feed point to an excessively high value at discharge. In a practical pneumatic conveying line it is perfectly possible, although generally undesirable, for the mode of flow to change from low velocity dense-phase to a dilute-phase suspension flow as the velocity increases. 3.6.4 Flow around 90° bends The previous discussion has centred on fully-accelerated flow where the solid particles have reached an equilibrium velocity close to, but slightly less than, the velocity of the conveying gas. (Note, however, that in dense-phase flow the particle velocity may be very much smaller than the conveying gas velocity.) Where the particles have been slowed down by some kind of obstruction, the commonest of which is a bend in the pipe, there will be an unstable flow as they are 'picked up' again and re-accelerated to their equilibrium velocity. Visual observation of the motion of solid particles in bends indicates that there are two basic categories of flow: (i) that in which the solid particles slide around the outer radius of the bend at a much slower velocity than the conveying gas; and (ii) that in which the solid particles suffer a number of collisions in traversing the bend, the particle trajectories between the particlewall impacts sometimes being reported as straight lines and frequently as distinct curves. This latter flow behaviour is usually restricted to large particles. Extensive studies by Miihle (unpublished) into the paths followed by coarse particles indicate that the particles travel rectilinearly along the straight pipe preceding a bend until they impinge upon the outer wall of the bend. The particles lose momentum on impact, but are speeded up after reflection by the flow medium. This sequence is repeated and, for a low initial velocity, the collisions may result in the particles eventually remaining in contact with the wall along which they slide at a decelerating rate. The flow pattern in a bend is further complicated by the secondary motion of the carrier gas which is induced by centrifugal effects. That is, twin eddies are formed in the radial plane and in association with the main flow produce a double spiral motion downstream. To make progress with a rigorous mathematical analysis of this two-phase motion it is necessary to make simplifying assumptions, such as laminar flow and a perfect fluid; it is thus very unpromising owing to practical considerations. Flow visualization experiments carried out by Mason [23] for 15 Jlm DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 125 alumina particles flowing around vertical-to-horizontal 90° bends of 75 mm diameter and a curvature ratio (curvature diameter/pipe diameter) of 20, generally substantiated the work of Miihle, even though fine particles were used. Deviating flow was not evident at a solids loading ratio of 1.8 and mean gas velocity of 16 mjs. This suspension was influenced by the bend curvature and a large proportion of the particles was well distributed across the entire flow area, although there was a thin layer of particles which had migrated to the inner wall and become deposited. When the flow conditions were changed to a solids loading ratio of 7.5 and a mean gas velocity of 13 mjs, the particles impacting on the outer wall were reflected and 'cut across' the main stream to impinge on the inner surface. The material was then deflected towards the outer wall but with insufficient energy to penetrate the fast-flowing main stream of particles. The deviating flow gradually became less severe, but its influence was still apparent when the flow entered the downstream horizontal pipeline. Having accepted that large particles may bounce around a bend at higher velocities or slide at lower velocities, and that a particle may first bounce and then slide the rest of the way, it will be evident that an analysis which assumed the physical model of particles sliding the whole way around a bend will produce doubtful correlations. 3.6.5 The prediction of pressure-drop in flowing gas/solids suspensions It will have become clear from the preceding discussion that the reliable prediction of pressure-drop in a gasjsolids suspension flowing along a pipeline is one of the major difficulties facing the designers of pneumatic conveying systems. In recent years a considerable amount of literature has been published on the characteristics of two-phase gas/solids flow, but there is, as yet, no technique for predicting pressure-drop that is both reliable and convenient. Techniques that are simple enough to be readily used (such as socalled 'rule-of-thumb' methods) tend to be rather uncertain, and, at the other extreme, high-level mathematical models that are claimed to give accurate predictions of pressure-drop are usually complex and inconvenient, often requiring data on the particulate material that would not ordinarily be available. In any case, it should be recognised that because of the extreme complexity of two-phase gas/solids flow, a direct mathematical approach is never likely to be successful. The most satisfactory results should be obtained through modelling techniques which will give sufficient insight to the nature of gas/solids flow to allow available data (for example, from existing pneumatic conveying systems and from academic and industrial research work) to be extended. In this way it should become possible to predict pressure-drops, flow rates, and so on, for a proposed pneumatic conveying system from data determined on a system of different configuration and, perhaps, carrying a material of different particle and bulk characteristics. 126 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING The usual starting point in any discussion of pressure-drops in gas/solids flows is to regard the total pressure-drop as comprising that due to the flowing gas alone plus the additional pressure-drop caused by the presence of the solid particles. Thus (3.70) where !'J.p. is the total pressure-drop in the suspension, !'J.pg is the pressure-drop due to the gas alone and /':,.pP is the additional pressure-drop attributable to the solid particles. Each of these components of pressure-drop will now be considered separately, attention being given to the influence of bends, valves and other fittings in addition to the frictional resistance of the pipe walls. Reliable methods are available for the prediction of the pressure-drop due to the gas alone and a typical approach is given here in outline. Except in the case of pneumatic conveying at very low solids loading ratios, especially in longdistance pipelines, the 'gas-only' pressure drop is likely to represent the smaller, and often insignificant, component of the total pressure-drop. Nevertheless, a clear understanding of the variation of density and velocity along the line is a valuable asset when it comes to designing such systems. Pressure-drop in a gas .flowing along a pipe. As a gas flows along a pipeline, the decreasing pressure resulting from the frictional resistance to the flow causes the gas to expand. That is, the density of the gas decreases, and consequently the average velocity of the gas across a section of the pipe must increase in the direction of flow. These changes of density and velocity may not be very great and, if the velocity at the upstream end of the pipe is not high and the pipe is relatively short, it is usually safe to determine the pressure-drop by treating the flow as one of constant density. Thus, using the familiar Darcy formula, the pressure-drop !'J.pg in a gas of density Pg flowing along a pipeline of diameter D and length L would be given by !'J.p = g 4'~pgu: '1 D 2 (3. 71) where ug is the average velocity of the flowing gas and f is the 'pipe friction factor'. A more reliable prediction of the pressure-drop, and a useful indication of the variation in velocity along the pipeline, may be obtained by using one of several possible analytical models that take account of the varying density. The most convenient of these is perhaps the isothermal model in which the pressure gradient along the pipe is expressed as dpg 32 frn: RT dL = n 2 . D 5 ·-,;; (3.72) DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 127 where mg is the gas mass flow rate, T is the (constant) temperature of the gas and R is the characteristic gas constant. Provided that the velocity of the gas remains well below the sonic velocity (so that variation of kinetic energy is insignificant), integration of equation (3.72) allows a reliable value of the pressure-drop (pg 1 - pg 2 ) over pipe length L to be determined from _ [ 2 _ Pg2 Pg1 64fm;RTLJ 112 n2 Ds (3.73) The gas velocity at the upstream end of a pneumatic pipeline is usually an important parameter ('pick-up velocity') and it is likely to be useful to introduce this into the expression for pressures. Noting that equation (3.73) becomes (3.74) and rearranging Pg1 = [ u;2 J 1 - 4fL. D RT (3.75) 1/2 Thus, in a situation where the downstream pressure is known and the velocity at the upstream end of the pipe (pick-up velocity) is specified, this expression allows the pressure required at the upstream end, for gas alone, to be estimated. Note that the value of the pipe friction factor f may be taken to be 0.005 for a preliminary calculation, but should then be checked from the Moody chart (Figure 3.20) using an appropriate value of the pipe roughness e and the value of Reynolds number at the upstream end of the pipe, calculated from Re = Pg1 . ug1 D 1 RT (3.76) J1 where J1 is the viscosity of the air at temperature T. Alternatively (and this is a more satisfactory approach when preparing computer software), a value off can be calculated using one of the empirical or semi-empirical correlations such as the Colebrook formula l JJ = - ( ejD l.?2loge 3.71 1.255 ) + ReJf (3.77) E t5 0 c: ~ u c5 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.01 0.012 0.02 \ 1Q3 I Cast iron 0.25 Commercial steel 0.045 Drawn tubing 0.0015 I ~~ 1'- t-- 1-- t-. 104 I' ,...~ 1Q5 r-;: f;::: t-ot-. f-. ~ F::: r-.... ~ r-.1--t-- t-- r- !-. ~ t:- r- ~ .......... ~ .._ I-~ ~~ 1'--t-- t-- t- Reynolds number, Re '~ t- f-.t--;.... R 8 t::-- !--.. ;.... "!'-.... . . . 8:: t--.... ~'-t----- '~ t'~ I~ r--r-. t-.... Approximate roughness of internal surfaces of pipes, <(mm) \ '1\ ' '\ Re cri( \ '\ turbulent flow Figure 3.20 Moody chart for the determination of friction factors for the flow of fluids in pipes of circular cross-section. r-- r-- I' laminar flow (critica~) f =16/Re flow, laminar ~ 106 0.00001 f=:::: ~ smooth 0.0001 0.00005 r-- 0.0002 t:::: t-- t-. 0.0005 0.001 0.002 0.005 • ~ ~ > Q) 2 Ol :l .<: Q) en "'c: ';:; 0 ...... z Cl r Vl :r: > zt) s r 0 Vl ~ tc c::r N 00 129 DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS or the more convenient Churchill formula [24] f = [( ]1/12 1 8 )12 +(A+ B)t.s Re (3. 78) where 1 A= [ 2.457loge ( (7/Re)0.9 +0.27ejD and B = (37530/Re) )]16 16 It is also likely to be necessary to know the gas velocity at the downstream end of the pipe. This can be easily predicted using the same isothermal model since, for this model, the gas velocity is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure in the line. Thus Pg1 ug2 = ug1Pg2 (3.79) Naturally an actual installation is likely to include bends in the pipeline, and also valves and other fittings. These will increase the frictional pressure loss and are best dealt with by considering them as 'equivalent lengths' of pipe of the same diameter as the main pipeline, which are then added to the valve of L in the preceding equations. Values of equivalent lengths of pipe for various fittings may be conveniently estimated from a nomograph (Figure 3.21). Additional pressure-drop due to solids: fully accelerated suspension flow. As mentioned previously, the complex nature of two-phase gas/solids flow in pipes means that it is not amenable to a rigorous mathematical treatment and the best approach to the development of a reliable design technique is therefore through interpolation and extrapolation of experimental data. Many correlating equations have been proposed by various authors for the additional frictional pressure-drop in a flowing suspension that can be attributed to the presence of dispersed solid particles. The most sensible approach would appear to be to express this additional pressure-drop in terms of the 'gas-only' pressure-drop 11pg, giving the total pressure-drop as (3.80) where IX is a 'pressure loss factor' that may be a function of a number of different variables. Whilst IX would normally be positive, some cases have been reported of the pressure-drop in a flowing gas/solids suspension falling below that for gas alone. These examples of 'drag reduction' apparently occur when the suspension consists of fine particles at low solids loading ratios [25]. The dependence ofthe pressure loss factor IX on the various system variables 130 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Gate valve, 1/4 open Diaphragm valve, 1/4 open Butterfly valve, 8=40° EQuivalent length of straight pipe (m) 1000 Gate valve, 1/2 open Diaphragm valve, 1/2 open 500 Diaphragm valve, 3/4 open 200 Diaphragm valve, open Check valve, swing type 100 800 Butterfly valve,8=20° Bend, 180° close return 50 600 300 Inside diameter of pipe (mm) 1000 30 Gate valve, 3/4 open 20 Bend, 90° standard 10 Enlargement, d/D=1/4 Butterfly valve, 8=1 oo Bend, 90° long radius 500 400 300 200 3 Bend, 45° standard(• Enlargement, d/D=1!21 100 Butterfly valve, 8=50 80 Bend, 45° long radius Gate valve, open 0.5 60 50 Enlargement, d/D=3/4 0.3 40 0.2 30 0.1 0.05 20 Figure 3.21 has been the subject of considerable research effort. Most authors seem to agree that rx will be directly proportional to the solids loading ratio c/J, but there is clearly some substantial inconsistency in the suggestions concerning the influence of particle characteristics such as size, shape and density. Clearly, any correlation involving the large number of relevant variables will be complex. However, test results reported for a large number of different products demonstrate the general trend illustrated in Figure 3.22; that is, the frictional pressure-drop attributable to the presence of solid particles in the gas stream increases as solids loading increases, and also as the conveying velocity is decreased. The very sharp rise in frictional pressure-drop that is seen in (]) c. "'"' 5 (]) "'"' .2 ~ C3 c5 ~ 2 5 10 20 50 100 ~ 2:::::::::: .......... ...... 30 conveying velocity (m/s) 20 ' - -------..._ r 40 I Figure 3.22 Approximate values of the solids pressure-loss factor in equation (3.80). .......... r-... 10 ~ _\ '\." ~"' ~ -...__::: ....... ~" ~ ........ '·"'"' ~~ ~ \\.'\.~ ~\. \\.~ .\. 50 I I 4 6 8 g ~ "' .2 "' s 12 ;;, 10 ,g w -- ~ ~ t) enc0Sl fl "l 0 ?A ~ ~ > 16 0 14 ~ 18 -e- 20 t) 132 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 3.22 occurs as the conveying velocity approaches the mm1mum transport velocity. Again it should be noted that as a gas/solids suspension flows along a pipe the velocity, and therefore the factor a, will be changing. For dilute-phase flow in a long pipe a first approximation to the pressure-drop can be obtained from equation (3.80) by simply setting a equal to the solids loading ratio 4J. Several authors have noted the influence of pipe diameter on the value of the factor a, and the approximate method outlined in this paragraph may give a somewhat high prediction of pressure-drop for gas/solids flow in smalldiameter pipes. A few examples of reported correlations for a will serve to illustrate the variety of approach, and from these the reader may work out a routine that will predict the pressure-drop reliably for his or her specific purpose. A useful comparison of published correlations for dilute-phase suspensions has been given by Arastoopour et al. [26]. These may be summarized as follows. Rose and Barnacle [27] suggest that a can be correlated by the expression a=r:_[_p_(pP) 112 ·4J 8Jg Pg (3.81) where Jg and JP are respectively pipe friction factors for the flow of gas alone and for the flow of solids, pg and pP are the densities of the gas and the solid particles and 4J is the solids loading ratio. Information given by Rose and Barnacle suggests that an acceptable value of JP would be given by for 1.104 <Re< 5.104 , where Re is the Reynolds number for the gas phase. If the friction factor for gas is now expressed in terms of Reynolds number by the Blasius formula Jg = 0.08 Re- 0 · 25 equation (3.81) can be simplified to a= K 1 (pp/pg)lf24J (3.82) where K 1 = (0.325 Re- 0 · 60 ) + (0.0425 Re- 0 · 35 ). A very similar correlation, having a a function of slip ratio instead of density ratio, has been proposed by Hinkle and referred to subsequently by several authors, for example, Leva [15] and Dixon [22]. This correlation can be expressed as ~ u a=...E._..P..4J Jg Ug (3.83) where uP is the solids velocity and u8 is the gas velocity. The use of an empirical 'solids friction factor' JP in this and the previous DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 133 correlations is interesting. That of Rose and Barnacle is said to be a function of the gas-phase Reynolds number, whereas Leva gives an expression for the solids friction factor as (3.84) in which C0 is the drag coefficient for a particle and is a function of the particle Reynolds number, ReP= dpgutlf-l, as shown in Figure 3.3. Another somewhat similar correlation is that ofRichardson and McLeman who suggested [28] (3.85) where ut is the terminal velocity of the solids particles (in free fall) and K 2 is a factor that depends on the diameter of the conveying pipe. Yet another correlation, quoted by Boothroyd [29], is that of Vogt and White who give rx = K 3 ~(!!_) 2 Pp Re d Pg (3.86) where d/ D is the ratio of particle size to pipe size, Re is the gas-phase Reynolds number and K 3 is a constant. There are many such correlations, often unfortunately showing significant lack of agreement. A useful summary of the influence of different variables, such as solids loading ratio, Reynolds number, particle and conveying-pipe size and particle/gas density ratio, has been given by Boothroyd [29]. He follows this with a theoretical discussion which leads to the result that (3.87) where K 4 is a constant, and this agrees quite closely with some of the empirical correlations, notably that of Richardson and McLeman, equation (3.85). There appears to be fairly general agreement that the pressure loss factor rx is likely to be proportional to the solids loading ratio </> and the conveying-pipe diameter D, and inversely proportional to the solids velocity uP. The particle size of the conveyed solids also has an influence on rx and this may be taken into account by including in the correlation the particle diameter d, the terminal velocity ut or the drag coefficient C 0 . For most of the above approaches it is necessary to know the actual conveying velocity of the solid particles and their terminal velocity in free fall. Again, various correlations have been proposed for these quantities. For example, Arastoopour et al. [26] give for the particle velocity uP= ug(l - 6.98 x 10- 4 d 0 · 3 p~· 5 ) (3.88) 134 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 1.0 r - - . - - - - - - - - - r - - - - - - - - r - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - , Cl :::l 0.9 c. :::l 'U) "' Cl 0 0.8 1?:' '(3 0 --g Qi > particle density Q) (kgfm3J ~ c. 0.7 0 1?:' '(3 0 Qi > J1 .Q 5000 0.6 '§ .Q. u; 0.5 20 50 100 200 500 particle diameter, d (I'm) Figure 3.23 Correlation of slip ratio (u 0 /u 0 ) with particle size and particle density. Based on equation (3.88) [26]. where d is the particle diameter in Jl.m and pP is its density in kg/m 3 . This correlation is shown plotted as Figure 3.23 and gives a convenient indication of the relationship between the velocities of the conveying gas stream and of the solid particles entrained in it. Many correlations are also available for the terminal velocity in free-fall of particles of specified size and density, and some methods of predicting the terminal velocity have been discussed in section 3.3. The majority of the previously mentioned correlations for pressure-drop in two-phase gas/solids flow relate to flow in horizontal pipes, and where vertical flow is involved it is necessary to incorporate an additional term to account for the solids head. DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 135 Thus, for example, we could write f..p, = f..pg(l +et)+ f..ph (3.89) where (3.90) This approach should give a reasonably reliable prediction of the pressuredrop in a system comprising a large proportion of vertical pipe runs, since the influence of the doubtful parameter et is less than for horizontal flow. Additional pressure-drop due to solids: bends andfittings. A useful discussion of the influence of pipe bends, divertcr valves and feeding devices is given by Scott [30]. He suggests that the simplest approach is to treat the whole length of the system as fully-accelerated flow and then to add on an appropriate extra pressure-drop for each obstruction. This extra pressure-drop arises essentially from the need to re-accelerate the solid particles after they have been slowed down by the obstruction. For the additional pressure-drop caused by the acceleration of the solid particles from the pick-up point Scott gives (3.91) for a horizontal line, where A is the pipe cross-sectional area. The prediction of additional pressure-drop resulting from a pick-up in a vertical riser would be somewhat more difficult due to the added effect of solids hold-up in the accelerating length. The flow of gas/solids suspensions around pipe bends has been discussed elsewhere (section 3.6.4) and from that discussion it was evident that the peculiar sliding/bouncing motion of the particles through the bend must render the reliable prediction of pressure-drop all but impossible. A reasonable approach to the estimation of the bend pressure-drops would be through the use of'equivalent lengths' of pipe, using factors derived from experimental work, or based on past experience. Thus, if the pressure-drop in a bend is expressed as 2 A - upb- k PsUg b 2 (3.92) where Ps is the density of the gas/solids suspension and kb is a coefficient, comparison with the Darcy formula equation (3. 71 ), shows that the equivalent length of straight pipe would be given by L b_- kb . f.!_. Ps 4 f Pg 136 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 3.1 Bend pressure-drop factors in equations (3.92), (3.93) Bend ratio ( = Bend pressure-drop factor kb 2 x radius of bend) diameter of pipe 4 8 12 1.50 0.75 0.50 or Lb = kb D 47(1 + c/>) (3.93) Values of kb in equations (3.92) and (3.93) [31] are given in Table 3.1. Additional pressure-drop due to solids: dense-phase flow. Because of the extreme complexity of non-suspension gas/solids flows, and indeed the wide variation in modes of such flows, it has proved virtually impossible to develop a reliable mathematical model that would allow the designer of a dense-phase pneumatic conveying system to predict the pressure-drop with confidence. Recourse must be made to empirical correlations which, inevitably, will be valid for a very restricted range of conveying conditions and usually for a specific bulk solid. Commonly such information will be in the form of test results obtained from conveying trials on the product concerned in a pilot plant, and frequently this approach of carrying out actual trials proves to be the only way of ensuring a reliable design of conveying system for a product for which the benefit of previous handling experience is unavailable. This design approach will be discussed in detail elsewhere in this book. One of the simpler published correlations for pressure-drop in dense-phase flow is that of Wen and Si mons [32]. Their correlation was developed from the results of tests on glass beads (70 ,urn to 280 ,urn particle diameter) and coal (110 ,urn to 750 ,urn) conveyed in pipes of up to one inch (25.4 mm) maximum diameter. In consistent SI units, the equation of Wen and Simons which gives the total pressure-drop along a pipeline of length L and diameter D can be written 11p, = 4.27 Lpd,u~· 45 ( d )0.25 D (3.94) where d is the average particle diameter, uP is the particle velocity and Pcts is the dispersed solids density (defined as the mass of solids trapped in a short length DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 137 of conveying line by the instantaneous closure of two valves, divided by the volume of the line between the two valves). The work of Muschelknautz and Krambrock [33] yielded different correlating expressions according to whether the mode of the dense-phase flow was 'stratified' or 'dune/slug'. The analysis leading to these expressions is interesting, but quite complex, and the reader is directed to [33] for full details. For stratified flow, the form of the expression for pressure-drop in a pipe of length Lis (3.95) where re is the steady-state cross-section ratio, p, is the bulk density of the stratified flow and fd is a frictional coefficient for the sliding and rolling product. In general, if stratified flow is to be maintained the ratio of the crosssectional area of the suspension flow should be at least 40 percent of the total flow cross-section, and this is likely to correspond to a solids loading ratio of 10-100 with gas-phase velocity of 6-20m/s and solids velocity of 0.1 to 0.3 times the gas velocity. The frictional coefficient fd would be typically around 0.6 to 0.8. Dune and plug conveyance can occur over much the same range of solids loading ratios as stratified flow but the gas velocity is likely to be slightly lower and the solids velocity slightly higher. The form of the Muschelknautz and Krambrock equation for this mode of dense-phase flow, which is also discussed by Dixon [22], is Ap = p 0 (e'- 1) (3.96) for horizontal pipes, where ug RT uP j~cjJL z=~-·~ (3.97) The probable value of the friction coefficient fd is in this case 0.4 to 0.8. The velocity ratio, up/ug, would normally be in the range 0.3 to 1.0, with high loadings of fine products giving the higher values of velocity ratio. It is clear that, especially for dense-phase flow, the techniques available for the prediction of pressure-drops in two-phase gas/solids flows is not sufficiently reliable for the engineer to design, with confidence, systems for the pneumatic transport of bulk solids. The use of test results from suitable pilot plant is essential, but the models and correlations discussed in this chapter can be invaluable in scaling and otherwise manipulating such results in order to understand fully the behaviour of the bulk solid concerned, when it is pneumatically conveyed. Detailed descriptions of pneumatic conveying systems and full recommended design methods are given in Chapters 12-14. 138 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 3.7 Liquid/solids flow in pipes 3.7.1 Flow characteristics of liquid/solids mixtures ( slurries) Hydraulic conveying is now a well-established mode of transportation of bulk solids, especially where the requirement is for high tonnages to be conveyed over long distances. Coal, phosphates and mineral ores represent just a few of the materials that are carried hydraulically in 'slurry pipelines' at many different locations around the world. An elementary study of hydraulic conveying technology, beginning with a description of a number of actual working installations and going on to describe features and components of typical systems, will be undertaken in Chapter 16. However, in order that the reader should be able to make informed decisions on the practical and economic feasibility of potential systems it is essential to have a general understanding of the flow characteristics of two-phase liquid/solids mixtures. For this reason the possible modes of flow are discussed here in some detail and then mathematical modelling techniques will be introduced. It is convenient to make a broad distinction between two types of flow. (i) Homogeneous flow (non-settling suspensions). Very fine particles at high concentration tending to remain in suspension irrespective of the conditions under which flow is taking place. (ii) Heterogeneous flow (settling slurries). This classification of flow behaviour can range from fully suspended fine particles exhibiting a significant concentration gradient, to relatively large particles transported by a combination of carrying and rolling at the bottom of the pipe or channel. The distinguishing feature of heterogeneous flow is that the liquid phase remains separate from the solid particles, with its character (and its flow properties) essentially unchanged. The so-called 'homogeneous slurry' is usually the result of high concentrations (generally greater than 80% by volume) of very fine particles which tend to have such low rates of sedimentation that the mixture becomes effectively a single-phase one, but having flow characteristics that may be markedly different from those of the original uncontaminated liquid. In fact, the flow behaviour of homogeneous slurries may exhibit distinctly nonNewtonian features, the extent of the deviation from Newtonian flow depending principally on the tendency of the suspended particles to flocculate. Where significant flocculation occurs the suspension is likely to display shearthinning (pseudoplastic) properties, but there are many other factors, such as solids concentration, particle size distribution, temperature, additives/ contaminants, pH levels and so on, which can affect the flow behaviour of a slurry. Various non-Newtonian models may be considered to represent the flow of homogeneous slurries, in order to predict pressure-drops, for example, and selection of these models will be discussed in section 3. 7.2. DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 139 Where the concentration is less than about 40 per cent (the actual figure being much influenced by the size and density of the particles, and the density, viscosity and turbulence of the carrying liquid) the particles will tend to settle so that there is a distinct concentration gradient over a cross-section of the flow channel. If the flow velocity is relatively high it is still possible for the particles to be fully suspended, but at lower velocities a situation is likely to exist in which suspended flow occurs over a sediment of particles moving more or less steadily along the bottom of the pipe or channel. This describes the typical behaviour of a heterogeneous or settling slurry flowing horizontally. Vertical flow of heterogeneous slurries is less well documented, although it is clear that the effects of hindered settling, varying terminal velocities according to the particle size distribution, and the radial variation of flow velocity, will cause the flow behaviour to be quite complex. The prediction of pressure-drops and deposition velocities in flows of heterogeneous slurries in both horizontal and vertical pipes is discussed in section 3.7.3. 3.7.2 Non-Newtonianflow models for homogeneous suspension A fluid flowing in a pipe loses energy as a result of friction at the pipe wall. This friction loss can be expressed in general terms as a pressure-drop: (3.98) where r 0 is the shear stress existing at the pipe wall, Lis the pipe length over which !lp occurs and D is the diameter of the pipe. Naturally, if there is a change of elevation this will also have to be taken into account in order to determine pumping requirements. In the familiar case of Newtonian fluid behaviour the local shear stress is given by du dr !=Jl- (3.99) where 11 is the coefficient of (dynamic) viscosity and du/dr is the velocity gradient. More generally, however, the local shear stress r could be regarded as a function of the rate of shear y and the time t, and a considerable number of non-Newtonian fluid models have been proposed, described variously as 'time-independent', 'time-dependent' and 'visco-elastic'. Although some slurries may exhibit time-dependent behaviour, this is relatively uncommon, and in this book only the first group of models-those in which the shear stress is a function only of the shear rate-will be considered. The time-independent fluid models are defined by the relationship r =function (Y] 140 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING - - Herschei-Bulkley - Bingham plastic - Newtonian -dilatant "' (]) .<: Vl shear rate, Figure 3.24 'Y Models of time-independent non-Newtonian fluids. and it may be noted that the Newtonian fluid is merely a special case of this general model in which the function is a linear one. Since for this model of time-independent fluid there is a unique relationship between rand y, the function may be plotted as a single line on a graph of shear stress against shear rate. Various types of behaviour have been observed and the most important of these are represented in Figure 3.24. Pseudo plastic and dilatant fluids. These types of behaviour are characterized by curved lines on the plot of r against y, showing that as the shear rate is increased the liquid is tending either to become 'thinner' (pseudoplastic fluids) or to become 'thicker' (dilatant fluids). It is convenient to define an 'apparent viscosity' Jlavv in the same way as dynamic viscosity is defined for a Newtonian fluid; i.e. r Jlapp = ~ r However, it must be noted that Jlavv• which is represented by the slope of a line from the origin to a point on the curve of r v.y, is not constant, but is a function of y. Thus the term 'viscosity' has no meaning for a non-Newtonian fluid unless it is related to a particular shear rate. The simplest mathematical model of the behaviour of pseudoplastic and dilatant fluids (due to Ostwald) is the power law r = k)" (3. I 00) DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 141 loge Y Figure 3.25 Power law models of non-Newtonian fluids. where k and n are constants. The value of k gives an indication of the consistency ofthe fluid and the index n indicates the amount of deviation from Newtonian behaviour. Thus, for Newtonian fluids, n = 1, for pseudoplastics n < 1 and for dilatant fluids n > 1. This can usefully be illustrated on a logarithmic plot as loge T = logek + nlogey (3.101) since the slope of the log plot is n and from the intercept the value of the 'consistency constant' k can be determined (Figure 3.25). For the power law model the apparent viscosity is given by T J.lapp =-;- = y • n- I ky (3.102) The power law model has a number of inherent limitations: (i) equation (3.1 02) suggests that at zero rate of shear the apparent viscosity is infinite; (ii) for most slurries n is not likely to be constant over the entire range of practical flow conditions; and (iii) the consistency constant k has dimensions which depend upon the value of the index n. Various alternative mathematical models have been proposed in efforts to overcome these limitations. Nevertheless, the simple power-law model is adequate for the prediction of the behaviour of many real slurries and colloidal suspensions, such as detergent slurries, mayonnaise, some paints and lacquers, some mineral slurries and paper pulp suspensions, in a wide variety of flow situations. It is well known that Newtonian fluids exhibit a transition from laminar to turbulent flow behaviour when the flow condition is such that the Reynolds 142 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING number has a certain characteristic (or 'critical') value. Thus, for a Newtonian fluid flowing in a pipe of circular cross-section, the mode of flow is likely to be laminar if PrDUav < 2000 J1. (3.103) where Pr and J1. are the density and viscosity of the fluid, uav is its mean velocity and D is the diameter of the pipe. Non-Newtonian fluids also exhibit this transition from laminar to turbulent flow, but a problem arises over the definition of 'viscosity' as it appears in the Reynolds number used to characterize the flow. Now an analysis of the laminar flow of a power law fluid in a pipe of diameter D leads to the following expression for the average velocity: u = _n_.!!_(!. DAp )1/n av 3n + 1 2 k 4L (3.1 04) from which the pressure-drop Ap in length L can be written Ap L = 4k(3n + 1. 2uav )" D n- D (3.105) Noting that the shear stress at the pipe wall is given by DAp ro= 4L (3.106) equation (3.105) gives the expression (3.107) in which the term 8uav/D can be identified as a flow characteristic that is proportional to the shear rate y. For a Newtonian fluid k = J1. and n = 1, so that equation (3.105) reduces to Ap I: 32Jl.Uav ---vz- (3.108) which is the familiar Poiseuille equation. Now by rearranging equation (3.108) it can be seen that an expression for the viscosity is _ DAp /8uav D Jl.- 4L (3.109) and it is convenient to extend this expression to apply to non-Newtonian fluids by defining an 'effective viscosity' Jl.e as the wall shear stress divided by the 143 DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 2600 (;; _o E :l ~ 2400 /V 1:l 0 ............ V c >()) ~ 2200 et! -_;::; () ~ 1'--- .......... J •t 2000 0 Figure 3.26 fluids [34]. I I i'.... ............ ---- ------- f--f-- 0.2 OA 0.6 0.8 flow index, n 1.0 r--.... """' 1.2 -- f--- ~"-...... 1.4 Relationship between critical Reynolds number and flow index (n) for power law average shear rate at the boundary, i.e. _ ;su.v D J.l.e- To (3.110) Combining equations (3.1 07) and (3.11 0) it is seen that for a power-law fluid the effective viscosity is given by J.l.e = k (~)"(8Uav)n-l 4n D (3.111) Extensive experimental work on a wide variety ofnon-Newtonian fluids has shown that the value of the Reynolds number (defined in terms of the effective viscosity J.l.e) at which transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs is a function of the flow index n. Figure 3.26 [34] gives an approximate relationship between Re and n so that, provided the non-Newtonian characteristics k and n are known, it is possible to estimate the velocity at which the transition from laminar to turbulent flow would occur for a slurry flowing in a pipe of specified diameter. If the flow is in the laminar region, the pressure-drop can then be estimated using equation (3.1 05). The prediction of pressure-drop for power law fluids in the turbulent region is neither straightforward nor reliable. Perhaps the simplest approach is the one originally proposed by Dodge and Metzner [35] based on the use of a generalized Reynolds number defined by av {J D"u2 -n Re*= r (3.112) J.1. Using this Reynolds number and the design chart of Figure 3.27 [35] a 144 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 1'\ 0.02 c5 u t\ 1=16/Re - )'\~'-/ '( 0.01 -- - r-1-1 .. ...... ~--~--- "' / / "V 2 c g 0.005 ..... ~ ~ f.;; !"""~ -r-r-- .... ...., f'..... ·, ----- experimental regions 0.001 10 3 Figure 3.27 ' f\.r-. extrapolated regions I Ill I ... r--~' 1... ·a. 0.002 -- - ---.. .. .. t--- ........ ' Q) Q. .. ..- ... 1- ... I I III r-- ... r... ...-~-.........._ .... ...... '' ... ... ......... ... ... 2.0 r- 1--. ... 1.4 1.0 0.8 c ...... r- -.. - ,;. 0.6 ·--~-- '' r- -~ 0.4 3: 0.3 .... r- 10 4 generalized Reynolds number, Re* 0.2 10 5 Friction factor design chart (power law fluids) from [35]. r= "y + l'pi' (Bingham plastic) slope= l'p (coefficient of rigidity or plastic viscosity) t yield stress, T y I shear rate, i' Figure 3.28 Q) "0 Bingham plastic and Herschel-Bulkley models of non-Newtonian fluid flow. 0 ;;::: DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 145 value of the pipe friction factor can be estimated which allows the pressuredrop to be calculated in the usual way. Bingham plastics and Herschel-Bulkley fluids. Some types of slurry at rest exhibit a three-dimensional structure of sufficient rigidity to resist any stress less than a certain 'yield' value. When this yield stress is exceeded the material flows as a conventional liquid. This behaviour can be represented by a model in which the slurry flows under an effective shear stress r- ry either as a Newtonian fluid (the Bingham plastic model) or as a pseudoplastic having power-law characteristics (the Herschel-Bulkley model). The features of these models are illustrated in Figure 3.28 on a plot of r against y. The Herschel-Bulkley model is very convenient, as it can be used to describe all the types of fluid-flow behaviour illustrated in Figure 3.24. The Bingham plastic, which can be regarded as a special case of the HerschelBulkley model, will be considered now in more detail. Two parameters are required to characterize the Bingham plastic modelthe yield stress ry and the slope of the straight line Jlp, known as the 'plastic viscosity' or 'coefficient of rigidity' (Figure 3.28). The plastic viscosity can thus be defined as r- ry y (3.113) Jlp=--.- and it is also possible to define an 'apparent viscosity' in the same way as for the power law models, i.e. r Jlapp = -;- = Jlp Y ry + ---;y (3.114) The Bingham plastic model is found to be quite reliable for the prediction of flow behaviour of a wide range of liquid/solid suspensions such as drilling muds, thick mineral slurries, sewage sludge, and polymer solutions. As with other models of fluid flow, it is necessary to be able to predict the transition from laminar to turbulent behaviour. For Bingham plastics a useful dimensionless parameter, from which the transition can be predicted with reasonable confidence, is the Hedstrom number, defined as He= PsryD2 Jl~ (3.115) An empirical relationship between the critical Reynolds number (defined now in terms of the plastic viscosity Jlp) and the Hedstrom number is given in Figure 3.29 [34] allowing the average velocity of the slurry at transition to be estimated. In contrast to the velocity profiles associated with most models of fluid flow in pipes, the velocity profile for a Bingham plastic is not a smooth curve. Since 146 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 105 ~ loo 1--l-- -- !""' :;::;;- .... ...... ~~-"" -+"" 105 Hedstrom number, He Figure 3.29 Relationship between critical Reynolds number and Hedstrom number for Bingham plastics [34]. ... flow --- ---- ! ~flowz one f (T>Ty ) plug zone (T< Ty) __....., ___l Figure 3.30 Velocity distribution in a flowing Bingham plastic. the shear stress in the flowing fluid decreases from a maximum at the pipe wall towards the centre, there will be a point at which it becomes equal to the yield stress Between this radial position and the pipe centre-line the fluid shear stress does not exceed the yield value and therefore there is a central core of fluid which moves at a uniform velocity, effectively as a solid cylindrical 'plug' (Figure 3.30). Analysis of this model yields the following expression for the mean velocity of the flow of a Bingham plastic in terms of the plastic viscosity Jl.p, the yield stress and the shear stress at the pipe wall 0 : ty. ty t Uav=Dto[l-~·ty +~(ty)4] 8J1.p 3 t0 3 t 0 (3.116) DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 147 1.0 0 0. 1 0 ~ c .g ~ CD ·~ 0.01 Aeynolds number, Re Figure 3.31 Friction factor design chart (Bingham plastics) from [36]. It can be shown that relatively little error is introduced by neglecting the final term in the square bracket, if rJ r: 0 is small, and therefore an approximate expression for the mean velocity is D Uav= -8 /).p 4 (ro-J!y) (3.117) Writing r 0 in terms of Ap and rearranging then gives an expression from which the pressure-drop occurring in the laminar flow of a Bingham plastic can be estimated: Ap L (3.118) The similarity to the Poiseuille equation (3.108) will be noted. An alternative and perhaps more reliable approach, based on the method developed by Hedstrom, involves the use of a chart relating the pipe friction factor f to the Reynolds number (p.Duav!Jl.p) for various values of Hedstrom number (Figure 3.31 ). As with the power law model of non-Newtonian flow, the accurate prediction of pressure-drops occurring in the turbulent regime is much more difficult. However, a very convenient approximation that has been proposed by a number of research workers is simply to use the conventional Moody 148 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING saltation regime heterogeneous regime pseudo-heterogeneous regime ::; '0. <l Q) Ol .Q "0 Q) Ol Ol :J 0. Q) 0. ·a. "0 Q) .0 "0 >- .0 Ol ~ c .9 Ei <JJ Q) -~ > 0 E c 0 c 0 I I I I I I ·u; I I I I ·;:: ·;:: E E E E <JJ <JJ c Q) 0. <JJ :J <JJ () a; >- "' :/udc ·u; c Q) 0. <JJ :J <JJ () a; >- loge Uav Figure 3.32 Modes of flow occurring in heterogeneous slurries. diagram (Figure 3.20) for the determination of the pipe friction factor f, but with the Reynolds number defined in terms of the plastic viscosity /lp· For a discussion of the error incurred in this approach the reader is referred to [34]. 3.7.3 The modelling of heterogeneous suspensions Whereas in homogeneous flows only laminar and turbulent regimes exist, in the case of heterogeneous flows there are a number of possible flow patterns that can occur, depending principally upon the velocity and concentration, as described in section 3. 7.1. It is convenient to illustrate these modes of flow on a log-log plot of pressure-drop against mean velocity (Figure 3.32), somewhat similar to the Zenz diagrams used previously to illustrate the flow behaviour of gas/solids mixtures (Figures 3.17, 3.19). It can be seen that at relatively high velocities the 149 DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS particles are carried in suspension and the flow pattern tends towards the symmetrical, homogeneous mode. As the velocity is reduced, the conveyed particles will show a greater tendency to settle, and the flow pattern becomes asymmetrical. The minimum point on the pressure curve corresponds to the so-called 'deposition critical velocity' udc· At lower velocities a sliding or moving bed of deposited particles will exist and this can gradually build up causing a steady increase in the pressure-drop. Because of the need to avoid this unstable flow situation, in slurry transport systems for example, the prediction of the critical deposition velocity is important. The usual method is due to Durand and involves the definition of a modified Froude number or 'deposition velocity parameter' F L as F L - udc ( fiii5 Pc )1/2 Pp -Pc (3.119) where pP, Pc are the densities of the solid particles and the liquid respectively. It is found that F L is a function of the particle size and of the concentration of solids in the suspension. Wasp [34] has extended the correlation to include the influence of particle size, suggesting the expression F~=~(-Pc )1/2(12)1/6 flii5 An approximate empirical correlation for concentration is F~ = 3.13 c~· 186 (3.120) d Pp - Pc in terms of the solids F~ and combining this with equation (3.120) and rearranging leads to udc = 1.323 C?· 186 [ 2gD(Pp ~Pc) J (~ y 12 16 (3.121) where Cv is the volume concentration of solids. The point has been made previously that the distinctive feature of heterogeneous flow is the minimal effect that the presence of solid particles has on the flow properties of the carrying liquid. In practical slurry transport systems the flow condition will inevitably be such that the liquid is in the turbulent regime so that, for heterogeneous suspensions, the prediction of pressure-drop is only concerned with turbulent flow. Once again, an analysis of the turbulent flow condition is very difficult and much reliance is placed on empirical correlations. The best known approach is that of Durand [37] who proposed the following expression for the effective pipe friction factor f, (for the slurry) in terms of the friction factor fc for the liquid and the drag coefficient C0 for the particles: _[ f, - fc 1 + K Cv F {gD.pp-Pc(_1 ) 2 u.v Pc C 1 2 o 1 } 3 12 ] (3.122) 150 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING where K is a constant having a value in the range 80-150. A detailed discussion and examples of the use of this correlation may be found in [34]. 3.8 Notation A A. AP Ar Co CV D d da dv dvsm dwm e Fo Fa Fv f fd fc /g JP f. H Hmc Kt K2 K3 K, k k', k" kb kc L 1. mP mg mp n Cross-sectional area of a bed of particles Average effective cross-sectional flow area of voids Projected area of particle Archimedes number Drag coefficient Volumetric concentration of solids in a suspension Diameter of pipe Diameter of a spherical particle Sieve aperture size Volume diameter of a particle Volume-surface mean diameter of a particle Median size of particles in a bulk solid Pipe roughness Drag force on particle Gravitational force on particle Buoyancy force on particle Pipe friction factor (Darcy) Friction factor for dense-phase flow Pipe friction factor for a liquid Pipe friction factor (gas phase) Pipe friction factor (solids phase) Pipe friction factor for a suspension of particles in a liquid Depth of bed Depth of bed at condition of incipient fluidization Constant in equation (3.82) Constant in equation (3.85) Constant in equation (3.86) Multiplying factor in equation (3.38) Constant in equation (3.3); consistency constant for power-law fluid Coefficients in Carman-Kozeny/Ergun equations Bend pressure loss factor Friction coefficient for particulate bed Length of pipe Effective length of fluid path through bed Mass of particle Gas mass flow rate Solids mass flow rate Index in equation (3.43); index in equation (3.69); flow index for power-law fluid DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS Pg R Rb Reb Re* r re Sb Sp T u u.v uch udc ue u~ Urs ug umb umr urns uP us u1 Vb V Wb x ~ y l'ip l'ip.c l'ipb l'ipg emr ~: 0 es A. J1 Jlapp Jle 151 Pressure of gas Characteristic gas constant Flow resistance of particulate bed per unit area of free surface Reynolds number for flow in a particulate bed Generalized Reynolds number, equation (3.112) Radial position For stratified dense-phase gas/solids flow, the ratio of the effective cross-section of the gas phase to that of the empty pipe Specific surface of a particulate bed Specific surface of particles within a bed Absolute temperature Time Mean approach velocity of fluid (superficial velocity) Mean velocity (over cross-section of flow) Choking velocity Deposition critical velocity for heterogeneous slurry Effective mean axial component of velocity in voids (interstitial velocity) Corrected interstitial velocity Minimum velocity at which fluidized bed is 'fully supported' Velocity of gas Minimum bubbling velocity of fluidized bed Minimum fluidizing velocity Minimum spouting velocity of granular bed Velocity of solid particles Saltation velocity Terminal velocity of a particle Volume of particulate bed Volume flow rate Total gravity force on bed of particles Mass fraction 'Pressure loss factor,' equation (3.80) Shear rate Pressure drop Acceleration pressure-drop Pressure-drop across bed of particles; pressure-drop across pipe bend Pressure-drop for gas Voidage of bed at condition of incipient fluidization Voidage of a particulate bed Voidage of a suspension of particles in a fluid Hydraulic radius Dynamic viscosity Apparent viscosity Effective viscosity of non-Newtonian fluid 152 J.lp V BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Plastic viscosity of coefficient of rigidity (for Bingham plastic) Kinematic viscosity Effective kinematic viscosity of a suspension of particles in fluid Density Dispersed solids density, equation (3.94) Density of fluid Density of gas Density of a particle Density of a suspension of particles in fluid Local shear stress Shear stress at pipe wall Yield shear stress (for Bingham plastic) Solids loading ratio ( = rhp/rhg) Sphericity References and bibliography References 1. Carman, P.C. (1937) Fluid flow through granular beds. Trans. Instn. Chem. Engrs. (London) 51 (1) 150-166. 2. Ergun, S. (1952) Fluid flow through packed columns. Chem. Engg. Progr. 48, 89-94. 3. Pettyjohn, E.S. and Christiansen, E. B. (1948) Effect of particle shape on free-settling rates of isometric particles. Chem. Engg. Progr. 44 (2) 157-172. 4. Hawksley, P.G.W. (1951) The physics of particle size measurement. BCURA Bull. 15(4) 105-146. 5. Alien, T. (1981) Particle Size Measurement. 3rd edn., Chapman and Hall, London. 6. Richardson, J.F. and Zaki, W.N. (1954) Sedimentation and fluidisation: Part I. Trans. /nstn. Chem. Engrs. 32, 35-53. 7. Kunii, D. and Levenspiel, 0. (1969) Fluidization Engineering. John Wiley, New York. 8. Wen, C.- Y. and Yu, Y.H. (1966) Mechanics of fluidization. Chem. Engg. Progr. Symp. Ser. 62 (62) 100-111. 9. Richardson, J.F. (1971) Incipient fluidization and particulate systems, in Fluidization, eds. J.F. Davidson and D. Harrison, Academic Press, New York, 25-64. 10 Baeyens, J. and Geldart, D. Predictive calculations of flow parameters in gas fluidized beds and fluidization behaviour of various powders, in Proc. Conf, La Fluidization et ses Applications, Toulouse, October 1973, 263-273. 11. Siege!, R. (1976) Effect of distributor plate-to-bed resistance ratio on onset of fluidized bed channelling. A/ChE J. 22 (3) 590-592. 12. Geldart, D. (1973) Types of gas fluidization. Powder Technol. 7, 285-292. 13. Mathur, K.B. and Epstein, N. (1974) Spouted Beds. Academic Press, New York. 14. Epstein, N., Lim. C.J. and Mathur, K.B. (1978) Data and models for flow distribution and pressure drop in spouted beds. Can. J. Chem. Engg. 56, 436-447. 15. Leva, M. (1959) Fluidization. McGraw-Hill, New York. 16. Wen, C.-Y. (1971) Dilute and dense-phase pneumatic transport, in Bulk Materials Handling, ed. M.C. Hawk, Vol. I, Univ. Pittsburg School of Mech. Engg., 258-287. 17. Zenz, F.A. and Othmer, D. F. (1960) Fluidization and Fluid Particle Systems. Reinhold, New York. 18. Hitt, R.J., Reed, A.R. and Mason, J.S. An investigation into modes of slugging in horizontal dense-phase pneumatic conveying, in Proc. Pneumatech I Conf., May 1982, Stratford-uponAvon, UK. 19. Hitt, R.J. (1984) An investigation into the low velocity pneumatic conveying of bulk solids. PhD Thesis, Thames Polytechnic, London. DYNAMICS OF FLUID/SOLIDS SYSTEMS 153 20. Mainwaring, N.J. and Reed, A.R. Mechanisms of gas-solids flows at low velocity in pneumatic conveying pipelines, in Proc. 11th Powder and Bulk Solids Conf, Chicago, May 1986. 21. Dixon, G. The impact of powder properties on dense-phase flow, in Proc. Int. Conf on Pneumatic Conveying, Cafe Royal, London, January 1979. 22. Dixon, G. (1981) Pneumatic conveying. In Plastics Pneumatic Conveying and Bulk Storage, ed. G. Butters, Applied Science Publishers, Barking. 23. Mason, J.S. ( 1972) Pressure drop and flow characteristics for the pneumatic transport of fine particles through curved and straight circular pipes. PhD Thesis, Liverpool Polytechnic. 24. Churchill, S.W. (1977) Friction factor equation spans all fluid-flow regimes. Chem. Engg., 7th November, 91-92. 25. Marcus, R.D. A review of drag reduction and reduction in power consumption in pneumatic conveying systems with special reference to actual experimental observations, in Proc. Int. Powder and Bulk Solids Handling and Processing Conf, Philadelphia, May 1979, 315-326. 26. Arastoopour, H., Modi, M. V., Punwani, D. V. and Talwalkar, 'l'\.T. A review of design equations for dilute-phase gas-solids horizontal conveying systems for coal and related materials, in Proc. Int. Powder and Bulk Solids Handling and Processing Conf, Philadelphia, May 1979, 339-355. 27. Rose, H.E. and Barnacle, H. E. (1957) Flow of suspensions of non-cohesive spherical part:cles in pipes. The Engineer 203 (5290) 898-901, 939-941. 28. Richardson, J.F. and McLeman, M. (1960) Pneumatic Conveying: Part II. Solids velocities and pressure gradients in a one-inch horizontal pipe. Trans. Instn. Chem. Engrs. 38, 257-266. 29. Boothroyd, R.G. (1971) Flowing Gas-Solids Suspensions. Chapman and Hall, London. 30. Scott, A.W. Pneumatic conveyor design-art or science, in Proc. 4th Int. Powder Tech. and Bulk Solids Conf, Harrogate, February 1977, Heyden, Philadelphia, 10-17. 31. EEUA Handbook No. 15, Pneumatic Handling of Powdered Materials. Constable, London (1963). 32. Wen, C.-Y. and Simons, H.P. (1959) Flow characteristics in horizontal fluidised solids transport. A/ChE J. 5 (2), 263-267. 33. Muschelknautz, E. and Krambrock, W. (1969) Vereinfachte Berechnung horizontaler pneumatischer Fiirderleitungen bei hoher Gutbeladung mit feinkiirnigen Produkten (Simplified calculations for horizontal pneumatic systems conveying fine products at high loadings) Chemie Ing. Tech. 41 (21), 1164-1172. [In German.] 34. Wasp, E.J., Kenny, J.P. and Gandhi, R.L. (1979) Solid-Liquid Flow Slurry Pipeline Transportation. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston. 35. Dodge, D.W. and Metzner, A. B. (1959) Turbulent flow ofnon-Newtonian systems. A/ChE J. 5 (2), 189-204. 36. Baker, P.J. and Jacobs, B.E.A. (1979) A Guide to Slurry Pipeline Systems, BHRA Fluid Engineering. 37. Durand, R. (1952) The hydraulic transportation of coal and other material in pipes, Colloq. National Coal Board, London. Recommended further reading Alien, T. (1981) Particle Size Measurement. 3rd edn., Chapman and Hall, London. Massey, B. (1983) Mechanics of Fluids. 5th edn., Van Nostrand Reinhold. Coulsen, J.M. and Richardson, J.F. (1980) Chemical Engineering. Vol. 2, Unit Operations. 3rd Edn., revised, Pergamon, Oxford. Kunii, D. and Levenspiel, 0. (1969) Fluidization Engineering. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Leva, M. (1959) Fluidization. McGraw-Hill, New York. Zenz, F.A. and Othmer, D.F. (1960) Fluidization and Fluid Particle Systems. Reinhold, New York. Mathur, K.B. and Epstein, N. (1974) Spouted Beds. Academic Press, New York. Butters, G. (ed.) (1981) Plastics Pneumatic Conveying and Bulk Storage. Applied Science Publishers, Barking. Holland, F.A. (1973) Fluid Flow for Chemical Engineers. Edward Arnold, London. Boothroyd, R.G. (1971) Flowing Gas-Solids Suspensions. Chapman and Hall, New York. 4 The design of storage bins and hoppers 4.1 Introduction The storage bin, silo or hopper is one of the most important items of equipment in any bulk solids handling installation, since a poorly flowing hopper can have repercussions extending throughout the plant. All too often hoppers are 'squeezed in' after the remainder of the system has been designed, and this can result in various flow problems, such as those described generally as 'arching' or 'rat-holing' (section 2.3.4). Obviously, if this occurs, even the most sophisticated and expensive equipment downstream of the hopper will be unlikely to perform effectively because of the erratic supply of material. Part of the problem is often a lack of appreciation by designers and operators that, for a system to operate satisfactorily, bulk solid must flow from the hopper when required and in a predictable manner. Thus, as with any other part of the handling system, gravity-flow storage hoppers should be designed or selected to handle the actual product under consideration. With many free-flowing materials, lack of detailed attention to the design of the storage facility is oflittle consequence, since the free-flow characteristics of such materials enable discharge to be effected as and when required. For some materials the flow/discharge pattern within the hopper is important. For example, it is evident that for perishable foodstuffs a mass-flow pattern is more desirable than core-flow, since the 'first-in first-out' discharge sequence minimizes the residence time of the material in store. As indicated in Chapter 2, for a given product it is the angle of the converging section of the hopper that largely dictates the discharge pattern. With materials that have a tendency to be cohesive (such as those having fine particle size or high moisture content), the consolidating forces exerted during storage in a hopper may result in the bulk acquiring sufficient strength to obstruct the flow. This can happen either by the material arching (bridging) across the opening, or by a stable 'rat-hole' developing from the opening up to the free-surface of the bulk material. It is the size of this opening that determines whether or not an obstruction will occur; above a critical size the product will flow unobstructed, whereas below this size some kind of obstruction to flow may be anticipated. If such obstructions are to be avoided it is therefore necessary to be able to predict the critical dimensions of hopper outlet for the product under consideration. In this chapter is presented a simplified form of the procedure evolved by Jenike [1] for determining (i) the outlet dimension(s) of the hopper to give THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 155 unimpeded gravity flow, and (ii) the cone angle to give the required flow pattern. It is important to realize that the analytical work leading to Jenike's design procedure is very complex. However, it has yet to be superseded by anything of lesser complexity. A simplified form of the Jenike method will be presented in this chapter after a discussion of the various factors which influence the overall hopper geometry. For a much more rigorous treatment the reader is directed to [2] or [3]. A detailed consideration of the structural design of storage vessels is beyond the scope of this introductory textbook and therefore only a brief mention of the topic will be made in this chapter. References are given, however, to enable the interested reader to undertake further study on, for example, the application of finite-element methods and computer-aided design techniques to the design and construction of storage vessels. The final sections of this chapter deal with the selection and use of feeders and discharge aids. There are many occasions in industrial practice when it is necessary to control the rate at which a bulk solid is fed from a storage bin or hopper; for example, when filling bags or supplying product to a processing plant. Two aspects of hopper discharge then become important: (i) The flow of material from the hopper cannot usually be allowed to take place freely but must be 'throttled' to the required rate by some type of 'feeder'. (ii) Once an appropriate feeder has been selected, it must be ensured that product flows from the hopper to the feeder continuously at an adequate rate. The design of the hopper system must be undertaken with care if problems of flow obstruction through arching or rat-holing are to be avoided. (Although these aspects of hopper discharge have been listed separately, it cannot be over-emphasized that the hopper and the feeder must be designed to work together as an integrated system.) Attention has previously been given briefly to the matter of estimating the discharge rate from a storage hopper. Although the method of designing hoppers for unobstructed flow is now well-established and reliable, the accurate prediction of the actual rate at which a bulk solid discharges still represents a formidable challenge. A number of technical papers have been published on this problem, and some simplified methods of estimating the flow have been outlined in Chapter 2, but there is as yet no useful general approach that could be considered within the scope of this book. Attention is therefore focused upon the measurement and control of solids flow from storage hoppers, and in section 4.9 descriptions will be given of a number of different types of feeding device. Whilst with many bulk solids the avoidance of flow problems is simply a matter of ensuring that the angle of the sloping walls is sufficient and the size of the outlet is large enough, other cases are frequently encountered where the use 156 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING of some form of discharge aid is necessary. Examples of such discharge aids for 'awkward' products range from simple impact devices that are little better than continuously beating the hopper wall with a hammer, to quite sophisticated vibrating mechanisms that fit inside the hopper, and in the final part of this chapter a selection of these will be described. 4.2 Hopper geometry 4.2.1 Shape It is convenient to make a general classification of storage hoppers or bins as 'mass-flow', 'core-flow' or 'composite', although the actual pattern of flow within the container may depend upon the nature of the bulk solid concerned as well as on the shape of the hopper. Typical mass-flow bins are shown in Figure 4.1. The two basic shapes are conical and plane-flow, as illustrated in Figures 4.1a and 4.1b respectively. As explained in Chapter 2, mass-flow hoppers are characterized by a shallow angle of the converging section. For a given product, the hopper half-angle f3c (a) Conical hopper (d) Chisel, plane-flow hopper (b) Wedge, plane-flow hopper (c) Transition (f) Square opening (e) Pyramid hopper Figure 4.1 Mass-flow hoppers. 157 THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS (a) Pyramid, square opening (b) Cylindrical, flat-bottomed, slot opening De (c) Conical (d) Cylindrical, flat-bottomed, circular opening Figure 4.2 Core flow hoppers. will normally be smaller for a conical hopper than the half-angle {3P for a corresponding wedge, plane-flow hopper. In addition the opening size or diameter Dc for a conical hopper is typically twice as large as the minimum slot width DP for a wedge hopper. Thus it is clear that a plane-flow hopper is more efficient in terms of headroom required when a given quantity of material is to be stored. The disadvantage of the plane-flow hopper is the need for the slot length to be equal to the hopper width L; this makes for a long narrow opening. The limiting (minimum) length of slot for plane-flow is L = 3DP. There are several alternative shapes for mass-flow hoppers, as illustrated in Figures 4.lc-f. The transition hopper has plane-flow sides and conical ends. The chisel shape is simple and effective but has the disadvantage of in-flowing valleys. The same is true of the pyramidal shape with a square opening. Typical core-flow hoppers are shown in Figure 4.2. Such hoppers may have flat or tapered bottoms, but in the case of the latter the inclusive angles are larger than for mass-flow hoppers. Core-flow hoppers therefore tend to be of more squat proportions than the mass-flow type, and may be used to good effect in situations where headroom is limited. The outlet dimension of a core- ............--live (effective) storage dead storage Figure 4.3 Reduction of the effective storage capacity of a core-flow hopper as a result of 'topping-up'. 158 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING flow hopper is larger for a given product than that of a mass-flow hopper. Although a core-flow hopper will maximize the storage volume for a given headroom, it will do so only if the contents are completely emptied on a batchwise basis. If the hopper is continually 'topped-up', the first-in last-out sequence of a core-flow hopper will mean that the effective storage volume can be significantly less than the potential capacity, as illustrated in Figure 4.3. Composite hoppers are a combination of both core- and mass-flow patterns: the upper section is designed for core-flow whilst the lower section is designed for mass flow (Figure 4.4a). This is a useful way of increasing the storage capacity whilst still maintaining mass flow, and therefore a greater _._ __,.___ core flow section (a) Basic expanded-flow bin (b) Multiple outlet bin Figure 4.4 Composite hoppers. THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 159 uniformity of feed, at the outlet. This approach is also particularly suitable for installations where numerous outlets are required for one storage facility (Figure 4.4b). 4.2.2 Overall dimensions Once the decision on whether to design for mass flow or core flow has been taken, the overall dimensions of the hopper depend upon two factors: (i) its shape, and (ii) the amount (that is, volume or mass) of product to be stored. It is clear that these two factors are not unrelated, since it is often the constraints of the site or the system (or both) that dictate the shape of a hopper that is required to store a given quantity of product. For example, it has already been mentioned that a plane mass-flow hopper is more effective than a corresponding conical hopper in terms of the quantity of material that can be stored for a given headroom, and there are many instances where this fact has been used to good advantage. It is useful for the engineer to be able to estimate the overall dimensions of a hopper (i.e. height and cross-sectional size) at an early stage in the design process, as he will then have a good indication of whether the proposed shape, storing the required volume, can be accommodated within the plant. In order to estimate the cross-sectional dimension(s) and height of the bin required to store a given quantity of product, it is convenient to imagine the stored volume divided into three parts, as shown in Figure 4.5. Thus, v;otal =Vol. 1 +Vol. 2 +Vol. 3 :·: ·..... 0 H . •. ' .• ·.·. ·.· ~ ·..· \::·:/: . ·,, : .. ::.~ ~:;~~·- ·.·. . . . Figure 4.5 . . . .. Analysis of effective storage volume of a hopper. 160 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING or, in general stored volume volume of conical section volume of + parallel section + volume resulting from surcharge on filling (4.1) In order to illustrate this approach a bin of cylindrical cross-section will be considered. In this case the stored volume can be simply determined from the geometry, so that (4.2) where D is the diameter of the bin, De is the diameter of the outlet, His the height of the cylindrical section, {3 is the half-angle of the conical section and () is the surcharge angle of the 'free surface' of material in the hopper (which corresponds to the poured angle of repose). Suppose that, in order to estimate H for a given volume of stored material, {3 and () are both given a value of 30° and the volume of the space between the outlet and the vertex of the conical section is neglected. Equation (4.2) can then be rearranged to give 1.274V H=---0385D Dz . (4.3) While it must be acknowledged that this equation strictly is valid only for the chosen values of {3 and (), the error resulting from moderate changes in these angles will be small. Similar equations can be developed for other shapes of bin. Often the specification for a bin or hopper requires that it should store a given mass of product. Writing the volume V in terms of the mass m and bulk density pb, equation (4.3) becomes 1.274m Dzpb H = - - - 0.385D (4.4) Clearly the accuracy of this expression depends upon the value of the bulk density used, which itself depends upon the condition of the product. Therefore it is evident that the value used should represent as closely as possible the condition that will exist in the hopper. It is useful to represent equation (4.3) in the form of a chart (Figure 4.6) which yields a rapid, albeit approximate, indication of the relationship 161 THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS volume, V 60 100 200 300 (m 3 ) 500 f,. r"""',.- H·4D 18~-+--~4-~~~~~-~L+-~~~--+-~ 1---1----11-t--+-1-1-t -++--fl--t\+t"- limits of _ recommended 16 1---1----lt-t--t--t--H- --t--+t--t+- range of hopper _ proportions f \ l 2 4 6 8 10 diameter, D (m) Figure 4.6 Recommended proportions of cylindrical mass-llow hoppers to store a given volume of bulk solid. between the height H and diameter D for a mass-flow hopper of fixed volume V. Hoppers are generally manufactured to have a height H (of the parallel) between one and four times the diameter; i.e. D<H <4D (4.5) This range plotted on Figure 4.6 shows that for a hopper of given volume V 162 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING there is a lower limit (D 1 ) and an upper limit (D 2 ) of diameter which, because of the steepness of the constant volume lines, are not very different in magnitude. The selection of an appropriate value of D is made considerably easier by the fact that an increasing number of manufacturers are making bins and hoppers in 'standard' diameters. Selection is then simply from the available diameter(s) within the range D 1 < D < D2 , and a bin of the required volume can be easily fabricated. The only part of the bin that needs to be manufactured to suit the product is the converging section, and methods of determining the critical dimensions of this item will be discussed in the following pages. It may be noted in passing that, for the example being considered (i.e. a bin filled with material such that = f3 = 30°), the overall height H 10131 , which includes both the conical section and the surcharge space at the top, can be expressed approximately as e or H + 1.15D 1.274 V = ~ + 0.765D Htotal = (4.6) Htotal (4.7) 4.3 Outlet size and cone angle 4.3.1 J enike's 'flow-no flow' criterion Before the method of calculating the outlet size and cone angle can be discussed, it is necessary to have an understanding of Jenike's philosophy for determining these interrelated parameters [1]. Figure 4.7a shows a conical mass-flow hopper in which a cohesive arch has formed at some point in the converging section. In effect (as explained in Chapter 2) the bulk solid has formed a structure which transfers the weight of the solid to the walls of the hopper. The magnitude of the stress a. set up in such a stable arch has been found to be approximately proportional to the span D. of the arch, and the relationship between this stress and the position at which the arch forms can therefore be illustrated graphically as shown in Figure 4. 7a. In Chapter 1 the relationship between the shear strength of a particular bulk solid and the consolidating stress (or pressure) a 1 was discussed and it was explained that an increase in a 1 results in an approximately proportional increase in the shear strength. Obviously, in order for a stable arch to become established at any given position, the bulk solid must be capable of sustaining the stress a. without failing. It is therefore necessary to examine the variation within the bulk solid of the 'unconfined yield stress' a c• which represents the strength of the material at the free surface. If values of a cat different positions in the hopper can be determined and compared with Figure 4.7a, the position at which a stable arch could become established is indicated by the point at which ac =a •. Jenike's 'flow-no flow' criterion can be regarded as following from this observation, and states that a 'bulk solid will flow provided that the THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 163 .s:: 0 a; 0 c .g "(ij 0 0. .. . :. : stress set up In stable arch, a a ~ (a) Relationship between the position of a stable arch in a hopper and the stress required to support it flowing • element Ill a1 of solid I \/ consolidating stress Cor pressure), a 1 (b) Variation of consolidating stress within a bulk solid discharging from a hopper Figure 4.7 Stress variation within a bulk solid in a hopper. strength a c which it develops is less than the stress a. which would exist in a stable obstruction to flow'. In order to determine the variation of a c within the bulk solid it is necessary first to understand the distribution of the consolidating stress a 1 . The bulk material is unconsolidated when it is fed into the bin but becomes consolidated as the filling process continues. In Chapter 2 it was explained how the change 164 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING from a static to a dynamic stress field occurs as the hopper outlet is opened. In the flowing condition, illustrated in Figure 4. 7b, the consolidating stress a 1 varies within the 'static' stress field from zero in the top layer of the bulk solid towards a maximum near the junction of the cylindrical and conical hopper sections. There is then an abrupt increase in stress to a peak value at the point where the transition from the 'static' to the 'dynamic' stress field occurs (the 'switch'). Within the dynamic stress field, a 1 decreases linearly towards zero at the virtual apex of the conical section. As explained in Chapter 1, the flow behaviour of a cohesive bulk solid can be conveniently illustrated by a plot of unconfined yield stress ac against the major consolidating (normal) stress. This plot, termed the 'Flow Function' (F F) of the material, can be determined by shear cell tests of the type described in section 1.9.3. Figure 4.8 illustrates the manner in which the unconfined yield stress a c• generated by the consolidating stress a 1 , follows the same type of profile as a 1 . Also on this diagram is re-plotted the stress a. that would exist in a stable arch, and it is evident that the point of intersection (P) of these lines represents a critical condition between 'flow' and 'no flow'. Above this point P, a.> ac, the flow condition is satisfied and the product will flow. Below P, however, a c > a. indicating that the bulk solid has enough strength to support a stable arch and therefore may not flow without some form of discharge aid of the type described in section 4.1 0. The dimension Dmin corresponding to the position in the hopper where a.= ac is thus the 'critical outlet dimension' which has to be exceeded if no arching is to occur. flowing element of solid Figure 4.8 I • al Diagrammatic representation of the 'flow-no-flow· criterion in a hopper. 165 THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 4.3.2 Flow Functions and flow factors The derivation of the 'Flow Function' (FF) curve for a bulk material has been described in Chapter 1, and Figure 4.9 shows a typical FF curve. For a hopper of the type shown in Figure 4.8, both the stress in the stable arch aa and the consolidating stress a 1 are linear functions of the horizontal dimension Da. Furthermore, each of these stresses approaches zero at the virtual apex of the conical section and it follows that the ratio of a a to a 1 is constant for a given hopper. This ratio, commonly called the 'flow factor' (ff) is an important parameter, since it characterizes the manner in which a given hopper discharges its contents. Values of fJ have been computed by Jenike and others for a wide range of hopper types and these are particularly valuable when used in conjunction with an appropriate flow function to determine the critical dimensions of a hopper for a given application. If the flow factor (Jf) and the Flow Function (F F) are plotted on the same axes, as shown in Figure 4.9, the condition for which the flow-no flow criterion is satisfied can be clearly seen. Thus, the 'critical' condition (represented in Figure 4.8) occurs at the intersection of the fJ and F F lines on Figure 4.9 and the flow criterion is satisfied at all conditions for which F Flies below ff. The value of a c corresponding to the intersection of these two lines (acrit) can be used to compute a limiting value of the hopper outlet dimension (Dmin). Thus, D . = (J"critJ mm (4.8) pbg where Pb is the bulk density of the stored material, g is the gravitational acceleration and J is an empirical dimensionless factor which depends upon consolidating stress, u i Figure 4.9 Bulk solid Flow Function F F and hopper flow factor ff. 166 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 3.0 ---. circular section 2.5 i\ Ul (/) <D c0 2.0 ~ c ~ ·c;; <D ~ " ---- ............. ............. I' _.... .... .- -~ = I = ~~ = loo ~ ~ "-~quare I ~)- I-= section E § -, _.,.. ,. rectangular section 1.5 - (L;;. 3Dp) ~ 1.0 I 0 10 20 30 I 40 50 60 hopper half angle ~ (degrees) Figure 4.10 Values of the empirical factor J in equation (4.8). the shape of the hopper and the angle of the converging section (Figure 4.1 0). Note that for a rectangular hopper having L < 3Dmin the value of J should be interpolated between the curves on Figure 4.10 for square and rectangular shapes. When designing for core flow, it is necessary to ensure that the outlet is large enough to prevent the occurrence of rat-holing. The design procedure is similar to that outlined above, except that a different flow factor jJ would be used, and the empirical factor J replaced by a term G which depends upon the static angle of internal friction of the bulk solid. Typically, for the same product, the outlet size for core flow will be two to three times that required for mass flow. 4.3.3 Outlet dimension and cone angle The foregoing discussion has been concerned mainly with the theory essential to an understanding of the method of calculating the critical outlet dimension(s) for mass flow and core flow hoppers. Little has been said about the method of determining the angle of the converging section of the hopper needed to give the desired flow pattern. This angle is related to the frictional properties between the stored product and the wall material and, as discussed in Chapter 1, can be estimated from the results of shear tests on representative samples of these. The 'angle of wall friction' r/Jw found from the shear tests is also used to determine the flow factor .ff, a knowledge of which is essential for the calculation of acrit for use in equation (4.8). 167 THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS hopper half angle f3c (degrees) (a) Conical hoppers 3: ~ 30P.~--+--+~~' c .2 0 E 20~~~~~~~~~4-~ a; 3: 0 ~ c 10~~~~~k--+~~~-- "' 10 20 30 40 50 60 hopper half angle {3p (degrees) (b) Plane-flow hoppers Figure 4.11 Flow factor (fJ) contours for conical and symmetrical plane-flow hoppers; effective angle of internal friction <P = 50°. Flow factor charts for various designs of hopper are presented in detail elsewhere [1], [3] but, as an illustration, two typical charts are shown here (Figure 4.11). These charts, for a product having an angle of internal friction cjJ of 50° in a conical hopper (Figure 4.11a) and in a plane-flow hopper (Figure 4.11 b), show the manner in which the flow factor fJ varies with the angle of wall friction c/Jw and the hopper half-angle (J. In the case of a conical hopper the transition from mass flow to core flow is 168 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING quite distinct and is indicated by the 'critical line'. When designing for mass flow in conical hoppers, it is usual to select a value of f3c some 4o to the left ofthe critical line. In plane-flow hoppers the region for mass flow is much wider, and experience suggests that it is better for {3P to be selected either on or very close to the broken line marking the 'suggested limit for mass flow'. Thus, for a given value of wall friction c/Jw, the flow factor if and hopper half-angle {3 can be predicted. The value of if enables a line to be drawn to intersect the Flow Function FF, giving a cri~> which can be substituted in equation (4.8), together with the values of J (from Figure 4.10) and {3, to yield the critical outlet dimension Dmin· A similar procedure would be followed, using appropriate charts for if and G, when designing for core flow. It is recommended that, in order to avoid instabilities of flow patterns, the actual hopper outlet dimension should be about 20% greater than the minimum determined for equation (4.8) [2]. 4.4 Period of storage and time consolidation effects It is clear that, with some products, consolidation of the material inside the hopper with time can lead to a considerable increase in strength of the bulk. For a particular product the extent of this increase in strength over that of the material when the hopper is initially filled depends principally upon the period of storage. Depending on process requirements, this may range from minutes to days, weeks or even months. From the onset of storage time consolidation effects (that is, increase in bulk strength of material with time) start due to loss of entrained air, settling and re-orientation of the constituent particles within the bulk. The natural de-aeration and rearrangement of particles tend to be enhanced by the extraneous vibrations that are normally associated with any bulk materials handling plant. These effects lead to closer packing of particles which results in an increase in the strength of the bulk. In the case of freeflowing materials the gain in strength is likely to be negligible. This can also be true of more cohesive materials but it should be remembered that these will be much stronger initially. However, many materials exhibit the characteristic of significantly increasing strength with the period of storage, an effect which can be illustrated by a higher and sometimes steeper Flow Function compared with that of the same material for instantaneous filling and discharge conditions (Figure 4.12). In fact, there will be a range of Flow Functions corresponding to different periods of storage. From these comments it is clear that time consolidation effects result in higher values of acrit which in turn results in a corresponding larger minimum outlet dimension, Dmin• necessary to ensure unobstructed gravity flow. Experience suggests that time consolidation effects do not increase linearly with time and this may be illustrated by Figure 4.13, which is typical of the results for many products. In this figure the minimum outlet dimension, Dmin• as determined by the appropriate form of equation (4.8), is plotted against the THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS ff .c 0. c: CD !:: m CD > ·c;; I-·------ // acrit based on FFt y / / 169 FFt - Row Function resulting from specified period of storage - ,_~:::..-----"'1\~F=F~- Flow Function m CD li resulting from Instantaneous discharge E 0 CJ consolidating stress Figure 4.12 The effect of time consolidation on the Flow Function. t storage time~ Figure 4.13 The effect of storage time on the minimum outlet dimension. period of storage, and it is clear that, although the strength of the material and hence Dmin are increasing with time, the rate of increase is diminishing. Ultimately a stage is reached where further increases in the period of storage have little or no effect on Dmin and the product is then considered to have acquired maximum strength. This observation is significant and is put to use when testing for consolidation effects. 4.4.1 Caking It must be remembered that under normal circumstances an increase in strength due to de-aeration and re-orientation of the constituent particles is a reversible situation and thus, given space into which it can dilate or expand, the bulk will revert to a weaker state. However, with some products, changes in moisture level or chemical reactions can cause 'caking'. In this situation particles are not just attached to adjacent particles by electrical or surface 170 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING tension (moisture) effects but become more permanently bonded together. Granulated sugar is a well-known product that, under certain conditions of storage, exhibits this tendency. In the case where caking is a characteristic of the product resulting from long-term storage, failure of the bulk probably will not take place without external assistance, however large the outlet. With regard to time consolidation the difficulty is then to determine how, on the basis of test results, normal compaction effects can be differentiated from caking. This point will be discussed in the next section. 4.4.2 Testing for time consolidation With many bulk materials the effects of time consolidation can be substantial, and it is important at an early stage to assess the likely period of storage of the product and to calculate the outlet dimension from the Flow Function corresponding to this time. One method of determining the appropriate Flow Function, FF 1, would be to leave representative samples of material under load for the required time before subjecting each sample in turn to shear tests, thereby reproducing the strength the material will have acquired for the corresponding period of storage in the hopper. This technique can be used with the Jenike shear cell but it is time-consuming to generate the required data. The approach is not suitable for the Walker shear cell. However, it has proved acceptable to calculate the outlet size based on a knowledge of how the material increases in strength with time for one point (i.e. one normal load) on one yield locus. The material is left in the shear cell under the selected normal load for different periods of time up to, say, one week. The values of the measured shear strength are plotted against time (Figure 4.14) and from this the percentage increase in shear strength of the material for the required period of storage may be estimated. If a storage period longer than that tested is required, it is possible to extrapolate the graph to the required time. The justification for this is based on the observation, previously mentioned, that the most significant consolidation effects occur in the relatively short term. With materials that exhibit caking tendencies, the relationship between shear time--~-- Figure 4.14 Typical relationship between shear strength and time (for constant normal load) THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 171 = Cl c ~ Cii (U CD .t::. Ill time _ ___,._ Figure 4.15 Typical relationship between shear strength and time for a product exhibiting caking tendencies strength and time exhibits a significant upward turn, as shown in Figure 4.15. Having estimated the percentage increase in shear strength resulting from the required period of undisturbed storage over that for the 'instantaneous' value, the instantaneous yield loci for the product are increased by the same percentage. This then permits a new Flow Function, F F 1, corresponding to the required storage period to be plotted (Figure 4.12). When the appropriate flow factor, jJ, is superimposed on this figure, the intersection denotes acrit· Substituting this value into equation (4.8) then yields the minimum outlet dimension, Dmin• necessary to achieve gravity discharge after the specified period of storage. It is not uncommon for the outlet dimension based on the time consolidated Flow Function, F F 0 to be as much as twice that of the instantaneous value. 4.4.3 Practical ways of minimizing time consolidation The effects of time consolidation may be minimized by moving the bulk regularly either by recycling or by transferring it to another hopper. In a massflow hopper, since all of the stored product moves on discharge, it is only necessary to discharge a small amount to restore the material to its former, weaker state. With core-flow hoppers, complete emptying will be necessary to ensure movement of the material close to the walls and base of the hopper. In this case simple recycling will not be effective as the recycled material will simply be returned into the flowing core and will be immediately redischarged. If the product has a wide particle size distribution it is almost certain that with a core-flow hopper such recycling will also lead to significant segregation in terms of fine and coarser size fractions. 4.5 The effect of moisture It can be seen from equation (4.8) that the principal parameter influencing the minimum outlet dimension Dmin is the Flow Function FF and hence acrit for 172 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING the material concerned. As discussed in the previous section, the period of storage can have a significant effect on acrit and hence on Dmin· With many bulk solids the moisture content of the material can also have a significant effect on its flow behaviour. Any water present on the outer surfaces of the constituent particles of the bulk (i.e. 'free moisture') can result in surface tension effects which inhibit their movement relative to one another, rendering the bulk more cohesive and, therefore, less free-flowing. The consequence of this is that a hopper will generally require a larger value of minimum outlet dimension Dmin if surface tension effects are present than for the same product free from moisture. The effect that moisture has on the required minimum outlet dimension can be quantified by determining the Flow Functions FF of the material at different levels of moisture. Figure 4.16 illustrates, as an example, the outcome of such tests for copper concentrate, and it is evident that, with this particular product, moisture has a significant effect on the hopper design. The form of Figure 4.16 is typical of the effect of moisture on outlet size, although the actual values will obviously depend upon the material and the particle size distribution. It should be noted that at moisture levels in excess of the saturation value the product takes on slurry-like characteristics and therefore can no longer be considered as a bulk solid. If moisture is a potential problem information in the form of Figure 4.16 is useful since it permits the engineer to balance the cost of a drier or filter, to render the product more free-flowing, against that of the size of feeder necessary to handle the undried product from a large outlet. Naturally, design should be based on the Flow Function F F ofthe product at the highest moisture level that is expected in practice. 4.6 Overcoming space limitations Following the procedures outlined in the previous sections should lead to an 'ideal' functional design of hopper to give reliable gravity discharge with a specified discharge pattern. In this context 'ideal' refers to the geometry (minimum outlet dimension and wall angle) necessary to ensure the correct mode of discharge without taking into account any of the physical constraints which may be imposed on the siting of the hopper. In the case of small hoppers, say up to one tonne, the resulting geometry is usually acceptable, but, with larger volumes, once the critical dimensions of an ideal hopper have been determined, certain practical difficulties may become apparent. Examples of the types of problem that are commonly encountered are (i) insufficient headroom to accommodate the required storage volume; (ii) outlet too large for feeder situated beneath hopper, and (iii) flow rate through the outlet incompatible with the requirements of the system or process downstream of the hopper. With regard to (i) and (ii), a change in the basic shape and/or wall material of the hopper may yield an acceptable solution to the problem. If the discharge rate through the outlet is likely to be too great, some form of feeder will be required to 'choke' the flow (section 4.9). 173 THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 4.0 I 3.6 . 3.2 ..... Gl ::::Gl 11) 2.8 i E ...... c ·e 2.4 I a conical flow hopper.'-..... r£ 0 ·;; c 2.0 Gl E '6 i ~ 1.6 0 ·e 1.2 plane flow hopper " ' 0.8 0.4 ,.... --- '/ ~ ~ V ~ 4 ~ 6 . IJJ \ V E :I E c J ...... ~ 1 '\ / I \, !'V ....... 8 If 10 c 0 += I Gl ~ "'-"' ... ·:I :lje - 12 0 - \ ~ 14 " moisture content Figure 4.16 Relationship between minimum outlet dimension and moisture content for copper concentrate. 4.6.1 Use of low1riction linings Where only a small increase in storage capacity is necessary in a mass-flow hopper this may be achieved by decreasing the angle of the sloping wall, incorporating a 'low-friction' lining material into the converging section to ensure that reliable flow is maintained. Highly polished stainless steels, epoxycoated steels, glass-coated steels, glass and ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene sheeting are all commonly used for this purpose. As illustrated in 174 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 10r---,----,---,----,---,----,---,----,---~--~ N E ..... z 25 Ul Ul ~ ;;; 20 normal stress (kN/m2) Figure 4.17 Frictional characteristics of brown flour against epoxy-coated mild steel and stainless steel linings. Conical channel Effective angle of internal friction et>= 50° c 0 :;:: () :E hopper half angle {3 c (degrees) Figure 4.18 The effect of decreasing cf>w on hopper half angle {J, and flow factor ff. Figure 4.17 there is a significant difference between the wall friction angle for a grade of brown flour on epoxy-coated mild steel compared with that for the stainless steel. If this information is translated to the appropriate flow factor (ff) contours, it will result in an increased hopper half-angle for the lower friction wall material but a correspondingly higher value of JJ. Figure 4.18 illustrates this point. This in turn means that although the included angle of the hopper is increased, thereby increasing the storage capacity, the corresponding value of acrit and hence outlet dimension Dmin are also increased. 175 THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 4.6.2 Changing hopper shape A relatively simple but effective way of increasing the storage volume of a mass-flow hopper where headroom is a limitation is to change from a conical to a pyramidal, square-outlet hopper. This will result in a slightly smaller outlet dimension, that is, the length of the side of the square outlet will be less than the diameter of the outlet of a circular hopper. However, it should be remembered that the major consideration with this type of hopper is that to ensure a mass-flow discharge pattern, the valley angles must conform to the minimum angle for mass flow. This results in the walls being steeper than for the corresponding circular hopper. The nomograph shown in Figure 4.19 will assist in determining the relationship between the valley and wall angles and can be used to determine the wall angles for hoppers with either square or rectangular outlet openings. Another approach to utilizing space more effectively is to use a wedgeshaped hopper. The reasoning behind this is based on the observation that if the same basic data resulting from shear and wall friction tests is used to design conical and plane mass-flow hoppers, it will be found that the latter has a larger included angle and smaller outlet dimension. Both the increased included angle and the more efficient utilization of floor area result in a 0 (vertical) 10 20 30 wall angle (jp, valley angle (jv 40 wall angle (jp. 50 60 65 Figure 4.19 section. Nomograph relating wall and valley angles for hoppers of square and rectangular 176 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING considerably larger storage volume. The width of the slot outlet is typically half that of the diameter of a conical hopper for the same product. However, it should be remembered that the length of the slot outlet must be at least three times greater than the width in order to achieve mass flow. A more drastic step in attempting to increase capacity is to move from a mass-flow to a core-flow hopper. The larger included angle of such a hopper maximizes the storage volume for a given headroom. However, the disadvantage of this type of hopper is a non-uniform feed of material through the outlet. If this is an important criterion, a composite hopper (Figure 4.4a) combining both core-flow and mass-flow patterns may be more appropriate. As already explained, such a hopper is designed for core flow in the upper section and mass flow in the lower section. The dimension of the transition from core flow to mass flow corresponds to Dmin for a core-flow hopper. This approach has provided a useful way of increasing storage capacity while still maintaining mass flow, and therefore a greater uniformity of feed, at the outlet. 4.7 Structural design The foregoing discussion has been concerned with the design of storage hoppers to discharge the stored product on demand and in a predictable manner. It is clear that the mass-flow pattern of discharge has a number of advantages over core-flow. However, a major disadvantage of mass flow is that, since all of the material in any cross-section is flowing, it transmits the lateral pressure within the material (which may be considerable) directly to the hopper walls. This is less of a problem with core flow, since the stationary material adjacent to the hopper walls serves to absorb the stress resulting from flow in the central core. Thus, in addition to being designed for the required mode of flow, the hopper must also be designed to withstand the stresses generated by the material in both static and dynamic conditions. In Chapter 2 it was shown that the radial stress exerted on the walls in the static conditions can be estimated by the well-established Janssen equation [ 4]. It was also explained how, with mass-flow hoppers in the flowing (dynamic) condition, an abrupt change in stress ('switch') can occur in the region of the transition from the parallel to the converging section. The pioneering work of Walker [5] has shown that this stress peak may be up to ten times that of the static condition on which structural designs had previously been based. With hindsight, it is not surprising that ignorance of this stress peak resulted in some catastrophic failures. Such failures have tended to occur in the larger hoppers since smaller ones are effectively much stronger for their relative size. Although Walker has developed a procedure for estimating the stress in the region of the parallel/convergent transition, many hopper manufacturers design on a conservative basis by strengthening the hopper in this region so that it will withstand up to at least ten times the calculated static pressure at the same point. THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 177 There is an enormous variability in the type of silos made. They can be constructed of steel, concrete, wood, or even plastic. They may be of round, rectangular or non-uniform cross-section and can be used to store a vast variety of material from fine powder to farm silage. In addition, inlets and outlets may be single or multiple, symmetrically placed or eccentric. Most silos are in the open and consequently they are subject to the full range of adverse environmental conditions. A detailed and rigorous approach to the structural design of silos and hoppers is therefore beyond the scope of this book, which is restricted to a brief coverage of commonly used codes of practice. For further information on this topic the interested reader is referred especially to [3], [5] and [6]. Until recently three codes of practice were in most common use [7, 8, 9]. All present methods for the design of silos using empirically based techniques allow for over-pressures which occur during loading and unloading, and which may be several times the static pressure. Jenike [10] has summarized the causes of silo failure as uneven foundation settlement, faulty construction and unanticipated loading conditions. The first two are problems for the site engineer; the third cause, the responsibility of the design engineer, can be further subdivided as follows. (i) Shock loads: a silo may discharge material from the lower part of a hopper but permit an arch to form over a void higher in the hopper. When the arch collapses, a mass of solids falls into the hopper producing a shock load. This is particularly dangerous when the void extends over the whole cross-section of the hopper. Multiple-outlet silos are more prone to this problem than those with single outlets. (ii) Bending in cylinder walls: circular walls are generally designed to transfer hoop tension and vertical compression only, on the presumption that wall pressures are uniform along a circumference. Significant non-uniformities in pressure can occur when a flow channel touches the cylinder wall. These conditions occur in many core-flow and mass-flow silos. Horizontal bending moments are generated in such conditions which produce inward dents in metal silos and vertical cracks in concrete silos. (iii) Overpressures: whenever a flow channel expanding upward from an outlet reaches the vertical wall of a silo, there occurs a switch from cylindrical to converging flow. At and below the switch an overpressure acts on the wall. In a mass-flow silo with a single outlet, the location of the switch coincides with the physical transition from the cylindrical section to the conical section. In other silos the location of the switch depends on the flow channel expansion angle and the geometry of the silo. An understanding of how these factors (shock loads, bending and overpressures) relate to the various codes of practice is vital to the safe and economical design and construction of bins and silos. The American, German and French codes have already been mentioned. A 178 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING new British code of practice has very recently been published, in draft form, under the auspices of the British Materials Handling Board [2]. Even more recent is the code prepared by the Institution of Engineers, Australia [11]. There is a great deal of detail in these codes, and the reader wishing to undertake a serious exploration of the tortuous routes leading to the reliable structural design of storage bins and silos is recommended to begin with [2] and [11]. It would not be right to terminate this brief comment on structural design without mentioning the recent advances in the computer-aided design of bins and silos, especially the finite-element method, which can enable a complete silo system to be analysed in a relatively short time. In the finite-element method the 'system' of the silo material and the silo wall are treated as a continuum discretized by a number of finite elements. Ideally this should be done in three dimensions, although all of the studies to date have confined themselves to a 2-D analysis. A recent study of the silo/materials interaction for powdered coal shows the potential of the finite element method [ 12]. The silo in question was a 30 m diameter self-cleaning coal silo having seven draw-off points. On unloading, pressures were generated due to eccentric draw-off. This is an area where the available codes of practice provided little information. The flow channels were established from functional design, the flowing and non-flowing regions having different internal pressures (Figure 4.20a). Figure 4.20b shows a quarter-section of the silo divided into finite elements and Figure 4.20c the deformed shape of the silo due to the pressure exerted by the flowing material. The advantages of this approach are, first, that eccentric loading conditions can be simulated, and second, that the material and silo can be treated as a single system. 4.8 Control and measurement of discharge rate It was explained in the Introduction that often there will be a need for control to be exercised over the rate at which bulk solids discharge from a hopper, and this is usually achieved by incorporating in the design of the plant some form of feeding device. Before making any attempt to select or design a feeder to control the rate of flow of a bulk solid, it is necessary to study the application in order to make an assessment of the accuracy required. Thus, for example, it may be sufficient to exercise only a rough control in order to avoid overloading subsequent items of plant, but if a product is being metered for sale the greatest possible accuracy of feed control is likely to be needed. A number of different techniques have been developed for controlling the rate of flow of a bulk solid either by volume or by weight. In many cases these techniques are based upon familiar conveying devices such as belts, screws or vibrating troughs which can be adjusted in order to match the actual solids l{) "' E 30.4m dia. • " j (c) Displaced shape of silo (shown In broken lines) Finite element analysis of a coal silo. pressure 31 kN/m 2 ~ flowing material static material pressure 22 kN/m 2 Figure 4.20 (a) geometry and flow regime I 7 draw-off hopper channels critical slice static material ~flow - (b) Finite element mesh of a quarter section of the silo ~ 0 :;.:: -.J \0 ...... "' :;.:: m '1:1 '1:1 5 0 z "'> tl:l z Cl m > "'d 'Tl 0 a"'z m 180 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING storage hopper solids flowmeter feed rate controller to process feedback signal Figure 4.21 System for solids feed rate control. flow rate to the desired rate. It follows, of course, that for accurate control it is necessary to measure the flow rate either continuously or at suitable intervals in order to provide the feedback signal to the flow control device. The problem can be represented diagrammatically, as in Figure 4.21. There are various methods of measuring solids flow rate, but probably the commonest device used in this type of application is the belt weigher which can be installed either on a main conveying belt or alternatively on a belt feeder. Where the highest accuracy is not required, and provided that the physical characteristics (especially bulk density) of the product do not vary, it may be acceptable to rely on calibration of the feeder to give flow control over the desired range. In the case of the screw feeder, for example, the solids mass flow rate is approximately proportional to the rotational speed of the screw so that, once calibrated, the device can provide a reasonably reliable control of the flow. It must be remembered, however, that with products that do not flow readily the problem is to ensure that a continuous feed is maintained to the feed rate controller! In the following pages are described a selection of different types of feeder, but in the cases of belt, screw and vibratory feeders, which are obviously similar to the corresponding conveyors, further information may be obtained from Chapters 7, 8 and 9. Some additional information on feeders (notably rotary valves) specifically applying to pneumatic conveying systems is to be found in Chapter 13. 4.9 Feeders 4.9.1 Introduction It has been explained previously that to ensure reliable operation of a continuous weighing device it is usually necessary to provide a consistent THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 181 supply of the bulk solid concerned. Thus, for example, when a bulk solid is required to be discharged from a hopper to a process at a controlled and measured rate, a feeder of some kind would normally be installed at the hopper outlet. It is essential to appreciate that a feeder used in this way can only operate satisfactorily if the bulk material flows steadily and continuously into it under gravity. The function of a feeder as a means of controlling the discharge of bulk solids from bins or hoppers should not be confused with that of a discharge aid which is specifically to prevent the flow being obstructed as a result of the formation of arches or rat-holes. Feeders, and indeed discharge aids, must be considered as an integral part of the complete storage and feed system. There is little point, for instance, in attempting to select a feeder for a system unless the hopper has been properly designed to prevent arching and rat-holing and to provide the maximum discharge rate required. The importance of the hopper-feeder interface cannot be over-emphasized, and it is probably fair to say that more discharge problems arise through the failure of the designer to understand the flow conditions existing in this region than for any other reason. It is necessary also to consider the vertical load exerted on a feeder mounted directly beneath the opening of a hopper. Whilst this load would normally be less than the 'hydrostatic head' of material in the hopper, it may become very high during filling. However, various techniques may be used to ensure that the feeder load does not become excessive, the most obvious being to locate the feeder in an offset position from the hopper opening. Another approach is to ensure that the bin is not completely emptied, but that a two- or three-metre depth of product is still present when it is refilled, thus avoiding the impact of fresh material directly over the bin opening. For a further discussion of this aspect of feeder design see, for example, [ 13], [14]. 4.9.2 Belt feeders A belt feeder consists essentially of a continuous rubber or polymer belt running between end pulleys and supported on a number of idler rollers (Figure 4.22). In normal use it would be fitted beneath a hopper having a rectangular opening which is often tapered in order to provide an even feed along the length of the belt. Typically this taper is about 4-5%. A further advantage of the tapered hopper opening is that it permits some movement of the material in the hopper in the direction of the belt travel which helps to reduce shearing conditions with consequent reduction of belt wear and driving torque. Belt feeders are typically 0.5-2 m wide and 2-3 m in length, and their capacity, which obviously depends almost entirely upon the width and speed of travel of the belt, may be anything from a few tonnes per hour up to more than 2000 tonnes per hour. The maximum speed of travel of the belt on a belt feeder is normally around 17 m/min, higher speeds tending to result in G 182 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 4.22 Belt feeder. ,-1 I variable speed drive i 1' I I load cell to feeder I I feed rate metering I t I I I I I '------~---- feed rate controller Figure 4.23 ------, L~--~~~j set feed rate Weigh-feeding system. ('"'"'"' ) I feed rate indicator THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 183 excessive wear. Power requirements seem to be moderately high at 2-40 kw [13], but the majority of this load occurs on start-up and under steady operation the power usage is quite low. Belt feeders are ideally suited to the transport of fine granular materials such as small coal or ores, but can feed much finer materials satisfactorily provided that the moisture content does not become too high. Problems may also arise with materials that are very lumpy, hot, or sharp and abrasive. (The lump size is obviously limited by the gate opening on to the belt, which should normally be not more than three times the depth of the product on the belt.) A significant advantage of belt feeders is their relatively simple construction, and therefore moderate cost. Furthermore, they offer a degree of regulation of the discharged material so that, used in conjunction with a belt weigher, they can provide the basis for a reasonably reliable continuous weighing system (Figure 4.23). 4.9.3 Apron feeders and rotary feeders These two devices operate on a similar principle insofar as they regulate the discharge from a hopper by passing a continuous series of 'pockets' across the hopper outlet at a controlled rate. Each pocket becomes filled with particulate material and then moves on to discharge the material into an appropriate receiving vessel or perhaps on to a conveying belt. In the case of the apron feeder (Figure 4.24) the pockets or pans are linked Figure 4.24 Apron feeder. 184 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING together on a two- or three-strand chain and supported on a central rail. Apron feeders are typically 0.6-3 m wide and 3-5 m long. At operating speeds of 3-16m/min, capacities are about 100-2000 tonnes/h, although the exact capacity obviously depends upon the bulk density of the product being conveyed and the depth in the pans, in addition to the width and speed of the feeder. An important advantage of the apron feeder is that it can operate on an upward gradient. Amongst its disadvantages is the relatively high level of maintenance required (resulting from the large number of moving parts and susceptibility to spillage of fine materials). As with the belt feeder, some care must be taken with the design of the interface between hopper and feeder. For example, where the length of the rectangular outlet over the feeder is greater than the width, flow problems may arise with mass flow from the hopper not being properly achieved. An interesting method of overcoming this problem is to use a wide apron feeding across the side of the rectangle [1]. Rotary feeders of various types are very widely used, the actual design selected depending principally upon the nature of the bulk solid being handled. The rotary drum feeder (which may be regarded as an extreme type having zero pocket depth) tends to prevent product discharging freely from the hopper (Figure 4.25a). For relatively free-flowing materials this device is cheap and easy to maintain. For more general use, the drum is fitted with vanes which then give a greater measure of control over the discharge rate of the product (Figure 4.25b). In order to handle very free-flowing materials, which may have a tendency to flood, the rotating vanes would normally be enclosed in a casing (Figure 4.25c). This is the familiar rotary valve or star valve which is commonly used to feed pneumatic conveying lines, and is therefore described in more detail in Chapter 13. 4.9.4 Rotary table feeders A hopper designed for the unobstructed discharge of poorly-flowing materials is likely to have a large opening, and the rotary table feeder is a convenient method of overcoming the resulting problem of unacceptably high flow rates. (a) Drum type (b) Vane type Figure 4.25 Rotary feeders. (c) Enclosed type (rotary valve) THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 185 spiral collar hopper outlet Figure 4.26 Rotary table feeder. Figure 4.27 Screw feeder. The device consists basically of a horizontal circular table concentric with, and just below the hopper opening (Figure 4.26). The diameter of the table is some 50% greater than the hopper outlet diameter. While the table rotates (typically at 2-10 rev /min) a fixed blade ploughs off material from the column emerging from the hopper outlet, the fixed spiral collar helping to ensure a uniform rate of flow. It should be noted that most of the shearing resistance to the rotation of the table results from the 'dead' conical mass of product in the centre occupying a cross-sectional area of 40-50% of the hopper outlet and extending to a height of around half the outlet diameter [ 13]. 4.9.5 Screw feeders The screw feeder (Figure 4.27) is perhaps the most common mechanical method of discharging/extracting and feeding products from storage containers. Its advantage is that it can feed at a reliable rate whilst providing a 186 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING suitable 'choke' to what might otherwise be an unacceptably high rate of flow by uncontrolled gravity discharge. Because of its positive action a single- or multiple-screw device can serve as a discharge 'aid', extracting difficult materials at a consistent rate (section 4.1 0.4). Also, an enclosed screw can provide a degree of sealing against a pressure gradient which renders it suitable for feeding pneumatic conveying lines, as described in Chapter 13. The screw feeder consists essentially of a helical screw, driven by an external source, and mounted beneath the hopper outlet. The design of the screw itself, particularly with regard to the arrangement of the flighting, depends mainly upon the nature of the product to be handled, as explained in Chapter 10. The main requirement for screw feeders is that there should be a uniform removal of product from the hopper outlet, and in this respect screws with increasing pitch and increasing diameter are likely to be the most successful (Figure 4.28). Uniform pitch and uniform diameter Graduated pitch and uniform diameter Increasing pitch and increasing diameter Figure 4.28 Approach flow patterns in screw feeders. THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS Figure 4.29 187 Vibratory feeder. 4.9.6 Vibratory feeders The principle of operation of vibratory feeders is very similar to that of vibratory conveyors and will therefore be mentioned only briefly at this point. Detailed description, with an introduction to design and selection methods, will be found in Chapter 11. The vibratory feeder is really no more than a short conveyor (Figure 4.29) mounted directly beneath the hopper outlet. It does not 'extract' material from the hopper and because of its lack of positive action it is generally unsuitable for controlling feed rate to a high degree of accuracy. Nevertheless, where a specification calls for a low cost, reliable device giving a reasonably uniform feed rate, the vibratory feeder may be the ideal answer. Tuned feeders can give some degree of control over the feed rate and are readily linked to feedback systems such as belt-weighers, resulting in an installation offering a very consistent feed. 4.10 Discharge aids 4.1 0.1 Introduction It is worth re-emphasizing the comments made previously concerning the need to regard discharge aids as an integral part of the complete storage and feed system. Too frequently these useful devices are treated simply as a solution to flow problems caused by poor design or incorrect use of a hopper. Whilst it is certainly true that the installation of an appropriate discharge aid can provide a satisfactory solution to the problem of a poorly-flowing hopper, it should also be understood that the selection of an unsuitable device may have the reverse effect and create more problems than it solves. In short, discharge aids should not be used as a substitute for good design but should be selected, at the design stage, if it becomes apparent that a simple gravity-flow hopper will not 188 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING be suitable because of the nature of the product or other constraints within the overall system. The first step in the design of a storage/feed system for a bulk solid should normally be concerned with the size and proportions of a hopper for gravity flow. This should involve laboratory tests on a representative sample of the bulk solid, as described in Chapter 1. It may happen that the 'ideal' dimensions of a hopper of the required volume that can be relied upon to discharge its contents without obstructions developing render it impractical for the intended application. For example, mass-flow hoppers are generally tall, and there may be insufficient headroom to accommodate the required storage volume. Another common difficulty with mass-flow hoppers, particularly where cohesive products are involved, is that the outlet opening is generally large. The discharge rate is then likely to be high and may prove to be incompatible with the feeder or with other downstream plant components. It could be possible to overcome these problems by modifying the hopper geometry, for example, by fitting stationary conical inserts or providing a long slot outlet, but where such approaches are impractical or insufficient it becomes necessary to adopt a more positive method of assisting the flow of material from the hopper-the so-called 'discharge aid'. Commercially available discharge aids have generally developed from primitive practices such as beating the sides of the hopper with a convenient 'blunt instrument' and stirring or poking the material in the hopper with some kind of rod. It is helpful to classify modern discharge aids as (i) pneumaticrelying on the application of air (or other gas) to the product; (ii) vibrationalrelying on mechanical vibration of the hopper and/or the product; and (iii) mechanical-physically extracting the product from the hopper. The advantages and limitations of a selection of devices from each of these groups will now be considered. 4.1 0.2 Pneumatic methods Pneumatic methods can be broadly subdivided as simple 'aeration devices', air expansion devices (or 'air-blasters') and inflatable pads that act 'mechanically' against the stored material. Some examples of the first-mentioned type of pneumatic discharge aid are illustrated in Figure 4.30, but it is important to note that there are two distinct techniques of product aeration. One is to introduce air at the time that the product is to be discharged, so as to 'fluidize' the material in the region of the outlet opening and to reduce the friction effect between the solid particles and the hopper wall. The second approach is to maintain a continuous 'trickle flow' of air during the whole period that the product is stored, with a view to preventing the gain in bulk strength that usually occurs with time in storage. Aeration during discharge can be very effective in reducing the interparticle THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS Aeration pads Figure 4.30 189 Porous bottom Aeration methods. forces and the particle-wall effects, thus rendering the product more freeflowing. However, this can itself cause problems as the product can become excessively fluid, with the result that it 'floods' uncontrollably from the hopper outlet. It has been suggested that if the air is introduced continuously at a very low rate throughout the duration of storage, the problem of flooding should not occur. The explanation is that the air that is lost by slow diffusion as the product settles is continuously replaced so as to maintain the initial 'weak' state of the product. Air flow rates of as little as 0.1 m 3 /m in per m 2 of hopper cross-section (0.3 ft 3 /min perft 2 ) may be sufficient for this purpose, but it should be noted that this is unlikely to be enough to restore the 'weak' condition of the product and promote flow if the air has previously been shut off for any length of time. Whether the air is supplied continuously or just during discharge, the key to success is to ensure uniform distribution throughout the product. Introducing the air through some kind of high-resistance porous surface, such as sintered metal, plastic or ceramic tile, or woven steel laminate, is commonly used (Figure 4.30) but an alternative method is to use an internal distributor such as the perforated ring device shown in Figure 4.31. Continuous aeration is likely to be effective for fine dry powders of around 1-70 Jlm in size. For sub-micron powders the air flow would probably be insufficient to reduce the high interparticle force. Materials coarser than about 70 Jlm settle quite rapidly, and the air flow necessary to maintain the 'weak' condition approaches that required for 'fluidized' discharge. For these materials (up to about 300 pm), aeration during discharge is likely to be effective. As an alternative to the introduction of air in a relatively gentle, uniform flow, sudden bursts of air may be released into the hopper through one or more jets (Figure 4.32). The pressure of air used may be up to 7 bar (100 lbf/in 2 ) and 190 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING air H Figure 4.31 Ring distribution system. by introducing this air into regions where arching or rat-holing are most likely to occur, the kinetic energy of the expanding jet(s) serves to dislodge the material and so initiate flow. These devices may be used in various ways, depending upon the nature of the product being handled and the type of flow problem to be overcome. Thus in some cases it might be appropriate to operate the air jets at regular intervals (which could be anything from once or twice a day to several times a minute) and in others it could be more effective to install an automatic system which triggers the air blast only when the flow from the hopper is sensed to be sluggish. The fact that air expansion devices are widely available under a number of commercial names, such as 'Air Cannon', 'Air Gun', 'Blast Aerator' and 'Big Blaster' is perhaps an indication of the frequency at which flow problems are encountered. Nevertheless, it should be appreciated that this technique represents a 'brute force' approach and is therefore to be used only as a last resort. Furthermore, the user should be aware that air expansion devices can cause problems, for example, dust generation resulting from the quantity of expanding air and excessive stresses on the hopper walls if the stored material fails to move. Another method of using compressed air to promote discharge from hoppers is by supplying it to inflatable cushions or pads mounted on the inside of the hopper wall in the region where arching is likely to occur (Figure 4.33). Typically each of these cushions would have a surface area of around 8000 cm 2 (1240 in 2 ) and would be made of an elastic material some 12 mm (1/2 in) thick. Inflation of the cushions to 'half-balloon' shape results in a physical push on the stationary product in the hopper which should cause any arch to collapse. THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 191 Figure 4.32 Air expansion methods. (Top) Air blasters fitted to an underground coal bunker. (Bottom) A configuration of four air blasters fitted as an integral part of a materials flow system. (Courtesy Linemann- Halflo Ltd.) 192 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING . ·o . . Figure 4.33 Inflatable pads or cushions. In practice, however, it may be found that, although working well for so-called 'brittle arches' (in products for which flow /no flow is marginal), the air cushions can compact products in which a strong arch has developed, so making the situation worse. As with air expansion devices, inflatable cushions may be either continuously cycled at suitable intervals or automatically controlled by flow sensors positioned in the hopper outlet. 4.10.3 Vibrational methods Vibration as a means of aiding the discharge of a bulk solid from a hopper is widely used in industry, and many different forms of vibrating device are available on the commercial market. Depending upon the design of the device, vibrational frequency can range from 14Hz to around 1300Hz and amplitude from about zero to more than 60 mm. It is helpful to make a distinction between devices which cause the walls of the hopper or bin to vibrate and those which operate directly upon the stored material, although often both effects will be present to some extent. However, before the various types of vibrational device are described it would be as well to consider the effects that vibration can have on a bulk solid. If the product is contained in a closed vessel, vibration at low frequency tends to cause it to compact. High-frequency vibration could cause either compaction or dilatation, depending upon the amplitude and the nature of the product concerned. The point to be made is that, where vibration is required as an aid to flow, it should not be applied when the hopper outlet is closed, as this could result in a strengthening of any arch formation. Vibration of the wall of a hopper can be achieved in a number of ways which are, in some cases, little more than a refinement of the straightforward 'big 193 THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS hammer' technique. It is convenient to group the vibrators under three headings: (i) air-powered piston; (ii) electromagnetic; and (iii) rotary eccentric (electromechanical or air-operated). The air-powered piston vibrator is perhaps the closest approach to simply beating the outside surface of the hopper with a hammer. Electromagnetic vibrators have a somewhat similar effect, and both produce vibrations perpendicular to the wall of the hopper. Rotary eccentric vibrators are generally more expensive than the electromagnetic types and are likely to have a shorter working life. They impart a radial impulse so that the hopper is also subjected to stresses parallel to the wall. Rotary eccentric vibrators are generally operated at rather higher frequencies and lower amplitudes than ' rectangular bins with hopper bottom Conical or rectangular hoppers ''·underside, near spout Hoppers with vertical side Hoppers with sloping discharge spouts dead rectangular or circular bins with flat bottoms Figure 4.34 Parabolic hoppers Recommended positions for vibrators. 194 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING other types and in spite of the disadvantages mentioned above, they have achieved a reputation for successfully keeping difficult products on the move. It is important that a device intended to vibrate the walls of a bin or hopper should be correctly sited to achieve the optimum effect. The complexity of the situation does not permit a mathematical analysis to predict the most suitable point on the hopper wall to initiate a vibration which will be propagated throughout the hopper. The best location(s) for vibrators are, in practice, found by trial, but Figure 4.34 illustrates, for different shapes of hopper, positions that are likely to prove suitable. More recently there has been a trend towards devices which apply vibrations directly to the bulk solid itself. The best known example in this category is the well-established 'bin activator' (Figures 4.35, 4.38). This consists essentially of a steel dish flexibly supported beneath the hopper opening. A baffie plate, typically in the form of an inverted cone fitted above the opening of the activated section, supports the head load of the stored material and transmits vibrator motor outlet section/ Figure 4.35 Bin activator. / hopper bottom ~:~:b". ~;~:~~~~~~~~ _.,... angled blades (louvres) ..... ,:<~;' :'\ outlet/ section Figure 4.36 ...... •... .·/:.(~ C 0::~ //;.; ' L-.,..---..., ... 'Siletta' discharge aid. electromagnetic vibrator THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 195 Vi bra tors off, no flow ·_::·:/.:~:·::~/:~ ;: ~-~- -~ ~.: ~-~~/'< ~._: :. ·;:_::;.~ .~.;{ ·. ·.:~~K;-~iitj~~·~ ,,....,_--1 .. .• ·• VIbrators on Figure 4.37 'Hogan' discharge aid. the vibrations directly into it. Vibration at a frequency of around 25 Hz is generated usually by an externally mounted rotary eccentric device and causes the stored material to move steadily down the walls of the bin, through the annular space between the baffie and the wall, and into the converging outlet section. In this section the material is in a dilated, flowing state and having low mechanical strength is able to pass through a relatively small final opening. Some measure of control can be exercised over the discharge rate by altering the size of the cone and by adjustment of the out-of-balance setting of the vibrator. Table 4.1 [ 15] gives an indication of the size of activator to be used with various types of stored material. Experience has shown that most dry and semi-dry materials can be discharged, although flooding may be a problem 196 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 4.38 Bin activators in a typical installation. (Courtesy Soli tee Ltd.) with fine dry products. Materials in Group D (Table 4.1) which are likely to be poor transmitters of vibration may also present problems. Several varieties of bin activator are commercially available and offer various features which are claimed to improve the discharge characteristics or to offer some measure of flow control. These features include adjustment of the vertical position of the cone and the width of the annular opening from outside Table 4.1 Guidance for the selection of bin activators Product category A B c D Descriptions Granular, free-flowing 'Sluggish', e.g. starch, flour. 'Fine adhesive' and 'light flaky', e.g. bran, wheatings 'Sticky' or 'fibrous' Activator/ bin diameter ratio !-+! !-+1 t~i 1-+1 THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 197 air-operated __ shaker Figure 4.39 'Bridge breaker' discharge aid. vibrating cage Figure 4.40 'Vibro-Bi-Plan' discharge aid. the hopper, simultaneous vibration and aeration (from porous membranes) of products, and multiple outlet facilities. The bin activator described above effectively provides a 'live' bottom to the hopper on which it is fitted. Two other commercially available devices which have the same objective of generating a live bottom to the hopper are the 'Siletta' and the 'Hogan' discharge aids (Figures 4.36, 4.37). These are somewhat similar in appearance, each consisting of a vibrating frame carrying a number of angled blades or louvres and fitted across the bottom of the hopper as shown. The discharge area is thus divided into a series of narrow slots across which the product will tend to arch when in the stationary condition. 198 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING However, vibration of the blades by an externally mounted motor breaks down the arches and generates an active, flowing condition in the stored material which can then be discharged through a relatively small opening. In the case of the Siletta discharge aid the blade/slot dimensions and inclination are pre-set by the manufacturers to suit the handling characteristics of the product concerned. Varying the amplitude of vibration is claimed to give control over the product feed rate. A somewhat different approach to solids flow control is adopted in the Hogan device. As shown in Figure 4.37, the vibrating blades can be rotated to give a larger or smaller area of opening so that the feed rate is controlled in much the same way as a butterfly valve controls the flow of fluid in a pipe. An alternative approach to the use of a live bottom device involves fitting a vibrating cage or screen to the inside of the sloping wall of a hopper, with the aim of breaking any arch of product that begins to develop across the converging section. Two such devices currently available to industry are the 'Bridge Breaker' (Figure 4.39) and the 'Vibro-Bi-Plan' (Figure 4.40). The first of these consists of one or more expanded metal screens, each with its own externally-mounted air operated reciprocating shaker, which vibrates at low frequency (around 20Hz) and high amplitude (2-4 mm) in a direction parallel to the hopper walls. This results in a shearing of the material in the vicinity of the screen(s) which assists its movement towards the hopper outlet. Experience has shown the Bridge Breaker to be most effective when operated for thirty seconds in every minute, and then only when the hopper outlet is open. The Vibro-Bi-Plan (Figure 4.40) consists essentially of a shaking motor suspended centrally in a hopper and transmitting vibrations to a fabricated cage mounted parallel to the hopper walls. The position ofthe obliquely mounted motor can be adjusted to give the most effective combination of horizontal and vertical vibrational forces. 4.1 0.4 Mechanical methods The traditional approach to mechanically dislodging a stored bulk material which has become held up as a result of bridging or rat-holing is to provide the bin or hopper with poke holes through which rods may be manipulated by hand. This method is as bad as pounding the walls with hammers, to promote flow, as the effect is negligible and damage can be caused. A simple solution that has been found to work well with large-sized materials such as crushed rock or ore is to suspend chains vertically within the hopper so that, if a stable arch develops, an upward pull on the chains should destroy it and restore the flow. Many varieties of powered mechanical dislodger, such as vertical or horizontal stirrers, have been used in industry with mixed success. One of the most reliable of these is the 'circular bin discharger' (Figure 4.41 ). This consists of an arch-breaker arm which is driven through a universal joint and THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 199 outlet section ----... Figure 4.41 Circular bin discharger. motor and gearbox \ planetary discharge screw Figure 4.42 A typical sweep-auger discharge aid. is free to work anywhere within the conical bin. Product is fed into the outlet section by the rotation of the flights and the speed of the rotation does, in fact, give some degree of control over the rate of discharge. Various types of screw feeder may be used to mechanically extract difficult products from storage containers. The essential features of screw feeders have been described in section 4.9.5; the installation of these can be adapted for handling awkward products by fitting multiple screws and extending them right across the base of the bin or hopper so that the lower layers of product are kept 'live'. Two examples are the 'Bowerhill-Parcey' and the 'Storall'. The Bowerhill-Parcey system features a single rotating screw or sweep auger which circles slowly around the base of the silo, cutting away the product and discharging it through the central outlet (Figure 4.42). In the case of the Storall (Figure 4.43), the screw operates in a fixed position but the base of the 200 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING rotary table Figure 4.43 Discharge using a fixed auger and rotating silo. silo rotates in order to present the product to the screw. Although both of these systems are expensive, it is claimed that they are capable of handling products that are, for example, wet and sticky, and which could not be satisfactorily discharged by other means. In order to match the operation of the discharger to the flow characteristics of the stored bulk solid, devices such as the sweep auger system may be fitted with separate motors for the rotation of the auger screw and for the circular sweep, or at least have some means of independently pre-setting these two movements. 4.11 Notation D Dl,D2 Da DC Dmin DP FF FF 1 ff G g H Htotal J L m V f3 Diameter of cylindrical bin Upper and lower limits for diameter of cylindrical bin Span of arch Diameter of opening for circular-section hopper Limiting value of hopper outlet dimension Width of opening for plane-flow hopper Bulk solid Flow Function Time-consolidated Flow Function Hopper flow factor Empirical hopper outlet factor for core flow Gravitational acceleration (specific gravitational force) Height of cylindrical section of bin Overall height of storage bin Empirical hopper outlet factor for mass flow Length of opening for plane-flow hopper Mass of bulk solid stored in bin Total volume of bulk solid stored in bin Angle made by sloping hopper wall to vertical ( = half included angle of hopper) THE DESIGN OF STORAGE BINS AND HOPPERS 201 Wall angle for circular-section hopper Wall angle for plane-flow hopper Valley angle in plane-flow hopper Surcharge angle of free-surface of bulk solid (=poured angle of repose) Bulk density of bulk solid stored in bin Consolidating stress Stress in stable arch Unconfined yield stress Critical value of unconfined yield stress Angle of internal friction of bulk solid Angle of wall friction References and bibliography References !. Jenike, A.W. (1964) Storage and Flow of Solids. Bull. No. 123, Utah Engg. Exp. Station, Univ. of Utah. 2. Draft Code of' Practice for the Design of Silos, Bins, Bunkers and Hoppers. 2nd edn., British Materials Handling Board (1985). 3. Arnold, P.C., McLean, A.G. and Roberts, A.W. (1979) Bulk Solids: Storage, Flow and Handling. TUNRA Ltd., Univ. of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia. 4. Janssen, H.A. (1895) Versuchc iiber Getreidcdruck in Silozellen (Tests on Grain Pressure in Silos), Verein Deutscher lngenieure, Zeitschr. 39 (35), 1045-1049 [in German]. 5. Walker, D.M. (1966) An approximate theory for pressure and arching in hoppers, Chem. Eng. Sci. 21, 975-997. 6. Proc. 1st Int. Con/. on Design of Silos for Strength and Flow, Univ. of Lancaster, 2nd-4th September 1980, Powder Advisory Centre, London. 7. Lastnahmenfiir Bauen-Lasten in Siloze/len (Design Loads for Buildings-Loads on Silo Bins), DIN 1055, Part 6, (Draft) February 1984. [In German]. 8. Regles de Conception et de Calcul des Silos en Beton, Syndicat National du Beton et des Techniques Industrialisi:es. No. 189, 1975. [In French]. 9. Recommended Practice for Design of Concrete Bins, Silos and Bunkers for Storing Granular Materials (and Commentary), ACI 313, American Concrete Institute 1984. 10. Jenike, A.W. Effect of Solids Flow Properties and the Hopper Feeder Unit on Silo Loads, in Int. Con[. on Design of Silos for Strength and Flow, University of Lancaster, September 1980. 11. Guidelines for the Assessment of Loads on Bulk Solids Containers. Institution of Engineers, Australia (1986). 12. Ibrahim, A. G. and Dickenson, R.P. Finite element analysis of the stresses in powdered coal stored in silos, in Proc. Int. Symp. on Recent Advances in ?articulate Science and Technology, liT, Madras, India (1982). 13. Reisner, W. and Rothe, M. (1971) Bins and Bunkers for Handling Bulk Materials. Trans Tech Publications, Aedermannsdorf, Switzerland. 14. McLean, A.G. and Arnold, P.C. (1979) A simplified approach for the evaluation of feeder loads for mass-flow bins. J. Powder Bulk Solids Techno/., 3 (3), 25-28. 15. Reed, A.R. and DufTell, C.H. Hopper discharge aids, in Proc. Solidex 80 Con[., Harrogate, March/April 1980, Paper E3. Recommended further reading Draft Code of Practice for the Design of Silos, Bins, Bunkers and Hoppers. 2nd edn., British Materials Handling Board (1985). 202 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Arnold, P.C., McLean, A.G. and Roberts, A.W. (1979) Bulk Solids: Storage, Flow and Handling. TUNRA Ltd., Univ. of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia. Reisner, W. and Rothe, M. (1971) Bins and Bunkers for Handling Bulk Materials. Trans Tech, Cleveland, OH. Reimbert, M. and Reimbert, A. (1976) Silos-Theory and Practice. Trans Tech, Cleveland, OH. Gay lord, E.H. and Gaylord, C. N. (1984) Design of Steel Bins for Storage of Bulk Solids. PrenticeHall International, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 5 Dust control 5.1 Introduction One of the main problems arising from almost any process involving the handling of bulk particulate materials is the generation and release of dust. Designers and operators of bulk handling systems have recently become increasingly aware of the hazards associated with the release of airborne dust in significant quantities. Thus, whereas the principal incentive for the control of dust emissions used to be an economic one {i.e. the more valuable the product, the more trouble would be taken to ensure its total recovery) there are now the additional factors of environment, health and safety to be given the most serious consideration. Since the Health and Safety at Work Act {1974) became law, the avoidance of excessive environmental pollution has become of prime importance, and where the product concerned is potentially dangerous {e.g. toxic or explosive) extreme measures must be taken to prevent its escape from the plant in which it is being handled. The handling of a powder or granular product in bulk may involve many individual operations which could result in the generation of dust. Some examples of cases where dust concentrations can be very high are grinding, drying and pneumatic conveying, but other forms of bulk transport, and also operations such as crushing, mixing and screening, can give rise to considerable dust. In general, there are three types of hazard associated with the emission of dust: {i) respiratory effects, (ii) skin and eye effects, and {iii) fire and explosion. It is almost always the very fine particles of dust that pose the problem as it is these that tend to remain suspended in the air for a significant period of time. For example, the terminal velocity of a I ,urn particle of silica is about I mm in 30 seconds, whereas that of a I 00 ,urn particle is about 300 mm per second. (Figure 5.1 illustrates comparative size ranges of some familiar airborne particles.) When suspended in air the smallest particle visible to the naked eye is about 50-I 00 ,urn in diameter, but it is particles of 0.2-5 ,urn diameter that are most dangerous for the lungs. Thus the existence of visible dust gives only indirect evidence of danger, as finer invisible particles will almost certainly be present too. The fact that no dust can be seen is no reliable indication that dangerous invisible dust may not be present in the air. There are many aspects to the problem of dust control, but this chapter concentrates on the separation of the solid particles from the carrier gas in some kind of'disengaging device' such as a filter or cyclone. Firstly, however, it is worth examining a little more closely the nature of the problem of dust as a 204 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING carbol black viruses I oil smoke I tobacco smoke paint pigments I insecticide dusts Iface powder I I I industrial airborne dusts I bacteria milleJ flour coal dust fly ash pollens 0.01 10 0.1 100 mean particle size [1'/Tl] Figure 5.1 Size ranges of some familiar types of airborne particulate material. hazard to health. In the next chapter attention will be turned to the other dangerous feature of airborne dust --the risk of explosion. 5.2 Dust as a hazard to health 5.2.1 Dust particle size Airborne dusts which may be encountered in industrial situations generally consist of particles less than about I 0 !!ill in size and can be taken into the body by ingestion, skin absorption or inhalation. The former is rarely a serious problem, but diseases of the skin are not infrequent. Eyes may be affected by irritant dusts or by allergic reaction, and allergic skin reactions are known to be caused by powders containing, for example, metals such as chrome, nickel or cobalt. However, it is inhalation that presents the greatest hazards for DUST CONTROL 205 workers in a dusty environment. Inhalation of dust can lead to respiratory disorders as a result of direct mechanical and/or chemical irritant action on the respiratory passages, causing bronchospasm, cough, tightness of the chest and, following prolonged exposure, chronic obstructive lung disease [ 1]. The size of dust particles tends to determine the location and extent of dust deposition in the lungs and influences the action of the dust, although the pathological effects will depend also upon other factors such as the mass of the particles and their surface area. Relatively large particles of dust that have been inhaled and become deposited in the respiratory system will usually be carried back to the mouth by ciliary action and subsequently swallowed or expectorated. At the other extreme, ultra-fine particles (less than about 0.2 Jlm) are likely to pass relatively quickly and harmlessly into solution in the extracellular fluids of the lung tissue [2]. Inhaled particles within the approximate size range 0.2-5 Jlm can reach the lower regions of the lungs where they will probably be retained. Prolonged exposure to such dusts can cause various diseases, most of them potentially serious and often resulting in permanent damage to the lung tissues. The best known are probably the diseases collectively designated 'pneumoconiosis' and characterized by chronic fibrosis of the lungs as a result of continual inhalation of mineral dusts such as silica, asbestos and talc. Generally the symptoms are chronic shortage of breath and increased susceptibility to respiratory infection. Other dustrelated diseases include pneumonitis (an acute inflammation of the lung tissue or bronchioles), lung cancer and certain more specific manifestations and symptoms [1 ], such as asbestosis, a form of progressive fibrosis of the lung occurring in those occupationally exposed to significant levels of asbestos; bagassosis, an acute or sub-acute respiratory condition which may occur in workers handling bagasse (the fibre of sugar cane sticks remaining after juice extraction); and suberosis, a relatively benign pulmonary fibrosis occurring in workers exposed to high levels of cork dust. It is convenient to classify dusts into four categories according to their biological action [ 1]: (i) Inert dusts: accumulate in the body but generally produce no reaction. (ii) Toxic dusts: usually metal compounds, such as chromates or lead compounds. Acute or chronic effects on specific organs such as the central nervous system, the peripheral blood-forming system or the kidneys. (iii) Allergenic dusts: may cause asthma or eczema, the actual effects varying from person to person. (iv) Fibrogenic dusts: the most important from an occupational health point of view, as they cause the pulmonary fibrosis characteristic of pneumocomos1s. The relative dangers of some common dusts are compared in Table 5.1 in which the materials are arranged in Groups I to IV, but more detailed and up- Silica (silicon dioxide) which has been heated. In these circumstances silica undergoes modification into biologically active forms. Calcined kieselguhr (diatomaceo us earth) is dangerous on this account. Beryllium, particularly as the oxide. Very dangerous. Expert advice should always be obtained. Group I Mica Ferrosilicon Talc Mixed dusts containing 20~~ and more of free silica; e.g. pottery dust, granite dust and steel foundry dust. Emery Asbestine Glass (including glass fibre) Cement Carborun dum Barytes Silica e.g. as quartz, ganister, gritstone. etc. Alumina ('aloxite', corundum ) Minimal risk. Visible concentrations of these dusts, although inexcusable on general grounds, probably represent more danger to welfare and comfort than to health. Mixed dusts containing some free silica but arbitrarily less than 20~~. In this group are included the dusts of iron and non-ferrous foundries Moderate risk. Emission of any of these dusts to form a dense local cloud should cause concern. Dangerous. A visible haze of any of these dusts is intolerable, and no possible source of such dust should be ignored, whether or not there is a visible cloud. Group IV Asbestos, other than crocidolite. The two important varieties in commerce are amosite (brown asbestos) and chrysotile (white asbestos). Group Ill Group 11 Table 5.1 Relative dangers of some common dusts. Based on information from [2] N 0 r z Cl 0 z p :I: C/J 5 r ~ ~ r c::: 1:0 0'1 Crocidolite (blue asbestos). Evidence associates this variety of asbestos with the development of malignant tumours of pleura and peritoneum. Fireclay dust with a total silicate (as 'silica') content in excess of 60% Perlite and dusts from other basic rocks Silicates other than those already mentioned Cotton dust and other dusts of vegetable origin Graphite Synthetic silicas Aluminous fireclay Zinc oxide Zirconium silicate and oxide Titanium dioxide Tin-ore and oxides Mineral wool and slag wool Carbides of some metals Coal dust Magnesium oxide Limestone Iron oxide Non-crystalline silica incl. unheated kieselguhr Kaolin (china clay; fuller's earth) ~ -..) r 0 ~ ;l n ~ c:: 0 208 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING to-date information is available in the publications concerned with dust concentration limits, as described in the next section. 5.2.2 Dust concentration limits One of the criteria used in monitoring the compliance of companies with the 1974 Health and Safety at Work Act and other relevant statutory provisions is the concentration of airborne dust. The measured concentration is compared with variously defined 'threshold limit values' (TL Vs) which are functions also of the duration of the exposure of personnel to the dust. Commonly used definitions of threshold limit value are [3]: TLV-TWA TLV-STEL TLV-C Time-weighed average concentration for a normal 8-hour workday or 40-hour work week to which most workers can be repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse effect. Short-term exposure limit: the maximum concentration to which workers can be exposed for a period up to 15 minutes provided that no more than four excursions to this value occur each day. Threshold limit ceiling: the concentration that should not be exceeded, even instantaneously. For further information on actual threshold limit values [ 4] or [5] should be consulted. Note, however, that more recent proposals [6] use the terms 'control limits' and 'recommended limits', these being generally expressed in relation to long-term and short-term exposure limits (8-hour TWA and STEL). The use of ceiling values has been abandoned in the UK because of the practical difficulty of monitoring and applying these instantaneous levels. The 'control limit', which is applied for the more hazardous materials, is to be regarded as absolute, with compliance being a legal requirement in the UK under the Health and Safety at Work Act (1974) and the Factories Act (1961) [1]. 5.3 Dust suppression 5.3.1 Elimination of dust Clearly the best solution to the problem of dust is to stop making it! However, it is often difficult to eliminate completely the generation of dust in manufacturing processes and during the handling of particulate bulk solids. An assessment of the magnitude of a potential dust problem can be made by examining the bulk material being handled, paying special attention to the fines content of that material. A test has been described [7] to determine the 'dustability' of a bulk particulate material; that is, the propensity of particles DUST CONTROL 209 from within the bulk to become airborne when the bulk is subjected to external forces. Where such a test, or previous experience with a product, indicates that the generation of dust is likely to present a real problem, serious consideration should be given to methods of modifying or treating the product in order to reduce its 'dustability'. The first step towards control of dust generation is to examine carefully the various operations which may be a source of dust. Some examples of these are falling streams of product (especially where air displacement is involved), crushing and grinding processes, pneumatic conveying at high velocity, open stockpiles subjected to winds, and so on. It may well be possible at least to reduce the amount of dust generation by modifying the process or the method of handling; for example, by handling the product wet instead of dry, by agglomerating the particles (pelletizing), or by minimizing air flows which might disturb the dry product. For a more detailed discussion of this aspect of dust suppression see, for example, [3] and [7]. 5.3.2 Control o{ dust dispersion If the total elimination of dust is not possible, or not feasible, some method of 'controlling' the dust must be used. Essentially this means keeping the dust away from personnel and preventing its escape into the environment, but attention must also be given to the question of dust clouds within enclosures presenting an explosion hazard. (The latter is discussed in detail in the next chapter.) Total enclosure of the processing and handling plant is probably the most desirable approach but, in addition to the high cost, there are obvious problems over accessibility. A generally more satisfactory arrangement is to use some kind of partial enclosure or hood in conjunction with an exhaust system. In the case of partial or unsealed enclosure the exhaust system serves not only to remove the dust particles but also to keep the enclosure below atmospheric pressure so that any leakage occurring will be inward rather than outward. In this way the egress of dust from the plant is kept to a minimum. Extractor hoods are essentially of two types: captor hoods and receptor hoods [8], [9]. The receptor hood is designed to capture dust that is forced towards it by some external agency whereas the captor hood must be capable of collecting dust which would otherwise not enter it. The design of receptor hoods will thus be based essentially on observations of the movement of dust-contaminated air in the region concerned. The size, shape and position of the hood must be chosen to ensure that the dusty air is collected, and the exhaust flow must be sufficient to ensure that at no point over the entry plane of the hood is the velocity less than that of the approaching air. Some fundamental pointers to the successful design of captor hoods are given in [8]. Figure 5.2 illustrates a range of hood types and shows how the 210 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Cal Slot CW • 0.2Ll V=3.7Lux (b) Flanged slot (W • 0.2Ll V=2.8Lux (cl Plain opening (W · 0.2, or round) V =u(10x 2 +Al where A = WL for a rectangular opening (d) Flanged opening CW • 0.2, or round) V=0.75u(10x 2 +Al where A=WL for a rectangular opening (e) Booth V=uWH (f) Canopy V= 1.4PDu where P is the perimeter of the work space and D is the height of the canopy above it Figure 5.2 Forms of dust extraction hood, and formulae for calculating required air volume now rates [8]. Note: V= extraction air volume now rate; u = centreline capture velocity. required air flow rate may be estimated, once the capture velocity at a specified distance from the hood has been selected. It should be noted that for a given air flow rate the capture velocity, which may need to be anything from around 0.3 m/s for very fine dust in still air to I 0 m/s for coarse particles emitted at high initial velocities, is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the entry plane of the hood. Thus the mean velocity at the entry plane may need to be very high if the hood is to be effective over more than a short distance and if the influence of draughts and convection currents is not to cause an excessive reduction in its efficiency. Dusty air collected from a booth, hood or other type of partial or total enclosure must of course be cleaned before it can be released into the DUST CONTROL 211 atmosphere, and the remainder of this chapter will examine some of the commonly used types of air-cleaning system. Methods of air cleaning fall broadly into three classes according to the property of the solid particles on which the separation process depends. Thus we have separation based upon (i) the mass of the particles, (ii) the size of the particles, or (iii) the electrical properties of the particles. The selection of the air cleaner to be used on any given application will be influenced by a number of factors, notably the amount of bulk solid involved, the particle size range, the collecting efficiency required and the capital/running costs. In general, the finer the particles to be collected the higher will be the cost of a suitable disengaging system. Where the dust contains relatively large or heavy particles it would be usual to select a cyclone separator in which a spin is imparted to the entering gas/solid stream so that the solid particles are thrown outwards while the gas is drawn off from the centre of the vortex. Where fine particles are involved, especially if they are also of low density, separation in a cyclone may not be fully effective and in this case the gas/solid stream may be vented through a fabric filter. Many different types of fabric filter are in use and selection depends mainly upon the nature of the solid particles being collected and the proportion of solids in the gas stream. For materials containing extremely fine particles or dust further refinements in the separation technique may be necessary using, for example, wet washers or scrubbers, or electrostatic precipitation. Although a detailed consideration of dust collector selection procedures is beyond the scope of this book, it must be emphasized that, in order to ensure that the optimum choice is made, there are many factors to be taken into account. Furthermore, it must not be overlooked that there is likely to be a measure of interaction between the dust collecting device and other system components, and therefore the dust collector should not be considered in isolation. For a useful discussion of this topic the reader is referred to the chapter on Plant Selection Procedure in [8], from which the information used as the basis for Table 5.2 is taken. 5.4 Gravity and inertial separators The simplest type of equipment for separating solid material from a gas stream is the 'gravity chamber' in which the velocity of the gas/solid stream is reduced, and the residence time increased, so that the particles fall out of suspension under the influence of gravity (Figure 5.3a). Clearly the rate at which the solid particles settle, and therefore the efficiency of separation, is very much dependent upon the mass of the particles; that is, upon their size and density. In general, settling chambers tend to be used as pre-cleaners for cyclones or filters and would only be used on their own for disengaging bulk solids of relatively large particle size (greater than about 150 J.lm, although naturally 212 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 5.2 Primary factors for the selection of dust collection devices [8] Ga. temperature mlct l!l collccwr ollcctor lpe c c c eu e e oe u u .Do <- 0 I c eu e .0 :s VI • • prec1p11ator ggregatc liher Fabn liher ibrous liher Key· e ~u _g < v 8.,. .,., 0 rl 8. :s uo ..er preference (If pracucal) c 8. :s .. -g "'u Ci ""'"' ... _g<U f"'J "'0 <~ / .. 0 ?; 0 u :s ~ ,, + • • •• • • u 8u :s:~ 0 -= ..J!: :s: 0 ;:; u -. .c:: u =" "" ..... = -c. ;:; R ..J 0 .~ E :2:8 • Generall} 'klll\factory F r purely c nom1c rea. "'· ahernauvcs hould be con\1dcrcd pcc.al aucnllon needed 1f operauonal problem\ arc tu be avmdcd Pos 1ble evcrc operauonal d1fficuh•c' elect ahcrnall•c this depends upon the density of the particles). For particles larger than about 300 ,urn a collecting efficiency in excess of 95% should be possible. To improve the collecting efficiency of the basic gravity settling chamber, when working with products oflow density or of a fibrous nature, for example, one or more mesh separating screens may be fitted at an angle across the gas flow (Figure 5.3b). This represents perhaps the simplest form of impingement separator in which particles are separated from the gas stream by impingement on collecting bodies arranged in some manner across the flow. The collecting body may be a mesh or grid, a baffie plate, a set oflouvres, or a combination of these. In general the more complex the device (i.e. the larger the number of changes in flow direction) the greater will be the pressure-drop across it. In both the gravity settling chamber and impingement separator, care should be taken to ensure that its design allows, as far as possible, a uniform distribution of velocity in the gas entering and leaving. Within the device itself, particularly in the region of the gas exit, the velocity should be generally less than about 3 m/s if excessive re-entrainment of collected particles is to be avoided. Various forms of inertial separator are available which rely on centrifugal effects, the best known being the cyclone, dealt with in section 5.5. A 213 DUST CONTROL gas out ______,,----,---'1 gas/solids Trf"·- ~ ~; (a) Basic gravity settling chamber t (b) Simple form of impingement separator ~ mesh separating ', ~~'~' ;,\';~~' ~· ' solids out solids out -~wear plate (c) The principle of the 'dust skimmer' Figure 5.3 Gravity and inertial separators. somewhat simpler device, that does not have the spiralling vortex characteristic of the cyclone, is the skimmer (Figure 5.3c) in which dust particles are concentrated by centrifugal action on the outer wall of the scroll and then skimmed off. Mechanically-assisted centrifugal separators are also available commercially. These devices have the advantage of being compact and collecting efficiencies are likely to be comparable with those of a highefficiency cyclone. 5.5 Air cleaners-cyclones 5.5.1 Principle of operation The cyclone separator is dependent upon the mass of the particles for its operation, the forces that disengage the solid particles from the conveying gas being developed by imparting a spinning motion to the incoming stream so that the particles migrate outwards and downwards under the influence of centrifugal and gravitational effects. The commonest form of cyclone is the so-called 'reverse flow' type, illustrated in Figure 5.4, in which the rotation of the gas is effected by introducing it tangentially to the cylindrical upper part of the device. The solid particles are then collected from the outlet at the base of the conical lower part H 214 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING cleaned gas out ·~ ( ... gas/solids in outer vortex carries solid particles to cyclone wall Figure 5.4 Principle of dry cyclone separator. fixed swirl vanes deflector ring Figure 5.5 'Straight-through' or 'uniflow' cyclone. DUST CONTROL 215 whilst the cleaned gas flows in the opposite direction through the top outlet. Alternative designs of cyclone separator that have been proposed include the 'straight-through' type in which the rotation of the gas/solids stream is imparted by fixed vanes mounted in a circular duct (Figure 5.5). The cleaned gas leaves through a concentric inner duct whilst the solid particles are extracted through an annular space between the inner and outer ducts. The size of particles that can be separated in a cyclone, and the collecting efficiency, depend principally upon the difference in density of the solid particles and the conveying gas, the solids concentration, the inlet gas velocity and the dimensions (notably the diameter) of the cyclone itself. Increasing the entry velocity or decreasing the cylinder diameter should normally result in an increase in the collecting efficiency of finer particles, but the practical lower limit on particle size is likely to be around 10 f.1m. It should be noted, however, that decreasing the cylinder diameter will reduce the gas/solids throughput, in addition to improving the collecting efficiency, and consequently more cyclones will be needed for a given application, at greater cost. Operation at higher solids concentrations may be advantageous as fine particles then tend to be 'caught' and swept out by larger particles, resulting in an improved collecting efficiency. The dimensions of a cyclone designed for optimum performance will thus depend on its actual application (i.e. on the nature of the solid material to be separated and the separation efficiency required) but typically the proportions would be as shown in Figure 5.6. For high collecting efficiency the shape of the cyclone would be modified by decreasing the cross-sectional area of the gas/solids inlet and the gas outlet and reducing the depth to which the gas outlet duct extends into the cyclone cylinder. Also, for high efficiency a cyclone of smaller diameter would be selected. These modifications to the shape of the cyclone will have the significant effect of reducing the diameter of the internal vortex and increasing its length, and so allowing smaller particles to be collected. Note that it is important to maintain, as far as is possible, the stability of the vortex and therefore it is usually recommended that the gas exit duct should consist of at least three diameters of straight pipe before any bend or other obstruction. High efficiency cyclones do suffer, not surprisingly, from the disadvantage that the gas throughput is comparatively low. Therefore, whilst it would be usual to select a single cyclone of suitable capacity for a given application, multiple parallel high efficiency units would give better collection of fine particles. Two or more units in series might be preferable where the material to be collected has a wide particle size range. 5.5.2 Prediction of collecting efficiency When selecting a cyclone separator, the information that is usually of the greatest importance is (i) its collecting efficiency over the particle size range of 216 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING ! I<J ?ij'l----=;f 0.350 (0.20) \!:!2__ • 0.60 (0.50) -o- Figure 5.6 Proportions of a typical cyclone separator. (Dimensions in brackets indicate possible modifications for high collecting efficiency.) the material being handled: {ii) the pressure drop across it at the normal operating gas/solids flow rate, and {iii) its cost {including repair/replacement cost when handling abrasive materials). This information should normally be supplied by the cyclone manufacturer. Many attempts have been made to develop theoretical expressions for the prediction of collecting efficiency based on the dimensions of the cyclone and on the properties of the gas and solid material to be separated. None has proved to be really satisfactory and reliance must be placed on experimental data for cyclone performance. The data is normally presented in the form of a plot of collecting efficiency against particle size for cyclones tested with some 'standard' material {Figure 5.7). Over limited ranges, reasonably reliable corrections can be made to a cyclone efficiency curve to predict the performance of the device at different gas flow rates, for different gas viscosities, and for particles of different densities. Table 5.3 217 DUST CONTROL 80 ~ ~ >c: (.) .!!l .1.1 :::: Q) low efficiency (high throughput) 60 0> .I; u ~ 0 (.) 40 20 80 40 60 particle size Ci<m) 20 100 Figure 5. 7 Performance curves for typical cyclone separators showing the variation that can occur between designs for high efficiency and for high volumetric flow rate. Table 5.3 Correction factors for collecting efficiency of a cyclone Variable Correction factor Gas volumetric flow-rate Gas viscosity Particle density ,j(rated flow rate/actual flow rate) ,j(viscosity of actual gas/viscosity of tested gas) ,j(density of tested particles/density of actual particles) summarizes these correction factors by which the particle sizes at the rated conditions should be multiplied. As an example of the way that these correction factors may be used, consider a cyclone tested with a particulate solid of density 3000 kg/m 3 and a conveying gas of viscosity 1.8 x 10- 5 N s/m 2 at a rate of 0.03 m 3 /min. An estimate of the collecting efficiency curve for the cyclone operating with a material of density pP kg/m 3 and gas of viscosity /lg Ns/m 2 and flow rate Vg m 3 /min could be obtained by multiplying values of particle size on the tested collecting efficiency curve by a factor K, where K= 3000. /lg -~~~ t.8 x 10-s 0.03 vg 218 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING A similar correction may be made for scale on cyclones that are geometrically similar by using the correction factor. K' =)(diameter of actual cyclone/diameter of test cyclone) provided that the difference in size is not great. 5.5.3 Prediction of pressure-drop It is usually important to have some preliminary knowledge of the pressuredrop across a cyclone separator, especially where it is to be installed on a lowpressure pneumatic conveying system, since the volume flow rate produced by the fan is very sensitive to the total system resistance. Variations in cyclone design to increase the collecting efficiency also tend to increase the pressuredrop across it. Whilst at the present time there appears to be no simple accurate method of predicting the pressure-drop across a cyclone, !lpc, a useful approximate prediction can be made by using the following equation, based on that proposed by Alexander and described in [1 0], to obtain the pressuredrop in terms of the inlet velocity head: fl Pc= C x area of gas inlet f x inlet velocity head area o gas out 1et where the factor C is a function of the cyclone body diameter, the gas outlet diameter and the gas temperature, and can be estimated from Figure 5.8. 5.5.4 Cyclone selection Summarizing, the selection of a single cyclone separator for a given application is matter of determining, from the dimensions of available models, the velocity of the gas at the inlet section. The choice is then from cyclones for which this inlet velocity is between about 19 mjs and 30 mjs. A rather higher velocity could be beneficial when handling very fine particulate materials, but it is more likely that such high velocities will result in a fall in efficiency because of excessive turbulence within the cyclone and consequent re-entrainment and carry-through of particles. Where the gas flow rate fluctuates to such an extent that the inlet velocity may fall outside the acceptable range for a single cyclone, it is possible to install a number of smaller cyclones in parallel with manual or automatic shut-off of one or more as the flow rate falls. A final choice of single cyclone, or a decision to use multiple cyclones in parallel or in series, should be made on the basis of collecting efficiencies and pressure-drops estimated as explained above. 5.6 Air cleaners-wet washers or scrubbers 5.6.1 Principle of' ope rat ion A significant improvement in the performance of dry gas/solids separators such as cyclones and fabric filters can be achieved by the addition of some form 8 § ~ 0 .... 100 ~ v 200 500 ~ 1000 I I I I ! I I I I I 2000 cyclone body diameter (rrrn) ..-:::: :::: ..., ,...... / ......... ......... ~ .,.I-' I-~ ~I 5000 V y. 1-r-· !- -· f h - '( IJ 5 ~{t ~~~v ! t I I I I I I coefficient C 10 ~ 15 20 Vv ~v/I/ V/ llll 1/ ~ I ~ ~V r/ I~ I -.I- 1j ~.3 lo.5,.7 I I 'I!J !- t-- 1 J·5 / Figure 5.8 Cyclone pressure-drop chart; lip = C x area of gas inlet/area of gas outlet x inlet velocity head. , ... loo"' ..... "' ... 50 1: 1250 u ~ !-- ... Ja~ ~ 0.7 I I I / I 0.3 50 gas outlet diameter /cyclone body diameter \0 N - r ~ ~ () 0 § 220 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING of water spray. Although there are many different types of wet washer, the principle of operation is essentially the same. Solid particles entering the device are 'wetted' by coming into contact with either an irrigated surface or water droplets of a size much larger than that of the particles themselves. The water is then drawn off into a suitable sump where it is left to stand for sufficient time to allow the solid particles to settle out. The main mechanisms by which dust particles are wetted and collected are [11]: (i) Impingement, in which the dust particles are made to impinge and adhere to water droplets or a water film. (ii) Diffusion, the mechanism by which the smaller particles are collected by liquid droplets. (iii) Condensation: if a liquid spray causes the gas to pass through its dew point, condensation will take place, with the dust particles acting as condensation nuclei. The increase in effective size of particles simplifies their subsequent collection by mechanical means. In addition to capturing the solid particles the water in the wet washer also serves to keep the internal surfaces of the device clean and to carry the collected dust to the disposal point. The principal types of wet washers in use are [ 11 ], [ 12]: (i) Low pressure-drop types (a) Spray chambers (b) Packed irrigated towers (c) Irrigated porous beds (d) Mechanically induced spray scrubbers (e) Irrigated cyclones (ii) High pressure-drop types (a) Self-induced spray scrubbers (b) Venturi scrubbers. Probably the most important single advantage of wet washers is the reduction in hazard level when handling potentially explosive materials. However, their application is, in general, somewhat limited, and therefore these devices will be described here only briefly. For further information the reader is directed to [8], [11], [13] and [14]. 5.6.2 Low pressure-drop wet washers In the simplest type of spray chamber the dust-laden air is passed through a series of water sprays (Figure 5.9). Baffle plates may be placed between the sprays to assist the contacting of water and solid particles. In some designs the air enters tangentially as in a cyclone and water is sprayed radially across the air-stream (Figure 5.1 0). Pressure-drops are typically around 15-50 mm H 2 0 221 DUST CONTROL clean air outlet ~ Figure 5.9 water inlet Typical simple spray tower. for simple spray chambers, or up to 200 mm H 2 0 for the cyclone type. Packed irrigated towers are really a development of the simple spray chamber. Water is sprayed into the top of the tower and drips down through a column of randomly packed elements (e.g. glass marbles or ceramic rings) collecting dust from the upward-flowing contaminated air. Irrigated porous beds are essentially similar but contain large numbers of small packing elements (e.g. beads) in relatively shallow beds. Consequently the collecting efficiency may be slightly better than for a packed bed, but the pressure-drop is likely to be somewhat greater, perhaps up to 1.2 m H 2 0. High maintenance costs and unreliable performance have resulted in the decline of the mechanically-induced spray scrubber. One type which has survived is based on a fan which atomizes and accelerates water sprayed into the inlet so that inertial impaction takes place between the dust particles and the high-velocity water droplets. Irrigated cyclones are very similar in appearance to dry cyclones except that water is introduced to provide a film over the internal surfaces of the device. In this way the tendency for dust particles to be picked up by the inner upward- 222 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING clean ai" outlet core breaker ---t-...,;?.--~o~ spray manifold ckJsty ai" net Figure 5.10 Cyclone spray scrubber. flowing vortex is minimized, thus reducing one of the main sources of inefficiency of dry cyclones. Irrigating a conventional dry cyclone can result in a significant improvement in performance without increasing the pressuredrop. 5.6.3 High pressure-drop wet washers The self-induced spray scrubber is probably the most widely used type of wet washer. These devices operate by drawing the dust-laden air under or through baffies partly submerged in water and so generating a dense spray (Figure 5.11). This results in a compact design of collector and relatively high collecting efficiency. Furthermore, the lack of moving parts means that maintenance costs are low. However, pressure-drops can be quite high (up to 200 mm H 2 0). Good performance is obtained even with dusts as fine as 2.5 pm, and water usage is relatively low at about 7litres of water to 100m 3 of air. Another device capable of achieving high performance with very fine 223 DUST CONTROL Figure 5.11 Self-induced spray scrubber. clean air outlet ' water inlet I water and sludge outlet ' Figure 5.12 Arrangement of typical venturi scrubber. 224 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING particles is the venturi scrubber (Figure 5.12). Water is injected into the dustladen air which has been accelerated in a throat section to a velocity of around 60-100 m/s. The resulting high relative velocity between water droplets and solid particles ensures a high collecting efficiency. The dust-carrying droplets are separated from the air in a cyclone separator. Energy requirements of venturi scrubbers are high, pressure-drops being normally in excess of 500 mm H 2 0. Various developments have been proposed recently [8] with the aim of reducing the high power usage of wet dust collectors. These include: (i) Electrically augmented scrubbers providing an electrostatic charge to the dust particles or to the water droplets, or both (ii) Two- or three-stage venturi scrubbers (iii) Bubble foam scrubbers (iv) Flux force and condensation scrubbers in which a hot humid gas is brought into contact with a cold liquid. 5.7 Air cleaners-filters 5.7.1 Mechanism offiltration The second class of gas/solid separator to be considered is that which depends for its action principally on the size of the solid particle to be collected. The main representatives of this class are devices using screens or fabric filter bags. In order to appreciate the principles on which filter units are designed or selected it is helpful to understand the manner in which they operate. There are two fundamental mechanisms by which particles can be removed from a stream of gas passing through a porous fabric. The most obvious of these is a 'sieving' mechanism in which particles too large to pass through the mesh of the fabric are caught and retained on the surface of the filter. The caught particles gradually build up on the filter so that the labyrinthine nature of the gas flow-path continually increases whilst the 'effective mesh size' decreases. The collecting efficiency of the filter will therefore tend to be improved by use, but of course the pressure-drop across it will also increase, and regular cleaning is essential. The less obvious but, especially for very fine particles, more important, mechanism of filtration is that in which the particles are caught by impingement on the fibres of the filter fabric (sometimes called 'depth filtration' to distinguish it from 'sieving'). It is for this reason that filters usually consist of a fibrous mat rather than a single woven fabric screen. The actual flow-paths followed by the gas passing through a depth filter are thus extremely tortuous and a particle, unable to follow these paths, is given a trajectory which sooner or later brings it into contact with a fibre where it adheres, largely as a result of van der Waals forces. DUST CONTROL 225 The collecting efficiency of a fabric filter is mainly influenced by the gas velocity through the fabric and the size of particle to be collected. Where the particles are relatively large (greater than about 5,um) they are likely, because of their greater inertia, to come frequently into contact with the filter fibres. However, the tendency to 'bounce off' the fibres and escape from the filter is also greater, especially where the gas velocity is high. Where the solids loading is low, the performance of the filter may be improved by oiling the fabric to enhance the adhesive properties of the fibres. For high solids loading, as would be encountered in pneumatic conveying systems for example, a common practice is to install a cyclone separator upstream of the filter in order to remove most material over 5 ,urn in size. With extremely fine particles the phenomenon of Brownian diffusion becomes significant. At low velocities especially, the effect of this is to increase the collecting efficiency of the filter. Increasing the gas velocity will reduce the influence of Brownian diffusion and the particles, having low inertia, may be able to follow the flow-paths through the filter. There is thus a minimum collecting efficiency between the peaks corresponding respectively to Brownian diffusion (for fine particles at low gas velocity) and inertial impingement (for larger particles at higher gas velocity). This relationship between collecting efficiency and particle size/gas velocity is illustrated in Figure 5.13. For a more complete discussion of this subject see [14]. As with separation by sieving, the collecting efficiency and the resistance of a depth filter generally increase with use. Once the pressure-drop across the filter becomes unacceptably high the fabric must be cleaned or replaced. decrease in efficiency due to 'bounce off 1 0 c -~ 0 ~ Cl .I; i0 0 particle size velocity Figure 5.13 ~ ~ Variation of collecting efficiency as a net effect of particle size and gas velocity [14]. 226 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 5.4 Summary of the characteristics of some typical fibres used in the manufacture of filter fabrics E ·;::" ci.o= <1) - x <=: 0u "U ~c_. <= 0 <1) u <=: ·;n ro "...... ~ ..0 V> -<( ~ Fibre ---·- Polyethylene Cotton Polypropylene Wool (dry) Nylon (polyamide) Orlon (acrylic) Dacron (polyester) Nomex (polyaramid) Teflon (PTFE) Glass fibre <= <= -~ -~ <=~ ~>-. t::::= ~ ~ (1):.0 8 V> v'O :-= ro V> '" <= " ..c:: ·-g u "'"' f-;c:__. . -----""---~---··- u u o;, 0 ,; ,; ..c:: ~ - -·--- - ~ -- 81: "" UOl ,.c::..>G <= 0 v;·- t:t:: 0p....O " o..E " VJ 0 u --~-------- 65 70 90 95 Ex c. Good Ex c. Av. Ex c. Fair Ex c. Poor Ex c. Poor Good Poor Ex c. Good Good Poor Yes Yes Slow No 95 Ex c. Ex c. Poor Good Yes 130 Good Fair Good Av. Yes 135 Ex c. Ex c. Good Good Yes 220 230 260 Good Fair Poor Good Fair Ex c. Fair Ex c. Av. No No No Av. Ex c. Poor 5.7.2 Filter media A wide range of materials is available for the manufacture of filter fabrics. Wool or cotton, the latter particularly having the advantage of low cost, may be used, but for better resistance to abrasive wear or chemical attack and a higher maximum operating temperature, either glass fibre or one of a number of alternative man-made fibres should be selected. Table 5.4 indicates the relative merits of several natural and man-made fibres commonly used for filter fabrics. Apart from the properties of the fibres themselves, specifications for filter fabrics should include the 'weight per unit area', which gives an indication of the thickness and therefore the strength and durability of a fabric, and the permeability. The latter depends upon the construction of the fabric (that is, whether it is woven or felted, its thickness, tightness of weave, and so on) and allows the pressure-drop across a filter to be estimated. Various surface treatments may be carried out on filter fabrics by the manufacturer, the principal aims being to reduce the adhesion of caked solids to the fabrics and thus render the cleaning process easier and more effective, and to increase the resistance to combustion. The current trend is towards the use of lightweight needlefelts which allow filtration velocities some two or three times higher than those for woven fabrics, and which generally give better collecting efficiencies. 227 DUST CONTROL fabric bags ~ r;:_:. solid material out Figure 5.14 Typical bag filter unit (mechanically cleaned). 5.7.3 Bag filters~design and selection Figure 5.14 illustrates diagrammatically a typical form of bag filter unit. The gas/solid stream enters the device from beneath the fabric bags so that larger particles are separated by gravity settling, often aided by a cyclonic action. Fine particles are then caught on the insides of the cylindrical fabric bags as the gas flows upwards through the unit. These filters are available in a very wide range of sizes with bags varying in diameter from about 100 mm up to almost one metre, and from 0.5~ 10 m long. The shaking mechanism represented in Figure 5.14 is one several methods of bag cleaning that may be employed, but these will be described in more detail in section 5.7.4. A common alternative design of bag filter uses rectangular envelopes instead of cylindrical tubes of fabric. Note also that filter units using cylindrical bags may be designed so that air flows up the inside of the bag and through the sidewalls (as shown in Figure 5.14) or from the outside of the bag through to the inside (Figure 5.15). In the latter case the bags are supported on wire cages to prevent them from collapsing inwards. The selection of a fabric filter for a given application should be made after 228 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING solenoid valves r;=;e;;:F==;-;==;r===~ compressed air inlet air nozzles cleaned air outl:r-_ ____, fabric bags .\' ~ ~ ~ .~ ·..::.. :... . :J;l:x,.f solid material outlet Figure 5.15 jets. Fabric bag filter unit showing cleaning by use of high-pressure pulsed reverse air- consideration of a number of criteria. The first of these should be the particle size range and the nature of the solid material to be collected, and the temperature of the conveying gas, which will dictate the type(s) of fabric that would be acceptable. The size of unit required will depend principally upon the maximum gas flow rate to be handled and the maximum allowable pressuredrop but will also be influenced by the proportion of solid material carried by the gas, the method of cleaning to be used and the planned frequency of replacement of the filter fabric. Obviously several of these criteria are affected by cost factors and a careful balance must be struck between the capital cost of the equipment, normal running costs and the cost of routine maintenance. A Code of Practice has recently been published in the UK [15] which gives detailed guidance on the selection of fabric filters for dust control. The basic measure of filter size is the effective area of fabric through which the gas has to pass. It should be noted that there may be a significant difference between the total or 'gross' area of fabric and the effective or 'net' area that is actually available for use (that is, not on a cleaning cycle). It is usual to specify 229 DUST CONTROL the size of filter required on the basis of an assumed value of the so-called 'airto-fabric ratio', defined as the volume flow rate of approaching air divided by the effective area of the filter fabric. It should be noted that this parameter is not in fact a ratio but has the dimensions of velocity; it is perhaps better regarded as a superficial velocity of air through the filter fabric and the term 'filtration velocity' is to be preferred. The actual value of the filtration velocity to be used depends upon several factors, as indicated previously, and, although there have been attempts to develop theoretical expressions for the prediction of this parameter in various situations, none is really satisfactory and reliance must be placed on experience. The manufacturers of filter units should normally be able to advise on suitable filtration velocities for the bulk particulate material being handled, but typical values for felted fabrics would be about 2 m/min when handling fine particulates and 'dusty' materials, up to 3.5 m/min with coarser or granular products. For woven fabrics these figures should be halved since the free area actually available for gas flow is much less. Table 5.5 gives some guide values of filtration velocity for a range of familiar bulk solids and a more extensive list can be found in [8] and [ 15]. In some situations, such as pneumatic conveying systems, the pressure-drop across a fabric filter unit may represent a significant proportion of the overall pressure-drop available, and consequently any increase in the resistance of the Table 5.5 Guide values of filtration velocity for fabric filters [8] ··------ Woven fabric Felted fabric m/s ft/min m,s ft/min 0.015 0,020 0.013 0.016 0.016 0.018 0.013 0.015 0.020 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.016 0.013 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.023 0.016 0.013 3,0 3.9 2.5 3.2 3.2 3.5 2.5 3.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.2 2.5 3.2 3.2 3.2 4.5 3.2 2.5 0.025 5.0 0,030 0.051 0.025 0.038 0.036 0.041 0.036 O.o38 0.041 0.030 0.033 0.025 0.033 0.025 0.041 0.036 0.036 ().()46 0.036 0.038 0.018 0.051 6.0 10.0 5.0 7.5 7.0 8.0 7.0 7.5 8.0 6.0 6.5 5.0 6.5 5.0 8.0 7.0 7.0 9.0 7.0 7.5 3.5 10.0 Dust Alumina Animal feeds Carbon black Cement Coal Coffee Corn starch Fertilizer Flour Fly ash Glass Metal powders Milk powder Paint pigments Pharmaceuticals Plastics Salt Sand Soda ash Sugar Titanium dioxide Tobacco 230 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING pressure-drop at which /cleaning is triggered t cleaning intervals ~~ ~.m~ ",I I c. - -"' : 0 -oa, \ 5 (/) (/) Q) 0. residual pressure-drop virtually steady . gradual tncrease of residual pressure-drop during conditioning initial pressure-drop across clean fabric time Figure 5.16 • Typical variation of pressure-drop across a fabric filter. filter may have a serious effect on the performance of the system. Typically the pressure-drop across a fabric filter should be around 100-150mm H 2 0 (or 4-6 in water gauge), and with a properly maintained cleaning routine this value should not change appreciably during use. In normal use there will be, of course, a small regular fluctuation in the resistance of the filter as a result of the build-up of collected dust and its removal during cleaning. This is illustrated in Figure 5.16, which also shows the gradual increase in the residual resistance of the fabric that occurs during the initial conditioning period. 5.7.4 Filter cleaning The design of present-day fabric filter units, with their multiple bags or envelopes and their complex automatic cleaning mechanism, has gradually evolved along with increasing awareness of the need to conserve energy and to avoid atmospheric pollution. The use of multiple bags was simply a means of getting a larger area of fabric into a small space, but a more important aspect of filter design concerned the method of minimizing the proportion of fabric area out of action at any one time for cleaning. This consideration led to the introduction of filter units having two or more separate compartments, each containing a number of bags. Then one compartment could be shut off for cleaning while the other(s) remained in service handling the full gas/solids flow. Modern filter units using pulsed air-jets for fabric cleaning do not require the unit to be compartmented but are still designed to ensure that only a small number of bags are out of service at the same time. Basically there are three types of cleaning action-mechanical shaking, reverse flow and air-jetting. Mechanical shaking (shown in Figure 5.14) tends 231 DUST CONTROL to be cheaper, but its application is restricted to installations handling materials which readily form a caked layer on the surface of the filter fabric. Periodically shaking the framework on which the bags are mounted, typically at a frequency of 6-8Hz and amplitude of around 50 mm, causes a flexing or rippling movement of the fabric, with the result that the caked solids are dislodged and fall clear of the bags into the collecting hopper. However, this action is quite severe on the bags and the mechanical components of the system, especially when abrasive materials are being handled. An alternative method of causing the filter fabric to flex and so dislodge caked material is to arrange for a periodic reversal of the direction of gas flow through the fabric. This may be achieved either by diverting the total flow of cleaned gas back through one section of the filter or by a system of lowpressure jets, operating in sequence, which inject cleaned air downwards through the bag walls in the reverse direction to the normal airflow. Several variations on these basic techniques are marketed by different manufacturers and, as with mechanical shaking, continuous operation of the filter units may be obtained by the use of dampers to shut off one compartment at a time for cleaning. Modern trends in high-efficiency filter cleaning mechanisms appear to be towards high-pressure pulsed reverse air-jets which are claimed to produce a pressure wave that travels down the bags dislodging the caked material from the fabric surface and forcing the fine particles out of the body of the fabric. Pulse pressures are typically around 7 bar gauge for cylindrical filter elements and about half this value for rectangular envelopes. Each cleaning cycle lasts for a very short period of time (50-150 ms) at intervals of I 0-30 s, so that minimum interruption is caused to the normal flow through any one bag, thus allowing maximum utilization of the fabric area (Figure 5.15). More detailed information on the design and selection of fabric filter units, earthed plate electrodes at positive polarity uncharged particles / + electrical field \--r-r1'1""1i~"l'l'l~~~'l':"'''"l"!:l'~~:'l'!'!"l"??"!'l"'''"'""'""l':':'?::---::>-/ , 'o 6 o W10CJI2)6q:p3~M1W&/&Atw7 \'1:/ 0 dusty~ o \\ 0 J I 1/ :W- 1 I 1 discharge electrode wires at negative polarity Figure 5.17 11:1 ;1J \ / \ O\ 1 . o ~- o I ~ 1 I I I I I~>-\ b~ o eR> + j_ ~ '11/ ~\ 1 flll"b \I :JI \ I I IJ> fill"" \ \ I / 1 1 ~// lltlr'ttfJo Ill'(-~ ~~ 1 I 1 \1 ,' / fill'" \\ ~)"~' o '*~ 0 0 I I ~- __.. cleaned gas out \\ 1 I 1 I I I 1f I 1~ I I i' d i'g ~/ Wl£difflfbg charged particles attracted to collector plates The principle of electrostatic precipitation as a means of dust collection. 232 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING rapping mechanism~ ~ cleaned gas outlet / dusty gas inlet / collect1ng electrodes ~ ~ rapp1ng mechan1sm discharge electrodes Figure 5.18 Electrostatic precipitator (plate-type). and on the types of fabric and cleaning techniques available, may be obtained from literature published by the manufacturers of such equipment or from textbooks and guides such as [8], [11], [13] and [15]. 5.8 Air cleaners-electrostatic precipitators Basically, electrostatic collection involves passing the dusty gas through a high-voltage field set up between two electrodes, one of which is live and the other earthed (Figure 5.17). When the fine solid particles have acquired a sufficient charge they migrate towards one of the electrodes (mostly to the earthed one) from which they are periodically removed by rapping or, more rarely, by spray washing. Industrial electrostatic precipitators can take various forms. These include the tubular or pipe-type in which round wire discharge electrodes are suspended axially in vertical-hung tubes, and the plate-type (illustrated DUST CONTROL 233 diagrammatically in Figure 5.18) where the collecting electrodes are vertical plates hung in rows to form passages through which the dirty gas passes horizontally. The collecting efficiency, which can be quite high, comparing favourably with wet washers and bag filters, varies exponentially with the area of the collecting electrodes for a fixed gas flow rate. The capital cost of an electrostatic precipitator could therefore be considerable, since it is likely to be proportional to the size and consequently would vary exponentially with the collecting efficiency. However, the running costs tend to be comparatively small, and on very large installations, to which this type of gas/solid separator is best suited, the combined capital and running cost would usually be less than that of alternative systems. 5.9 Notation c D K,K' vg /",.pc Pp Jlg Cyclone pressure-drop coefficient (Figure 5.8) Diameter of cylindrical body of cyclone Correction factors for cyclone collecting efficiency Gas volume flow rate Pressure-drop across a cyclone Particle density Gas viscosity References and bibliography References I. Croner's Health and Safety at Work. Croner Publications, UK. [Amendment July 1984.] 2. Health: Dust in Industry. Dept. of Employment and Productivity, HM Factory Inspectorate Technical Data Note 14. HMSO, London (1970). 3. Schofield, C. Dust: the problems and approaches to solutions, in Proc. Solidex 82 Conf, Harrogate, UK, March/ April 1982, Paper B l. 4. Threshold Limit V a lues 1980. Guidance Note EH 15/80, Health and Safety Executive. HMSO, London (1980) 5. Threshold Limit Values. Ann. pub!., American Conf. of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, USA. 6. Occupational Exposure Limits 1985. Guidance Note EH40/85, Health and Safety Executive. HMSO, London (1985) (Annual.) 7. Schofield, C., Sutton, H.M and Waters, K.A.N. (1979) The generation of dust by materials handling operations; J. Powder and Bulk Solids Technol., 3 (1), 40-44. 8. Muir, D.M. (ed.) (1985) A User Guide to Dust and Fume Control. (2nd edn.), Instn. Chem. Engrs., London. 9. Principles of Local Exhaust Ventilation and Factory Dust Control. Health and Safety Executive, HMSO, London (1975). 10. Caplan, K.J. (1977) Source control by centrifugal force and gravity. In Air Pollution, Vol. IV, 97-148. 11. Separation of Dust from Gases. EEUA Handbook No. 19, Constable London (1967). 12. Swift, P. (1976) Industrial dust collectors up-to-date. Filtration and Separation, May/June, 257-270. 13. Perry, R.H. and Green, D.W. (eds.) (1984) Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 6th edn., McGraw-Hill, New York, 20.89-20.97. 234 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 14. Stenhouse, J.I.T. ( 1969) Mechanisms of gas filtration, in Process Engineering Technique Evaluation-Filtration, Morgan-Grampian, London, 70-76. 15. Code of Practice for the Purchase and Operation of Fabric Filters for Dust Control, British Materials Handling Board (1985). Recommended further reading Muir, D.M. (ed.) (1985) A User Guide to Dust and Fume Control, (2nd edn.), lnstn. Chem. Engrs., London. Code of Practice for the Purchase and Operation of Fabric Filters for Dust Control, British Materials Handling Board (1985). Perry, R.H. and Green, D.W. (eds.) (1984) Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 6th edn., McGraw-Hill, New York, 20.75-20.121. 6 Explosion hazards 6.1 Introduction Many bulk solids, when dispersed in air to form a cloud or suspension and ignited, rapidly propagate a flame through the suspension, with a subsequent sudden increase of pressure as a result of the release of heat and gaseous products from the burning dust. This is commonly called a 'dust explosion', in contrast to a 'fire' which would be said to occur if the burning dust were in a pile or layer. In fact, dust will generally smoulder or burn with a flame: some, especially plastics, tend to melt or flame or give off noxious vapours which are readily detected, but others may glow and smoulder, remaining an undetected hazard which could persist for days. Although only a minority of dust fires actually result in an explosion, the potential danger is a very real one. Typical examples would be the explosions of airborne dust following the sudden disturbance of a smouldering layer during cleaning or the collapse of a burning pile of material. When an explosible product is dispersed in the open air, the result of ignition is likely to be a flash of flame developing little hazardous pressure. However, if the suspension is confined, for example in an enclosed hopper or in a pneumatic conveying system, large pressure effects would be expected, depending upon the volume of the suspension, the nature of the product and the ease of escape to atmosphere. A wide range of particulate solids may be regarded as posing an explosion hazard, including common foodstuffs such as sugar, flour and cocoa; synthetic materials such as plastics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals; metals such as aluminium and magnesium, in addition to traditional fuels such as coal and wood. However, research has shown that, although a material may be known to burn in air when it is in solid form, it is in fact only when existing as particles having diameters less than about 200 ,urn that the material may become dangerously explosive. Oxidation of such fine particles occurs rapidly, in association with a rapid rise of temperature, since the surface area of the particles in contact with the air is large and their volume relatively small. It is important to appreciate that the main danger to equipment and personnel is not necessarily from an explosion occurring within the bulk handling plant itself. Such an explosion may rupture a weak component (for example, a cyclone receiver) and the resulting sudden release of burning dust and gases may then throw up external settled dust into a very large cloud. A secondary explosion of this airborne material can be devastating and the importance of good 'house-keeping' cannot be over-emphasized. 236 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING A number of serious dust explosions are known recently to have occurred, particularly in the USA, involving many fatalities and the destruction of industrial plant of a substantial value. In the United Kingdom, the most serious dust explosion in recent years occurred in 1981 in a plant manufacturing custard powder [1]. An accumulation of corn starch powder caused a malfunction of a valve and consequent leakage of powder from a feed bin into a workroom. The dust cloud was ignited by electrical arcing, and in the resulting explosion nine men were burned and serious structural damage was caused to the building. During the seventeen years from 1962 to 1979 there were 474 recorded dust explosions in the UK, resulting in 25 deaths [2], and in just two years, 1976 and 1977, dust explosions in grain handling plant in the United States claimed the lives of 87 workers and caused injuries to over 150 more [3]. Of identified causes of explosions in such plant, the commonest are welding and cutting operations, and there is evidence that the most frequent location is in bucket elevators. These comments apply specifically to grain handling facilities, and in a more general analysis of lOO recent explosions [4] it was Figure 6.1 Example of results of a violent industrial dust explosion, in this case, aluminium dust. Reproduced by permission of the Health and Safety Executive. © Crown Copyright. EXPLOSION HAZARDS 237 Figure 6.2 Explosion damage to a bag filter and cyclones. Reproduced by permission of the Health and Safety Executive. © Crown Copyright. shown that (excluding explosions in mines and furnaces) 38% occurred in grinding, pulverizing and crushing equipment, 15% in dust collecting or storage systems, 10% in dryers and the rest in blending, conveying and moulding operations. Figures 6.1 and 6.2 illustrate typical results of industrial dust explosions. Three conditions must exist before an explosion can occur: (i) a suspension of combustible dust of explosive concentration, (ii) an ignition source, and (iii) oxygen in sufficient quantity to support combustion. If any one of these conditions does not exist it will be impossible for an explosion to occur, and the approach to minimizing the hazard is therefore to eliminate, as far as possible, dust clouds and sources of ignition. Where the risk is still considered to be significant, steps may be taken to remove the third condition, for example by the use of an inert gas such as nitrogen. An alternative approach is to ensure that if an explosion occurs within the plant, it does so in a controlled manner with combustion products being directed safely through explosion vents. In this chapter, discussion is concerned initially with the general characteristics of dust explosions. A brief description of tests for product explosibility is 238 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING then given, followed by some consideration of the influence of possible explosion hazards on system design. Finally there is a short introduction to the phenomenon of electrostatic charging, as this appears to be a common, if somewhat unpredictable, source of ignition in bulk solids handling systems. 6.2 Characteristics of dust explosions 6.2.1 Ignition Two sources of ignition frequently met in industrial plant are a hot surface and a spark. Consequently, the minimum ignition temperature and minimum ignition energy are the ignition characteristics commonly measured in routine testing for explosibility. Ignition temperature is not a fundamental characteristic of a dust cloud: it depends upon the size and shape of the apparatus used to measure it, as well as on the rate of temperature rise of the cloud. Therefore, minimum ignition temperatures are determined in a standardized form of apparatus. This enables meaningful comparisons between products to be made. Typical values have been determined to be 370, 500 and 575 oc for sugar, cocoa and coal respectively. It is worth noting that a hot surface can be a hazard even at a somewhat lower temperature if a layer of dust is allowed to build up on it, since the insulating properties of the dust can result in localized 'hot spots' which could ignite the layer. The minimum ignition energy is particularly relevant to ignition by sparks. There are a number of ways a spark can be produced; for example, by electricity, friction and hot cutting. However, a characteristic of all these forms of spark is that a small particle or small volume of gas at high temperature is produced for a small period of time. Since it is much easier for experimental purposes to measure the energy delivered by an electric spark than by friction or other thermal processes, the routine tests for determining this characteristic use an electric spark ignition source. Typical values of minimum ignition energy have been shown to be 30, 120, 50 mJ for sugar, cocoa and coal respectively, using the standard spark source circuit of the US Bureau of Mines and the UK Fire Research Station. Lower values of minimum ignition energy may be determined in tests involving different methods of spark generation. It may be debated, for example, whether it is more appropriate to have a spark of short or long duration, and whether the test would be more relevant to an industrial situation if the spark circuit is designed to ignite a dust with greatest efficiency [ 5]. It is quite possible with some products for an ignition source to occur spontaneously as a result of self-heating. This phenomenon is the result of exothermic oxidation or decomposition of the product, and in the case of organic materials can be initiated by bacteriological action. The nature of selfheating reactions is quite complex, but the critical factor is the rate at which heat is generated, since a runaway situation occurs once the rate of self-heating EXPLOSION HAZARDS 239 flame quenched J UPPER LIMIT typically 2-10 (kg productlm3 air) EXPLOSION RISK ' ' ' LOWER LIMIT ----!•---t flame cannot be sustained Figure 6.3 e.g. polyethylene 3 0.02 kg/m air coffee 0.085 kg/m3 air Explosibility limits (dust concentration). exceeds the rate of heat dissipation and, in general, bulk solids have a very low thermal conductivity. 6.2.2 Explosibility limits As already mentioned, for a flame to propagate through a dust cloud, the concentration of product to air must fall within a favourable range so that the solid particles are sufficiently close together for heat from one particle to affect the next, yet far enough apart for the oxygen in the air to have free access to the surface of each particle (Figure 6.3). Combustion may then be propagated so rapidly from a small ignition source that an explosion occurs. The range of explosible concentrations is defined by lower and upper limits, although only the lower explosion limit can be determined reliably from small-scale tests. Values of these limits are usually expressed in terms of mass of product per unit volume of gas. Typical values of minimum explosible concentration are 0.02 and 0.085 kg of product per m 3 of air for polyethylene and coffee respectively. For a given concentration, the nature of a dust explosion is strongly influenced by the particle size of the material in the cloud. As the particle size is reduced a given material generally becomes more hazardous and the consequences of an explosion more severe. Experience suggests that particulate material larger than about 200 Jl.m is unlikely to be responsible for initiating an explosion. However, even a small concentration of fines can render a cloud of coarse particles explosive and, since in industrial situations it is possible for such concentrations of fines to occur, laboratory tests are usually undertaken on samples that have been sieved (typically< 75 Jl.m) in order to reproduce a 'worst case'. When the concentration of product is raised above the lower explosibility limit and past the stoichiometric value (i.e. when the quantities of product and air present for its combustion are exactly in balance), the flame spreads and vigour of explosions increases. As the dust concentration is further increased, the quenching effect of the surplus product becomes more marked and 240 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING eventually a concentration is reached at which flame propagation no longer occurs. This concentration is the upper explosion limit. In practice, this concept is of questionable usefulness since any kind oflocalized disturbance or primary explosion can disperse a dense dust cloud into one of explosible concentration. In any case, the upper explosion limit is not easily measured, mainly because of the difficulty of ensuring that the particles are uniformly dispersed in the cloud. Those values that have been determined suggest that for most common products this upper limit is probably in the range 2-10 kg of product per m 3 of air. Finally, it should be noted that the presence of even a small quantity of flammable gas or vapour could render explosive a dust cloud that was apparently 'safe' by virtue of large particle size or dense concentration. More specifically, although the particle size has little effect on the maximum explosion pressure, it has been shown that with a decrease in particle size the rate of pressure rise increases significantly, and the minimum energy required to ignite dust clouds is lowered [6]. 6.2.3 Expansion effects and explosion pressures A dust explosion may be envisaged as combustion of a dust cloud which results in either a rapid build-up of pressure or in an uncontrolled expansion. The gas in which the dust is suspended takes part in the combustion, and hence in considering the properties of dust explosions the nature of both the dust and the gas are important. It is the expansion effect, or the pressure rise if the expansion is restricted, which presents one of the main hazards in dust explosions. The expansion effects arise principally as a result of the heat developed in the combustion and, in some cases, gases being evolved from the dust because of the high temperature to which it has been exposed. The heat generated in a dust explosion is eventually lost to the surroundings and so the expansion and pressure effects are transient quantities. When a dust explosion occurs in industrial plant spectacular destruction may result if it is initially confined in a system which is ultimately too weak to stand the full force of the explosion. Two of the factors governing the violence of an explosion, and therefore having an influence on the design of vessels in which the explosion could occur, are the maximum explosion pressure and the maximum rate of pressure rise. The potential maximum pressure clearly needs to be known if the explosion is to be contained, while the rate of pressure rise indicates the speed at which any suppression or automatic venting system must operate. Maximum pressures obtained with some products may be as high as 10 bar (150 lbf/in 2 ) and could be reached in as little as one hundredth of a second, as rates of pressure rise of the order of lOOObar/s (15000lbf/in 2 s) are not impossible. EXPLOSION HAZARDS 241 6.3 Measurement of explosion parameters All tests in the United Kingdom concerned with assessing the explosibility or measurement of explosion characteristics of bulk solids in suspension are methods agreed with HM Factory Inspectorate and are carried out in the sequence shown in Figure 6.4. As a result of this established procedure, data regarding the explosion characteristics of many products already exist [2, 4, 7-9]. With a product which has not been previously tested, the first step is to determine whether it is potentially explosive. This should in fact form part of the product characterization procedure. The outcome of such a test indicates the necessity of incorporating any of the precautionary measures outlined in the following section into the handling system at the design stage. In the UK, explosibility tests are conducted on an official basis by the Fire Research Station, with apparatus of the type summarized in Table 6.1. Several types of test apparatus are required because bulk solids have a wide range of dispersability, and different means to form the cloud are necessary, as well as scope for varying the quantity of product and the pressure for dispersing the air or gas. In the vertical tube apparatus the dust is placed in the dispersion cup and dispersed upwards over the ignition source (an electric spark or a heated coil) by a controlled air blast. Observation of the flame propagation can then be made. Modifications to the electrodes allow this device to be used for the determination of minimum ignition energy. The Hartmann bomb (Figure 6.5) is a strong version of the vertical tube apparatus which can be used for investigation of minimum ignition energies and also for the measurement of maximum explosion pressure and maximum rate of pressure rise. The horizontal tube apparatus (Figure 6.6) also involves the dispersion by air of a dust sample over an ignition source (a heated platinum coil). Since the residence time of dusts near the coil is short, any that are observed to propagate a flame must be regarded as presenting a serious explosion hazard. The inflammator (Figure 6.7) is again essentially a vertically mounted glass tube fitted with a heated coil or electric spark ignition source. In this instrument, however, the dust, which may be introduced at different positions relative to the ignition source, is dispersed downwards. Although convenient for the testing of explosion characteristics, the Hartmann bomb has been criticized on the grounds that test results do not reliably scale up to correspond to industrial storage vessels of realistic size. Investigations into the minimum size of test vessel to give results which could be scaled up with confidence led to the development of the so-called 20-litre sphere apparatus (Figure 6.8). This consists of a stainless steel spherical vessel fitted with a water jacket. A dust cloud is formed in the vessel as the dust enters from a pressurized chamber through the perforated dispersion ring. Sixty milliseconds after the dust is released into the 20-litre sphere the detonator is hot surfaces I I I I I I I I I minimum ignition temperature I use of inert gas I I I I maximum permissible oxygen concentration to prevent ignition i___ i Group A explosible containment and explosion relief venting I I I I I I maximum explosion pressure and rate of pressure rise 1 Group B non-explosible Basic scheme of explosion tests in the UK. static electricity I I I I I I I I I r- minimum ignition energy Figure 6.4 type of system I I I I I I I I I minimum explosible concentration r classification tests product sample RELEVANT HAZARD OR METHOD OF PREVENTION EXPLOSION CHARACTERISTICS CLASSIFICATION PRODUCT t"' z Cl 0 z ~ "' 0 t: ~ ;>:; o::l ct"' ~ 243 EXPLOSION HAZARDS Table 6.1. Classification test apparatus [10]. Direction of dispersion of product Apparatus Vertical tube Vertically upwards Horizontal Horizontal Inllammator Vertically downwards pressure - - - -- ..r::::.l. transducer Igniting source Application Electric spark or electrically heated wire coil Electrically heated coil at 1300 oc All types of dust Electrically heated wire coil or electric spark Carbonaceous materials; especially of small particle size Carbonaceous and metal dusts; especially large or fluffy/flocculent particles perspex or stamless steel combustion tube 305 mm long. 64 mm onsode doameter mushroom-shaped deflector brass. tube 10 mm msode doameter pressure gauge Figure 6.5 The Hartmann bomb. 244 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING / temperature controller platinum ignition coil / / combustion tube 76 mm inside diameter tube 6.4 mm inside diameter I I 1 'power supply I ,...,._460 mm-• .... - - - - 9 2 0 m m - - - - - • 1 Figure 6.6 Horizontal tube apparatus. combustion tube / /1020 mm total length 76 mm inside diameter deflector plate ignition coil power supply side arm f o r / electrode for spark igniting source 10V 20A ac Figure 6.7 lnflammator apparatus. fired, and the resulting pressure rise is monitored using the pressure transducer fitted to one side of the vessel. Gradually, test data from the 20-litre sphere apparatus is replacing that previously obtained from the Hartmann bomb which generally tends to give somewhat high values of maximum explosion pressure [11]. Also, the Hartmann bomb is of questionable value for the measurement of maximum rates of pressure rise. Nevertheless, it is relatively inexpensive and convenient, EXPLOSION HAZARDS 245 exhaust port igniter (detonator) Figure 6.8 Twenty-litre sphere tester. and a detailed discussion and comparison of results from these two pieces of equipment can be found in [11]. Depending upon the outcome of the explosibility tests, a bulk solid is simply classified as follows: Group A Group B Products which ignited and propagated flame in the test apparatus. Products which did not propagate a flame in the test apparatus. Obviously, Group A products represent a direct explosion risk and therefore it would be a wise precaution, or even a legal requirement, to incorporate protection measures of the type indicated in the following section. The range of products which falls into this group is widespread and, as indicated in the Introduction, includes common foodstuffs like sugar, flour and cocoa; synthetic materials such as plastics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals; metals such as aluminium and magnesium as well as traditional fuels such as coal and wood. Group B products, although not explosible, may present a fire risk and the presence of a flammable gas or vapour may render a Group B product explosive. Sand, alumina and certain paint pigments are examples of Group B products. Further details of products which have been categorized according to this A and B classification may be obtained from [9]. If a product is shown to be of Group A type, further information on the extent of the explosion hazard may be required when considering suitable precautions for its safe handling. The following parameters can be determined by use of the test methods described in for example, [2], [8] and [10]. 246 (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Minimum ignition temperature Maximum permissible oxygen concentration in an inerted system Minimum explosible concentration Minimum ignition energy Maximum explosion pressure and rate of pressure rise. Since the explosion characteristics, in terms of these parameters, of many products are well documented elsewhere [ 4, 7, 8], it is not appropriate to include detailed information here. However, in order to illustrate the magnitude of the quantities involved, details are shown in Table 6.2 for a few well-known powdered products. A summary of the application of the results of these various tests to practical conditions is included in Figure 6.4. Their application will also be discussed in greater detail in the following section. Various other test procedures are used to investigate specific characteristics of combustible dusts. For example, the ignition of a dust layer may be investigated by placing a layer of dust, say 0.5 mm thick, on a hot plate and observing the temperature(s) at which the dust chars, smoulders, melts or ignites [3]. Techniques known as differential thermal analysis (DT A) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) have been used to determine the temperature at which an exothermic reaction begins and the heat generated in such a reaction, thus giving a valuable insight to the self-heating behaviour of the bulk solid concerned [3]. 6.4 Explosion risks and system design Since the dispersion of bulk solids in air or gas occurs inevitably in many bulk handling installations, it is evident that, if a product is known or shown to be potentially explosive, consideration should be given to the hazard this presents at the time the system is designed. Whilst it is equally obvious that the generation of sources of ignition should be minimized, unforeseen mechanical, electrical or human failures mean that the complete elimination of ignition sources cannot be relied upon, particularly where powered machinery is involved. To avoid the catastrophic effects of an explosion, reliance is normally placed on the adequate functioning of an alternative means of protection for the system. Such protection is normally based on one or more of the following approaches: (i) Minimizing sources of ignition and prevention of ignition (ii) Allowing the explosion to take its full course but ensuring, by either containment or explosion relief venting, that it does so safely (iii) Detection and suppression. The method of protection selected will depend upon a number of factors, including the design of any associated plant or process, the running costs, the economics of alternative protection methods, the explosibility of the product, Aluminium (atomized) Magnesium Wheat flour Cocoa Coffee Sugar Wood flour Coal (43% volatiles) Polyethylene Nylon Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) Product 0.045 0.03 0.05 0.065 0.085 0.045 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.015 560 380 500 360 370 430 575 390 500 550 Minimum explosible concentration kg/m 3 650 Minimum ignition temperature 'C Table 6.2 Explosion characteristics of some well-known products [4] 16 10 20 40 50 120 160 30 20 50 50 Minimum ignition energy mJ 6.6 5.4 6.5 7.9 7.4 4.7 2.6 7.4 6.4 6.3 5.7 bar 97 80 95 116 109 69 38 109 94 92 84 lbf/in 2 Max. explosion pressure 524 510 272 1020 252 80 10 340 573 136 1360 bar/s 7700 7500 4000 15000 3700 1200 150 5000 8500 2000 20000 lbf/in 2 s Max. rate of pressure rise 6 7 7 10 cone. %vol. Limiting oxygen 0 -...J ""'" N "' ti > N > :>:l :I: z "'0 .,r:><m 248 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING the extent to which an explosion and its consequences can be foreseen, together with the requirements of any authorities concerned. The next three sections are intended to promote an awareness of the various techniques that fall within these categories. 6.4.1 Minimizing sources of ignition and prevention of ignition Even if all the conditions required for an explosion are appropriate, a dust cloud will only explode if an ignition source of sufficient energy is present. The first step in any explosion protection programme (after ensuring that standards of 'housekeeping' are adequate) is therefore to eliminate or minimize, as far as possible, all potential sources of ignition. Some dust clouds can be ignited by temperatures as low as 200 oc and clearly the 'minimum ignition temperature' is the parameter most relevant to ignition by hot surfaces. Although it is unlikely that temperatures of this order would be reached in the average simple bulk handling installation, it is certainly possible for high temperatures and even open flames to be encountered in processing operations or during maintenance (e.g. gas cutting, welding, grinding, etc.).lt is obvious that any maintenance work of this kind must be undertaken only when the plant is shut down, but perhaps less obvious that there may still be a considerable danger from residual layers of dust in apparently empty containers. Any electrical equipment used during normal plant operation should be sited well away from any possible dust source, or else made completely dust- and spark-proof. Static electricity is also a likely source of sparks, and care should be taken to avoid the build-up of excessive electrostatic charge. This problem is discussed in more detail in section 6.5. Another possible source of ignition is excessive friction, for example, in the bearings of rotary valves, belt conveyor systems, and so on, which can result in the generation of sufficient heat to cause local temperatures above the minimum ignition temperature. This problem can be aggravated by the presence of dust layers acting as thermal insulators. Thus it is clear that 'good housekeeping' and regular preventive maintenance of the system and its associated components are essential. The 'minimum ignition energy' of a product is relevant when assessing the possibility of an explosion being initiated by a briefly occurring spark. A rule of thumb value of 25 mJ (US Bureau of MinesjUK Fire Research Station method) is often taken for the minimum ignition energy, and products with ignition energies less than this value may be regarded as particularly prone to ignition by sparks. Should a source of ignition be present, the likelihood of an explosion can be reduced by ensuring that the solids-to-air concentration is kept well above the maximum explosibility limit of the product being handled. However, complete reliance should not be placed on this approach since it is possible for a concentration favourable to an explosion to exist at some point in the plant; EXPLOSION HAZARDS 249 for example, the collection hopper/receiver. The risk of ignition can of course be eliminated altogether by introducing into the system an inert gas such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide which replaces, or at least dilutes, the air so that the oxygen level is below that at which flames can be supported. This concentration level depends on the product in question and, as discussed in the previous section, is a parameter that can be readily measured (see Figure 6.4 and Table 6.2). However, inert gases such as nitrogen are not cheap and, unless an inert gas happens to be available as a waste product, economics dictate that this approach is generally applicable only to recirculating systems or other cases where the gas can be recovered. Alternative inerting gases such as argon, helium and various halogenated hydrocarbons are occasionally used, but these are even more expensive than nitrogen or carbon dioxide. Even with an inerting system there are disadvantages and possible risks which necessitate a certain amount of caution. For example, it has been said that the use of carbon dioxide can introduce an ignition hazard as a result of static electricity generated by the C0 2 issuing at high speed from the gas cylinder [5]. Care must be taken to ensure that gradual dilution of the inerting gas over a period of time does not lead to a dangerous situation. For example, in pneumatic conveying installations a considerable amount of air (around 50% by volume) can enter with the product at the feed point unless some kind of inerted filling system is employed, and in any part of the plant below atmospheric pressure the inward leakage of air must be avoided. Another serious hazard which requires stringent controls on access of personnel to an inerted plant [11] is the risk of asphyxiation if the plant is entered or opened without care. 6.4.2 Containment The philosophy behind this approach is that, once an explosion has begun, it should be allowed to take its full course whilst suitable precautions are employed to ensure that it does so in a safe manner. Two separate protection methods fall within the category: containment and explosion relief venting. If either of these approaches is adopted it follows that the plant should be divided into small separate volumes, as far as possible, between which the explosion is unable to propagate, and that part of the plant within which the explosion occurs must be either strong enough (i.e. containment) or sufficiently well protected to withstand the explosion (relief venting). In practice, containment is only likely to be attractive on plant of small dimensions, because the cost of building large hoppers, cyclones and the like to withstand explosion pressures is usually not competitive with alternative methods of protection. The maximum explosion pressure which can occur within the system can be determined by tests (see Figure 6.4 and Table 6.2). For the general case a safety factor is normally added to the measured maximum explosion pressure, and a value of 50% is often taken. If the 250 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING containment approach is adopted, the resulting figure is the static pressure which the system must be designed to withstand. It is beyond the scope of this book to describe in detail the methods for the design of pressure-resistant components for bulk handling installations. For further information on this subject the reader is referred to [2], [4] and [10]. However, a few general points will be made. It is not easy to specify precisely the speed of combustion through a dust cloud because so much depends upon the movement of the air that is maintaining the material in suspension. Also, the pressure effects will depend upon the conditions prevailing in the plant at the time of the explosion, particularly the dust concentration. However, in general it is recommended that equipment should be designed for pressures up to 7-8 bar (100120 lbf/in 2 ) developing at a rate from virtually nil up to 700 bar/s (1 0 000 lbf/in 2 per s) [1 0]. The usual design technology for pressure vessels, following codes such as BS 5500 or, in the USA, ASME 8, is generally appropriate. When designing equipment to contain a dust explosion there are two basic approaches; one is to design for the full maximum explosion pressure to be withstood without rupture or deformation ('pressure-resistant'); the other is to accept that, although the full explosion pressure will be resisted, permanent damage to the containing vessel may occur ('pressure-shock resistant'). Equipment designed to the latter standard is likely to be considerably less costly initially, but in the event of an internal explosion, expensive repairs or replacement could well be necessary. The decision on which standard to adopt is essentially a commercial and economic one, and should be considered in conjunction with alternative methods of explosion protection such as venting and suppression. The influence of internal structures on the rate of propagation of an explosion should be carefully considered. In general, fittings such as filter bags and trays can inhibit flame spread and therefore reduce pressure effects, but in a system protected by explosion vents it is important that such fittings do not impede the progress of the pressure wave towards the vents. Care should be taken to recognize, and if possible avoid, the possibility of 'pressure piling'. This phenomenon can occur when two vessels are directly connected so that an explosion in one of them pressurizes the other before the arrival of the flame front. In these circumstances the pressure reached in the second vessel will be significantly greater than that in the first. 6.4.3 Explosion relief venting Because of difficulties in preventing ignition, or the unsuitability of the system for containment of the explosion, recourse is often made to the subdivision of the plant or system as far as is economic, coupled with explosion relief venting to atmosphere to prevent dangerous pressures damaging the structure of the 251 EXPLOSION HAZARDS system and so creating a hazard to personnel. This venting is customarily sited in the roof of a silo or on the separation unit(s) and may take the form of burst panels, displacement panels or hinged doors which operate once a predetermined pressure has been reached. In venting explosions to atmosphere, strict attention must be paid to the safe dissipation of the explosion products. The volume of flame discharged from vents can be very large, and obviously must be directed to a safe place away from operatives and neighbouring plant. If such diversion is necessary it is normally achieved by attaching a length of ducting to the vent, or by installing deflector baffles. If the cyclone or filter is inside a building, the vented flames should be directed to the exterior; in all cases the duct attached to the vent should be short, free from bends and other restrictions to flow, and be kept clear from dust at all times. Much has been written on venting silos, cyclones and filter units [4,6, 7, 12-14] and this will not be discussed in detail here. However, a few words are necessary about the calculation of vent size and how this is related to the maximum rate of pressure rise as determined by tests of the type mentioned in section 6.3. Experience has shown, as would be expected, that the more vigorously explosive products require larger areas of venting. Approximate vent areas can be determined from the information in Table 6.3. This table relates the maximum rate of pressure rise, as measured using the Hartmann apparatus, to the area required for explosion relief, which is expressed in terms of the 'vent ratio'; that is, the area ofthe vent per unit volume of plant. (It should be noted that this is not a ratio of similar quantities and has dimensions of C 1 .) For systems which have large-volume receiving silos, the required amount of venting may be impracticable. For tall cylindrical vessels the area of the vent may, in fact, exceed the cross-sectional area and so a reduced criterion is necessary. For these large volumes the vent ratio can be reduced from 1/7 m - 1 (i.e. 1m 2 of vent per 7m 3 system volume) to as little as 1/28 m - 1 . A recent investigation has resulted in some useful information on the venting of bucket elevators [15]. Unfortunately, the provision of relief venting is still regarded to some extent as a 'rule of thumb' operation, although recent work in Europe and the USA has led to a rather more reliable quantitative design method. Tests on a large number of vessels with volumes from 1 to 100m 3 have shown that the maximum rate of pressure rise is approximately proportional to the reciprocal Table 6.3 Approximate values of 'vent ratio' Maximum rate of pressure rise Vent ratio bar/s lbf/in 2 per s m-1 ft - I < 350 350-700 >700 <5000 5000-10000 >10000 1/7 1/5 1/3 1/20 1/15 1/10 252 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 6.4 The West German system of dust classification, on which is based the NFPA method of determining explosion vent area [5, 14]. Dust class KsT (bar/ms) weak source KsT (bar/ms) strong source Characteristics StO St 1 St2 St3 0 < 100 100-200 > 200 0 <200 200-300 > 300 No explosion Weak explosion Moderate/strong explosion Very strong explosion St 1 Pred bar g) St 2 St 3 0.4 r'\"\ '\.. 1"\. ...... 0 .6 " V'.....- ~ ;;.::178.5 '\.. oz; '"I'1"\..'\..'\.. ~/ ~ ~ -:..~ V' V "\ .'\ '\.. r--..1'\.. r-..."...... 10 ~/. ;..-:: ~ ?' V 0.1 1 1 vent area (m2) "' "' V ,/'....-.: ~ ~~ 2.0 ~ vessel ~olume (m3) 100 (a) Strong ignition source: vent release pressure=0.2 bar gauge St 1 St 2 St 3 I' ....... '\.. ...... '\.. '\.. / ['\ 1''\ "\.. '\.. '""' "\.. " ....... . / ....... ' '" "' / ./ /.. / // ~ ~ ./ 1...0- ,., l\..."'o ...... 0.1 1 10 vent area (~2) vesse1 °volume (m3) (b) Strong 1gnition source: vent release pressure= 0.5 bar gauge Figure 6.9 "'"' "1"'1 V/ / ........ .......-:: V V ~ // 100 Charts for the determination of explosion vent area. Pred bar g) 0 .6 0 .8 .0 .5 2.0 EXPLOSION HAZARDS 253 of the cube root of the volume of the vessel. This allows a constant (KsT ), indicative of the violence of the explosion, to be defined as KsT=(dp) Vl/3 dt max where (dp/dt)max is the maximum rate of pressure rise and Vis the volume ofthe vessel. This constant (called the 'explosion rate constant') provides the basis of the West German method of classification of powders. It can be regarded as the rate of pressure rise that would occur in a vessel of one cubic metre, but it should be noted that its value will be affected by the shape of the vessel, the strength of the ignition source and the degree of turbulence. Values of KsT can be determined experimentally (a vessel of at least 20-litre volume being recommended) and products placed in a 'Dust Class' as indicated in Table 6.4. Based on the original work ofBartknecht, a series ofnomographs has recently been prepared by the USA National Fire Protection Association [6] which allows vent areas to be calculated for products according to their Dust Class (or KsT value), the vent release pressure (p5131 ) and the maximum allowable overpressure during venting (Pred). Typical nomographs, for a strong ignition source and vent release pressure of0.2 bar (2.9lbf/in 2 ) and 0.5 bar (7.2lbf/in 2 ), are shown in Figure 6.9. For more complete details of the vent ratio method, nomograph method and other design techniques for the sizing of explosion relief vents, the reader is directed particularly to [13] and [14]. Protection of ducts and pipelines tends to be more difficult since vents, for example, would need to be positioned every few metres. It is likely to be more practicable to design the pipe system for containment of an explosion, in spite of the fact that the pressure on the pipe walls can almost instantaneously reach values of 25-30 bars if detonation occurs; that is, when the velocity of the advancing flame front exceeds the velocity of sound [5]. A wide variety of types of explosion relief vent is available to the industry, and includes bursting diaphragms, hinged flaps or doors, blow-out panels and automatic triggered vents. Once the required vent area has been determined, the type of vent must be selected on the basis of cost, operating conditions and the type of vessel or component to be protected. For a detailed discussion of vent closure design, see [14]. 6.4.4 Detection and suppression If a system is awkwardly sited, if the product is toxic so that it cannot be freely discharged to atmosphere, or where normal working under inert gas conditions would be impracticable, protection may be achieved by a detection and suppression approach. Although there may be only milliseconds between the ignition of the product to the build-up of pressure to destructive 254 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING ~~----------/ --- , .... ' 1/ Pmax r ~ ::J I (/) (/) a. Q) 1 I I I I I I I I ~ I slope = (dp/dt) max time_,. Figure 6.10 Pressure record for a suppressed explosion. proportions (Figure 6.10), this is sufficient for an automatic suppression system to operate effectively. Commercially available equipment for detecting an explosion [16, 17] operates on the basic principle shown in Figure 6.11 and is capable of triggering some or all of the following actions: (i) Suppression of the explosion within the system (ii) Venting the system automatically (iii) Automatic shut-down of the system. Detectors which pick up heat or light from the flame front can be used, but suffer from the disadvantage that they are liable to lose sensitivity if coated with dust. Simple mechanical devices which trigger the suppression or automatic venting system at the first indication of an unexpected pressure rise are usually considered to be more reliable. Suppression involves the discharge of a suitable agent into the system within which the explosion is developing. The composition of the agent depends on the product involved, and is typically a halogenated hydrocarbon, an inert gas or a powder such as limestone or ammonium phosphate. The suppressant is contained in a sealed receptacle attached to the plant and is rapidly discharged into the system by an electrically fired detonator. Thus, as soon as the existence of an explosion is detected, the control mechanism fires the suppressant into the plant and the flame is extinguished wherever the ignition may have been developed. EXPLOSION HAZARDS action signal shutdown control 255 action signals detection signal vent to /atmosphere suppressant blower/ ignition source \mpressor /feeder Figure 6.11 A basic scheme for the detection and suppression of an explosion in a receiving silo. pressurized suppressant container contr\1 ~ detection signal Figure 6.12 duct. A 'barrier' of suppressant used to prevent the propagation of a flame front along a Alternatively, the explosion can be automatically vented to atmosphere. When the explosion is detected a vent closure is ruptured automatically, thus providing a rapid opening of a vent. The vented explosion then proceeds as for cases in which the vents are opened by the pressure of the explosion. The automatic method has the advantage that vents are opened extremely rapidly, and for very explosible products this helps to reduce the maximum explosion pressure. Since it is obvious that once an explosion has been initiated no more product should be fed into the system, plant shut-down can also be rapidly achieved with the detector approach. 256 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING In the case of a large industrial plant the whole installation would be effectively divided up into a number of discrete zones, each of which would be protected by its own suppression system, comprising explosion sensor and suppressant container. It is usually good practice to isolate the explosion event to as small a part of the plant as possible, and various forms of barrier are used to ensure that the combustion effects do not proceed from one zone to another. These barriers may be physical, for example, explosion-proof rotary valves and fast-acting isolation valves ('slam valves') or they may take the form of 'advance inerting' in which suppressant is automatically injected at an appropriate point in a duct, for example, ahead of an advancing flame front (Figure 6.12). 6.5 Static electricity Wherever particulate materials are handled in bulk, and especially where movement of streams of such material in a dry condition is involved, static electricity may be a problem. Often this problem is merely a nuisance, but in some circumstances the consequences of electrostatic charging can be extremely serious. Charge potentials in excess of 250 kV can be achieved in pneumatic conveyors. The risks of an incentive discharge or of physiological shock are considerable and it is important therefore that designers and users of bulk handling plant have an awareness of the problem and of the preventive measures that can be taken. The electrostatic charge acquired by a powder during industrial processes is as much a function of the process as of the powder itself, and, although some tests have been described [5] it is not easy to assess realistically the changing characteristics of different products. The charge that a single particle can hold is very small, and in order for a dangerous spark to occur there must exist some mechanism of charge accumulation from the insulating powder particles. The most common sources of electrostatic sparks are isolated conductors on which static charges have accumulated. Many examples can be seen in industry of such isolated conductors, ranging from trolleys on nylon wheels to metal joints on insulating conveyor belts and unearthed conducting wires in filter cloths. Powder being conveyed along an isolated section of metal pipe or poured into an isolated bin are other situations where hazardous static charges can occur. The main practical step to be taken in the avoidance of electrostatic sparks is to ensure that all conductors are earthed. The bulk solid itself can, in certain circumstances, act as an isolated conductor, although the mechanism by which the powder becomes charged is not well understood. Certain operations in the processing or handling of bulk solids are especially liable to generate electrostatic charges. These include fluid bed drying, filling or emptying of plastic containers, and pneumatic conveying. In fluid-bed driers, for example, conditions as the product approaches dryness are ideal for static electrification to occur [18], and the situation may be particularly EXPLOSION HAZARDS 257 Does dust present explosion hazard? Control dust suspensions and accumulations. Avoid ignition sources. Reduce oxygen level. Figure 6.13 Overall assessment of dust explosibility. dangerous if the process involves drying off flammable solvents. Recent work [19] draws attention to the hazards resulting from increasing use of plastic containers, especially in the chemical industry. Almost anyone who has poured granular material from a plastic sack will have heard the crackle of electrostatic charges, and it is generally considered that if a spark is audible it could be incendive and therefore dangerous. Various solutions to the problem include the use of plastic sacks and bags with woven-in conducting wires which must be earthed, the reduction of charge on the incoming powder, for instance by neutralization of the charge using ionized air [19], and the provision of antistatic clothing and conducting footwear for personnel. This has been a necessarily brief discussion on the subject of electrostatic charging in bulk solids handling. There is now a fairly extensive literature on 258 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING the subject, but for practical advice the reader is referred to Refs. [5] and [6], and to the recently published British Standard Code of Practice [20]. 6.6 Conclusion Careful study of the literature will soon make it clear that there is still much to be learned about the fundamental mechanism of dust explosions, especially with regard to ignition characteristics and ignition sources. The motivation for such learning is too often the need to find out what went wrong rather than to ensure that no dangerous situation occurs. Nevertheless, a systematic assessment of the situation following, for example, the flow chart (Figure 6.13) suggested by Field [21], with rigorous attention to a few essential details, such as elimination of ignition sources (especially electrostatic sparks), provision of adequate explosion vents or detection/suppression systems and general 'good housekeeping' should go a long way towards the reduction of the explosion hazard. References and recommended further reading References 1. Corn starch dust explosion at General Foods Ltd., Ban bury, 18 November 1981. Health and Safety Executive Report, HMSO, London (1983). 2. Field, P. (1982) Dust explosions, in Handbook of Powder Technology, Vol.4, Elsevier, (Amsterdam). 3. Cross, J. and Farrer, D. (1982) Dust Explosions. Plenum Press, New York. 4. Palmer, K.N. (1973) Dust Explosions and Fires. Chapman and Hall, London. 5. Cross, Jean (1981) Fire and explosion hazards. In Plastic Pneumatic Conveying and Bulk Storage, ed. G. Butters, Applied Science, Barking. 6. Committee on Explosion Protection Systems ( 1978) Guide for Explosion Venting. NFPA No. 68, National Fire Protection Association, Boston. 7. Dust Explosions in Factories. HM Factory Inspectorate Health and Safety at Work Booklet No. 22, HMSO, London (1976). 8. Raftery, M.N. Explosibility Tests for Industrial Dusts. Fire Research Technical Paper No. 21, Ministry of Technology and Fire Offices' Committee, HMSO, London (1962). 9. Dust Explosions in Factories. Classified list of dusts that have been tested for explosibility in the form of a dust cloud. Department of Employment, HM Factory Inspectorate SHW 830, HMSO, London (1974). 10. Field, P. (ed.) (1979) The hazards of industrial explosion from dusts. Oyez Intelligence Reports, Oyez Publishing Ltd. 11. Watkins, G.K.P. and Moore, P.E. Dust explosion protection, in Proc. Solidex 86 Con[., Harrogate, UK, June 1986, Paper B5. 12. Abrahamsen, A.R. and Field, P. Application of dust explosion pressure data to the sizing of explosion relief vents, in Proc. Solidex 84 Con[., Harrogate, UK, April 1984, Paper C6. 13. Lunn, G.A. ( 1984) Venting Gas and Dust Explosions- A Review. Instn. Chem. Engrs., London. 14. Schofield, C. Guide to Dust Explosion Prevention and Protection: Part 1- Venting. Inst. Chem. Engrs., London. 15. Gillis, J.P. and Fishlock, F.H. (1982) Explosion venting and suppression of bucket elevators. (Report ESV -81-066 of the Nat. Grain and Feed Assoc.). J. Powder and Bulk Solids Technol., 6 (2), 5-16. 16. Moore, P.E. (1984) Explosion suppression trials. The Chemical Engineer, December, 23-26. EXPLOSION HAZARDS 259 17. F orsyth, V.G. Dust explosion protection in pneumatic conveying processes. Fire Prevention 135, 25~30. 18. Pay, F.J. (1978) Electrostatic: potential hazard when handling powders in bulk. Bulk: Storage Movement Control, January/February, 51~55. 19. Gibson, N. and Lloyd, F.C. Dust explosion risk in intermediate bulk containers. Proc. Solidex 82 Conf., Harrogate, UK, March/April 1982, Paper B4. 20. British Standard 5958: 1980 Control of undesirable static electricity (Code of practice). British Standards Institution, London. 21. Field, P. Industrial dust explosion hazards: assessment, prevention and protection. Proc. Solidex 82 Conf., Harrogate, UK, March/April 1982, Paper B2. Recommended further reading Palmer, K.N. (1973) Dust Explosions and Fires. Chapman and Hall, London. Field, P. (1982) Dust explosions, Handbook of Powder Technology, Vol. 4, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Cross, 1. and Farrer, D. (1982) Dust Explosions. Plenum, New York. Lunn, G.A. (I 984) Venting Gas and Dust Explosions- A Review. Instn. Chem. Engrs., London. Schofield, C. ( 1984) Guide to Dust Explosion Prevention and Protection: Part 1- Venting. Instn. Chem. Engrs., London. Bartknecht, W. ( 1981) Explosions: Course, Prevention, Protection (2nd edn.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 7 Belt conveyors 7.1 Introduction The belt conveyor is one of the commonest means of transportation for bulk solids and is capable of carrying a greater diversity of products at higher rates and over longer distances than any other kind of continuously-operating mechanical conveyor. In essence, a belt conveyor is simply an endless strap of flexible material stretched between two drums and supported at intervals on idler rollers (Figure 7.1 ). Developments of the basic configuration include troughing the belt or fitting sidewalls to increase the carrying capacity, and fitting transverse slats or texturing the surface of the belt so that operation on a steep incline is possible (Figure 7.2). These and other aspects of practical belt conveyor design will be discussed in this chapter. The earliest reported use of belt conveying, almost two hundred years ago, was for handling grain, and this was virtually the only application of the technique during the next hundred years. Attempts to carry heavier materials seem to have caused problems as a result of wearing of the idler bearings and splitting of the conveyor belt itself. More recently, especially during the last thirty years or so, development of the belt conveyor has been rapid. The greatest use of belt conveyors at present is in the mining and quarrying industry. However, there is now effectively no restriction on the type of bulk materials that can be carried, and efforts are being concentrated on increasing the carrying capacity without sacrificing reliability. Many examples exist of actual belt conveyors that are remarkable in respect of the distances over which they operate or the quantity of bulk material that they have transported. One of the earliest of the really large-scale installations, constructed in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1924, carried a daily average of 10 000 tonnes of coal [1]. A much more recent example of a very long conveying system is the phosphate conveyor in Spanish Sahara [2] which consists often individual sections making up an overall length of 100km (62 miles). Another recent example is the 15-km installation in the Selby coalfield, UK, which is capable of conveying 3200 tonnes of coal per hour at speeds of up to 8.4 m/s [3]. Claimed to be the highest-capacity belt conveyor in the world, however, is the remarkable 3 m wide Japanese example, installed in a test plant, which, running at 5.3 m/s, has successfully conveyed sand and rock at a rate of 30 000 tonnes/hour [ 4]. This chapter will be a necessarily brief study of belt conveying. It is written with the aim of giving an awareness of the capabilities of various types of belt 261 BELT CONVEYORS ~solids feed (+ - carrying Idlers head end ··~~~ return Idlers solids discharge Figure 7.1 The basic principle of belt conveying. conveyor and an introduction to their design and selection. For a more detailed and complete treatment of belt conveyor design the reader is advised to consult the appropriate British Standards [5]-[7] or one of the published design guides [8]-[11]. 7.2 Features of belt conveyors 7.2.1 Belt construction Although special forms of conveyor belt are available for particular applications, such as belts with sidewalls, or with transverse slats, cleats or other surface projections for use on steep inclines, the great majority of conveyors installed use a conventional flat belt. However, there are many different forms of construction, even of flat belts, and, since the belt is the most vulnerable and expensive part of a conveyor, representing a substantial proportion of the overall capital cost, it is essential that great care is taken over its selection. A conveyor belt consists basically of a carcass or core which carries the tensile force necessary to move the loaded belt and to absorb the impact energy of the bulk solid as it is loaded on to the belt, and a cover which protects the carcass against damage by the conveyed material. The carcass is usually composed of from two to ten plies or layers of woven fabric bonded together with rubber. The fabric comprises longitudinal (warp) cords which provide the tensile strength to transmit power, and transverse (weft) cord11 which are lighter, but which still have to provide sufficient rigidity to support the conveyed product on the belt. An alternative to the multiple construction consists of a single solid interwoven ply of suitable thickness (Figure 7.3a). The textile yarns used are typically natural cotton or a man-made fibre such as nylon or polyester. For special applications, other materials such as asbestos and glass fibre may have the necessary qualities, and for long-haul 262 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 7.2 A belt conveyor carried on three-roll idler sets up a steep incline. The cleated pattern on the surface of the belt can just be seen. (Photo courtesy of Fyson Conveyors). installations, where high strength and low stretch are important requirements, steel-reinforced belting is available. When selecting the belt construction, the choice of carcass is dictated by the following principal considerations: (i). Maximum tension in belt when in operation (ii) Impact forces occurring during loading (iii) Flexibility required in transverse direction (for troughing) and longitudinally (to wrap around drums and pulleys). Natural or synthetic rubber, or a blend of the two, would normally be BELT CONVEYORS Filler yarn 0 Nylon binder yarn AA!N'"§S·N• Cotton warp yarn Nylon warp yarn (a) Typical structure of solid woven belt carcass (b) Modern patterns of cleated belt (c) Typical design of conveyor belt with sidewalls Figure 7.3 Construction of conveyor belts. 263 264 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING chosen for the cover of the belt. The quality or grade of the cover, and its thickness, are selected after careful consideration of the intended service conditions. The main features influencing the choice of cover are: (i) Nature of conveyed material (i.e. size, abrasiveness, temperature, oil or water content, corrosiveness, etc.) and quantity to be conveyed (ii) Method by which material is fed to belt (i.e. sympathetically, or from a height, etc.) (iii) Speed of belt (iv) Environment (i.e. exposure to rain, sunlight, freezing conditions, fire hazard, etc.). Since the primary purpose of the belt cover is to protect the carcass against damage it is normal for the top cover (i.e. the carrying side) to be of greater thickness than the back cover. Typically the back cover is 1-1.5 mm thick, whilst the top cover may be from the same thickness for conveying light materials and up to around 10 mm thick for heavy and sharp materials. In order to increase the adhesion between the belt cover and the carcass, one or two additional layers of open-weave fabric (called tie- cloths or 'breakers') may be fitted next to the carcass. A further benefit of these breakers is that they increase the impact and puncture resistance of the belt and cushion the carcass as heavy Jumps of conveyed material pass over the idlers. Frequently it is required to operate a belt conveyor on an upward incline. The normally accepted maximum angle of inclination for smooth-surfaced troughed belts is around 16°-20°. The actual value depends mainly upon the characteristics of the conveyed material (especially its angle of repose) and to a lesser extent on the speed, length and tension of the belt and on the disposition ofthe supporting idlers. In order to work on a somewhat steeper incline (up to around 30°) a belt may be selected having a pattern of cleats or flights moulded into its surface to reduce the tendency for the conveyed material to slip. The height of these cleats is likely to be between 15 and 25 mm and, in addition to allowing operation at steeper angles, may result in a significant increase in carrying capacity in comparison to a smooth troughed belt. Typical patterns of modern cleated belt are illustrated in Figure 7.3b [12]. A relatively recent development in conveyor belts has been the introduction of'vertical' sidewalls, which may be supported by transverse slats as illustrated in Figure 7.3c. The principal advantage of this type of belt is that it will operate successfully on a much steeper incline than the normally accepted maximum for troughed belts. Indeed, conveyors are now available having pockets moulded into the surface of the belt, so that they can operate vertically, and these will be discussed under the heading of Bucket Elevators in Chapter 8. Since by its nature a conveyor belt has to be endless, jointing of the ends is obviously an important consideration. The two methods in common use are BELT CONVEYORS 265 the vulcanized splice and mechanical fasteners. The vulcanized splice gives a much stronger and longer-lasting joint but is difficult and costly to make on site. Mechanical fasteners are much cheaper but do tend to restrict the working conditions of the belt. Also, leakage of fine particles of conveyed material can occur through the 'fingers' of a mechanical joint. 7.2.2 Idlers For conveying bulk solids it is usual practice to increase the carrying capacity of the flat belt by modifying its cross-sectional profile so that it forms a trough. This is achieved by using 'troughing idlers' which consist of sets of two to five rollers (usually three), generally from 100 mm to 175 mm diameter, arranged to support the belt and at the same time to bend it into a trough shape. The standard three-roller troughing set (Figure 7.4c), which has largely replaced the idler with concentrator rolls (Figure 7.4b), is generally used with an outer roll angle of 30° to 35°. However, the optimum troughing angle will depend to a large extent upon the angle of repose of the product being conveyed. With very free-flowing products, for example, the deepest acceptable trough is likely to be preferred. The greater flexibility of man-made fibres has, in recent years, (a) 'Flat' idler (b) Idler with concentrator rolls (c) Standard 3-roll idler set (d) Two-roll idler set (e) 5-roll catenary idler Figure 7.4 Various configurations of carrying idlers. 266 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING allowed belts to be run with the outer (or 'wing') rollers inclined at as much as 70° to the horizontal, resulting in very deep troughing. The two-roll set (Figure 7.4d) is becoming increasingly common for handling bulky lightweight materials on narrow belts, while on very wide conveyors there may be some advantage in using five rollers to give a smoother transverse curve of the belt and consequently longer belt life. A method that has been used to ensure a smooth curving belt cross-section is to suspend the idlers, in a set of three or five, or even more, on a catenary (Figure 7.4e). In order to assist the alignment of the belt, idler sets may be made with a slight forward tilt in the direction of belt travel. Modern practice is to have an angle of 1o (as seen in the plane of the belt) between the axis of the wing rollers and the axis of the centre roller. The current British Standard [6] and ISO Standard measure the angle of forward tilt of the wing idlers in elevation, and stipulate that this must not exceed 3°. Other types of idler are available for special applications, for example, rubber-covered 'impact rollers' to reduce wear on the belt at the loading point, and 'self-adjusting troughing idlers' which are suspended on springs in such a way that the troughing angle automatically increases with the load on the belt, thus increasing its capacity. Although the rollers are usually of steel, for use in severe working conditions (e.g. when handling corrosive materials), solid plastic or plastic-coated rollers are available. Return idlers are usually flat and of the same diameter as the carrying idlers. However, since they are in contact with the top cover of the belt, care must be taken to guard against build-up of fine materials on these idlers. For this reason various forms of rubber disc or spiral wire rollers have been developed (Figure 7.5) and these may also be designed to assist belt alignment. For wide belts, and particularly for high-speed belts which may tend to develop a vertical vibration on the return side, V-idlers set at a lOo angle are recommended. It has been pointed out previously that the belt itself represents a large proportion of the capital cost of the conveyor and therefore careful attention must be given to all factors that have an influence on its useful life. In order to avoid spillage of conveyed material and to minimize wear of the belt, it is essential that it is not allowed to sag unduly, and therefore the spacing of the idlers is of prime importance. The required spacing is a function of belt width and of belt tension, and therefore the bulk density of the conveyed material must be taken into account when determining the idler pitch on the carrying side of the belt. On long belts there is a significant variation in tension along the length, and thus there may be some advantage in graduating the idler spacing to equalize the belt sag [2]. Two other important features of idler rollers are that the frictional resistance to rotation is minimal and that the inclination of the wing rollers is matched to 267 BELT CONVEYORS - ~ (a) Impact resistant roller - ~ (b) Rubber disc return roller (c) Return roller with rubber spiral (d) Return roller with open steel spiral Figure 7.5 Typical non-standard idler rollers. the transverse flexibility (sometimes called the 'troughability') of the belt. Clearly the design of the idler bearings and seals is important, not only to minimize wear of the belt, but also because the frictional resistance will affect the belt tension and therefore the driving power requirements. Figure 7.6 illustrates the importance of using belts of the correct transverse flexibility for the desired troughing angle. / excessive wear of belt and rollers \ angle of belt too sharp causing longitudinal splitting ~~ (a) Belt too stiff and/or wing rollers too steeply inclined Figure 7.6 (b) Belt too flexible Consequences of incorrect matching of belt to idlers. 268 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Finally, an important consideration in the selection and positioning of idler rollers is the transition from troughed belt to flat belt that must occur immediately prior to the terminal pulley at the discharge point. If this transition is made too rapidly, the edges of the belt will be stretched excessively, even to the point where the elastic limit is exceeded. The result is permanent damage to the belt with consequent problems of wear and spillage. On the other hand, if the last troughing idler set is positioned too far before the discharge point, the premature flattening of the belt is likely to result in an unacceptable level of spillage of the conveyed product over the edges. Detailed information on the calculation of transition distance is given in [11], but typically it would be in the range of one belt width for a lOo troughing angle, up to twice the belt width for 45o troughing. Transition idlers, set at angles smaller than the troughing idlers, are advisable in heavy duty applications and the stresses in the belt can also be reduced by raising the terminal pulley above the level of the centre roller of the troughing idlers (Figure 7.7). 7.2.3 Drive arrangements As illustrated in Figure 7.1, on a basic belt conveyor the belt runs between two terminal cylindrical drums, one of which is powered. Standard terminology refers to the end of the conveyor where the transported material is loaded as 'tail end' or 'feed end', and the other end, from which the load is discharged, as the 'head end'. The drive may be at either end of the conveyor, although it is generally better to drive the head end drum as this will involve the smallest amount of belt being subjected to the maximum tension. An alternative arrangement is to have the drive at an intermediate point on the return strand (a) Normal transition (b) Terminal pulley raised by half depth of trough Figure 7.7 Transition from troughed belt at the discharge point showing raised position of terminal pulley to reduce edge stresses in the belt. BELT CONVEYORS (a} Plain drive (c) Tandem drive on return strand () 269 (b) Snubbed drive (d) Dual drive with horizontal tensioner ~---o=B ----B~)--~-..:::---+) (e) Dual drive arrangement having both drums in contact with clean side of belt Figure 7.8 Some common belt drive arrangements. of the belt close to the head end. Where the conveyor is operating downhill and involving regenerative effects, the tail end drum should be driven, or a separate driven pulley on the return strand fitted as close as possible to the tail end. The effectiveness of the conveyor drive is dependent upon a number of factors, principally the difference in tension between the 'tight side' and the 'slack side' ofthe belt, the friction between the belt and the drive drum and the angle of wrap, or arc of contact, of the belt to the drum. The power that can be transmitted from the driving drum to the belt is limited by the point at which the belt begins to slip. In order to increase the power it is necessary either to increase the coefficient offriction, for example by applying a rubber lagging to the surface of the drum, or to increase the angle of wrap by 'snubbing' the drum or providing a multiple drive. Figure 7.8 shows some common types of drive arrangement and the corresponding angles of wrap are listed in Table 7.1. For a much fuller discussion of drive arrangements see [11]. With the plain drive (Figure 7.8a) the angle of wrap is limited to 180°. The snubbed drive (Figure 7.8b) is more popular, since in addition to the larger 270 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 7.1 Angles of wrap for basic types of drive [1]. Type of drive Angle of wrap Single drum Snubbed drum Tandem or dual drive 180° 180°~240° 360°~480° angle of wrap it has the advantage that it brings the carrying and return strands of the belt closer together and thus reduces the depth of supporting structure required. With a tandem drive, two drums are geared together and driven by a single motor (Figure 7.8c) and this arrangement gives an angle of wrap almost double that of a single drum. The same advantage is obtained with a dual drive (Figure 7.8d) but in this case the two drums are separately motorized. Note, however, that a drawback to both of these arrangements is that one of the driving drums will be in contact with the carrying (i.e. 'dirty') side of the belt. Using bend and snubbing pulleys as shown in Figure 7.8e, it is generally not difficult to reverse the belt so that only the clean side is in contact with the two driving drums. A further disadvantage of the geared tandem drive is that, because of slight differences in the tension of the belt as it passes over the drums, there will inevitably be some slip between the belt and the second drum. It is perhaps appropriate at this point to remark that even on a single drum there will inevitably be a certain amount of belt 'creep' resulting from the varying tension in the belt as it passes around the drum. The term 'creep' actually refers to the relative movement between the belt and the surface of the drum that happens as the stretch in the belt decreases with the reduction in tension. The arc of the drum surface over which creep occurs will tend to increase as the tight-side tension increases, for example as a result of increasing the load on the belt, and if the 'angle of creep' approaches the 'angle of wrap' the belt will clearly be on the point of slipping. It is for this reason that a certain inherent tension should be maintained, even in the slack side of the belt. The inherent tension in the conveyor belt, needed to ensure that the drive is maintained, can be provided in a number of ways. The simplest method, used for small or light-duty conveyors of the type shown in Figure 7.1, is to adjust the distance between the head and tail drums, for example by pulling back the tail drum on a screw tensioner (Figure 7.9a). A similar type of tensioner operating on an idler pulley is illustrated in Figure 7.8d. A common alternative method is to use a 'drop-weight' or 'gravity take-up' device (Figure 7.9b) which can be easily adjusted to give the tension required. The gravity take-up has the great advantage that it can readily accommodate small changes in the length of the belt, such as the stretching that occurs on starting from rest. Hydraulically or electrically powered automatic take-ups are also available, 271 BELT CONVEYORS (a) Screw tensioner /weights (b) Gravity take-up Figure 7.9 Belt-tensioning devices. relying on a load-sensitive device to move the tensioning pulley in response to changing operating conditions of the belt. 7.2.4 The power unit When selecting the driving motor and power transmission for a belt conveyor there are a number of factors to be considered, such as single- or multi-speed requirements, type of electrical power supply and environmental conditions, but the most important consideration is the starting characteristic. A long conveyor may require a considerable time to accelerate to its normal running speed, especially if it is fully loaded, and the power unit should normally be capable of providing a constant torque during the whole of this period. The electric motor most commonly used for driving belt conveyors is the squirrel cage induction type, although compound (series/shunt wound) de motors may be used where starting conditions are severe. The squirrel cage motor is a high-speed machine which will not start under a heavy load, and therefore some kind of speed reduction mechanism is essential, usually in conjunction with an automatic clutch. For speed reduction it is usual to use either worm gears or a gear train involving two or three stages of reduction through straight-cut or helical gears. The method of power transmission from the motor/gearbox unit to the conveyor is also a prime consideration when designing a belt conveyor installation. Torque control devices, such as fluid couplings and eddy-current couplings, are widely used as they offer a means of changing the torque/speed characteristics of the motive unit to suit the conveyor and thus allow some flexibility in the selection of the electric motor. The eddy-current coupling is an electromagnetic device which, placed between the squirrel cage motor shaft and the speed reducer input shaft, allows a measure of control over the acceleration of the conveyor belt. However, this type of coupling tends to be bulky and expensive and fluid couplings are normally preferred. Various kinds of fluid coupling are available commercially, including 272 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING variable-speed types and so-called 'dry-fluid' types charged with steel shot instead of the more usual oil. Any fluid coupling is, in essence, a form of slip clutch which allows a controlled difference in the speeds of rotation of the input and output shaft. In its basic form the fluid coupling can be regarded as a pump and a turbine, fitted in the same casing, with the output fluid from the pump being used to drive the turbine. Thus, the 'impeller' is fitted to the input shaft and the 'runner' is fitted to the output shaft. Flow control devices, such as guide vanes, located within the casing between the impeller and the runner, will then enable the operating characteristics of the coupling to be varied. In this way the fluid coupling can produce a smooth acceleration of a fully-loaded belt conveyor from start-up to normal operating speed. For variable-speed operation, special types of fluid coupling are available, such as the scoopcontrolled hydraulic coupling which is normally capable of operating steadily at speeds down to 25% of maximum. 7.2.5 Loading and discharge arrangements Loading of a bulk material on to a belt conveyor is usually from a hopper or bunker by direct gravity discharge, or from a preceding conveyor or feeder which may be of belt, apron, screw or vibratory type. Whatever loading method is used, it should provide a steady flow of product to the belt and distribute it uniformly about the centreline of the belt to ensure that the optimum loading level is achieved without problems of spillage or dust generation. Ideally the product should 'flow' on to the belt in the direction of travel and with the same forward velocity in order to minimize acceleration losses and abrasion of the belt surface. Usually the use of some kind of transfer chute would be involved in order to avoid the product falling vertically on to a moving belt. The design of such a chute must be undertaken with some care in order to avoid build-up of product on the sides and bottom of the chute (and possible complete blockage). Skirt plates are generally fitted at the outlet from the chute to confine the product towards the centre of the belt and minimize spillage. These would typically extend along the belt to some two or three times the belt width beyond the feed point, the distance between them being normally about two-thirds of the width of the belt. The most straightforward approach to discharging product from a belt conveyor is simply to 'throw' it over the head-end drum. In this case the trajectory of the material is an important consideration in the design of a discharge chute so that erosive wear of the front plate of the chute and degradation of the product are not excessive. Methods of plotting the material trajectory from a knowledge of its density and velocity over the head pulley are beyond the scope of this book and the reader requiring guidance on this subject is directed to [2] and [ 11]. Where conveyed product is to be discharged at one or more points before BELT CONVEYORS Figure 7.10 273 A typical travelling tripper. the head-end drum there are basically two methods that can be employed. The simplest of these is to use a plough at each desired discharge point. A timber or steel platform is positioned beneath the belt to flatten it so that the plough blade, which may also be constructed of timber or steel, can be lowered on to the belt to direct the conveyed product into a chute at one side of the belt. Use of a V-shaped plough allows the product to be discharged simultaneously to chutes on each side of the belt. A more satisfactory method in most cases, especially where a single variabledischarge point is specified, involves the use of a 'tripper' comprising a pair of bend pulleys which raise the belt towards a discharge chute directing the product to one side of the conveyor or the other. In the travelling tripper (Figure 7.1 0), the pulleys are mounted on a wheeled carriage which may be propelled either by hand (over short distances), by power obtained from the conveyor belt and transmitted to the carriage wheels through a suitable gearbox, by a winch-hauled endless rope system, or by a separate driving motor mounted on the carriage itself. 7.2.6 Belt cleaners Of the many different accessories used with belt conveyors, belt-cleaning devices are possibly the most important. When transporting bulk materials that have any tendency to stick to the surface of the belt, it is essential to employ some kind of cleaning technique at the head end to minimize the buildup of material on snub pulleys and return idlers. Any such build-up can cause sharp particles to be pressed into the belt cover or cause the belt to run offcentre, both of which can drastically shorten the life of the belt. It is also necessary to ensure that any product spilt on to the 'clean' side of the belt is removed before it enters an in-running nip (such as the tail pulley) and becomes trapped between the belt and the pulley. Various types of cleaner are available, such as rotary brushes or scraper blades of steel or rubber, which may be spring-loaded or counterweighted to bear against the surface of the belt (Figure 7.11). Care must be taken to ensure 274 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 7.11 Typical belt-cleaning devices. that the cleaner is effective without causing damage to the belt and also that excessive build-up of cleared particles does not occur on the brush or scraper and so reduce its efficiency. An effective cleaning method is by a water spray to soften and loosen the material sticking to the belt, followed by one or more rubber wiper blades to plough the material off. However, this technique presents the considerable problem of subsequently disposing of the waste water and it is therefore rarely used except on high-speed conveyors. For a comprehensive coverage of belt cleaning methods the reader is directed to [13]. 7.3 Belt conveyor design 7.3.1 The bulk solid to be transported The design of a belt conveyor begins with a careful study of the bulk solid to be transported. It is evident that the rate at which a bulk solid can be moved on a belt of specified speed and width depends principally upon its bulk density and the height to which it can be piled on the belt. The bulk density of a particulate material has been defined (in Chapter I) as the mass of the material divided by its total volume (particles and voids). Clearly a knowledge of this property allows the conveying rate (in tonnes/hour) to be calculated from the belt speed and the average cross- BELT CONVEYORS 275 carrying side of belt Figure 7.12 Cross-section of a typical troughed belt conveyor showing angle of surcharge of material on the belt. sectional area of the conveyed material as stacked on the moving belt. Also in Chapter 1 the property 'angle of repose' was defined as the angle to the horizontal made by the sloping surface of a freely-formed heap of the material. This property strongly influences the height of material piled on a conveyor belt, but, recognizing that the movement ofthe belt inevitably causes the heap to slip and 'flow out' slightly, an 'angle of surcharge' is defined as the angle to the horizontal which the surface of the material assumes while at rest on a moving conveyor belt (Figure 7.12). The angle of surcharge is, for most materials, some 5° to 15° less than the angle of repose. Table 7.2 details bulk densities, angles of repose and angles of surcharge for a selection offamiliar bulk solids. More extensive lists are published in design guides such as [1], [2], [9] and [11]. Note that there are other properties of the conveyed product that should be given due consideration. These include its moisture content, dustiness, cohesiveness (and adhesiveness), abrasiveness and chemical corrosiveness. Perhaps the most important, however, since it has a direct bearing on the speed ofthe belt and the belt width to be used, is the 'lump size' of the material. Most manufacturers of belt conveyors use an empirical relationship between the width of the belt and the size of lumps to be handled. The usual practice is to allow a maximum lump size of one-fifth of the belt width for surcharge angles of 20° or one-tenth of the belt width for surcharge angles up to 30°, although larger lumps can be handled if the conveyed material contains a high percentage (around 90%) of fines. 7.3.2 Belt speed The choice of belt speed is to some extent arbitrary, and there has been considerable debate on whether it is better to run a narrow belt at high speed or a wider belt at lower speed. A number of factors have to be taken into account: principally the nature of the material to be conveyed, the carrying capacity required and the belt tensions. 276 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 7.2 Relevant properties of a selection of familiar bulk solids. Material Alumina Ammonium chloride Ammonium nitrate Ashes (coal)-dry -wet -fly Barley Barytes (fine) Bauxite (granular) Cement Chalk (fine) Chalk (lumpy) Clay (dry fines) Coal (bituminous) Coke Copper ore Iron ore Kaolin clay Limestone Phosphate rock (broken dry) Pyrites (lumpy) Sand-dry -foundry Soda ash (light) Sugar-raw Wheat Wood chips Bulk density (tonnes/m 3 ) Angle of repose Recommended max. angle of inclination 0.8-1.08 0.72-0.83 0.72 0.56-0.64 0.72-0.80 0.5-0.8 0.61 1.8-2.0 1.20-1.36 1.20-1.36 1.0-1.2 1.2-1.4 1.6-1.9 0.72-0.88 0.4-0.5 1.92-2.56 2.08-2.88 1.0 1.44-1.52 22° 12" 1.2-1.3 2.1-2.3 1.4~-1.60 1.3-1.4 0.35-0.55 0.88-1.04 0.77 0.16-0.48 45° 45' 42° 230 35" 30° 30° 42" 42° 35° 35° 38° 38" 35° 35° 38° 28° 35° 35° 37° 45° 28° Surcharge angle too 100 100 23° 20° 20° 2SO 30° 30° 30° 5-10° lOo 20° 10-20°* 25° lOo 220 12" ISO 20° 15-18° 25° !5° 20" 18° 18" 20° 18° 19° 18° 14° 16° 16° 24° 220 18° 25' 25° 20° 20° 25° 100 18° 20° 20° 30° 25° 30° 27" 30" 220 120 too (*Surcharge can be oo if cement is aerated and max. inclination could then be 5-l 0°). Relevant material characteristics include the abrasiveness of the bulk solid, its lump size and its tendency to 'dusting'. Abrasive wear is greater at high speeds, as is the impact effect of large lumps passing over the idlers. Also, there is more risk of lumps rolling off the belt if it is running fast. Very light or dusty products should normally be conveyed at low speeds in order to minimize the loss of material from the belt. This is especially important at the head end where dust nuisance may be quite unacceptable if the velocity of discharge of the product is too high. At high belt speeds, general wear on the moving parts of the conveyor is greater, and, especially with narrow belts, satisfactory belt tracking becomes increasingly difficult to maintain. Typical practical belt speeds are around 1.5 m/s for very abrasive material or large lumps, up to 3 or 4m/s for free-flowing, non-abrasive products. Figure 7.13 gives an indication of the maximum speeds currently recommended for normal applications involving the conveying of various types of bulk material. Modern trends seem to be towards higher belt speeds because 277 BELT CONVEYORS ~- 1--I - - r- 4 -- u; § "0 Q) Q) 3 - -- 1--· - 0. "' a; 2 - --··· - --- D -- . J V .I -·· I I. // V / ~ I; ~.,..,. ~'4 / Conveyed material - 5 Fine: free-flowing non-abrasive ./ Fine: mildly abrasive or lumpy ~ Granular: abrasive or lumpy, mildly abrasive ~ Granular: very abrasive or lumpy, moderately abrasive ~ Lumpy and very abrasive Belts used with belt-propelled trippers 7 Belts used with ploughs ~ 500 picking and w ~ ~ 8:'0w w ~ 1 For feeding belts 1000 1500 2000 belt width (mm) Figure 7.13 Guide to maximum recommended belt speeds in normal applications. Note: (i) Considerably higher speeds may be possible in some situations. (ii) When operating on upward inclines close to the maximum for the product the speed may need to be significantly lower. of the significant cost advantages that can be gained; 6 m/s is fairly common, and up to 10 mjs is possible in some situations. It has been suggested recently [14] that if care is taken over the dynamic design of the system, belt speeds above 15 mjs are technically feasible. 7.3.3 Belt width The carrying capacity rits of a belt conveyor can be expressed as rits = PbksAv (7.1) where Pb is the bulk density of the conveyed material, A is the average crosssectional area of this material stacked on the horizontal moving belt, v is the belt speed, and ks is a 'slope factor' to take account of the decrease of the loadstream cross-section when the belt operates on a gradient. Clearly the difficulty in using equation (7.1) to determine the maximum transport rate (or the minimum belt width for a specified transport rate) lies in the calculation ofthe cross-sectional area of the load stream, A. The maximum value of A will depend upon the nature of the conveyed material, the width of the belt and the configuration of the idlers. It is possible to use simple geometry K 278 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING SU"charge angle 6 Figure 7.14 Cross-section of load stream on a flat belt. to derive a mathematical expression for the nominal cross-section of the load stream, and the method for a troughed belt running on conventional three-roll idlers is given in [6]. In the case of a flat belt the cross-sectional area A of the load stream can be easily calculated if it is assumed that the surface of the conveyed material is parabolic (Figure 7.14). Thus (7.2) and (7.3) where b is the width ofthe load stream on the belt and b is the surcharge angle. Tabulated values of A for flat belts of various widths are given in [7], and for various configurations of troughed belt in [7] and [11]. op1imum troughing angle (to give maximum Ul 0.24 r--r--r--r''-'-li'"--r---r---r--'-r--;---, :::> 0 0.16 ;:; ~ g_ 0.12 "'"' .r::: 0.08 0.04 o·~~-,Lo~--2~0-J--~~~~~~so !roughing angle, {3 Figure 7.15 Shape factors for V-troughing on two-roll idler systems. 279 BELT CONVEYORS angle of wing idlers to horizontal (!roughing angle) - degrees (J Figure 7.16 Shape factors for standard three-roll idler set having all rollers of the same size. A useful alternative approach for the somewhat more difficult cases of tworoll and three-roll idler configurations is to express the cross-section of the load-stream in terms of the 'contact perimeter' b of the material on the belt using a shape factor V which is a function of the transverse profile of the belt and the surcharge angle of the conveyed materials: (7.4) so that (7.5) For the flat belt V clearly has the value (tan o)/6, but for other belt profiles it is more convenient to present charts from which the relevant shape factor can be determined. Typical charts are given here for two-roll idler systems (Figure 7.15) and standard three-roll systems having rollers of identical length (Figure 7.16). A full analysis and discussion of optimum idler configurations can be found in [2]. - 280 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING t-. !'--- 0.9 ........ !'-.. ' ['-.. 0.8 0.7 0 Figure 7.17 I"'\ 4 8 12 16 angle of inclination (degees) 20 Slope factor k, for smooth (unpatterned) belts operating on a gradient. Values of the slope factor k., which allows for the reduction in the crosssectional area of the load stream when conveying on a gradient, can be determined from Figure 7.17 (from [7] ). Naturally some allowance must be made for 'edge clearance'; that is, the distance between the conveyed material piled on the belt and the edge of the belt. One formula relating the minimum width Bmin of the belt to the contact perimeter b (recommended in BS 5934/ISO 5048) is: Bmin = 1.11 b + 0.056 (7.6) where Bmin and b are in metres. Thus, for a given idler configuration (and hence, shape factor V) and given belt speed v, the minimum belt width required to transport material of bulk density Pb at a rate m, can be estimated from m Bmin = 1.11 ( __s _ PbksUv )o.s + 0.056 Table 7.3 Preferred widths of conveyor belt as recommended by the UK Mechanical handling Engineers Association [ 11]. Belt width (mm) 400 500 600 650 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 (7.7) BELT CONVEYORS 281 The belt selected would then normally be the nearest standard size above available from the manufacturer. Preferred widths of conveyor belt, as specified by the UK Mechanical Handling Engineers Association [11], are listed in Table 7.3. Note, however, that the minimum belt width may be dictated by the lump size of the conveyed material as explained in section 7.3.1. (In this case equation (7.7) can be used to give an indication of the belt speed required.) Bmin 7.3.4 Belt tension The power required to drive a belt conveyor has to be transmitted from the driving drum or drums to the belt through friction between the two surfaces. (By a similar mechanism, a belt conveyor operating downhill can have a regenerative effect, transmitting power from the belt to one or more drums.) As in all belt drives, the power is transmitted by means of a difference in the tension in the belt as it approaches (T1 ) and leaves (T2 ) the driving drum (Figure 7.18). In the usual case of power transmitted from the drum to the belt T1 will be greater than T 2 , so that the ratio TJIT2 is greater than unity. The magnitude of the ratio TJIT2 depends upon the coefficient of friction between the drum and the belt, and the extent of the arc of contact between them. In order that the belt conveyor installation operates correctly it is essential for the :ensile forces in the belt to be such that two basic conditions are fulfilled. These are that the necessary power is transmitted from the driving drum or drums to the belt without slippage occurring and that excessive sag does not occur between any pair of idler sets. Two useful parameters in belt conveyor design are the 'effective tension' Te, defined as the difference between the tensions in the belt as it approaches and leaves the driving drum, and the 'drive factor' or 'wrap factor' Kd which is the ratio of the 'slack-side' tension T2 to the effective tension Te i.e. K d_- T2 (7.8) Te T1 - T2 Now from an analysis of the forces in the belt it can be shown that T! - T2 = exp(J18) T1 (tight side) T2 (slack side) Figure 7.18 Tensile forces in a conveyor belt. (7.9) 282 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 7.4 Typical values of friction coefficient 11 between drive drum and belt. Operating conditions Bare drum Lagged drum Dry Clean wet Wet and dirty 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.35 0.2-0.3 0.2 where J1 is the coefficient of friction between the belt and the drum and (J is the angle of wrap. It should be noted that the value of J1 is very much dependent upon operating conditions and may range from 0.35 or more for a clean lagged drum to as little as 0.05 for an unlagged drum in a wet and dirty situation (Table 7.4). Rearranging and combining equations (7.8) and (7.9) we have (7.1 0) where I Kd=--·--exp (Jl(J) - I (7.11) Clearly the value of the drive factor Kd will depend principally upon the coefficient of friction between the belt and the driving drum and the angle of contact. Figure 7.19 is a chart based on equation (7.11) from which Kd can be estimated for various operating situations. Note that when a screw tensioner is in use instead of an automatic take-up device, it will be necessary to put an initial stress on the belt and therefore a higher value of wrap factor should be used. Generally for a single drum Kd should be 20% greater if the drum is bare and 30% greater if it is lagged, and for a tandem or dual drive Kd should be about 25% greater for both bare and lagged drums. The tensile forces in a working conveyor belt will vary along the whole length of the belt, and will change when the belt is stopped or started and when the product feed rate is altered. When selecting a conveyor belt it is necessary to know the maximum tension to which it will be subjected, and for simple belt configurations this is equal to the 'tight-side' tension T 1 • The corresponding minimum tension (equal to the 'slack-side' tension T 2 ) is also an important design parameter, as it must not be so low that slipping occurs between the driving drum and the belt. Furthermore, a certain minimum tension in the belt is necessary to ensure that the sag between the idlers does not exceed the usually recommended figure of around 3% of the idler pitch. This is particularly important on the carrying side where excessive spillage of material from the belt can occur if the sag is too great. Various methods are available for determining the maximum and minimum belt tensions and where they occur, the complexity of the analysis depending 283 BELT CONVEYORS 3"0 r--r--r--,-------.-.1-,--, 11_,..1--,-~ = r p l a i n drive (1800) 1 snubbed I rdrive 1 2.5 r- ~~ I tandem a dual drive - r- - +++-'r---'---.. . . - r- - -+-+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---t--t 1-- I l 'Ul r- .j! 2.0 \ : bare dn.ms t--t--;--t--f-'lr\.-+--twet and dirty 1 \ r clean wet .........,~~-+--+-+---1'<-~_,V-L. dry J' ! !5 1.5 -g +-+\-\+-+--+--+--+--+--+-+-+--+-+-+-+--+--! t---1r-flrt-\--+-+---t-"'JK -+--t---tI 'i > ~ l/ I \.. 1 CD lagged dr~ wet and drty - / clean wet dry I ..! - V p. 1\. I'· i.. f' I 0 .. , / / ........_ '// '-1,.( .... , 0.10 ' - , __ - ....... I 300 200 angle of 0.15 o:2o --- 0.25 -- -F400 500 8:1 oontact (degees) Figure 7.19 Approximate values of the drive factor (Kd) for conveyor belts fitted with gravity or automatic tensioning devices. (For belts tensioned manually, values from this chart should be increased by 25% if drum is bare or 15% if lagged.) upon the configuration of the conveyor. Full details may be found in the literature, for example [1], [2], [8-11]. For a simple belt system, the procedure involves estimating the driving force needed to move the loaded belt (as explained in the next section) and equating this to the effective tension Te. The maximum and minimum tensions in the belt can then be estimated from equations (7.10). An important requirement at this stage is to check that the value of the minimum tension is sufficient to prevent the belt sagging excessively between the idlers. The tension throughout the length of the belt must always exceed the so-called 'sag tension', which can be estimated as follows: For the carrying side, (7.12) and for the return side (7.13) 284 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING where mb and mL are respectively the mass per unit length of the belt and of the conveyed material on the belt, Lie is the idler pitch on the carrying side, Lir is the idler pitch on the return side and K, is a 'sag factor' which has values 4.2 for 3% sag, 6.25 for 2% sag and 8.4 for 1.5% sag [2]. 7.3.5 Idler spacing The spacing of the idler sets along the length of a belt conveyor installation will be influenced by various factors such as the load being carried, the width and stiffness of the belt (longitudinal and transverse) and the tension within the belt. It has now become almost universal practice to arrange the return idler sets on a 3 m pitch, but on the carrying side the idler spacing would typically be anything from 0.93 m to 1.6 m. Table 7.5 gives recommended pitch of carrying idler sets for various densities of conveyed material and various belt widths [6]. Although it appears to be customary to have the carrying and return idlers arranged on a uniform pitch, there are definite advantages in terms of lower initial cost and reduced frictional resistance to having graduated spacing to correspond to the varying tension along the length of the belt. However, these advantages may be largely outweighed by the practical difficulties of installing such an arrangement. Equations (7.12) and (7.13) can be adapted to show the optimum idler spacing once the actual tension throughout the belt has been determined [2]. 7.3.6 Power requirements The power required to transport a material on a belt conveyor is absorbed in overcoming frictional effects and (if upward movement is involved) in increasing the potential energy of the material. Accelerating the material fed on to the belt may also account for some of the power requirement. The currently favoured approach [7] to assessing the overall resistance to motion of a belt conveyor, (and therefore the belt tension and power requirement), is to consider separately the various component resistances which are classified into five groups as shown in Figure 7.20. Table 7.5 Recommended pitch of idler sets [6] Pitch of carrying idler sets (mm) Bulk density of conveyed material Belt width (mm) 400-1200kgjm 3 1200-2000 kg/m 3 2000-2800kgjm 3 400-650 650-900 900-1050 1050-2000 1650 1500 1350 1200 1500 1350 1200 1000 1425 1275 1125 925 Note: Recommended pitch of return idlers is 3000 mm for all the above applications. 285 BELT CONVEYORS Occur on all belt conveyors "'•""' ""' { (1) .{ (2) SECONDARY RESIST ANCES (3) SPECIAL MAl certain instalations (4) (5) Figure 7.20 Occur continuously MAIN RESIST ANCES- over the length of the belt RESIST ANCES SPECIAL SECOOOARY RESISTANCES SLOPE RESISTANCE Occur locally May have positive, zero or negative values Classification of resistance to motion of belt conveyors (British/ISO standard). A detailed list of these various resistances may be found in [2] and [7], but in order that the explanation of the design process may be continued a summary of the most important resistances is given below: (i) Belt friction resistance, Frb· This is the resistance to movement of the empty belt and results chiefly from the rolling resistance of the idlers together with a contribution from the belt itself due to flexing and sliding contact with various components. Clearly the actual magnitude of Frb is not easily predicted, and the conventional approach used by conveyor manufacturers is to calculate the total mass of all the moving parts of the conveyor (belt, idlers, drums, etc.) and then multiply this by an empirical 'friction coefficient', J.1., 1 . Figure 7.21 can be used to give an approximate indication of the mass of moving parts of simple conveyors (from [15]) but where possible the mass should be determined more accurately. Thus, the total effective mass of all moving parts may be calculated as (7.14) where mic and mir are the mass of the rotating parts of the idlers per unit length of belt on the carry side and the return side respectively, mb is the mass of the belt per unit length overall, a is the angle of elevation and Lis the overall length ofthe conveyor ('centre-to-centre'). Note that the term 2mb cos a represents the contribution of the belt itself to the force carried by the idlers. Thus, (7.15) where M c is the total mass of moving parts. The value of the 'belt friction coefficient' f.1., 1 depends to some extent upon the conditions (especially the temperature) in which the belt is used, but for most applications a value of 0.025 should be reliable. (ii) Load friction resistance, FrL· This is defined as the resistance to horizontal movement of the conveyed material; it is usually expressed in terms of the total mass of material on the belt, multiplied by an empirical friction coefficient, f.1, 2 . 286 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 80 I m~ss of belt 1 (including both carryilg strand and return strand) I-- 60 'E I / I heavy d u t y / Cl> 40 .:5 I-- -- Q) g / !'!! 20 .!!I __ ~ ,!; g60 ~ 0 1-- - I --- I I mass of trouahi'la idlers (1 metre pitch) , --::: Q) .i!: Q) j - l I I mass of return idler§ 20 -~ 0 I ___.. ~ - 152/1~m~ -127mm .--- -----~L..--~ 400 I-- 200 (3 jtre plitch) f - - - 400 600 .---r> I / ---- ~ I. I ___.......... ~ / __.......... j:;3Y.r-av~ V __.......... "0 Cl / / 102mm 1-- ------ - l-- I 152/1681T1Tl -127~{·\· 102m I 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 belt wldth Crm\1 Figure 7.21 Charts for estimating the total mass of moving parts per unit length of conveyor. Example: for IOOOmm wide belt, 127 mm idlers, on average duty, total mass= 6.5 + 24.5 + 25.5 = 56.5kg/m. The value ofthe 'load-friction coefficient' is likely to be slightly higher than the belt friction coefficient J1, 1 , but for design purposes is generally taken to be the same. Thus, (7.16) where mL is the mass of conveyed material per unit length of the belt and L is the conveying distance. Note that mL can conveniently be written in terms of the carrying capacity of the belt and the belt speed as (7.17) so that m.gL FrL = Jl,z-- v (7.18) BELT CONVEYORS 287 The belt friction resistance and the load friction resistance together make up the so-called 'main resistance' FH to the movement of the belt. Thus FH = and setting Jlrl = llrl (mic+ mir +2mb cos rx)gL + Jlr2mLgL (7.19) Jlrz = 0.025 and simplifying, FH = 0.025g( MC+ :s )L (7.20) (iii) Load slope resistance, F 51 • Where a belt conveyor operates on an upward incline, the largest contribution to the total driving force required is likely to result from the gravity force on the load. However, it should be noted that F 51 may be positive or negative, depending upon whether the movement of the conveyed material is upwards or downwards. Thus the load slope resistance can be expressed relatively simply as (7.21) or rhsgH Fst=-V- (7.22) where His the net change in vertical elevation and can be positive or negative. (iv) Load acceleration resistance, FaL· If the load being fed on to the belt has an initial component of velocity v0 in the direction of the belt, the resistive force on the belt can be expressed as (7.23) or (7.24) The load acceleration resistance is probably the most significant of the 'secondary resistances'. Others are the resistance due to friction between the conveyed product and the side walls or skirt plates in the loading region, bearing resistance of snub pulleys and bend pulleys (but not driving drums), and resistance due to wrapping of the belt on the various pulleys and drums. References [2] and [7] give guidance on the calculation of these resistances, but BS 5934/ISO 5048 [7] also recommends, for belt conveyors longer than 80m, an abbreviated approach in which the secondary resistances are given by (7.25) where the coefficient KsR varies from 0.025 for conveyors longer than 3000 m up to more than 1 for conveyors less than 80 m in length (Figure 7.22). Although the so-called 'special resistances' occur only on certain installations, they may be significant in comparison with the other resistances to 288 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING c Cl> I 11 "13 1 .i I-- - - f.---- [\ Cl> -- f...-- I-- t-----1\ 0.5 ~ ~-· >- ~5l 0.1 ' I-I-- +---- +---- 0 10 20 1---~- I I i -- !"' - 50 100 200 I """' 500 10002000 5000 centre-to-centre length L of conveyor (m) Figure 7.22 [7]. Variation of secondary resistance coefficient Ks• with length of belt conveyor from movement of the conveyor belt. The special resistances include such effects as drag resulting from the forward tilt of the idler wing rollers and drag due to belt cleaners, ploughs, trippers and skirt plates (other than in the loading region). As with the secondary resistances, [2] and [7] give methods of estimating the special resistances. The load acceleration resistance is probably the most significant of the above constituents. Thus (7.26) or (7.27) The required driving force at the motor drum will be effectively equal to this total resistance, and consequently the 'effective tension' Te can be substituted for F R• so that (7.28) Maximum and minimum tensions in the belt can now be estimated as explained in the previous section The operating power required at the driving drum can be expressed as the product of the effective tension and the belt speed: P= Tev (7.29) so that the motor power can be determined from Tev P =I]m (7.30) where '1 is the efficiency of the motor/drum transmission (usually around 8595%). BELT CONVEYORS 289 7.4 Belt conveyor variants 7.4.1 The cable belt conveyor The cable belt system was originally conceived as a means of separating the driving and carrying functions of a conventional belt conveyor. The system was developed in Scotland in the late 1940s and early 1950s and is now well established as a reliable means of transport offering several advantages over more traditional conveyors. The basic concept of the cable belt system is a laterally rigid but longitudinally flexible belt, supported at or near its edges on two parallel endless steel cables, these in turn being supported by idler pulleys spaced at regular intervals over the length of the conveyor (Figure 7.23a). The construction of the belt itself involves a central composite core, sandwiched between two layers of wire and textile mesh, the whole matrix being enveloped and (a) A typical linestard showing the concept of separate driving and carrying functions '1-· (b) Belt construction (c) Natural !roughing under load (d) A recently developed pre-formed belt, the sides of which flatten to pass round the end puleys (Ref. 16) Figure 7.23 The cable belt conveyor. 290 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING vulcanized in suitable outer covers (Figure 7.23b). The belt sits on, but is not attached to, the drive cables and thus does not transmit tension. When empty the belt is flat and is positively located on the drive cables by longitudinal Vgrooves. Its lateral rigidity is sufficient to allow it naturally to form a trough when carrying a load (Figure 7.23c), but longitudinally the flexibility of the belt permits it to wrap around the head and tail drums of the conveyor. A very recent development [16] has the belt pre-formed into a trough profile (Figure 7.23d). Built-in reinforcement gives the belt sufficient lateral stiffness to maintain its profile between idlers whilst allowing the inclined sides to flatten naturally as the belt passes around the head and tail drums. There are many examples of cable belt conveyors having a proven record of successful operation, including a number working over long distances, in the range 5-15 km, and conveying at rates of up to 1000 tonnes/hour. More recently a cable belt system has been designed to transport bauxite at a rate of 2040 tonnes/hour over a distance of 50 km on a 950 mm-wide belt travelling at more than 6 m/s [ 17], the longest single flight being over 30 km. 7.4.2 Belt conveyors without idlers A number of manufacturers have developed modified forms of belt conveyor with the objective of eliminating some or all of the idler rollers. In one type, the angled wing-idlers are dispensed with and replaced with a continuous strip of low-friction material, whilst the centre rollers are retained for belt support and load carrying (Figure 7.24). The low-friction sealing strips are, for normal applications, a basic reconstituted UHMW polyethylene, but alternatives are glass-impregnated UHMW polyethylene for abrasion resistance and stainless steel for use at high temperature. It is claimed that a seal is created between the low-friction material and the underside of the conveyor belt, and that spillage from the conveyor is completely eliminated by continuous vertical walls fitted to the main support channel frame. In order to belt - canying strand top cover return idle~ Figure 7.24 Non-spill design oft roughed belt conveyor in which wing idlers are replaced by lowfriction strips. 291 BELT CONVEYORS belt - carryin~->--11~ strand air holes plenum charrtler -lli~~~3i~ belt - return strand Figure 7.25 Idlerless !roughed belt supported on an air-cushion. make the conveyor weatherproof and dust-tight, a top cover may be fitted to the vertical sidewalls, so that the carrying side of the belt is effectively running inside an enclosed duct. An extension of the concept of a low-friction surface replacing rollers has the carrying side of the belt supported on a thin cushion of air trapped between the underside of the curved belt and the continuous steel or plastic trough in which it runs (Figure 7.25). Conveyors of this type are marketed under various names, such as 'Aerobelt', 'Hovertube', 'Simveyor' and 'Jetbelt', available in trough widths up to 0.6 m, and lengths of 2 to 100 m. Air is supplied to the plenum chamber beneath the curved trough by a suitable blower at a rate of some 20-40 m 3 /h per linear metre, and passes through small holes in the trough to form a thin, lubricating film on which the belt effectively 'floats'. This film is maintained at pressure by the weight of the conveyed product on the belt and the flow rate of air to the plenum chamber needs to be sufficient only to replace the air that bleeds continuously from the gap between the edges of the belt and the surface of the trough. Thus the air supply rate should be adjusted to suit the belt speed, which is normally up to about 7 mjs, and loading so that a suitable edge clearance is maintained. Thus are ensured the advantages of the system in terms of reduced frictional resistance, minimal wear of the belt and the trough, and minimal spillage over the sides of the belt. 7.4.3 Closed-belt or pipe conveyors The pipe conveyor can be regarded as a variant form of a conventional belt conveyor in which the troughing effect is continued to the limit so that the edges of the belt roll over and butt together to form an enclosed tube of more of less circular cross-section. This type of conveyor is particularly suitable for the transport of fragile products, since they are wrapped in the belt and carried gently with little, if any internal movement except at filling and discharge points. This feature also permits highly abrasive materials to be conveyed with negligible wear of the belt and other plant components. Another important advantage of the pipe conveyor is its flexibility: curves in both the horizontal 292 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (a) The zipper' conveyor (Ref. 18) spring clip outriding drive belt conveyor (cross-section) (c) The Japan pipe conveyor Figure 7.26 Forms of closed-belt or pipe conveyor. and vertical planes are possible within a short space, so that twists and turns can be accommodated to suit almost any requirement of the plant layout. Probably the earliest form of pipe conveyor was the 'zipper' conveyor in which the edges of the belt have moulded teeth that are meshed and unmeshed by rollers in much the same manner as the familiar clothing fastener (Figure 7.26a). A more recent design, registered under the name-'Solitube', has the belt assembled with spring clips which, in the natural state, hold it closed in the form of a tube having a 'tear-drop' cross-section (Figure 7.26b). This tube is BELT CONVEYORS 293 supported by a system of outriggers connected to twin independent driving belts. This independent drive arrangement enables the tube to be moulded in rubber compounds suitable for negotiating filling and emptying stations and bends rather than for power transmission. Also, the drive belts guide and support the conveying tube and, by geometric displacement of the idler rollers and movement of actuating arms, provide a means to open the tube against the resistance of the spring clips. The tube is filled with product via an inlet spout which is inserted into the aperture at the feed station and emptied under gravity by rotating the whole assembly through 180° before opening it. With the standard 80 mm diameter tube running at 2 mjs, the Soli tube has a potential volumetric capacity of about 30m 3 /hour. The Japan pipe conveyor has more in common with a conventional belt conveyor since it has a head and tail pulley over which the belt passes flat. Beyond the loading point the belt is rolled into tubular form by a series of idlers (Figure 7.26c). Curves in any direction can be negotiated under the control of further circumferential idler sets, and as the belt approaches the discharge point at the heat pulley, it undergoes the transition from tubular back to flat belt. Conveyors built to date include belt diameters ranging from 100mm to 500mm, and capacities ranging from 36 to 1800m 3 /hour. Operating speeds are from 1 m/s to 4m/s and conveying distances of several hundred metres are being achieved [19]. Operating in a very similar way to the Japan pipe conveyor is a recently proposed system based on a pre-formed rubber belt having a rectangular trough section [ 16]. The sides of the trough, which may be notched along their upper edges in the same manner as the previously mentioned zipper conveyor, can be turned in by rollers to form a closed tube. 7.4.4 Sandwich belts The principle of the 'sandwich' belt is relatively simple-the carrying belt, flat or slightly troughed, has a second belt running at the same speed in a close parallel plane, the conveyed product being the 'filling' in the 'sandwich'. The second (retainer or 'hugger') belt presses against the first with the edges effectively sealed by air pressure or by rollers. The bulk solid being carried is thus 'hugged' and prevented from sliding or rolling back when the conveyor operates on an incline, and the system can therefore work at any angle, even vertically upwards. An early application of the sandwich belt arrangement was for selfunloading vessels [20]. In a typical example (Figure 7.27) a conventional belt conveyor runs horizontally the length of the ship or barge and then curves upwards towards the deck. A second belt loop runs with the first to form the sandwich for the vertical rise, and in this way the bulk product is discharged from the vessel by a compact system without the complication of transfer to a separate elevator and without the need for substantial dockside equipment. 294 Figure 7.27 system). BULK SOLIDS HANDLING A sandwich belt conveyor installation used on a self-unloading vessel ('loop-belf \ ...... _ --- Figure 7.28 The 'Simporter' ship unloader [22]. Commercial variations of the sandwich belt conveyor have been developed under names such as 'Beltavator', 'Speed-Up' and 'HAC' (High-AngleConveyor), and the last-named particularly is finding useful applications in the sphere of open-cast mining and quarrying [21]. High-angle conveyors are operating at angles of up to 60° (with a claimed potential of90°). One example, in Yugoslavia, is designed to convey copper ore at 4000 tonnes/hour on a 2-m wide belt running at 2.7 m/s. The elevating height in this case is 93.5 m and the relatively modest inclination of 35.SO represents the limit of stability of the mine slope. Potential capacities in excess of 9000 tonnes/hour are claimed for this type of high-angle conveyor. An important industrial application of the sandwich belt concept is in the dock-mounted ship unloading system known as the Simporter, which can be BELT CONVEYORS 295 built for capacities from 300 to 2000 tonnes per hour. In the usual arrangement, a type of paddle feeder delivers the bulk material to the main belts which run up the vertical elevator leg and along the boom assembly (Figure 7.28). These belts run on slider plates, but air is introduced between the belt and the slider plates to reduce frictional resistance. The pressure of the air within the closed elevator leg and boom also helps to maintain the seal between the two belts. 7.5 Notation A Bmin b FaL Frb FrL FH FN FR F•• g H Kd K. KsR k. L Lie Lir mb MC mic mir mL m. p pm r. Tsag Tl T2 V V Cross-sectional area of bulk solids stream on conveyor belt Minimum overall belt width Width ofload stream on belt (i.e. cross-sectional contact length) Load acceleration resistance Belt friction resistance Load friction resistance Total main resistance Total secondary resistance Total resistance (main and secondary) Load slope resistance Gravitational acceleration (specific gravitational force) Net change in vertical elevation 'Drive factor' or 'wrap factor' defined by equation (7.11) Sag factor in equations (7.12) and (7.13) Secondary resistance coefficient Slope factor Length of conveyor (centre to centre) Idler pitch on carrying side of belt Idler pitch on return side of belt Mass of belt per unit length Total effective mass of moving parts of belt conveyor Mass of carrying idlers per unit length Mass of return idlers per unit length Mass of conveyed material per unit length of belt Carrying capacity (mass of solids per unit time) of a belt conveyor Operating power required at driving drum Motor power, in equation (7.30) Effective belt tension Conveyor belt 'sag tension' Tension in the tight side of the belt Tension in the slack side of the belt Shape factor for load cross-section Linear velocity of belt 296 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Component in direction of belt travel of initial product velocity Angle of inclination of belt conveyor (to horizontal) Surcharge angle of material on belt Efficiency of motor/drum transmission Angle of wrap (or arc of contact) Coefficient of friction Belt-friction coefficient Load-friction coefficient Bulk density References and bibliography References 1. Belt Conveyors for Bulk Handling, Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association (CEMA), Cahners Books (1966). 2. Roberts, A.W. and Hayes, J.W. (1979) Economic Analysis in the Optimal Design of Conveyors, TUNRA Ltd., Univ. of Newcastle, Australia. 3. Comley, P.D.H. High speed belt conveying in modern industry. Proc. Solidex 82 Conf, March/April 1982, Harrogate, UK; Paper Al. 4. Sahara, K. and Kuroda, Y. ( 1985) Test run of a 3 m wide, 30,000 t/h capacity belt conveyor. Bulk Solids Handling 5 (3) 599-601. 5. BS 490: Part 1. Conveyor belting for general use. British Standards Institution, London. 6. BS 2890: 1973. Troughed belt conveyors. British Standards Institution, London. 7. BS 5934: 1980. Calculation of operating power and tensile forces in belt conveyors with carrying idlers on continuous mechanical handling equipment. British Standards Institution, London. (Also ISO 5048-1979). 8. BTR Conveyor Belt Manual, BTR Belting Ltd., Preston, Lancashire (1979). 9. Dunlop Starjlex Conveyor Belt Manual., December 1976. 10. Dunlop Solid Woven Conveyor Belt Manual, June 1983. 11. Recommended Practice for Troughed Belt Conveyors. Mechanical Handling Engineers Association, London ( 1986). 12. Fyson, R.O. (1977) Two angles on conveying bulk materials up steep inclines. Chartered Mech. Engr., April, 50-53. 13. Conveyor Belt Cleaning Devices. Mechanical Handling Engineers Association, London. 14. Harrison, A. and Roberts, A.W. Technical requirements for operating conveyor belts at high speed. Proc. Inc. Con[. on Bulk Materials Storage. Handling and Transportation, Newcastle, Australia, August 1983, 84-89. 15. Lancaster, J.L. Application and design of belt conveyors. Proc. Solidex 80 Con(, Harrogate. UK, March 1980, Paper A4. 16. Melander, S. and Wehtje, A. ( 1986) Theoretical and practical background of a new type of conveyor belt. Bulk Solids Handling 6 (5) 941-946. 17. Farry, K.P. and Burleigh, A.C. 50 km conveyor for the aluminium industry. Proc.lnt. Con( on Bulk Materials Storage, Handling and Transportation, Newcastle, Australia, August 1983,9094. 18. Perry; R.H. and Green, D. (1984) Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook. McGraw-Hill, 6th edn., McGraw-Hill, New York, 7-16,7-17. 19. Buchanan, C. (1986) Japan pipe belt conveyor system. South Aji-ican Mechanical Engr 37 (2) 31, 33-35. 20. Walker, K. Self-unloading vessels. Proc. Solidex 84 Con(. Harrogate, UK, 1984, Paper D3. 21. Dos Santos, J.A. (1986) Sandwich belt high angle conveyors-HAC evolution to date. Bulk Solids Handling 6 (2) 299-314. 22. Napier, L.M. and Marsden, A.M.L. ( 1985) The Simon-Carves Simporter system. Bulk Solids Handling 5 (I) 53-55. BELT CONVEYORS 297 Recommended further reading Troughed Belt Conveyors. Mechanical Association, London ( 1986). Roberts, A.W. and Hayes, J.W. (1979) Economic Analysis in the Optimal Chapter 4, Belt Conveyor Design and Performance, TUNRA Ltd., Australia. Colijn, H. (1985) Mechanical Conveyors for Bulk Solids, Chapter 2, Belt Amsterdam. Recommended Practice for Handling Engineers Design of Conveyors. Univ. of Newcastle, Conveyors. Elsevier, 8 8 ucket elevators 8.1 Introduction In the preceding chapter on belt conveyors, brief mention was made of adaptations to the basic flat- or troughed-belt to enable it to operate on steep inclines. For example, whereas a conventional belt conveyor would generally be limited to a slope of about 20o, texturing the surface of the rubber belt to incorporate moulded ribs or nubs will allow conveying up an incline of some 60-70°, or even more, depending upon the nature of the bulk solid being carried. Taking this idea further, the rubber belt could be fitted with sidewalls and curved or sloping transverse slats so that it is capable of lifting the particulate or granular material vertically. The conveyor then approaches the design concept of the well-known bucket elevator. In many situations where the lifting of bulk solids is involved, the bucket elevator is the most simple, efficient and reliable machine that could be used (Figure 8.1). It can be obtained in a wide range of capacities and the current trend is towards standardized units, although for 'difficult' materials and high conveying rates it is advisable to use specially engineered equipment. The detailed construction of the bucket elevator obviously varies from one manufacturer to another and certain design features such as the pitch of the buckets, the operating speed and the feed and discharge arrangements may be chosen to suit the product being handled. However, the essential components of the device are: (i) An endless belt or chain(s) as a traction element to which are attached a series of carrying vessels or buckets (ii) A single or double casing which serves to enclose or partially enclose the moving buckets (iii) A 'head' at the upper end of the elevator which includes a belt pulley or chain wheel to turn the traction element and a suitable discharge chute (iv) A 'boot' at the lower end which again includes a belt pulley or chain wheel, a tensioning device (usually), and a means of feeding the material to be conveyed so as to ensure optimum filling. It is convenient to classify bucket elevators according to their bucket spacing and mode of discharge, and the two principal typescentrifugal discharge (spaced bucket) and continuous discharge-will be described in the next section. Another important group of bucket conveyor/elevators discussed in this BUCKET ELEVATORS Figure 8.1 299 A typical bucket elevator. chapter includes all those having various types of pivoted or hinged buckets. These allow combinations of horizontal and vertical conveying without the need for transfer points and, as a further advantage, allow unloading at any desired point in horizontal section. The final type of elevator to be described here is the profiled rubber belt, but it should be noted that this by no means exhausts the list of potential methods for raising bulk solids through a vertical distance. Some methods, such as screw conveyors, spiral vibratory elevators, en-masse conveyor/elevators, sandwich belts and tubular drag conveyor/elevators are discussed elsewhere in this book; others are omitted, principally because of their limited or specialized application. Neither is it possible here to discuss the enormous variety of applications that are found for bucket elevators, ranging from small light-duty 300 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 8.2 A ship-unloader using a form of bucket elevator. units in the food and pharmaceutical industries, to the very large dockside installations capable of unloading ships at rates greater than 5000 tonnes/hour (Figure 8.2). The second half of the chapter is concerned with the design and selection of bucket elevators, and guidance is given on the calculation of capacity and power requirements for the more conventional types. 8.2 Principal types of bucket elevator 8.2.1 Centrifugal discharge elevators Spaced-bucket centrifugal discharge elevators are very commonly used for handling free-flowing fine or granular products. Small lump materials can also be handled without difficulty. The buckets tend to be quite widely spaced (Figure 8.3a) and are typically of the shape shown in Figure 8.3c. Low-front buckets (Figure 8.3d) are used for handling wet, stringy or sticky products which are difficult to discharge. Material feed to the buckets is likely to be a combination of direct flow and a scooping action as the buckets turn under the bottom pulley or chain wheel. Discharge takes place by centrifugal action as the buckets pass around the head pulley. This is sufficient to empty the buckets of relatively free-flowing materials, but for those which are sticky or tend to pack, a modified arrangement (known as 'positive discharge') may be used, with the buckets mounted on two strands of chain and snubbed back under the head sprocket (Figure 8.3b). The slight jolting of the chain passing over the snub sprocket is generally sufficient to dislodge the material from the inverted buckets, but in extreme cases some kind of rapping mechanism may be employed. The speed of travel of the buckets must be sufficiently high to permit centrifugal discharge of the product and around 1.3 to 2 m/s would be usual. For very free-flowing granular materials (such as grain) belt speeds greater than 3.5 m/s can be used without difficulty. The positive-discharge type of BUCKET ELEVATORS (a) Centrifugal -discharge (c) Standard bucket profle Figure 8.3 301 (b) Positive discharge (d) Low-front style of ~et Bucket elevator types (spaced buckets). elevator is considerably slower, typically around 0. 7 mjs, and the buckets must be larger or more closely spaced to give a comparable capacity to the centrifugal discharge pattern. 8.2.2 Continuous bucket elevators Materials that contain large lumps or that are, for other reasons, too difficult to handle with centrifugal discharge machines, can often be carried in elevators in which the buckets are closely spaced with virtually no gap between (Figure 8.4a). These tend to be operated at lower speed than the centrifugal discharge type-typically around 1 to 1.3 mjs. The low operating speed and generally more gentle handling behaviour of the continuous bucket elevator also makes it suitable for friable products and for those that are very fine, light 302 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (a) Slardard (b) Higl capacity (c) Starrlard and low-front buckets Figure 8.4 (d) Higl capacity bucket Bucket elevator types (continuous buckets). or fluffy. Feeding of material to the closely-spaced buckets is predominantly by direct flow rather than the scooping action of the centrifugal discharge elevator, and discharge is largely by gravity, the back of the preceding bucket serving as a discharge chute for the bucket which is dumping as it rounds the head pulley. Continuous type buckets are generally back-mounted to the chain or belt at close intervals, the standard design of bucket being as illustrated in Figure 8.4c. For high throughputs, especially of large-lump materials, highcapacity designs of elevator are available. These have extra large buckets and are usually operated at an incline to improve feeding and discharge conditions (Figure 8.4b). 303 BUCKET ELEVATORS 8.2.3 Pivoted buckets In order to enable a bucket-type transporter to operate horizontally as well as vertically, a system has been developed in which the buckets are suspended between parallel roller chains in such a way that they can freely swing or tip. The buckets are closely spaced and each is fitted with a lip which overhangs the adjacent bucket so that filling can be carried out with minimal spillage whilst the buckets are moving horizontally (Figure 8.5a). The usual arrangement for a pivoted-bucket system would involve the buckets travelling around a closed circuit in a vertical plane. Typically the buckets would be filled at some point in the lower horizontal section and then would be lifted vertically. Since the centre of mass of each bucket, whether full or empty, is below the pivot, the buckets naturally remain in the carrying position during the vertical rise (Figure 8.5b) but guide rails may be used to ensure stability. The special mounting of the buckets on extended chain links ensure that transition from horizontal to vertical, and back to horizontal again, takes place without jamming and with the lips properly overlapping. - (a) Buckets horizontal for filling/carrying e ,,I j (b) Buckets travelling vertically •o I; (c) Transition - vertical to horizontal (d) Buckets tipped for discharging Figure 8.5 Pivoted-bucket conveyor/elevator. 304 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Discharging generally occurs on the upper horizontal section and may be at a single fixed location, at one of a number of selectable locations, or even at a continuously variable location. The buckets are automatically tipped by a relatively simple arrangement of rollers which bear against fixed or movable cams (Figure 8.5d). A movable cam may permit a given discharge station to be selected or de-selected, and if the cam is mounted on a travelling carriage or tripper it is possible for the buckets to be discharged anywhere along a horizontal section. Pivoted-bucket conveyors are available to suit a wide range of carrying capacities, generally within the range 5 to 500 tonnes/hour, bucket widths being between 300 to 1000 mm. Conveying speeds are usually within the range 0.2 to 0.4 mjs, but with large and heavy buckets lower speeds, down to 0.1 mjs, are used to reduce dynamic loading on the chains. Attempts to convey at higher speeds may also result in excessive swinging of the buckets unless some kind of damper or stabilized bearing system is used. 8.2.4 Profiled-belt elevators Various designs of moulded rubber belt are produced that enable a beltconveyor to be constructed which can operate at steep angles, even up to 90°. One form has 'cups' moulded into the carrying side of the belt, but much more common is the flexible sidewall pattern having transverse cleats or slats (Figure 8.6). The purpose of the corrugated sidewalls is to permit the belt to curve in the vertical plane, even when loaded. Thus, like the pivoted-bucket conveyor, the belt can be filled on a horizontal section and then turned round guide wheels into a direct vertical lift. Discharge can be from the end of another horizontal run in the same manner as a conventional troughed belt conveyor. In order to increase the carrying capacity of flexible sidewall belts when operating on steep inclines, they can be used in conjunction with a cover belt which helps to prevent backsliding of the conveyed material over the cleats. Figure 8.6 A flexible sidewall belt suitable for vertical operation. BUCKET ELEVATORS 305 8.3 Design and selection of bucket elevators 8.3.1 Design features The bucket elevator is, in essence, a very simple device and the earliest form, dating back perhaps to pre-Roman times, could be regarded as the system of crude buckets tied to an endless loop of rope and used for lifting water. In spite of its basic simplicity, however, if the bucket elevator is to provide optimum performance in terms of running costs and reliability, careful attention must be paid to its design in relation to the nature of the product being handled. A very wide range of bulk solids can be transported by bucket elevators and, not infrequently, materials are encountered for which this system proves to be the only really satisfactory method of conveyance. An average material would be dry, free-flowing, of lump size less than 100 mm, at ambient to moderate temperature, slightly to moderately abrasive and not especially friable. However, bulk solids having unusual or difficult characteristics can often be handled satisfactorily by bucket elevator if appropriate modifications are incorporated at the design stage. For example, if a material is cohesive or wet and sticky, it may be necessary to use specially shaped buckets or some kind of rapping mechanism to ensure that the material discharges properly; very highdensity products may require strong buckets fitted to heavy-duty belting or chains with strengthening of the supporting framework, and high-temperature products may necessitate similar modifications to the elevator. The design feature that is most strongly influenced by the nature of the carried material is the shape and construction of the buckets themselves. Bucket selection can be summarized as follows: (i) Abrasive products (ii) Very 'watery' products and light free-flowing products (iii) Products susceptible to aeration (iv) Cohesive or sticky products Front lip of bucket strengthened to reduce wear damage when digging into material High front lip to bucket to provide maximum capacity Bucket drilled with air holes to help product to 'settle' Shallow rounded buckets to reduce tendency for material to lodge in corners. The properties of the bulk solid being handled will also have a strong influence on the choice between centrifugal-discharge and gravity-discharge elevators. As explained previously, the principal factors to be considered are the lump size, the abrasiveness and the cohesiveness of the product. Table 8.1 [1] serves as a guide to the choice of discharge pattern and bucket type for a few different bulk solids covering a range of particle sizes. Various materials are used for the construction of elevator buckets. For example they may be stamped and welded from sheet steel, typically 2 mm to High-speed centrifugal discharge Slow-speed gravity discharge wrt ~·d. powdered chalkw" Moist chemicals, fluffed peat r·rth, Crushed stone, ore, slags Charcoal, coke Slow-speed directed gravity discharge High-speed centrifugal discharge Slow-speed directed gravity discharge Slow-speed gravity High-speed centrifugal discharge Ditto Elevator type High-speed centrifugal discharge Slow-speed directed gravity discharge Ditto Peat in lumps t"'' Sand, ashes, earth rock {"""'· "''· ''''" {Coal dust Cement, chalk, phosphate fertilizer Sawdust, dry clay in lumps, coal, peat Typical loads *Bucket types: D, deep; S, shallow; V, V-pattern. Ditto, highly abrasive Lumped, fragile, down graded by crushing Sluggish, powdered and granular, moist Medium and large lumped (>60mm) mildly abrasive Granular and small lumped ( < 60mm), mildly abrasive Ditto, highly abrasive Powdered (ground) Bulk load characteristics Table 8.1 Guide to the selection of bucket elevators [ 1] 1.25-1.4 0.5-0.8 1.6-1.8 0.7-0.8 0.6-0.8 0.5-0.7 0.6-0.8 0.6 0.4-0.6 0.4-0.6 D V D V V s s 1.25-1.8 0.6-0.8 0.6-0.8 0.8-1.0 0.7-0.85 V 0.6-0.8 1.25-1.6 0.6-0.8 0.8-1.0 1.25-1.6 1.25-2.0 D 0.7-0.8 0.85 1.25-1.8 D D For chain 0.6-0.8 Speed m/s For belt *Type of bucket IJb Average loading efficiency of buckets w 0 z z c r 0 > :r [J) a cr [J) ~ l:tl er 0'\ BUCKET ELEVATORS (a) Spaced buckets 307 (b) Continuous buckets (c) Section of bucket fastening Figure 8.7 Buckets fitted to rubberized textile belt. 6 mm in thickness, moulded from nylon or polypropylene or cast from malleable iron. The buckets are carried either on a rubberized textile belt (Figure 8.7) very similar to those used for conventional belt conveyors, or on a chain assembly (Figure 8.8). In the former case the buckets are normally fitted to the belt with small-diameter bolts having large flat heads (Figure 8.7c) in order to resist the tendency for the bolts to pull through the belt when a load is applied to the bucket, particularly during loading. Chains, either single- or double-strand, are less commonly used as the carrying member for elevator buckets because of the problems of erosive wear when handling abrasive materials and the limitation on bucket speed. Chain elevators are generally limited to a speed of about 1.3 m/s, whereas belt elevators can often be operated satisfactorily at speeds up to 2.5 mjs. Nevertheless, there are applications, such as the handling of hot or corrosive products, where chainmounted buckets are the only option. Figure 8.8 Buckets fitted to a single chain. 308 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 8.3.2 Loading With a conventional bucket elevator the bulk solid is either scooped up from the boot by the buckets as they round the lower pulley, or it is fed directly into the buckets as they begin their upward travel from the boot. In practice, bucket filling is likely to be by a combination of these two methods. The centrifugal discharge elevator, because of its spaced-bucket configuration, relies on the scooping action for loading the buckets and is therefore restricted to the handling of relatively fine free-flowing bulk solids, or to materials having such a high water content as to render them free-flowing. In either case the resistance to the movement of the buckets through the product in the boot of the elevator is not excessive, and operation at the somewhat higher speeds necessary to ensure satisfactory emptying of the buckets under centrifugal action is possible without tearing the buckets from the belt. Extremes of size of the product being handled should generally be avoided. Loading problems can occur with materials so fine that they become readily aerated and, at the other end of the size spectrum, severe damage can be caused to the elevator if large lumps (greater than about 50 mm) are encountered in the boot. Bulk solids that are highly abrasive or that include large lumps must be fed directly into the buckets. This method of loading requires the buckets to be closely spaced so that there is little opportunity for the bulk material to fall between them. Transport of these more difficult types of product is the main application of the continuous bucket elevator since, although it is well able to handle the finer free-flowing materials, it tends to be somewhat less economical to operate than the spaced-bucket machine. Loading directly into the buckets, especially where lumpy materials are concerned, necessitates a lower working speed to minimize the tendency for the product to bounce or splash from the buckets. Loading of pivoted-bucket conveyors is, in some senses, rather easier than for fixed-bucket types since it can be carried out on a horizontal section. The main requirement is to ensure that the bulk solid does not fall between the buckets. This means either that the feed must be intermittent, and controlled to shut off for a short period after each bucket becomes full, or (the method used almost exclusively at the present time) the buckets must be very closely spaced, preferably with an overlap to close any gap into which particles might fall. Solids feed ~ ~ ~ ~~-tJ~ Figure 8.9 Concertina-elfect to close up the buckets during loading of a pivoted-bucket conveyor. BUCKET ELEVATORS 309 Current practice is generally to have the buckets closely spaced on the carrier chains, as illustrated in Figure 8.5, but an alternative scheme is to have a special arrangement of track which causes a concertina effect of the chain links as the buckets pass through the loading station (Figure 8.9). 8.3.3 Discharge The manner in which the transported bulk solid is ejected from the buckets as they pass over the head-wheel (i.e. centrifugal, gravity or a combination of the two) depends upon the speed of the buckets and their spacing. A simple model of the situation existing at the head of the elevator is illustrated in Figure 8.1 0. As the loaded buckets travel vertically towards the head-wheel the only force acting upon the load is the gravity force Fa· However, as the belt or chain turns and begins to carry the bucket round the head-wheel, an additional accelerative force FA also acts on the load. These two forces combine to give a resultant F R• which changes in both magnitude and direction as the bucket moves along its curved path. However, the line of action ofF R always passes through a fixed point P, called the pole point, which lies vertically above the centre of the head-wheel. Noting the similarity of the force triangle and triangle OCP (Figure 8.10), the distance of the pole point P above the head-wheel centre 0 can be written L=rFa FA (8.1) where r is the radial distance of the centre of mass C of the load in the bucket from the head-wheel centre. Now, if m is the mass of bulk solid in the bucket and vis the linear velocity of force triangle F A FG Figure 8.10 Discharge characteristics of a bucket elevator [I]. L 310 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING the point C, the gravity and accelerative forces can be written F 0 =mg (8.2) and (8.3) Further, writing v = 2nrN, we have FA= 4n 2 N 2 mr (8.4) where N is the rotational speed of the head-wheel in revolutions per second, so that L-g - (r)2 - 4ng ~ - 2 . 1 N2 (8.5) It is thus evident that the distance of the pole point above the head wheel centre depends upon the rotational speed of the head-wheel (or the linear velocity of the buckets and the radius of the head-wheel). As the rotational speed N increases, the pole point P moves downwards and the ratio of the accelerative (or centrifugal) force FA to the gravity force F 0 increases. It has been suggested [1] that the discharge characteristic of a bucket elevator can be conveniently classified according to the position of the pole point (Figure 8.11). Thus, if the pole point lies outside the circle passing through the outer edge of the bucket (i.e. L > r.) the centrifugal force will be relatively small and the elevator can be classified as a gravity-discharge type. However, if the pole point lies within the circumference of the head wheel (i.e. L < rb) the centrifugal force predominates and the elevator is classed as centrifugal-discharge. Where r. > L > rb the discharge will involve a combination of gravity and centrifugal effects. In the case of centrifugal discharge, after the bulk material leaves the bucket it tends to follow a parabolic path until deflected by impact with the casing (or (a) Gravi1y discharge (L > ral Figure 8.11 (b) Cen1nfuga1 d1S"charge CL< rbl Classification of bucket elevators according to the location of the pole point. BUCKET ELEVATORS 311 discharge chute) or a preceding bucket. It is important that the casing of the elevator is correctly designed so that the material leaving the buckets is thrown cleanly into the discharge chute, and therefore there is a need to predict the trajectory of the discharged particles. For a detailed analysis the reader is directed to references [2- 4], but the following, greatly simplified, approach should provide an understanding of the problem. Using a model in which the bulk solid leaves the bucket as one 'lump', without first sliding and without being affected by air resistance, the point of discharge can be identified as when the radial component of the gravity force becomes equal to the centrifugal force, i.e. when mv2 mgcos8= r (8.6) where angle8is measured from the vertical (Figure 8.12a). Thus the position of the bucket at the point of discharge is given by e= eL = cos - 1 G:) (8.7) Now, provided that the 'lump' of material leaves the bucket smoothly without, for example, hitting the top edge of the bucket, it will follow a free (a) Point ot diSCharge (b) Parabolic trajectory Figure 8.12 Trajectory of pa rticles discharged from an elevator bucket. 312 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING trajectory With initial velocity at angle eL (downward) tO the horizontal (Figure 8.12b). Its position after time t is then given by x = vtcoseL (8.8) Y = - Vt sin 8L- igt 2 (8.9) Combining equations (8.8) and (8.9) to eliminate t, and then substituting for 8L from equation (8.7), leads tO an expression defining the parabolic path taken by the 'lump' of material ejected from the bucket: (8.1 0) Using this equation to plot the trajectory of the particles allows the position of the mouth of the discharge chute to be determined to ensure that material enters cleanly without spilling down the inside of the elevator casing. Gravity discharge tends to occur in low-speed bucket elevators, typically running at 0.4 to 0.8 mjs and handling wet, flaky or cohesive materials. If the elevator is inclined, the contents of each bucket can fall directly, under gravity alone, into a suitable discharge chute, but with vertical elevators care must be taken to ensure that the falling material is suitably directed. Continuous discharge elevators are designed with the back of each bucket shaped to form a short discharge chute for the contents of the following bucket. This arrangement does not work for spaced-bucket elevators and, if these are to operate at low speed so that centrifugal effects in the discharging buckets are small, the only satisfactory approach is to mount the buckets on twin parallel chains which are snubbed back under the head-wheel (Figure 8.3b). 8.3.4 Capacity Although the bucket elevator is essentially simple in concept, in order to obtain optimum performance in terms of running costs and reliability, attention must be paid to its design in relation to the nature of the product being handled. In addition to the nature of the material itself, the main parameters that would be fixed in the design specification are the required solids throughput and the height of the vertical lift. Additional constraints may be placed on the design by the space actually available below the feed point and above the delivery point. The principal variables in the elevator design are: (i) The bucket size and pitch (ii) The belt (or chain) speed (iii) The diameter of the head and tail pulleys (or sprockets). The selection of a centrifugal discharge or continuous discharge type of 313 BUCKET ELEVATORS Table 8.2 Preliminary selection data for centrifugal-discharge bucket elevators (belt type). From data in [5] ·---- Size of bucket Width Projection (mm) (mm) 150 200 250 300 350 400 100 125 150 175 175 200 Pulley diameter Head Capacity (for Bucket pulley Belt Pb = 1600 kg/m 3 ) speed Depth Spacing Head Tail speed (mm) (mm) (revjmin) (m/s) (kg/s) (mm) (mm) (tonne/h) 105 135 155 180 180 210 300 350 400 450 450 450 500 600 600 750 750 750 350 350 400 450 450 500 43 41 41 38 38 38 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.5 3.9 8.3 14.0 23.3 27.8 41.7 13 27 47 76 90 136 Table 8.3 Preliminary selection data for continuous bucket elevators (chain type). From data in [5] Sprocket diameter Size of bucket Width Projection Depth (mm) (mm) (mm) 200 250 300 350 350 400 450 135 175 175 175 200 200 200 195 295 295 295 295 295 295 Bucket spacing (mm) Head (mm) Tail (mm) Capacity Head sprocket Chain (for Pb = 1600kg/m 3 ) speed speed (tonne/h) (rev/min) (m/s) (kg/s) 200 300 300 300 300 300 300 520 635 635 730 730 730 730 350 445 445 445 445 445 445 28 23 23 20 20 20 20 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 9.7 16.7 19.4 22.2 27.8 31.9 36.1 32 55 63 73 91 104 118 elevator is obviously related to (i) above, and is largely governed by the nature of the product to be handled. Guidance on the selection of elevator type has been given previously (see Table 8.1) and preliminary design details for a given application can then be developed from tabulated performance data such as that given in Tables 8.2 and 8.3, derived from data in [5]. It should be noted that the figures in these tables are for a granular material of bulk density 1600mg/m 3 (such as sand or crushed stone). For other products the capacity at the stated belt speeds will vary in direct proportion to the bulk density, but the optimum belt speed is a function of the product being handled. The recommendations given here for the calculation of capacity and driving power strictly apply only to bucket elevators operating vertically and not to inclined elevators or pivoted-bucket types having both vertical and horizontal sections. However, in the words of a recent European document [6], 'the design of these can be calculated in implementing artfully the aforesaid recommendation by extension or deduction'! 314 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING The actual volumetric capacity (or flow rate) may be expressed as • V v. = '1b Vb"J: (8.11) where Vb is the volume of each bucket, '1b is the bucket filling efficiency, vis the belt velocity and A is the bucket pitch. Mass throughput is then given by • V m. = Pb v. = Pb'1b vb;: (8.12) where Pb is the bulk density of the material in the buckets. Note that the actual quantity of material in each bucket is expressed as I'Jb Vb, where Vb is the nominal capacity of the bucket when filled with a horizontal surface (water capacity), and the filling efficiency '1b normally has a value of 0.65 to 0.75. However, the quantity of material that gets into a bucket depends principally upon the feeding arrangement, the shape and speed of the buckets and their pitch on the belt or chain, and so the value of I'Jb could in fact vary over a wide range (from around 0.4 to slightly greater than unity). Typical values of bucket filling efficiency are to be found in Table 8.1, and volumes of buckets of various types may be estimated from Figure 8.13. Note that the size of bucket selected should be consistent with the maximum lump-size of the material being handled, the bucket projection required being some four or five times the size of the largest lump. 200.-r-.--.-.-.--.-.-.--,-, 100~+-~~--~~------~~_, ;;; 20 .>t. 0 ::> D 0 5 1--+--+-- KI Width of bucket (mm) Figure 8.13 Chart for the estimation of the volume of elevator buckets. 315 BUCKET ELEVATORS 8.3.5 Driving power The conventional approach to an assessment of the power requirement of a bucket elevator is similar to that used for belt conveyors and involves an estimation of the various resistances to the movement of the elevator. The main resistance is of course that resulting from the vertical lifting of the load in the buckets. Now the total mass of material on the upward side of the elevator can easily be determined as the product of the mass in one bucket and the number of buckets. Thus the gravity force opposing motion of the elevator is given by H F H = pbg1Jb vb T (8.13) where H is the difference in height between the feed and discharge points. The next most significant resistance is likely to be that caused by the feeding of product to the buckets. This comprises a drag force on the buckets and on the belt or chain(s) as they pass through the material in the boot. The scooping action occurs principally in the centrifugal-discharge type of elevator, but in all bucket elevators there will be significant work done as the product is accelerated from the feed point. Rigorous mathematical analysis of the resistances associated with the filling of the buckets is very difficult, and the approach usually adopted is to express the losses in this region as an 'equivalent height' Hr which is then included in equation (8.13) for the determination of the main resistance. This equivalent height, or loading factor, is likely to be in the range 3-12 m. The actual value to be used depends upon the nature of the product and the method of filling; Table 8.4 gives recommended loading factors taken from [7]. The combined resistive force, F u• is thus given by F u=Pbg1Jb H+Hr (8.14) Vb-~.~A or Fu=FH(l+~) (8.15) Minor or secondary resistances include frictional resistances and inertial effects as the. loaded buckets swing over the head pulley. These are often negligible but may increase the total resistance force by 10% or more. It is Table 8.4 Values of loading factor, Hr [7]. Type of elevator Material type Continuous bucket Pb < 1600 kg/m 3 Pb > 1600 kg/m 3 Spaced bucket Free-flowing grains Other materials Loading factor Hr (m) 3.1 4.6 9.2 12.3 316 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING convenient to include these secondary resistances in an 'overall drive efficiency' 1] 0 , the value of which is typically 0.8 to 0.85. Thus the motor power can be estimated from Fuv p mol = -'lo (8.16) It should be noted that considerable additional power may be drawn from the motor on initial start-up. 8.4 Notation FA FG FH Fu g H Hr L m m. N pmot r r. rb t vb V, V X y '1b 'lo Jc () ()L Pb Accelerative (centrifugal) force on contents of bucket Gravity force on contents of bucket Net gravity force on upward side of elevator, equation (8.13) Combined resistive force on elevator Gravitational acceleration (specific gravitational) force Height of discharge point above feed point Equivalent height or loading factor, accounting for resistances associated with bucket filling Distance of pole point above centre of head wheel (Figure 8.1 0) Mass of contents of bucket Capacity (mass flow rate) Rotational speed of head-wheel (revolutions per second) Motor power Radial distance of centre of mass of load in bucket from centre of head-wheel (Figure 8.1 0) Radius of circle passing through outer edge of bucket (Figure 8.11) Radius of head-wheel Time Volume of bucket Volumetric capacity (flow rate) Linear velocity of centre of mass of load in bucket Horizontal coordinate of centre of mass of bucket contents after ejection Vertical coordinate (measured downwards) of centre of mass of bucket contents Bucket filling efficiency Overall drive efficiency Linear pitch of buckets Angular position of bucket, measured from vertical Angular position of bucket at instant of discharge of its contents Bulk density BUCKET ELEVATORS 317 References and bibliography References I. Spivakovsky, A. and Dyachkov, V. Conveyors and Related Equipment. Peace Publishers, Moscow. 2. Beverly, G.J., Robcrts, A. W. and Ha yes, J. W. ( 1983) Mechanics of high speed elevator discharge. Bulk Solids Handling 3 (4) 853-859. 3. Fort, J.C. (1973) Berechnung und Auslegung von Becherwerken (Calculations and design of bucket conveyors). Fordern und 1/ehen 23 (8) 432-436. 4. Koster, K.H. ( 1985) Centrifugal discharge of bucket elevators. Bulk Solids Handling 5 (2) 449464. 5. Perry. R.H. and Green, D. ( 1984) Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook. 6th edn., McGrawHill, New York, 7.11 to 7.13. 6. Anon. Recommendation for the calculation of throughput, power requirement and tensile forces in belts and chains of vertical bucket elevators. FEM (Federation Europeenne de la Manutention). Section 11, Continuous Handling, Paper 2.122, January 1981. 7. Anon. Handbook fiir Conveyor and Elet•ator Belting. Apex Belting Pty. Ltd., Australia. Recommended further reading Spivakovsky. A. and Dyachkov, V. Conreyors and Related Equipment, Chapter VII, V-bucket, pivoted-bucket and swing-tray conveyors, and Chapter XI, Bucket, arm- and swing-tray elevators, Peace Publishers, Moscow. Roberts, A.W. and Hayes, J.W. (1979) Economic Analysis in the Optimal Design of Conveyors, Chapter 5, Bucket elevators, Tunra Ltd. University of Newcastle, Australia. Handbook fiJr Com•eyor and Eln•ator Belting. Apex Belting Pty. Ltd., Australia. Colijn, H. ( 1985) Mechanical Conreyors fiir Bulk Solids. Chapter VI, Elevating conveyors, Elesevier, Amsterdam. 9 Chain and flight conveyors 9.1 Introduction In addition to the very familiar belt conveyor and the scarcely less familiar bucket elevator, there are a number of alternative mechanical techniques that are commonly used to carry, drag or scrape bulk solids from one location to another. It is not particularly easy to place these various techniques into distinct categories, and the division of this part of the book into separate chapters and sections, while not being entirely arbitrary, should be regarded as a matter of convenience rather than as a serious attempt at classification of bulk handling systems. In some cases there is an almost continuous gradation of design from one type of conveyor to another, so that the placing of an artificial 'boundary' between the two types becomes somewhat subjective. For example, if an apron conveyor is fitted with deep pans and operated on a steep incline it becomes a bucket elevator, and if a bucket elevator is fitted with shallow bottomless buckets and enclosed in a casing it becomes an en-masse conveyor. In Chapters 7 and 8 the conventional belt conveyors and bucket elevators were discussed in some detail along with a number of important variants of these systems. In this chapter other types of mechanical conveyor that rely on continuous ropes or chains for their operation will be described. The number of such conveyors that are, or have been (sometimes briefly!) available to industry is quite large, and the decision has been taken to limit the scope of this chapter to the following groups: drag conveyors, en-masse conveyors, tubular drag conveyors, apron conveyors and aerial ropeways. It is believed that the reader will thus be able to acquire an awareness of all the major types of continuous mechanical conveying system although, as explained, the coverage is not intended to be exhaustive. The first groups that will be considered are those which drag or scrape the bulk solid along some kind of trough or duct with the aid of a continuous rope or chain which may or may not be fitted with 'flights'. Attention will then be turned to the class of conveyor which has slats or pans fitted to the chains in order to carry the bulk material, and finally a system is briefly described where the endless rope is used to support large widely-spaced buckets carrying the conveyed product-that is, the aerial ropeway. 9.2 Drag conveyors A simple means of encouraging a bulk solid to move along a horizontal trough is to draw through the trough, in the required direction of'flow', some form of CHAIN AND FLIGHT CONVEYORS 319 endless chain. The amount of movement caused in the bulk solid will then depend upon a number of factors, principally the effective cross-section of the chain and the shape of the links, the speed of the chain and the nature of the bulk solid itself. To consider the two extremes, a small-diameter chain travelling at high speed will simply pull through the bulk solid with virtually no transporting effect, whereas a chain fitted with large flights extending over most of the cross-section of the trough will have the potential to move the bulk solid at a high rate, but probably at a prohibitive power consumption. Between these extremes exist a range of practical conveyors variously classified as drag-, scraper-, and en-masse conveyors. The latter term applies specifically to chain conveyors fitted with submerged flights and operating in an enclosed trough so that the conveyed material moves as a continuous mass filling almost the whole cross-section of the trough. En-masse conveyors are discussed in the next section and attention is here restricted to the group of conveyors known simply as drag- or scraper-conveyors. There is little point in attempting to distinguish between drag conveyors, scraper conveyors and flight conveyors as the difference is quite arbitrary, usually being related to whether or not the chain links have identifiable flights fitted to them. Figure 9.1 illustrates some examples of chain patterns used in drag conveyors. The chain is normally arranged between end sprockets so that the lower strand runs in the trough and serves as the carrying element (a) Drag chain (b) Single-strand scraper chains (c) Double-strand scraper chain Figure 9.1 Examples of chain patterns used on drag conveyors. 320 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 9.2 Standard drag conveyor with single-strand working. (Figure 9.2). However, it is quite possible to have two separate troughs, or one trough divided longitudinally into upper and lower sections, so that both strands of the chain are actively conveying material in opposite directions. Drag conveyors tend to have fairly limited application, although they are the generally accepted means of handling certain materials such as hot cement clinker and ash. They are also widely used in the mining and chemical industries for conveying a variety of bulk solids. Operating speeds are quite low, typically around 0.1 to 0.6 m/s, and conveying capacities tend to be rather small. The estimation of conveying capacities of drag- and scraper-conveyors is essentially a matter of determining the average velocity of the bulk solid along the trough and the effective depth of the bulk solid stream, and for further guidance the reader is directed to [ 1]. Figure 9.3 A basic en-masse conveyor. CHAIN AND FLIGHT CONVEYORS 321 9.3 En-masse conveyors The en-masse conveyor, sometimes called 'continuous flow conveyor', was developed in England during the 1920s (Figure 9.3). It relies for its operation on the frictional effects between the chain or flight and the surrounding bulk solid, and also on 'internal friction' amongst the particles of the bulk solid. Successful transport is dependent upon the frictional resistance between the material and the casing being less than the internal shear strength of the bulk material itself. In a properly designed installation the bulk solid is induced to move along the trough as a continuous mass at a speed close to that of the chain. There is very little relative movement of the particles and, since the whole column or mass of material moves slowly with the chain, the possibility of degradation of the conveyed bulk solid is reduced to a minimum. Initially the system was conceived for the gentle horizontal transport of bulk material by the action of a skeletal framework, formed by the chain and flights, moving steadily along the base of a trough. Soon the design was adapted for vertical transport with the flights modified effectively to follow the internal profile of the trough and so wrap around the conveyed material. Provided that a continuous supply of bulk solid was maintained to the bottom of any vertical section it was found that, even though the flights did not 'fill' the cross-section, the material would still be carried steadily upwards within the closed duct. In fact, a major feature that the en-masse conveyor has in common with the pivoted-bucket elevator is the ability to incorporate changes of orientation from horizontal to inclined, or even to vertical, in one unit without any transfer points. 9.3.1 Design features Various flight profiles are used to suit the type of material being conveyed. Some examples of chain and flight arrangement for specific applications are shown in Figure 9.4. Most commonly used for horizontal conveying is the flat flight (Figure 9.4a), which may have the front face chamfered to counteract any tendency for the flight to climb out of the material. Suspended flights (Figure 9.4e) are also used on horizontal circuits. The skeleton flights shown in Figures 9.4b, c and d are normally used on elevator applications. Various other flight patterns, such as the solid peaked flight (Figure 9.4f), have been produced for special purposes. The usual arrangement of flights is one at each link of the supporting chain. However, improved discharge characteristics with materials which tend to bridge (such as wood chips) may be obtained by fitting flights to alternate links. Other variations to the standard flight arrangement include neoprene wipers to improve 'clean-out', and oversize 'scavenger' flights, having ground edges fitted at five- to ten-link intervals for better handling of sticky materials. 322 BULK SOLIDS HANDLIN G (a) Flat flights l~~Skel.eton flight~ for (du vertiCal conveying (e) Suspended flights (f) Solid peaked flights Figure 9.4 Variations on the pattern of flights for en-masse conveyors. CHAIN AND FLIGHT CONVEYORS Figure 9.5 323 Box-section casings for en-masse conveyors. In addition to the shape of the flights, important design considerations are the material from which the flights are made, and the type and size of the chain to which they are fitted. The trough or casing in which the chain and flights run is basically a simple box section fabricated from mild steel (Figure 9.5). An installation would usually be made up from a number of, say, 3 m long sections, which may incorporate features such as feed and discharge points, inspection ports, bursting panels (when handling potentially explosive products), etc. Curved sections (horizontal to horizontal, or horizontal to vertical) can also be built into an installation to give considerable flexibility in the route taken. Inclined sections are also possible. There are, of course, precautions to be taken in certain situations; for example, when handling very abrasive or hot products and conveying over long distances where trough alignment becomes critical. High wear regions need to be identified, and it may be necessary to fit wear-resistant lining plates to the sides and (especially) the base of the trough on horizontal runs, also around the inside curve of horizontal bends. Transporting products at high temperature over long distances can cause difficulties as a result of expansion of the casing and the chain. Allowing a controlled sag on the chain and mounting the casing on rollers should overcome this problem. 9.3.2 Performance calculations The volumetric throughput of an en-masse conveyor is principally a function of the cross-sectional area Ab of the bed of conveyed product, the velocity of the chain v and a 'velocity factor' rv which is defined as the ratio of the average velocity of the product to that of the chain. 324 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 0.1 Figure 9.6 0.3 0.2 conveyor chain velocity (m/s) 0.4 0.5 Typical capacities of horizontal en-masse conveyors. Thus (9.1) and the mass throughput is given by (9.2) For horizontal conveyors r. can generally be taken as unity, but on vertical and inclined sections its value is likely to be around 0.6 to 0.85, depending upon the nature of the material and the way that the section is fed. The optimum velocity of the chain and flights is very much dependent upon the nature of the conveyed product. For free-flowing particulate and granular materials, velocities in excess of 0.5 m/s are usually possible, whereas abrasive materials and products which tend to become aerated (such as cement) should not be conveyed at more than about 0.25 m/s. For fibrous and flaky products the optimum velocity is likely to be around 0.4 m/s. Attempting to operate at too great a speed results in excessive abrasion, degradation ofthe product and reduced efficiency as the flights pull through the product, leaving the top layer stationary or moving at reduced speed. The capacity chart (Figure 9.6, from [2]) gives an indication of the volumetric throughputs that could be obtained in a typical range of widths of en-masse conveyors operating horizontally. For vertical operation the capacity values are likely to be reduced by anything from 10% for coarse granular materials, to 35% for fine granular materials, to 50% for free-flowing powders. Estimation of the power requirement is not easy, as so much depends upon the nature of the product being conveyed and the configuration of the 325 CHAIN AND FLIGHT CONVEYORS Figure 9.7 Basic en-massc conveyor. Controlled or flood feed, with multiple inlets and outlets. (a) Basic vertical elevator with controlled or flood feed . ~~~~~~~~~,,~,,,~ --...:~J (b) Combined vertical and horizontal conveying with controlled or flood feed and multiple inlets/outlets Figure 9.8 Vertical cn-massc conveying. conveyor installation. In the absence of previous experience of the particular product it is almost essential to undertake pilot tests in order to determine the power requirement with a reasonable degree of confidence. 9.3.3 Applications of en-rnasse conveying The most common application of these conveyors is for the movement of product from one location to another on approximately the same horizontal plane {Figure 9. 7). Distances may range from a few metres to more than I 00 m, and conveying rates from I tonnc/h to 1000 tonne/h. 326 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (a) Chain type (b) Rope type Figure 9.9 The tubular drag conveyor. Figure 9.10 Tubular drag conveyor installation showing a typical arrangement of feed and discharge points. Combinations of horizontal and vertical runs are also common and the enmasse principle works well in integrated conveyor/elevator installations of 'L' or 'Z' arrangement (Figure 9.8a, b). The versatility of the en-masse conveyor makes it suitable also for combined processing/transport applications such as cooling, heating or drying of the conveyed product. Movement of a blended mixture of products without segregation can be readily achieved in an en-masse conveyor. Sources such as 327 CHAIN AND FLIGHT CONVEYORS [2] and manufacturers' literature give more details on many examples of successful and unusual application of this method of conveying. 9.4 Tubular drag conveyors Very similar in principle to the continuous-flow flight conveyor is the tubular drag conveyor which has, in its commonest form, a series of discs mounted on an endless chain or steel cable and drawn through tubes of circular crosssection (Figure 9.9). Normally the system is totally enclosed, and the chain-type is able to smoothly negotiate bends of any orientation so that quite complicated installations can be constructed involving both horizontal and vertical transport, and multiple feed and discharge points (Figure 9.10). Drive is 2000 1000 '2 500 .E ..... (/) .~ ::: "(3 0 C1l c. C1l 0 100 50 ~ ~ ~ --· -- -r------- ------·---- ~ ----- 250 ~ v....- 200 ~ E -~1 50 .!!! - -- - ":?': ~ 100 ~ -----~_....... V ...... _..--V f= --f:::c:--'~ -79 ~r; -/ ~/ 10 _.,... "'"V./' V ,..v r--- . . . ~z ,......::_- / 2 0.3 0.5 V V V 75 .c .3 _..--V:....--- / / '--- 2 --f 5 10 20 30 chain speed Cmetres/minl Figure 9.11 Typical capacities of chain-type tubular drag conveyors. solids feed Figure 9.12 Rope-driven tubular conveyor ('aero-mechanical' conveyor). 328 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING through a sprocket placed at a convenient location (Figure 9.10a) These chaintype conveyors are available in sizes ranging from 50 mm to about 250 mm in diameter, and a typical circuit might include three or four changes in direction and cover a total distance of some 30 to 40 m. Discharge points can be fitted with gates made by hinging a section from the lower half of the conveying tube and, when handling cohesive materials, small vibrator units can be mounted close to these gates to ensure satisfactory emptying of the conveyor. From Figure 9.11 the approximate capacity of chain-type tubular drag conveyors can be determined. The rope-type tubular conveyor, sometimes described as an 'aeromechanical' conveyor, is similar to the system described above but has the endless steel rope running in a simple loop through two straight parallel tubes between end sprockets (Figure 9.12). Combinations of these units can be constructed to provide horizontal, vertical or inclined sections, and again multiple feed and discharge points can be quite easily incorporated in such an installation. Available tube sizes are 50-100 mm diameter, offering capacities of up to about 40 tonnes/h with free-flowing granular materials. Conveying distances in a single unit of up to 50 m are possible. 9.5 Apron conveyors Apron conveyors consist of a close-fitting series of metal pans supported between two strands of roller chain. The pans are designed to interlock or / / Figure 9.13 An apron conveyor ('leak proof type). / / CHAIN AND FLIGHT CONVEYORS 329 overlap and thus form a continuous moving surface on which bulk solids can be carried (Figure 9.13). In this respect alone apron conveyors are similar to belt conveyors, but they have the advantage of being able to handle heavy, large-lumped, abrasive and hot materials. Very high capacities-greater than 2000 tonnes/h-are possible, and running costs relatively low. However, because of the nature of their construction, apron conveyors are very heavy and very expensive in terms of investment cost. Various types of pan are available to suit different applications, but all are designed to fit together, either interlocking or overlapping, to minimize the risk of solid particles falling through the conveyor or becoming lodged in the gaps. For conveyors operating horizontally or on a slight incline (up to about 20°) there are advantages in using pans that are almost flat (Figure 9.14a), but for operation on steeper slopes apron conveyors should be fitted with deeper pans (Figure 9.l4b, c). These deeper pans are also better when handling bulk solids containing large lumps. Apron conveyors are normally available in widths from 200 mm to 2 m, and fitted with side flanges of up to 300 mm in height. Operating speeds are quite low, being generally less than 0.2 m/s and rarely exceeding 0.5 m/s. Calculation of the carrying capacity of an apron conveyor is very similar to that for belt conveyors and is thus largely a matter of estimating the crosssectional area of the load stream, which can be represented by one of the shapes shown in Figure 9.15. Thus, for a flat pan, (9.3) and for a flanged pan (9.4) (b) Flanged pan (a) 'Flat' pan (c, d) Deep pans Figure 9.14 Some different shapes of apron conveyor pan. 330 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (a) Flat pan Figure 9.15 (b) Flanged pan Cross-sections of the load stream on an apron conveyor. where k. is a 'slope factor' to correct the cross-sectional area when the conveyor is working on an incline. Now the surcharge angle b (that is, the angle that the sloping surface of the moving load-stream makes with the horizontal) can conveniently be approximated as b = 0.48 (9.5) where () is the static angle of repose of the material. This is somewhat higher than the surcharge angle of the same material on a conventional belt conveyor, principally because of the much lower speeds involved and the consequently 'smoother' ride. The height h 1 of the triangular cross-section of the load stream can now be written in terms of the surcharge angle b as h 1 =thtanb (9.6) The transport rate can then be expressed as m. = pbvk.±b2 tan b (9.7) for a conveyor with flat pans, and as m.= pbvth(tk.b + 1) tan b (9.8) for flanged pan conveyors, where Pb is the bulk density of the conveyed material and vis the velocity of the carrying pans. Values of the slope factor k. can be determined from Figure 9.16. For deep pan conveyors the transport rate must be determined by estimating the carrying capacity of each pan and multiplying this figure by the apron speed v and by the linear pitch A. of the pans. Thus (9.9) where Vb is the volumetric capacity of each pan, taking account of any surcharge of material. Calculation of the power requirement involves estimation of the various frictional losses in the chains, rollers, guideways, etc. and from these estimating the tension in the chains. For further guidance the reader should see [1]. 331 CHAIN AND FLIGHT CONVEYORS 1.0 """":::: 1::::-- "' !'---- -"' -- r- .........___ .........., 0 ti 0.9 ~ Cl> 0. ---- .._ ............ - r-- ......... -- ............ 0 (jj 0.8 0 Figure 9.16 10 angle of inclination 20 Slope factor k, for apron conveyors. 9.6 Aerial ropeways The aerial ropeway or cableway, comprising essentially a succession of largecapacity buckets suspended at intervals from an overhead cable, is very similar to the familiar personnel-carrying cable-car system. One of the oldest forms of long-distance bulk solids transport, the aerial ropeway has, during the last hundred years or so since the development of the steel cable, become capable of achieving very high tonnage rates with good reliability and efficiency over difficult terrains (Figure 9.17). It has thus earned its place amongst belt conveyors, hydraulic pipelines and road or rail systems as a means of carrying bulk materials overland. Although, like the belt conveyor, an aerial ropeway system would involve a high capital cost, the running costs would be small compared with transport by road or rail vehicles. Probably the major disadvantage of the aerial ropeway is its visual impact on the environment, but to offset this is the fact that, because the system is high above the ground, it causes minimal interference to wild life and does not involve the splitting up of properties or the acquisition of extensive rights-ofway. Furthermore, it can be contructed over very difficult terrain, taking the most direct route, with relatively little disturbance, and manufacturers today are prepared to go to considerable lengths to minimize the effect of such systems on the landscape [ 4]. There are two fundamental types of aerial ropeway; bicable and monocable. In the bicable system (Figure 9.18a) the weight of the buckets is carried on the main cable suspended between the supporting towers whilst the drive is taken Figure 9.17 Longitudinal profile of a typical aerial ropeway designed to transport ore at a rate of 145 tonnes/hour over a distance of 15 km [3]. 332 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 9.18 Bicable and monocable ropeway systems. (Top) Bicable ropeway carrying iron ore at a rate of 250 tonnes/h over a distance of 10 km. (Bottom) A monocable system. (Courtesy of BRECO) CHAIN AND FLIGHT CONVEYORS 333 by a secondary cable linking the wheeled carriages from which the buckets are hung. The monocable system, however, has a single cable which serves as both the carrying and the hauling element (Figure 9.186). On modern aerial ropeways, in order to achieve the required high capacities, bucket speeds of up to about 5 m/s are becoming common and, as a consequence, special handling techniques are needed at the filling and emptying stations. This usually involves disconnecting the buckets from the rope driving system, for example by automatically lifting the buckets from the main carrying cable on to rails where they are retarded and passed at a controlled rate past the loading or unloading point. One method of reattaching the buckets to the transport cable is to release them on to a downward sloping rail which causes them to accelerate to the speed of the cable so that coupling can take place without damage. The dimensions and carrying capacity of aerial ropeways are dependent upon many factors, not least the nature of the territory that the system has to cross. Typical conveying distances would be up to about 20 km with spans between towers of around 500 m or more. Transport rates of up to 500 tonnes/h are usual, although a rate of 2500 tonnes/h has been reported [3]. Bucket capacities are typically around 2 tonnes, with buckets spaced at intervals of 50-100 m and travelling at up to 5 m/s. 9.7 Notation Ab b hl hz k_. m. rv v. V (J e ;_ Pb Cross-sectional area of bulk solid bed Contact width of bulk solid on conveyor Height of triangular part of load-stream cross-section Height of rectangular part of load-stream cross-section Slope factor (Figure 9.16) Capacity (mass flow rate) Ratio of average velocity of bulk solid to the velocity of the chain Volumetric flow rate of bulk solid Velocity of chain Surcharge angle Static angle of repose of bulk solid Linear pitch of apron conveyor pans Bulk density References and bibliography References 1. Spivakovsky, A. and Dyachkov, V. Conveyors and Related Equipment. Peace Publishers, Moscow. 2. King, B.C. The application and design of en-masse conveyors. Proc. Solidex 80 Conf, Harrogate, UK, March/ April 1980, Paper A3. 334 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 3. Spyer, V. ( 1984) Aerial cableways as a transport mode in Brazil with special reference to Minera<;ao Morro Yelho. Bulk Solids Handling 4 (2) 413-415. 4. Bullivant, D. (1983) Modern aerial ropeways and the environment. Bulk Solids Handling 3 (I) 185-187. Recommended further reading King, B. C. The application and design of en-masse conveyors. Proc. Solidex 80 Con[., Harrogate, UK, March/ April 1980, Paper A3. Colijn, H. (1985) Mechanical Conveyors for Bulk Solids. Chapter 4, Chain conveyors, E1sevier, Amsterdam. Spivakovsky, A. and Dyachkov, V. Conveyors and Related Equipment. Chapter VI, Flight conveyors; Chapter V, Apron conveyors, Peace Publishers, Moscow. 10 Screw conveying 10.1 Introduction The modern screw conveyor is essentially a development of the well-known Archimedean screw which was conceived some 2000 years ago as a means of raising water for irrigation. Applications of this device were naturally very limited until relatively recent times, and its evolution has consequently been slow. A fundamental feature of the original pattern of Archimedean screw which distinguishes it from other types of screw conveyor is that the helical screw (or 'flight') is attached to the inner surface of the cylindrical casing and rotates with it (Figure 10.1 ). It will be noted from the diagram that the Archimedean screw operates effectively as a positive displacement elevator, the angle at which it will work successfully depending upon the diameter of the casing and the pitch of the screw. In the late 18th century the need for efficient mechanical handling of grain to feed the expanding world population provided the impetus for the improvement of screw conveyors for the transport of grain and other dry bulk materials. For such materials it was found that there was no need for a perfect seal between the helical flight and the casing. Consequently an easier construction was adopted, comprising essentially a central shaft to which was fitted the flight, the whole assembly rotating within a fixed casing (Figure 10.2). In the earliest recorded examples of screw conveyors the flights consisted simply of a series of wooden ploughs set in a helical arrangement around a wooden shaft. Later versions used steel flights cut from flat sheet as circular rings, split on one side and with the two edges then pulled apart to form one helical section of the screw. Any number of these sections could be riveted together to make a continuous helix of the required length which would then be fitted to a steel or iron core. Around 1900 the smooth 'helicoid' flight was introduced, formed by rolling a continuous strip of steel into a helix. The design of the screw conveyor was thus basically simple and could be produced, at least in a crude form, at relatively low cost. As a result its use became widespread, at first in agriculture and then throughout the developing industrial world, for handling a great variety of bulk solids. The advantages and disadvantages of screw conveyors can be conveniently summarized as follows [I]: Advantages (i) Low investment cost compared to other conveying devices of comparable capacity 336 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING screw flight auached IO casing so lhal bolh rorare together Figure 10.1 The Archimedean screw. Figure 10.2 Standard pallern of industrial screw conveyor with helical screw rotating inside a fixed casing. (ii) Compact design, comparatively easy to seal against water or dust passing in or out; the solids being handled can be blanketed with a dry or inert gas where necessary (iii) Fairly simple fabricating with unsophisticated equipment; a high degree of part standardization exists within the industry (iv) Generally lower maintenance than with most types of mechanical conveyor; there are less moving parts to wear or get out of order (v) Ability to handle a wide range of solids. Disadvantages (i) Lumpy, fibrous or sticky materials may cause problems (ii) Lengths are limited by the allowable torque capability of the drive and coupling shafts (iii) Power requirements can be high with solids that tend to pack (iv) Conveying efficiency is considerably reduced when screws are inclined or mounted vertically. 337 SCREW CONVEYING It is fairly evident that the screw conveyor has evolved into two basic types: (i) The high-speed enclosed screw or 'auger' conveyor, originally developed for grain handling and now extensively used for elevating products that are light and free-flowing (ii) The low-speed industrial-type screw conveyor ('U-trough' conveyor), generally larger and of heavier construction and ideally suited to the movement of more dense or cohesive products over short distances horizontally or on a slight incline. A very common application of the helical screw device for moving bulk solids is as a feeder to assist and/or control the flow of material from storage hoppers. The screw feeder has already been introduced in this context, and some of its special features described, in Chapter 4. A brief explanation will be given here of the principles of operation of screw conveyors and then the general construction of the two types will be described and their application discussed. Procedures will also be outlined for the design or selection of screw conveyors for particular duties. 10.2 Principle of operation of screw conveyors In order to appreciate the significant design features of screw conveyors it is necessary to understand clearly their principle of operation. If the intake end of the conveyor is fed with a continuous supply of particulate material it will be evident that rotation of the screw must tend to lift the material by a 'wedge' action. This action can be conveniently illustrated if the helical flight is imagined to be 'straightened out' so that it advances horizontally into a heap of the bulk solid (Figure 10.3). If the surface of the wedge is very smooth and the bulk solid itself is free-flowing it could be expected that the particles would be lifted with relatively little horizontal movement. Any tendency for the particles to move horizontally in the direction of the wedge might be reduced by allowing the wedge to slide against a roughened vertical plate as shown, the frictional resistance between the particles and the vertical plate being significantly greater than that between the particles and the advancing wedge. This illustration not only explains the wedge action of the screw conveyor but particles lifted vertically by action of wedge / Figure 10.3 Wedge action to lift bulk solid. 338 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING also serves to demonstrate an important function of the cylindrical casing in resisting the rotation of the particulate material in the conveyor. Clearly the most effective performance of the screw conveyor would occur if the only component of velocity were axial (i.e. no rotation), whilst the other extreme could be regarded as the case where the bulk material adheres to the screw and rotates as a solid cylindrical plug with no axial movement at all. This explains why an Archimedean screw, in which there is nothing to prevent the rotational movement of the particulate material, will only lift free-flowing products successfully at angles of up to about 20°; above this there is no discharge. In a practical screw conveyor the performance would be somewhere between the two extreme modes of action described above, being a combination of shearing and tumbling of the product as it advances along the screw. Predicting the actual rate of transport for a given bulk solid, and the power required to rotate the screw, are the main problems that an engineer has to face when designing or selecting such a conveyor. If there were no rotational motion of the particulate material in the conveyor the rate of advance of this material would be directly proportional to the pitch of the screw. However, some rotational motion will occur, the amount depending upon the helix angle of the screw, and therefore upon the pitch. Normal manufacturing practice is to adopt a screw having a pitch equal to its outside diameter as this seems to provide a satisfactory compromise between the required axial motion and the undesirable rotation of the conveyed product. Nevertheless, different designs of screw are often used for special conveying duties, as described elsewhere in this chapter. 10.3 The enclosed screw or 'auger' conveyor 10.3.1 Constructional features The original form of enclosed screw, as developed for grain handling, is still very popular, especially where a lightweight or portable conveyor is required which is capable of operating at a steep upward incline, or even vertically. Auger conveyors are generally designed to run at relatively high speed (from 200 rev/min up to as much as 2000 rev/min) and to handle materials which have free-flowing, non-abrasive characteristics. They can work successfully at any angle from horizontal to vertical, picking the material up at the lower end and discharging it through a chute at the opposite end of the casing. Figure 10.4 illustrates the features of a typical auger-conveyor [2]. The screw is mounted in bearings at each end, the lower one generally being 'outboard' on a suitable framework to give a clear entry of material. The driving motor is, of course, situated at the upper (discharge) end of the auger. SCREW CONVEYING 339 radial , clearance minimum immersion -:J;'~~.~~~~~~ ~--- level .... - . ~ Figure 10.4 Constructional features of an auger conveyor [2]. Dimensions for portable and mobile screw conveyors (augers) of the tubular type constructed of mild steel for agricultural and light industrial use are specified in BS 4409 [3]. In recent years a number of variants of the auger conveyor have become available. Generally these have involved differences in the form of the screw itself; for example, several manufacturers offer this type of conveyor with an 'open pitch' screw. However, perhaps the most interesting development has been the flexible screw conveyor in which an open pitch spiral spring, rotating within a flexible nylon tube of around 40-80 mm diameter, forms the basis of an economical and versatile unit capable of competing with pneumatic conveyors on a wide variety of light-duty, short-distance applications (Figure 10.5). 340 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 10.5 Shaftless flexible auger conveyor. 10.3.2 Prediction of the performance of an auger conveyor The theoretical maximum throughput of an auger conveyor would be obtained if the conveyor were running full with the particulate material moving purely in the axial direction. An expression for this maximum output could then be written in terms of the dimensions of the screw and casing, and the rotational speed as (1 0.1) where De and D,h are respectively the internal diameter of the casing and the diameter of the shaft on which the flights are fitted, A. is the pitch of the screw, t, is the thickness of the screw flight and N is the speed of rotation. In practice the capacity of the conveyor is likely to be well below this theoretical maximum. The shortfall is greatest for augers operating at high speeds and steep angles with short choke lengths [ 4]. In absolute terms, however, the volumetric throughput of the auger tends to increase with increasing speed up to around 2000 rev /min for small-diameter machines (approximately 40 mm): at higher speeds there is little change in the throughput. For augers of larger diameter the maximum capacity is likely to be reached at lower speeds. Variation in throughput with angle of elevation is mainly attributable to the increased tendency for the conveyed product to rotate with the screw as the inclination of the conveyor becomes steeper. For a given auger speed the 341 SCREW CONVEYING 500 1- 200 150 -;:,. 100 ...... .&: 1 8 ~ 20 15 "' 10 ~l5. 5 Cll :::1 ~ ~ -~ fbb 0 50 ~ ~ 1- 2 1.5 lj !?'11/ 'I .,Q~ >?ifs;;, 1 ~ ~V ~ ~ Wl v; V ~' uger speed _ ~(rev/min) ~~8 80~ VJ """" ~ ~1~~ /V fl 51~ wIJ1/ / ~ ~ ~ 1 10, ~ '\. _\, '\. .:J 5o. .\. ..\. J. .\ 70 100 c: Al ~ \. \. . \.--..4L.....). ~\d·\ 50 - .\ .\ ,_\ .:\. .\ . .\ 150 200 auger diameters for various angles of elevation (ITYTl) 90 75 60 45 30 \ ~5 3 ~ -~ ...... >., "* i1'1. o! G>~ t "' Figure 10.6 Predicted capacity of different size augers at various rotational speeds and angles of elevation [2). This chart relates to augers having the following proportions:- pitch= screw diameter; choke length = twice pitch; shaft diameter= one third screw diameter; screw clearance = 0.0833 x screw diameter; average particle size= 0.05 x screw diameter. volumetric flow rate of product may fall by 50% as the conveying slope increases from horizontal to vertical. The 'choke length' (Figure 10.4) also has a significant influence on the performance of an auger conveyor. A minimum choke length equal to one screw pitch is essential even at low speeds, but a choke length of up to three screw pitches may be required at high speeds. Roberts and Hayes [2] have published charts for the prediction of volumetric capacity and power absorbed for auger conveyors having screw diameters in the range 40-300mm. These charts, reproduced in SI units as Figures 10.6 and 10.7, are based on a set of empirical equations relating to the transport of a free-flowing granular material similar to grain, and illustrate the influence of the speed of the auger and its inclination to the horizontal. M 342 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 1000 500 300 200 100 50 10 c 5 .Q o;~ >"' ~$ a> ... _o oa> "0 Q)...., c. c auger diameters for various angles of elevation (mm) "' Figure 10.7 Predicted power per metre length of different size augers at various rotational speeds and angles of elevation [2). This chart relates to the conveying of wheat (bulk density 768 kg/m 3 ) in augers of the proportions given in Figure 10.6. 10.4 The industrial screw conveyor or 'U-trough' conveyor 10.4.1 Constructional features The widely used industrial screw conveyor consists essentially of a substantial helical screw which rotates in a horizontal U-shaped trough in order to move a bulk solid continuously from one end of the trough to the other (Figures 10.2 and 10.8). For the 'standard' construction of screw, helical flighting is welded to sections of steel pipe which can then be coupled together to make up a conveyor ofthe required overall length. Bearings for the screw would normally be located at the ends of the trough, often outboard, and for long conveyors one or more hanger bearings would be provided to prevent undue deflection of the screw under load (Figure 10.9). Also illustrated in Figure 10.9 is the way SCREW CONVEYING 343 Figure 10.8 A ribbon-type screw conveyor, showing a typical arrangement of the screw in the trough. Figure 10.9 Diagram to show a typical arrangement of bearings for a screw/shaft assembly. Leftand right-hand screws are used in this example to provide two feeds to a single discharge point. that screws of opposite 'handedness' can be used to feed material from two directions to a single discharge point. Needless to say, when designing a screw conveyor installation it is essential to ensure that the correct direction of rotation is specified. The 'regular' pattern of flighting has a pitch approximately equal to the diameter of the screw and is generally made by one of two methods: (i) A set of identical rings is made from sheet metal and each is cut radially and formed into a single helix. These are then assembled on the shaft and welded to form a continuous helix, the thickness of which will be constant from the inner edge to the outer. (ii) A continuous metal strip is rolled into a helix by reducing the thickness of one edge of the strip to approximately half that of the other edge. The resulting helicoid flight is then welded on to the shaft to give a screw in which the flight thickness tapers from its inner to its outer edge. A wide range of'special' types of screw is available from manufacturers to be used in applications for which the regular pattern of screw is, for some reason, not the most appropriate. Some examples of these are illustrated in Figure 10.1 0. 344 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (a) Regular helicoid !lighting (d) Ribbon !lighting. Used for conveying substances that are sticky , gummy' or viscous (b) Cut screw !lighting. Used for conveying, cooling and moderately mixing materials, simultaneously (e) Regular screw !lighting with mixing paddles. Used to mix materials where the conveyor length provides time for proper mixing (c) Cut and folded screw flight. Continual lifting and tumbling of the material by the folded flights improves aeration and promotes mixing (f) Double flight conveyor screw. Used to promote a smooth and gentle flow of material Figure 10.10 Some examples of different patterns of screw conveyor flighting for special applications. A few of the major aspects of the design or selection of industrial screw conveyors are discussed in the following pages, but for a more detailed description and specification of their constructional features the reader is directed to [ 4]-[6]. 10.4.2 The conveyed product As with other forms of conveyor, it is essential to have a thorough knowledge of the nature of the bulk solid to be handled before a attempting to design or select a machine for the application concerned. For example, because of the mode of action of the screw conveyor, the product being conveyed tends to become aerated with a resulting decrease in bulk density. The design or selection of the conveyor in terms of mass throughput of product must therefore be based upon the aerated bulk density rather than the packed value if the device is not to be seriously under-sized. In general, the kind of product that is best suited to transport in a screw conveyor is one that will shear and 'tumble' easily, since this is the mode of action upon which the device relies. Experience suggests that the more freeflowing a product is, the less power will be required to transport it in a screw conveyor. However, care must be taken when assessing the 'flowability' of a product to relate it to the 'as-conveyed' condition and not to some other static condition. 345 SCREW CONVEYING cover ..,-------'1~;. trough or casing screw screw diameter (conveyor shaft or pipe diameter d]t~J radial clearance screy/t clearance Figure 10.11 Screw conveyor terminology. Materials that are very sticky, and especially those consisting of 'particles' that are long and stringy, are mostly unsuitable for screw conveying since they tend to clog the screw, either rotating with it as one mass or becoming jammed between the screw and the casing. At best, such products may require screws of special heavy construction. For more detailed guidance on the influence of product characteristics on the design or selection of screw conveyors see, for example, [ 4]. 10.4.3 Conveyor selection The two essential parameters to be established in the design or selection of a screw conveyor for a given application are the screw size, and its rotational speed. Note, however, that the choice of a suitable screw size (Figure 10.11) involves consideration ofthe overall diameter of the screw, the diameter of the shaft, the radial clearance between the shaft and the containing trough (typically 12-15 mm) and the type and pitch of the helical flight. The first :1nd overriding consideration in the determination of a suitable screw diameter is the amount and size oflumps (greater than 15 mm across the largest dimension) present in the product to be conveyed. The presence oflarge hard lumps may necessitate the use of a screw of significantly greater diameter than would be indicated by the mass throughput required. As a guide, the radial clearance between the shaft and the casing should be 1.75 to 3 times the size of the largest lump in the conveyed product, and up to 4.5 times this dimension if the proportion of lumps is very high (greater than about 90%). Figure 10.12 allows the selection of screw conveyor size for products of various lump sizes. It should be noted, however, that the nature of the lumps may be relevant; so that, for example, if the lumps are soft and readily degradable they should impose no limitation on the size of the screw. An expression for the capacity (i.e. volume or mass throughput) of a screw conveyor can be derived using the simple model illustrated in Figure 10.13. 346 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING maximum lump size (mm) Figure 10.12 Screw conveyor maximum lump size. Drawn from recommended data in [ 4]. Note: (i) The 'percentage lumps' in a mixture of fines and lumps is defined as the proportion of lumps ranging from the maximum size to one-half of the maximum. (ii) The recommended dimensions are approximate and may be further influenced by the choice of shaft size. A ~ k x nominal area of trough b Figure 10.13 Capacity of a screw conveyor. As the screw rotates within the trough the conveyed material is 'picked up' against the side of the trough and then tumbles back, only to be picked up again, and so on. This action, although in fact intermittent, results in an effectively continuous movement of the material along the trough at approximately the same speed as the advancing screw. Thus the distance that the conveyed material moves forward during one revolution of the screw is approximately equal to the pitch of the screw, and the average velocity V of this material can be written (1 0.2) where A. is the pitch of the screw and N is the rotational speed in rev /s. The volumetric throughput of the screw conveyor is then given by (10.3) 347 SCREW CONVEYING 0.50 \;(;_. k ~ 0.45 Screws without hangers: materials which flow easily, slightly abrasive (e.g. flour. cereals) ~- k m0.30 0.30 k::=---+---~---1-=--..:::---l AVerage materials. moderately abrasive, graded ---J~-=---.:--i from grains to smalllurrc;>s 0.20 (e.g. salts. sand. coal) 0.40 ~ 0 0 ~ 0 c '6 "' ..Q ' 0.10 0 Heavy btik k · O.lS 1-----t-- --+- --=P=--.= materials, very abrasive, aggressive (e.g. ash. gravel, minerals) 5 10 15 trough Inclination (degrees to horizontal - upward) 20 Figure 10.14 Typical loading factors for screw conveyors having pitch }., where 0.6D" < }. < l.OD". Note: these loading factors should be reduced for conveyors having screws of large pitch or having small-diameter screws supported on cumbersome intermediate bearings [7, 8]. and the mass flow rate by (10.4) where Ab is the cross-sectional area of the moving bed of particulate material and Pb is its bulk density as conveyed. It is usual practice to express the area Ab in terms of the trough diameter, shaft diameter, and a 'loading factor' (or 'trough filling factor') k which should generally be between 0.15 and 0.45 (Figure 10.14). Thus, we have (10.5) The degree ofloading depends largely upon the nature of the material to be conveyed. Bulk solids that are fine, free-flowing and non-abrasive can be handled in a screw conveyor at loading factors of up to about 0.45. If the material tends to be cohesive, the loading factor should be restricted to about 0.3, and if it is also moderately abrasive, the speed of rotation of the screw should be reduced. For very abrasive materials the loading factor should be further restricted, perhaps to about 0.15. An important consideration when using equation (10.5) for the design or selection of a screw conveyor is the maximum rotational speed at which the device can safely be run. Maximum operating speeds are principally a function of the diameter of the conveyor screw, but are also dependent upon the loading factor and the nature of the material being handled. The manufacturer would normally specify the limits on operating speed but, as a guide, recommended speeds taken from [4] are shown graphically in Figure 10.15. 348 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 1 .~ 100 f -- - ;;; § E 50 ~ ·~ diamerer of screw (ITYT1) Figure 10.15 Maximum recommended operating speeds for screw conveyors at different trough loadings, from [4]. 4 t) l5 0 3 .l!1 ·I u 2 :c ~ conveyor loading factor, k Figure 10.16 Capacity factors for screw conveyors with special types of flight. (For standard flight CFr = 1). It should be understood that equation (10.5) can only give an approximate indication of the capacity of a screw conveyor because of the uncertainty in the value of the loading factor k. Within this factor, corrections for the thickness of the flight and for movement of material in the clearance space should be included and, inevitably, there is some uncertainty in the degree of trough loading. The particular type of screw used will also have an effect on the conveying capacity so that where the screw is of special design (such as those illustrated in Figure 10.10) it is necessary to further modify the result of equation (10.4). One approach [4] is to multiply the required capacity by various 'capacity factors' in order to determine the equivalent capacity for which the conveyor must be sized. Examples of capacity factors to account for special types of flight (CFr) and for the effect of mixing paddles fitted within the flights (CF m) are given in Figures 10.16 and 10.17. SCREW CONVEYING 349 E 1.4r-----.------.-----.-----. ~ :5 t> 1.3 1------+------+----+- ~ ~ -~1 .2 t 1.1 .S',. "E nurrber ot mixing paddles per pitch Figure 10.17 Capacity factors for screw conveyors with 45o reverse pitch mixing paddles fitted within the flights. The capacity of a screw conveyor may then be expressed, in general as kAN 2 2 1 • m. = Pb4n(D.c - D.h) CF r' CF m (10.6) Alternatively, this equation may be rearranged to give the required operating speed for a given throughput as N= m.CFrCFm 2 2 Pb(n/4'J(Psc- Dsh)kA (10.7) The conveyor selection procedure can now be summarized as follows: (i) Examine the product to be conveyed and assess its suitability for transport by screw conveyor. The type of flighting to be used and the loading factor should also be considered. (ii) If the product is 'lumpy', determine its size distribution and select minimum screw size from Figure 10.12. (iii) Determine maximum operating speed from Figure 10.15. (iv) Determine capacity factors from Figures 10.16 and 10.17for chosen screw type and loading factor. (v) Calculate mass throughput (at maximum speed) from equation (10.6). If this is greater than the required capacity use equation (10.7) to determine the necessary operating speed; if higher capacity is desired choose a larger diameter screw and repeat from step (iii). 10.4.4 Conveyor power The power absorbed by a screw conveyor, even one that is operating horizontally, is not easy to estimate with confidence since it depends, in a somewhat unpredictable manner, on the nature of the bulk solid to be 350 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING conveyed. The approach outlined here is based on that currently being recommended in the relevant British Standard [7] and in similar authoritative publications, for example, [ 4] and [8]. It is generally convenient to regard the total power as the sum of the power required to transport the bulk material at the specified rate and the power required to overcome frictional resistance between the moving parts of the conveyor. Thus ptot = p mat+ Prrict (1 0.8) The friction power will depend principally upon the length and diameter of the conveyor and its rotational speed. An empirical expression that should give a fairly reliable indication of this quantity is Prrict = 75.7 LN D;~ 7 (10.9) where D,c is the screw diameter (m), Lis its length (m), and N is the rotational speed (rev /sec) giving the frictional power (W). It should be noted however that other factors, such as the type, number and condition of the bearings in use, the mass of the screw, and so on, may have a significant influence on the power required to overcome friction. These considerations are discussed in [ 4]. The somewhat simpler expression (10.10) which does not take into account the speed of rotation of the screw, is given by [7] and [8] with the justification that Prrict is very low compared to the power required for the progress of the material. Note that D,c and L are both in metres in equations (10.9) and (10.10), giving Prrict in watts. Even more difficult to predict with confidence is the power required to move the bulk material forward through the conveyor, since this depends to a large extent upon the nature of the material concerned. It is reasonable to suggest that this power should be proportional to the volume throughput or capacity, the bulk density of the conveyed material, and the length of the conveyor (or, more precisely, the conveying distance). Thus, introducing coefficients F, to account for differences in the types of screw that could be used and F m to account for the nature of the conveyed material, we have p mat= F ,F mPbY V,L (10.11) where g is the gravitational acceleration. The value of the coefficient F, can be taken as unity for a standard helical screw (at all conveyor loadings) but should be increased to 1.2 for cut flights or ribbon flights at 45% loading, or to 1.7 for cut and folded flights at 45% loading. The use of mixing paddles on the screw will naturally require considerable additional driving power, and F, should be increased by 30% for each 'paddle-per-pitch'. (For example, for a standard screw with two mixing paddles per pitch, take F, = 1.6.) 351 SCREW CONVEYING 3 ~ u.O (5 0 ~ "0 "' 0 -;::: Cl) > 0 2 '--.. :::::--..,1- 1":: -...., 1-- -I- -- - 1-- - - --1- - 1- 0.2 ·- t- 1- 1- ~ - - ~ C.5 - 1- 1- """' """' pow8f CPrret • Ptrictl kW Figure 10.18 Values of the 'overload factor' F 0 . The 'material factor' F m• also called 'progress resistance coefficient', depends upon the characteristics of the bulk material, but apparently not in any kind of consistent manner that would allow it to be determined from a simple bench test. Values ofF m for a large number of bulk solids can be determined from data in [ 4]. Table 10.1 lists a few of the more common bulk solids with corresponding values of F m which, in general, range from 0.8 to 4.0. Once an assessment has been made of the total power required to transport the material and to overcome the inherent conveyor friction, it is necessary to take into account the drive efficiency and so determine the normal input power. The value of the drive efficiency would naturally depend upon the arrangement in use, but typically should be around 85-95%. In addition, it is usual practice to make allowance for possible overload conditions which may occur, for example, when starting up a fully-loaded conveyor. The problem is likely to be particularly acute for small conveyors using low power driving motors, as in this situation the torque range required may be more than a small motor can provide. In [ 4] the use of an 'overload factor' F 0 is recommended; this is a function of the total power required, up to about 4kW (see Figure 10.18). Thus the size of driving motor required is indicated by p mot = (P mat+ Prrict)F 0 '1 (10.12) where '1 is the drive efficiency. 10.4.5 Inclined screw conveyors The operation of an industrial-type screw conveyor on an incline may be convenient in terms of plant layout, but is likely to result in a significant loss of efficiency because of two effects: firstly, the maximum potential capacity of the conveyor decreases and secondly, the power per unit mass throughput increases, both effects resulting principally from the greater amount of 352 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 10.1 Bulk densities and material factors for a selection of common bulk solids [ 4] Material Bulk density Pb(kg/m3) Fm Alumina Ammonium nitrate Barytes (powder) Bentonite (fine) Bonemeal 880-1040 720-990 1920-2880 800-960 800-960 3.6 2.6 4.0 1.4 3.4 Cement (Portland) China clay (kaolin) Coal ( -15mm) Coffee (ground) Cullet (fine) 1510 1010 780-980 400 1280-1920 2.8 4.0 2.0 1.2 4.0 530-640 480-720 960-1280 560-720 640-720 1.2 4.0 3.2 1.2 1.2 Mica flakes Milk (powdered) Mill scale (steel) Oats (crushed or rolled) Peas (dried) 270-350 320-720 1920-2000 300-380 720-800 2.0 1.0 6.0 1.2 1.0 PVC (powders) PVC (pellets) Polyethylene, resin pellets Rice Sand 320-480 320-480 480-560 700-800 1440-1920 2.0 1.2 0.8 0.8 3.4-5.6 Sawdust (dry) Soap powder, detergent Sugar (dry granulated) Talcum powder Vermiculite (expanded) 160-208 240-800 800-880 800-960 260 1.4 1.8 2.0-2.4 1.6 1.0 Wheat Wood (flour) Wood (shavings) 720-770 260-580 130-260 0.8 0.8 3.0 Flour (wheat) Fly ash Gypsum (fine) Ice (crushed or cubes) Ice (flake) tumbling and turbulence within the rotating screw. Although attempts have been made to develop analytical models of the 'flow' in inclined screw conveyors, for example, [9], most of the published information is of a qualitative nature. Special designs of screw conveyor are available for vertical operation, as described in section 10.5, and modifications can be made to the standard form of conveyor which will improve, to a limited extent, its performance when operating on an incline. Nevertheless, there tends to be a slope, typically around 45°, for which its throughput falls to a minimum (Figure 10.19). 353 SCREW CONVEYING 100~--------------------~ ~ ::: ·~ 50 0. "' 0 65 90 inclination of conveyor (degrees) Figure 10.19 Variation in performance of screw conveyors when operating on an incline [4]. Provided that the incline is not too steep (generally, less than 20°) the efficiency of a standard design of screw conveyor may still be acceptable, especially if the rotational speed is increased somewhat to compensate for the loss in the average forward velocity. Figure 10.14 gives an indication of the extent to which loading factors should be reduced when operating on shallow upward inclines, the general recommendation being a 2% reduction in k per degree of inclination. Alternatively, modifications may be made to the conveyor itself, for example: (i) Reduce the clearance between the trough and the screw to a minimum. (ii) Use a tubular trough, again with minimum radial clearance. The loss in efficiency of conventional V -trough conveyors when working on an incline is partly caused by the tendency of the bulk solid to fall backwards over the top of the rotating screw. A close-fitting tubular trough helps to contain the material and prevent this fall-back, especially if the screw is rotating at a somewhat higher speed than usual. (iii) Reduce the number of intermediate hangers supporting the screw, and if possible eliminate their use altogether. Obviously this will mean that the screw sections are longer, and it may be necessary to make these of heavier construction to reduce the risk of the screw shaft flexing to an unacceptable extent when under load. (iv) Use screw of shorter pitch, for example, two-thirds or even one-half of the standard pitch. This will result in an improvement in the angle of the screw flight relative to the bulk solid through which it passes. An increase in rotational speed may be necessary, however, to compensate for the fact that the forward movement of the bulk solid per revolution of the screw will be less as a result of the reduction in pitch. Once the capacity of an inclined screw conveyor is determined, estimation of the additional power consumption, over that for horizontal operation, is relatively straightforward. 354 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Thus (10.13) where H is the vertical elevation of the top end of the screw above the feed point, and the power of the driving motor will then be given by p mot = (P mat+ pfrict + pst)F 0 1J (10.14) 10.5 Vertical screw conveyors At angles of inclination greater than about 20° the elevating capacity of a conventional industrial-type screw conveyor decreases sharply, and in order to achieve a satisfactory throughput some modifications to the basic design are essential. Examples of such modifications for screw conveyors to operate on an incline have been given in the preceding section and attention is now turned to the special case where the axis of the conveyor is vertical, i.e. the screw elevator. The screw itself is, for vertical conveyors, generally the same as for the horizontal type, with helicoid flighting of standard pitch welded to a central shaft. However, a casing of tubular pattern replaces the U-trough and the feeding arrangement is different. An important feature of vertical screw elevators is that they will work satisfactorily only if a continuous feed of bulk solid is maintained to the lower end of the screw. Interruption of the feed will almost immediately result in stoppage of the discharge from the top end ofthe screw as the elevator will not empty itself. Thus, unless it is deliberately cleaned out, there will always be material within the screw, whether it is rotating or stationary. A common method of providing a positive feed to the vertical screw elevator at a controlled and uniform rate is by means of a horizontal screw feeder which may be arranged in line with, or particularly for fragile materials, offset from, the axis of the vertical screw. Since the screw elevator runs full, the actual discharge rate is generally independent of the speed of rotation and thus any required turn-down in the solids flow rate can be simply obtained by reducing the speed of the screw feeder rather than that of the main elevator. Approximate capacities and recommended maximum rotational speeds of vertical screw elevators are given in Figure 10.20. The power required can be estimated using equation (10.14), but it must be understood that there are many variables which can have an unpredictable effect on the performance of the elevator. The only reliable estimate of power will be from the results of laboratory tests on a similar material or from a manufacturer's previous experience. Various attempts have been made to improve the efficiency of helical screws operating vertically to lift bulk materials. One method is to vary the pitch of the helicoid flighting in the intake region so as to provide a firm continuous 355 SCREW CONVEYING '0 q, '0 c: ~ E 0 0 ~ 0 diameter of screw (mm) Figure 10.20 Approximate capacity of vertical screw conveyors [6]. Figure 10.21 The contra-rotating screw feeder device used on the Siwertell bulk discharger. 'plug' of material which is pushed upward by the rotation of the screw. Another method that has been used to ensure efficient filling of the vertical screw is a concentric contra-rotating screw fitted over the inlet end of the elevator (Figure 10.21). This arrangement is used on the Siwertell shipunloader [11]: A somewhat different approach to vertical screw conveying uses a combination of rotating and fixed helicoid flights (Figure 10.22). The stationary right-hand flight, which is attached to the tubular casing, is split at 180° at every half-pitch. The rotating flight (left-hand) is fixed to the central shaft and is split in the same manner. In order that the shaft can turn, with the rotating flights passing through the splits in the fixed flights, an axial reciprocation of the shaft is necessary and this is achieved by means of a cam arrangement housed in the pedestal base of the unit. It is claimed that this type of elevator 356 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING shaft reciprocates ---- flights fixed to shaft flights fixed to casing Figure 10.22 Special flight configuration used on the 'Verti-lift' [12]. works by lifting a batch of material from each stationary flight to the next until the discharge point is reached and, in doing so, achieves volumetric efficiencies much greater than more conventional vertical screw elevators. 10.6 Conclusion Although various important aspects of the design and construction of screw conveyors have been covered in this chapter, there is clearly a great deal more to be studied in order to acquire a thorough working knowledge of these devices. In particular, the materials of construction, torsional ratings and drive configurations, considered to be outside the scope of this brief introduction, need to be appreciated before taking major decisions concerning the design or selection of screw conveyors. Probably the most useful source of guidance is the CEMA handbook on Screw Conveyors [4], but a number of other publications should also prove useful, for example, [1 ], [2], [6] and [ 10], the last-named having over sixty further references. 10.7 Notation Ab CFc CFm DC DSC Dsh Fm F. g H k L m. N Cross-sectional area of moving bed of bulk solid in a screw conveyor Flight capacity factor (Figure I0.16) Mixing paddle capacity factor (Figure 10.17) Internal diameter of conveyor casing Diameter of screw Diameter of conveyor shaft Material factor, equation (10.11) (Table 10.1) Screw factor, equation (10.11) Gravitational acceleration (specific gravitational force) Vertical elevation of conveyor discharge above feed point Trough loading factor (Figure I 0.14) Length of screw conveyor Mass flow rate (capacity or throughput) Speed of rotation of screw (revolutions/second) SCREW CONVEYING pmat 357 Power required by screw conveyor to overcome friction between moving parts Power required by screw conveyor to move bulk solid at a specified rate Power required by screw conveyor to raise bulk solid through height H Total power absorbed by screw conveyor Thickness of screw flight Average velocity of bulk solid in the axial direction within a screw conveyor Volumetric flow rate (capacity or throughput) Pitch of screw Bulk density of conveyed material References and bibliography References I. Thomson, F.M. {1973) Applications of screw conveyors. In Bulk Materials Handling, Vol. II, ed. M.C. Hawk, School of Engineering, Univ. of Pittsburgh, 84-98. 2. Roberts, A.W. and Hayes, J.W. {1979) Economic Analysis in the Optimal Design of Conveyors, Chapter 3, Performance of enclosed screw or auger conveyors, Tunra Ltd., Univ. of Newcastle, Australia. 3. British Standard BS4409: Part 2: 1970. Screw conveyors-Portable and mobile tubular type {augers) for agricultural and light industrial use. British Standards Institution, London. 4. Screw Conveyors. CEMA Book No. 350, Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association {USA), 1971. 5. British Standard BS 4409: Part I: 1969. Screw conveyors~ Trough type for industrial use. British Standards Institution, London. 6. Colijn, H. {1985) Mechanical Conveyorsfor Bulk Solids. Chapter 3, Screw conveyors, Elsevier, Amsterdam. 7. British Standard BS 4409: Part 3: 1982. {Also ISO 7119-1981). Screw conveyors~ Method for calculating drive power. British Standards Institution, London. 8. Screw conveyors for bulk materials~recommendations for the design. federation Europeenne de la Manutention, Section II, Continuous Handling, FEM 2.121, September 1985. 9. Kuznetsov, V.!. {1983) Calculation of the capacity of screw conveyors with an arbitrary angle of inclination. Soviet Engg. Research 3 {8) 15-18. I 0. Bates, L. Application and design of helical screw equipment. Proc. Solidex 80, Solids Handling Conference, Harrogate, UK, March-April 1980, Paper B2. 11. Robinson, G. {1981) The Siwertell bulk discharger. Bulk Solids Handling I (3) 405-408. 12. Korach, D. A new look at vertical screw conveyors. Proc. 11th Powder and Bulk Solids Conf, Chicago, USA, May 1986, 101-107. Recommended further reading Screw Conveyors. CEMA Book No. 350, Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association (USA), 1971. Colijn, H. (1985) Mechanical Conveyors for Bulk Solids. Chapter 3, Screw conveyors, Elsevier, Amsterdam. 11 Vibratory conveyors 11.1 Introduction Vibratory conveyors are commonly used in industry to carry a wide variety of particulate and granular materials. Although the majority of engineers involved in bulk materials handling will be aware of vibratory conveying as a useful technique, few have the necessary understanding of this method to be able to design or select a system with confidence. However, there is little doubt that vibratory conveyors have some useful advantages, and an insight into their mode of operation and into the parameters governing their performance should enable the system designer to ensure that his choice of conveyor is the most efficient and the most reliable. The basic vibratory (or oscillatory) conveyor consists of a trough (generally, but not necessarily, horizontal) which is supported on or suspended by springs or hinged links and caused to oscillate at high frequency and with small amplitude by an appropriate drive mechanism (Figure 11.1). The actual configuration of the mountings and the type of drive unit used depends upon the application and will be discussed in more detail in sections 11.3 and 11.4. The fundamental action of the vibrating trough on the bulk material carried in it is to throw the particles upward and forward so that they advance along the trough in a series of short hops. There is a need to differentiate here between 'feeders' and 'conveyors', although the distinction is in fact mainly one of application. An important aspect of vibratory handling is the ease with which the flow rate of the conveyed product along the trough can be adjusted by altering the amplitude and/or the frequency of the vibration. This has led to the widespread use of vibrating troughs as feeders, for example, mounted directly beneath a hopper to control the rate of discharge. Thus a feeder must be capable of operating under varying head-loads, whereas a conveyor requires a regulated feed rate and should not be subjected to changes in head-load. A further difference between vibratory feeders and conveyors is that the former are normally operated at higher frequencies and smaller amplitudes. Table 11.1 gives an indication of the approximate ranges of operation of vibratory equipment. The size of vibratory feeders can vary over a very wide range from tiny units delivering just a few grams per second (for example, in pharmaceutical tabletting machinery) to heavy duty vibrating troughs handling hundreds of tonnes per hour. Possibly the largest of these machines currently in use is a VIBRATORY CONVEYORS 359 (a) Multi-drive trough with electromagnetic units mounted on springs (b) Trough mounted on leaf springs and driven by a single vibrator unit Figure 11.1 Typical vibratory conveyors showing two different mounting/drive arrangements. Table 11.1 Normal operating ranges for vibratory equipment Type of machine Frequency (Hz) Vibratory feeder 13-60 Vibratory conveyor 3-17 Reciprocating conveyor 1-3 Amplitude (mm) 12-1.0 50-5.0 300-50 combination feeder and screening unit, having a trough 4 m wide and over 11 m long, designed to handle discarded motor vehicle batteries [1]. In general, the trough in a vibratory feeder is quite short (less than about 2 or 3 m), but flow rate control by amplitude or frequency variation works well also on longer troughs, and the distinction between feeder and conveyor becomes blurred. At this point it would perhaps be appropriate also to distinguish between 360 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING vibrating and reciprocating conveyors. Reciprocating or shaker conveyors operate by moving the whole carrying trough, and the material in it, forwards and then leaving the material in the forward position by a rapid return stroke of the trough. There is no significant throwing action: the conveyed material is carried forward by a frictional effect between itself and the floor of the trough (which effect may be enhanced by small saw-tooth ramps in the floor) and depends upon inertia to be left in the forward position as the trough returns for the next stroke. Thus, an important feature of reciprocating conveyors is that the vertical force exerted on the trough by the carried bulk solid remains constant, whereas there is a cyclic variation in this vertical force in the normal type of vibratory conveyor or feeder. The magnitude of the constant vertical force on a reciprocating trough can be expressed simply as Fv=mg (11.1) where m is the mass of bulk solid in the trough and g is the gravitational acceleration. Then if Jlr is the coefficient of static friction between the bulk solid and the surface of the trough, the limiting value of the horizontal force on the bulk solid is given by F Hm., = Jlrmg ( 11.2) The maximum acceleration of the trough before sliding of the bulk solid occurs is thus (11.3) and it follows that on the forward movement of the trough the acceleration should always be less that Jlrg, while on the return stroke the acceleration should be, for the major part of the travel, greater than Jlrg. Operating frequencies of 1 or 2Hz are typical, with strokes of up to about 250 mm (compared with 3 to 20Hz frequency and stroke usually less than 25 mm for vibratory conveyors). Smooth granular or lumpy products of relatively high density are generally the most appropriate products for this method of conveying. However, reciprocating conveyors have a somewhat limited application because of the severe abrasive effect of the continual sliding of the conveyed material on the surface of the trough, and therefore they will not be considered further in this book. When selecting or designing a vibratory conveyor for a given application the most important requirement is to be able to predict with a reasonable degree of confidence the mass flow rate of the bulk material being conveyed along the trough. This is equal to the product of the bulk density of the conveyed material, the cross-sectional area of the bulk flow and the average conveying velocity. The problem thus becomes effectively to predict the average conveying velocity, and this depends principally upon the amplitude and frequency of the trough displacements, its slope (if not horizontal), the VIBRATORY CONVEYORS 361 angle of oscillation and the nature of the bulk solid itself. These aspects will be considered in some detail in this chapter, following which the main features of practical vibratory conveying equipment will be briefly discussed. On a first reading, it may be preferred to turn directly to section 11.3 for a description of the principal design features. 11.2 Movement of a bulk solid in a vibrating trough The following analysis, leading to an expression for the average conveying velocity, and thus for the mass flow rate, of particulate material in a vibratory conveyor, is based on the approach presented by Oehman [2]. More detailed and rigorous analyses can be found, for example, in [3]-[5]. However, it is essential that predictions of the performance of vibratory conveyors and feeders based on mathematical analysis are treated with caution. The extreme complexity of the situation actually existing in a vibrating trough and the vagaries of the bulk solids in their response to vibration stimuli means that only limited confidence can be placed in such analysis. At the present time there is little option open to the design engineer other than laboratory testing to determine conveyor performance and the inclusion of adequate control of transport rate in the installed system. 11.2.1 The motion of the trough The typical arrangement of the trough in a vibratory feeder or conveyor is illustrated in Figure 11.2. In this case the trough is 'directionally constrained', that is, it can move only in a direction perpendicular to the fixed guide springs. The line of motion of the trough is represented by sT which makes an angle f3 with the horizontal. This angle, termed the 'angle of oscillation' or 'drive angle' is generally around 20-300. The simple harmonic motion of the trough is represented by Figure 11.3, from which it can be seen that, if the trough is oscillating at frequency f and with amplitude ), its position at any time t is given by ST product feed Figure I 1.2 =),(I -COS 2nft) trough Fundamental model of a vibratory conveyor. (11.4) 362 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING highest ----position - - - lowest position Figure 11.3 Simple harmoninc motion of the trough, along line inclined at angle horizontal. P to the The acceleration of the trough in the direction of oscillation is then sT = d 2s dt 2T = .l..(2nf) 2 cos 2nft (11.5) Now the horizontal and vertical displacements of the trough at timet can be written XT = A(1 -COS 2nft) COS {3 (11.6) YT = .l..(1 -cos 2nft) sin f3 (11. 7) and Also the horizontal and vertical components of the acceleration of the trough can be written and .X\ = .l..(2nf) 2 cos 2nft cos f3 (11.8) .Yr = .l..(2nf) 2 cos 2nft sin f3 (11.9) Now the bulk material being conveyed will lift ofT the surface of the trough at the moment when the acceleration of the trough, in the downward vertical direction, becomes equal to the gravitational acceleration g; that is, when YT = - g (11.10) The time at which this occurs is then given by tl = 2~! cos -1 [ .l..(2nf/sin f3 J (11.11) While in flight, the particles will tend to follow a parabolic trajectory to the next impact point, after which they will be carried forward and upward for a VIBRATORY CONVEYORS 363 short interval before being thrown again as the trough decelerates. Thus, as the conveyed bulk solid is transported forward along the trough, the total time of contact will be very small and the amount of abrasive wear occurring should be minimal. For the most efficient operation of the conveyor there should be no backward movement of the particles at any part of the cycle and therefore the impact point should coincide with the start of the flight phase. An important parameter in the modelling of vibratory conveyors is therefore the ratio of the vertical acceleration of the trough to the gravitational acceleration g, as this will determine the point at which the flight phase begins. The maximum value of this parameter, which would normally be determined at the design stage by chosen values of frequency, amplitude and angle of oscillation, is sometimes called the 'dynamic material coefficient' or 'throw factor' and given the symbol r. Thus r = YTm., g = A(2nf) 2 sin f3 g (11.12) At the start of the flight phase YT/g = - 1, and it follows that, if the positive value of r is less than unity, the bulk solid will not leave the surface of the trough and forward movement will be little, if any. Combining equations (11.11) and (11.12) it is seen that the flight phase begins at a time t 1 given by (11.13) The determination of the time at which the particles re-impact on the surface of the trough is a little more difficult. Clearly this is where the 'tuning' of the conveyor becomes important, since for efficient transport the particle trajectories should be matched to the vibrations of the trough. Figure 11.4 shows the vertical displacement of the conveying trough with time and also the variation of the vertical component of the trough acceleration. Typical flight phases and contact phases are shown, with impact occurring within the same cycle as the lift-off. Another essential consideration when selecting the operating condition for a vibratory conveyor is the relationship between the frequency and the amplitude of oscillation. In general the higher the frequency, the smaller must be the amplitude. It is convenient to express this relationship in terms of a ratio of the maximum trough acceleration to the gravitational acceleration g. Thus ), _ .~T max ·- (2nf) 2 _ Kg - (2nf) 2 (11.14) 364 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING contact fh!f\t phase phase .1 ... ft number of cycles ft • 2 1 impact of material on trough matenal hft· off • -o cir g Figure 11.4 Variation of trough displacement and acceleration with time. Figure 11.5 The relationship between amplitude, frequency and dynamic machine coefficient K . where K = sTmu = - r g sin f3 (11.15) and is termed the 'dynamic machine coefficient' or 'machine number'. The relationship between amplitude and frequency expressed by equation ( 11.14) can be represented graphically by curves of the type shown in Figure 11.5. Each of these curves corresponds to a different value of the VIBRATORY CONVEYORS 365 parameter K: in practice vibratory conveyors are usually designed to have K between 1 and 4, but for vibratory feeders K may be as high as 12, since inertial effects are less of a problem in the smaller units. 11.2.2 The motion of bulk material in the trough It has been explained that bulk material contained within the trough will lift off the bottom surface at the instant that the downward vertical acceleration of the trough exceeds the gravitational acceleration. From this instant the movement of a single particle of the material may be modelled as a parabolic trajectory and during the time of flight the trough continues its downward and backward motion before meeting the particle at the next impact point (Figure 11.6). The actual position of the impact point within the cycle of movement of the trough is dependent upon the characteristics of the system and, to some extent, can be adjusted by 'tuning' the conveyor (that is, by varying the frequency and/or the amplitude of oscillation). When the conveyor is operating at its optimum condition the impact point will occur just before the lift-off point, allowing only a brief contact time, as illustrated in Figure 11. 7. The bulk material thus advances along the trough by a continuous series of 'micro-bounces'. Particles are carried forward by the movement of the trough in the contact phase of duration Tc. The initial upward acceleration of the trough results in an increase in the frictional effect between the particles and the floor of the trough and thus minimizes sliding. In the flight phase of duration Tr the particles fly forward while the trough is on the return stroke. The net result is a forward progression of the particles at an almost steady horizontal velocity (Figure 11.7). It is helpful now to define a dimensionless parameter n as the ratio of the time of flight to the period of the vibration applied to the trough, that is tl- tz Tr n=--=- TT TT Yp Figure 11.6 Trajectory of a 'single particle'. (11.16) 366 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING partK;Ie Ooadl movement Xp contact phase (ctration TcJ 4 nuni:Jer of cycles Figure 11.7 Horizontal motion of material in a vibrating trough. I'-< 12 .. f - - - f- -- --- - / ··~ ~ )<__/ 0 Figure 11.8 (11.17). 1 fli{tll ratio n Relationship between dynamic material coefficient rand flight ratio n, equation Thus n may be regarded as a 'flight ratio' which characterizes the condition of vibratory conveyance. An analysis of the particle trajectory will lead to an expression for the flight time Tr in terms of the amplitude of the vibration, the frequency and the drive angle [3. It is then possible to show that the relationship between the dynamic material coefficient r and the flight ratio n is of the form r = [(2n 2 n 2 + co_s 2nn- 1 ) 2 + 1] 1 12 2nn - sm 2nn and this relationship is illustrated, for n up to 3, in Figure 11.8. ( 11.17) 367 VIBRATORY CONVEYORS Clearly, larger values of n require large values of r, which in turn means high accelerations of the trough. Structural considerations obviously place a practical limit on the inertia effects that can be tolerated and therefore it is currently the usual practice to operate vibratory feeders and conveyors with a value of n less than unity, which means that the flight phase takes place within one period of the trough movement. Inspection of Figure 11.8 then shows that the practical upper limit of r is 3.3. 11.2.3 Average conveying velocity Perhaps the most significant problem facing engineers concerned with the design and application of vibratory conveyors is the determination of a suitable combination of parameters (notably r, f1 and n) to give the maximum transport rate of a specified bulk solid along the trough. Since the actual velocity of the particles in the trough will vary throughout each cycle, it is the average conveying velocity that is of significance. Now the horizontal displacement of the trough is given by xT = A.( 1 - cos 2nft) cos f1 ( 11.6) and thus the horizontal component of velocity is .XT = A.2nf sin 2nft cos f1 (11.18) and the maximum velocity of the trough in the horizontal direction is XT max = A2n J COS /1 (11.19) The average velocity of the bulk solid along the trough can be conveniently expressed in terms of this maximum as (11.20) where IJu is an 'efficiency of transport' which is found to be a function of the dynamic material coefficient r, the vibration angle f1 and the coefficient of friction fJ.r between the bulk solid and the surface ofthe trough. The form of the functional relationship involving IJu, r, f1 and JJ.r is very complex and is the subject of considerable research effort. In fact, the efficiency of transport will also depend upon a number of other variables, such as the depth of the bulk solid layer on the trough, the inclination of the trough (if not horizontal) and the flow properties of the conveyed bulk solid. These effects are customarily taken into account by introducing a number of empirical factors to modify the value of average transport velocity predicted by equation (11.20). Figure 11.9 [6] allows a value of the transport efficiency IJu to be determined so that equation (11.20) can be used. Note, however, that it will be necessary to specify the coefficient of friction (for example, for sand on steel fJ.r ~ 0.5), the dynamic material factor r and the drive angle fl. As previously mentioned, the practical maximum value of r is 3.3 but, in 368 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 1.6 1.4 1.2 !Lf la1 11 Figure 11.9 drive angle Values of transport efficiency "'u as a function of dynamic material coefficient f3 and coefficient of friction /lr [6]. 80 - r-~\ L I \ ~ i I"-V V ~ 20 r---- 0 K 1/ - 1- .,t.- I ~ ....... - - == _.....V 1.0 10 ,1- r-- - I',_ I Q) r, - 2.0 3.0 dynanic material coefficient r Figure 11.10 Optimum values of drive angle f3 to give greatest transport velocity [2]. order to keep the inertia forces within acceptable limits, vibratory conveyors are generally operated with r in the range 1.5-2.0. Optimum values of the drive angle [3, for greatest transport rate, are plotted against the dynamic material coefficient r in Figure 11.1 0, from data in [2], and from this chart it is seen that f3 is likely to be in the range 30° to 50°. The dynamic machine coefficient K is also plotted on Figure 11.10. Three empirical multiplying factors which are recommended to modify the value of transport velocity predicted by equation (11.20) are: Fm A factor to allow for different material characteristics. Its value needs to be determined experimentally, but would normally be less than unity for low load densities and small grain size; 0.8 to 0.9 for heavy, granular, dry material; 0.1 to 0.8 for material with more than 20% minus 300 ,urn; 0 for particle size less than about 60 .urn (no transport). Fh Factor to allow for depth of bulk material on trough. Value varies from unity for small depths to about 0. 75 for depths of 300 mm. VIBRATORY CONVEYORS 369 Fi Factor to allow for slope of trough. Value is around unity for horizontal conveying and upward conveying to about 15°, but decreases rapidly for steeper slopes. For downward slopes Fi is greater than unity, up to about 1.8 for a 15° downward slope. Note, however, that this factor may be much affected by the friction between the bulk solid and the surface of the trough. The transport velocity of the bulk solid along the trough is thus predicted using the expression u,=YJuFmFhF). 2nfcos{J (11.21) Finally, the solids mass flow rate, or capacity, of a vibrating conveyor can then be predicted by introducing the cross-sectional area of the bulk material in the trough and its bulk density. Thus (11.22) 11.2.4 The influence of the design parameters A number of conclusions can be drawn from the preceding relationships and from published experimental data. It has been established, for instance, that the conveying velocity u, is inversely proportional to the operating frequency f [7]. Thus, in general, for high conveying rates the frequency should be as low as possible. Note, however, that in order to maintain a constant acceleration of the trough this would require high amplitudes of vibration. Equation (11.15) shows that an increase in trough acceleration means an increase in the dynamic machine coefficient K, and from Figure 11.10 it can be seen that this would result in a decrease in the optimum angle of oscillation and an increase in the proportion of the cycle for which the bulk material is in flight. It might therefore appear that increasing the trough acceleration would result in an increase in the conveying velocity, and certainly this is true up to a point. (The bulk material will not lift off the floor of the trough until h >g.) However, excessive trough acceleration causes the operation to become unstable owing to displacement of the particle/trough impact point and consequent irregular 'bouncing' of the material. It is clear that the angle of oscillation {3 will have some influence on the conveying velocity. In general a small value of {3 means that there is little variation in particle/trough friction since the vertical component of acceleration is small. On the contrary, a large value of {3 would indicate only a small component of forward motion. The actual value of the optimum angle of oscillation will depend upon the trough acceleration and the coefficient of friction between the bulk material and the surface of the trough. This is because the greater adherence of the 370 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING material to the trough floor that results from an increase in either of these effects allows the use of a smaller oscillation angle whilst still achieving satisfactory forward motion. Naturally, fitting the trough with a high-friction lining (e.g. rubber) will give an improvement in performance for the same reason. Furthermore, it may be noted that increasing the depth of the conveyed material should also result in an increase in friction at the trough floor and therefore improve the conveying velocity. However, this effect has not been observed consistently in practice. 11.2.5 Two-phase trough motion It has been suggested [7] that the performance of the conventional arrange- ment of vibratory conveyor is limited because the relative magnitudes of the vertical and horizontal motions of the trough are governed by the fixed angle of oscillation. This limitation could be overcome if the trough is excited independently in the vertical and horizontal directions (at the same frequency but with amplitudes and phase difference adjusted to cause the path of a point on the trough to be elliptical). It is claimed that the two-phase system will inevitably result in greater conveying rates than in the conventional system, the maximum conveying rate occurring at some optimum phase angle which depends upon the nature of the conveyed product and the vibration conditions. Conveying velocities from 50% to 300% higher than those in conventional systems have been obtained by using two-phase trough motion. 11.3 Design features 11.3.1 Drive mechanism It is convenient to classify vibratory conveyors into a number of groups according to the method that is used to transmit vibrations to the trough. The four principal types of drive mechanism are: (i) Direct or positive mechanical, using a crank and connecting rod (ii) Eccentric-mass mechanical, using out-of-balance weights driven by an electric motor-typical designs use single or double (contra-rotating) eccentric masses, or twin self-contained vibrator motors (iii) Electromagnetic drive using pulsed single-phase ac supply (iv) Hydraulically-powered pulsating pistons. The main features of each of these drives will now be described briefly. (i) Positive mechanical drive. The usual application for this type of drive is on the longer heavy-duty conveyors where low-frequency high-amplitude oscillation is appropriate. Figure 11.11a illustrates the general arrangement of a positive-drive vibratory conveyor supported on guide springs. In this case the VIBRATORY CONVEYORS 371 s (a) Si'r(:lle erect ctive with trough sLPPOrted on g.Jde sprilgs (b) Resonance-type conveyor with counterweight Cc) Balanced conveyor using a split trough Figure 11.11 Vibratory conveyors with positive mechanical drive. displacement of the trough is predetermined as twice the crank radius. An alternative arrangement (Figure 11.11 b) designed to oscillate near resonance, has a spring positioned between the trough and the supporting frame and a coupling spring linking the connecting rod to the trough. This ensures that the trough has free movement, rather than being restricted to a fixed vibration path. Positive-drive vibrating conveyors can be a serious source of trouble as a result of vibration transmitted to their surroundings. Heavy supporting structures are required, especially if the conveyor is not counterbalanced. Care should be taken to ensure that the frequency of vibration ofthe conveyor is not close to that of the supporting structure. There are several ways in which the problem of transmitted vibration can be reduced, such as the use of a counterweight (Figure 11.11b) or contra-vibrating double troughs (Figure 11.11 c). Operating frequencies are relatively low (5-15Hz) and conveying distances 372 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING generally about 5-30 m. Amplitudes are typically 3-15 mm, resulting m conveying speeds of 0.2-0.8 mjs. (ii) Eccentric-mass mechanical drive. Whilst a conveying trough can be caused to vibrate using a single rotating eccentric mass, the much more common approach is to use two contra-rotating masses of equal size. Twin selfcontained vibrator motors, for example, contra-rotating with their axes in the same plane, will synchronize to produce an oscillating linear motion perpendicular to the axes of the motors (Figure 11.12). The chief advantage of a twin rotor arrangement is that the resulting linear oscillating force can be relatively easily adjusted for direction. This means that, within the constraints of the trough mounting, the vibration angle can be altered to suit the characteristics of the product being conveyed. As with positive drive mechanisms, the conveying trough may be mounted on leaf springs which restrict the direction of the trough movement (Figure 11.12a) or on compression or tension springs which allow the motion of the trough to be governed by the direction of oscillation of the drive unit (Figure 11.12b). Operating frequencies are moderately high, being typically around 15Hz (a) Twin vibrator motor drive with trOUitl SlqiOI1ed on leaf spri1gs \ (b) Free-oscillati'lg conveyor Figure 11.12 Vibratory conveyors with rotating eccentric mass mechanical drive. VIBRATORY CONVEYORS 373 for conveyors and 15-30Hz for feeders. Unlike the positive-drive types, eccentric-mass vibrating conveyors do not have a fixed amplitude. Generally the amplitude would be in the range 1-10 mm but this is very much dependent upon the load on the trough. Conveying velocities are likely to be somewhat less than would occur in positive-drive conveyors, while conveying distances would be much the same for each type. The growing importance and use of variable-frequency controls which have proliferated on the commercial market in recent years has had a significant effect on the application of eccentric mass vibrators. Conveyors and feeders driven by three-phase ac vibrator motors can now be offered with a variable speed control which provides an element of adjustment on feed rate whilst the equipment is operating. Eccentric-mass vibrators are now able to compete on cost effectiveness with electro-magnetic units for driving large feeders, although for handling low volumes of bulk materials the electro-magnetic drives are probably still superior. (iii) Electro-magnetic drive. This drive mechanism relies on the cyclic energization of one or more electromagnets to generate the vibratory motion of the trough. In most designs there is no contact between the parts of the electromagnet, one part being mounted on the supporting framework and the other on the oscillating trough (Figure 11.13). Electromagnetic drives are generally designed to work from the 50Hz (or 60Hz in the USA) alternating current mains supply. Since each cycle has two impulses the effective operating frequency is 100Hz (or 120Hz). Reduction of the frequency to a minimum of 50% of these values is possible if a half-wave rectifier or thyristor control is used. Amplitudes tend to be very small (typically 0.1-3 mm) and consequently the conveying velocity is quite slow, rarely being more than about 0.3 mjs. Whilst electromagnetic excitation oflong conveyors is possible, particularly when tuned to operate close to the resonant frequency, the most common application of this type of drive is on short vibratory feeders (Figure 11.14). (iv) Hydraulic drive. In order to eliminate any possible risk of an explosion being initiated by the electrical equipment, pneumatic or hydraulic receiver pistons fitted to the conveying trough can be driven by a remotely situated pump unit. Speed control of the motor, by thyristor drives for example, or the Figure 11.13 Typical arrangement of electromagnetic drive. N 374 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 11.14 Vibratory feeder with electromagnetic drive. use of cone pulleys between the motor and the pump unit, allows variation of the frequency of oscillation of the trough. Also, capacity control of the conveyor can be readily achieved using manual or automatic pressure control valves on the pneumatic or hydraulic supply. The applications of this type of drive are similar to those of electromagnetic drives but it is capable in general of heavier-duty work. 11.3.2 Mounting systems It will have become evident from the foregoing discussion that there are different methods of mounting the trough(s) in a vibratory conveying installation. The type of mounting to be used may depend upon the kind of drive mechanism, the loading on the trough and the susceptibility of the supporting structure to transmitted vibration. Mounting systems can be usefully classified into three groups: directionally-constrained, nondirectional, and natural frequency systems. (i) Directionally-constrained systems. In this class of conveyor the trough unit is supported at intervals by leaf springs or by hinged links and the direction of oscillation is restricted to a line perpendicular to these supports. The vibration angle is thus fixed. Generally the system would be tuned so that the operating frequency is well away from the resonant frequency. The performance of the conveyor is then relatively insensitive to variations in the trough loading. Directionally-constrained vibrating troughs are used principally for conveying and do not usually perform well as feeders. (ii) Non-directional systems. Mounting the trough freely on isolator springs results in a system which is more easily tuned to suit different conveyed products, but which is in other respects very similar to the directionallyconstrained type. (iii) Natural frequency systems. In order to achieve a significant reduction in the power requirement of a vibratory conveyor it should be set up to oscillate 375 VIBRATORY CONVEYORS at a frequency close to resonance. Such a system tends to be highly loadsensitive and it is therefore only really suitable for situations in which the combined mass of load plus trough remains virtually constant; i.e. the solids feed rate must be carefully controlled, or the mass of the trough must be large compared with the mass of the load in it. 11.4 Applications of vibratory conveying Vibratory conveyors are suitable for handling a very wide range of material types although, in general, granular materials handle better than pulverized, and flat or irregular shapes better than spherical. Also, materials that aerate can be difficult to convey satisfactorily and low-density products can be troublesome because of the effect of air resistance on the trajectory of particles. On the positive side, friable products such as granules of milk powder or instant coffee can be conveyed gently and without excessive degradation. Even very abrasive materials should not cause too much difficulty since the time in contact with the bottom surface of the trough is relatively short and, in any case, wear-resistant trough liners can readily be fitted. As a guide to the conveying characteristics of various bulk solids, Table 11.2, based on data Table 11.2 Typical characteristics of bulk solids on vibratory conveyors Material Alumina Bagasse Carbon black Cement clinker Cereal Coal Crumb rubber Detergent powder Glass cullet Gravel Limestone Milk powder Plastic pellets Sand-damp Sand-dry Salt (table) Steel shot Steel turnings Sugar (granulated) Tobacco Wood chips Approximate size (mm) Average bed depth (mm) Average transport velocity (m/s) 0.15 0.25-5 1.5 (pelletized) 6-10 6-10 18-26 6 0.15 3-12 6-10 10-30 0.075 3-6 0.8 0.8 0.4-0.8 1.5-3 6 -12 0.5-0.8 75 150 75 125 150 125 100 75 100 125 100 35 100 100 75 50 50 100 60 250 250 0.15 0.4 0.18 0.36 0.36 0.3 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.33 0.36 0.13 0.36 0.4-0.45 0.25-0.3 0.3 0.36 0.28 0.25 0.36 0.4 Cut 10 376 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING from [6], lists typical operating bed depths and transport velocities for some familiar materials. Although the 'fundamental' application of vibratory conveying is for the horizontal (or near-horizontal) movement of particulate or granular bulk solids, there are many opportunities for variation. Conveying on a downward slope presents no real problems and conveying on upward slopes of up to about 15° should also be possible in most cases. Systems with multiple inlets or outlets can be constructed, in the latter case perhaps having the exit points controlled by suitable shut-off gates. The outlets may be arranged 'in series' along the length of the conveyor or alternatively the conveyor may be designed to split the flow from one inlet point into two or more streams. Vibratory conveyors are especially amenable to adaptations which allow some kind of processing operation (such as screening, de-watering, cooling or drying) to be undertaken while the product is being transported. Where the product is such that its escape or contamination must be avoided, the trough can be fitted with a sealed cover. Plastic or stainless-steel troughs are useful where cleanliness or hygiene is a prime requirement. Segregation or mixing of the conveyed material can occur in the vibrating trough, and it is not always immediately predictable which of the effects will prevail in a given case. Sometimes 'de-mixing' of a previously blended product in a vibrating conveyor can be a great nuisance, but in other situations this phenomenon can provide the means of a simple and effective way of removing contaminants: for example, by skimming off a segregated top layer of unwanted material. On the other hand, it has been found [8] that instant coffee and chicory can be blended in a vibrating trough after feeding them separately to the conveyor. With larger-sized materials manual 'picking' of contaminants may be convenient because of the continual tumbling movement and relatively slow forward progress of the product. For the removal of ferrous contaminants, some kind of magnetic separation system could easily be devised. It is a relatively simple matter to combine various screening operations with vibratory conveying in order, for example, to remove large lumps or to remove very fine particles. Quite sophisticated classifying devices have been developed using vibration as the mechanism of forward transport. Contacting the conveyed product with gas or liquid is also rendered much simpler by vibrating it in a suitably-designed trough which may have, for instance, perforated sides or floor. Heating and cooling operations are easily carried out using hot or cold air, and washing of products is also very straightforward in principle. 11.5 Spiral elevators A common, if somewhat novel, application of the vibratory method of transporting particulate materials along an almost horizontal surface is the spiral elevator. In this device the conveying trough is wound helically, at a VIBRATORY CONVEYORS 377 (a) A typical elevator (b) A c<:lfT¥)act vibratory elevator installation Figure 11.15 The vibratory spiral elevator. shallow angle, on a central supporting core to which the vibratory motion is applied (Figure 11.15a). Although, as the name suggests, spiral elevators have as a main function the lifting of the conveyed material through vertical distances of up to 10 m, or possibly more (Figure ll.l5b), a further important advantage is their ease of use in processing applications. Processes involving heat transfer, for example, are especially appropriate because a long contact surface can be obtained that takes up very little floor space. The requirement of a long transit time for the product on the trough can also be easily satisfied. 378 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Where the conveyed material is to be processed in this manner the central supporting core can be conveniently used to carry electrical heating cables, heating (or cooling) air, etc., and in one design the air is actually distributed from the central core into a plenum chamber beneath the perforated floor of the trough and thence into the product. Where the process demands it is a relatively simple matter to enclose the complete spiral elevator in a gas-tight container so that a gaseous atmosphere or vacuum can be maintained. An interesting example developed for the manufacture of a chemical product in powder form has the helical trough mounted on the inside of a large tube in order to ensure gas-tightness [9]. The height of the elevator was 1.5 m and the track length 26 m, the whole unit being driven by out-of-balance electric motors. 11.6 Notation A a FH Fv Fh FJ Fm f g K m m. n ST ST Tc Tr TT t tl t2 u. XT XT YT .h {3 r 1/u Cross-sectional area Acceleration Horizontal component of force Vertical component of force Material depth factor, equation (11.21) Slope factor, equation (11.21) Material flow factor, equation (11.21) Frequency of vibration Gravitational acceleration (specific gravitational force) Dynamic machine coefficient, defined by equation (11.15) Mass Mass flow rate of bulk solid Flight ratio, defined by equation (11.16) Linear displacement of trough Acceleration of trough ( = d 2 sT/dt 2 ) Duration of contact phase Duration of flight phase Period of vibration of trough Time Start time of particle flight ('lift-off') End time of particle flight ('impact') Average conveying velocity Horizontal displacement of trough Horizontal component of trough velocity Vertical displacement of trough Vertical component of trough acceleration ( = d 2 YT/dt 2 ) Angle of oscillation of trough to horizontal Dynamic material coefficient, defined by equation (11.12) Efficiency of transport, equation (11.20) VIBRATORY CONVEYORS 379 Amplitude of vibration Coefficient of friction between surface of trough and conveyed bulk solid Bulk density Angular acceleration References and bibliography References 1. Dumbaugh, G.D. An analysis of drive methods for vibrating equipment used in bulk solids systems. Proc. lOth Powder and Bulk Solids Conf, Chicago, May 1985, 452-470. 2. Oehmen, H.H. (1981) Theory of vibrating conveyors. Bulk Solids Handling 1 (2) 245-254. 3. Ganapathy, S. and Parameswaran, M.A. On the design of the unbalanced mass excited vibratory conveyor: power requirements and motor selection. Bulk Solids Handling 6(1) 59-63. 4. Ng, K.L., Ang, L.A. and Chng, S.C. (1982) A computer model for vibrating conveyors. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs 200 (B2) 123-130. 5. Gaberson, H.A. (1972) Particle motion on oscillating conveyors. Trans. ASME, J. Engg.for Industry, February, 50-63. 6. Colijn, H. (1985) Mechanical Conveyors for Bulk Solids. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 265-271. 7. Schofield, R.E. Vibratory conveying of bulk materials. Int. Conf on Bulk Solids Storage, Handling and Flow, November 1976, Stratford-upon-Avon, UK. 8. Hill, T.J.E. The application and design of vibratory conveyors. Solidex 80 Conf., Harrogate, March/April 1980, Paper Bl. 9. Haneman, S. and Mocha, H.K. (1978) Vibration has wide range of practical uses. Bulk Storage Movement Control, May/June 1978, 101-103. Recommended further reading Dumbaugh, G.D. (1984) A comparative review of vibratory drives for bulk solids handling systems. J. Powder and Bulk Solids Technol. 8 (2) 1-17. Spivakovsky, A. and Dyachkov, V. Conveyors and Related Equipment, Chapter XIV, Oscillating and vibratory conveyors, Peace Publishers, Moscow. Colijn, H. (1985) Mechanical Conveyors for Bulk Solids, Chapter V, Vibratory conveyors, Elsevier, Amsterdam. 12 Basic pneumatic conveying systems 12.1 Introduction The entrainment of solid particles in a high-velocity flow of air is a well known phenomenon, with examples ranging from sandstorms to domestic vacuum cleaners, and it is therefore not surprising that it should be the basis of an essentially simple and reliable method for the controlled conveying of bulk solids. Pneumatic conveying, as the method is called, may be formally defined as the transportation of dry bulk particulate or granular materials through a pipeline by a stream of gas. Whilst the gas concerned would normally be air, other gases are occasionally used, such as nitrogen in situations where there is a fire or explosion risk. The main purpose of a pneumatic conveyor is to move solid particles from one location to another; for example, from a bulk transport vehicle to a storage hopper, or from a storage hopper to a bagging machine. These conveying systems require only a source of compressed air (or other gas, as previously mentioned), a means of feeding the product into the pipeline, and a receiving hopper fitted with a means of separating the conveyed product from the conveying air (Figure 12.1 ). Appropriate selection and arrangement of these components provides flexibility in both plant layout and operation. Thus, for example, material can be transported from several sources into a common line, or a single conveying line can distribute material into a number of receiving hoppers. The material flow rate can be monitored and controlled, and systems can usually be designed for fully automatic operation. The earliest commercial applications of pneumatic conveying were probably the capsule transport lines developed during the first half of the 19th century (see Chapter 17), and it was not until 1886 that B.F. Sturtevant demonstrated that solid particles could be conveyed, in a controlled manner, directly in a stream of air [1]. These first practical pneumatic conveyors were gas in (usually airJ I solids in I gas/solids disengaging device solids· out Figure 12.1 The elements of a pneumatic conveying system. BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 381 fan-driven vacuum systems, mostly used for handling sawdust and grain, and it was the beginning of the 20th century before positive pressure systems were much used. Conveying velocities were relatively high, with the particles carried in suspension at low concentration--the so-called 'dilute phase' mode of transport. Gradually the technology of pneumatic conveying was developed, starting perhaps from the need to separate the conveyed product from the air stream, in cyclones and filters, and then extending to the problem of introducing the bulk solid into the conveying line against an adverse pressure gradient (hence, the rotary feeder and, later, the screw pump). In the 1920s it began to be recognized that by introducing a small amount of air into fine particulate materials they could be made to exhibit some of the characteristics ofliquids, including the ability to 'flow' freely. Interest in this phenomenon of 'fluidization' no doubt helped the designers of pneumatic conveying systems to realize that they were not restricted to the mode of transport in which the individual particles are carried in suspension at high velocity, and so 'densephase' conveying became established as an alternative, with a high proportion of the particles effectively sliding on the lower surface of the pipe. Although the movement of solid particles by air through pipelines has thus been established practice for over half a century, this method of transportation is being 'rediscovered' because of its suitability for modern industrial processes and the economics of handling in bulk. Pneumatic conveying of particulate and granular materials is now commonplace in many industries, such as the pharmaceutical, food, chemical, glass, cement, plastics, mining and metal, and normally provides for storage, transport, recovery and metering of the products. Indeed it would be difficult to envisage how the everyday handling of products such as plastics, flour and sugar during in-plant distribution could be cost-effective without pneumatic conveyors. The difficulties encountered when designing or selecting a pneumatic conveyor to meet a particular need are normally due to: (i) The wide range of pneumatic conveying systems which are available (ii) Variation in the product, caused by conveying or by a change in the process or original source of the product (iii) The inability of manufacturers to specify a system based upon product characteristics, frequently resulting in a dependence on dubious empirical correlations (iv) The need to know whether or not the product is explosive, toxic, abrasive, friable, hygroscopic, fine or granular, since a small change in a product's characteristics can affect considerably the conveyability of the product (v) The gas -solid flow in a pipeline being extremely complex and each product having its own unique flow characteristics. Nevertheless, across the world, the number of manufacturers of pneumatic conveying systems has, in recent years, risen substantially, and installations are becoming increasingly complex (Fig. 12.2). 382 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 12.2 A pneumatic conveying system for handling PVC resins, showing the complexity and flexibility of modern installations. (Photo Courtesy Neu Engineering Ltd.) Most manufacturers' literature on pneumatic conveying includes a very impressive list of materials- from asbestos powder to coffee beans, moulding sand to grass seeds, gold ore to talcum powder-which their systems can handle dust-free, without segregation, with complete flexibility and very little maintenance. Even whole fish and live chickens are reported to have been BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 383 conveyed successfully in this way [1]. Some users and most manufacturers realize that system design is rarely straightforward, especially with a new product, and it is often the inventiveness and innovatory skill of the pneumatic conveying engineer which ensures a satisfactory, reliable working system. In spite of this, the literature abounds with claims such as 'optimum design', 'all parts manufactured of the most suitable material'; 'versatility and ease of future changes in use'; 'our systems use the minimum air giving the minimum product degradation and plant erosion with minimum power consumption'; and so on. The design of pneumatic conveying systems is however largely based upon practical experience and empirical design curves and/or equations. The more enlightened manufacturer will carry out conveying tests in a pilot plant before designing a handling system for a new product. Unfortunately, the manufacturer's pilot plant may not be the most suitable system for handling the user's product on account of the manufacturer being unable to supply the many different types of system. The user has the problem of interpreting the results of manufacturers' tests and assessing the suitability of the conveying system that is proposed -the cheapest system initially could be the most costly in the medium term on account of unscheduled plant shutdown or, perhaps, the inability of the transport system to meet the specification of conveying rate and so on. It is highly desirable for a user of pneumatic conveying plant to be able to evaluate a proposed system, and it is always wise to employ a reputable manufacturer who has considerable expertise in ensuring compatibility of the transport system with the material to be conveyed and the duty required. Although it is desirable to be able to express a real flowing gas-solid suspension as an analytical model which can be described in mathematical terms, the sheer complexity of pneumatic conveying means that work in this field must rely heavily on empirical correlations. The correlations must be confirmed by experimental data; however. experiments with real gas-solid flows are difficult and require skill in experimentation and instrumentation and the utmost care in the interpretation of data. Despite the vast number of publications dealing with pneumatic conveying, there is little agreement on the correct method of predicting system pressure losses, especially in the case of dense-phase conveying. In fact, even the most reputable manufacturer cannot guarantee with absolute confidence that an installation will unquestionably meet the design specification. However, pneumatic conveying systems do work and the industry has a right to be proud of many successful plants. Pneumatic conveyor design is not yet a science, but it is no longer a 'black art', since experience and industrially-orientated research have provided some answers in the quest to fully understand the behaviour of gas-solids suspensions flowing in pipelines. The position today is that the component designer can adopt a strategy which will enable him to optimize the design of a system for handling a particular product. Perhaps the theme of this 384 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING introduction can be summarized by the following two equations: "black art" (the past) + experience technical art (mainly last 30 years) -> (the present) technical art experience industrially(the present)+ (next decade)+ oriented research ( 1970-2000) the technology of pneumatic conveying the near future ... (2000!) One of the principal constraints on the use of pneumatic conveyors is the nature of the material to be conveyed, although conveying distance or conveying rate may be the deciding factor. Thus, although the list of materials which have been successfully conveyed in pneumatic systems is very long, there is still, and always will be, a need in the bulk solids handling field for mechanical conveyors using, for example, belts, buckets, drag-chains, screws and vibrating troughs. Total costs are important considerations in the selection of a conveying system, but other features such as versatility, compactness and manpower requirements often influence the final decision. Table 12.1 represents a method of analysis used by at least one manufacturer to provide a simple comparison for the selection of pneumatic conveying and other forms of transport. Table 12.1 Comparative analysis of pneumatic conveying and other forms of bulk solids transport. Performance/suitability rating scale Poor Satisfactory Capital costs of installation 1---.-Operating costs I- Space requirements of system I- Ease of installation in existing buildings I- - Versatility and ease of future changes I- Suitability for automation r--Maintenance 1--Safety f--Cleanliness, minimal contamination 1--Handling toxic materials Range of materials handled Distance conveyed Capacity Reliability - - - - - Good - - -- - -- - - - - - - - Excellent -- - ---- --- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 385 Once it has been decided to install a pneumatic conveying system there are three major problem areas to be considered, each one relating to the product to be handled. The first of these is the erosion of the plant by the conveyed product, the second is the effect of the plant on the product in terms of particle degradation, and third is the explosion risk with certain products. These problems should be taken into account when choosing the particular system; for example, the product must be conveyed at low velocity to minimize plant erosion by abrasive products and to avoid excessive degradation of friable products. If a particular product is potentially explosive when suspended in air as a dust cloud, then ignition can occur due to the electrical energy generated by static electricity or by friction sparking. The risk of explosion can be minimized or eliminated in a number of ways and it is generally accepted that pneumatic conveyors reduce fire and explosion hazards. Starch, flour, cellulose acetate, wood flour and gunpowder pellets are just some of the common combustible materials which are pneumatically conveyed. It has been reported that one insurance company gives discount rates to flour mills which use pneumatic handling for the milling process, on account of the reduced fire and explosion hazard compared with mechanical handling systems. In addition to the benefits offered by pneumatic conveying systems for handling bulk materials in new plant, there are also distinct advantages if the system has to be fitted into an existing building. The flexibility of the installation means that the pipelines can easily be routed along walls and ceilings to avoid obstructions without radical structural modifications. Furthermore, spillage and wastage can be virtually eliminated, working conditions are safer as a result of the minimal dust pollution, and the small number of moving parts means lower maintenance costs and less danger to operators. These are some of the advantages, and they have been sufficient to sell many pneumatic conveying systems to a large number of industries and for a wide range of products. But just how do pneumatic conveying systems actually work and what are the problems that have to be overcome in operating and maintaining such systems? And what types of pneumatic conveying system are available and which ones are likely to be the best for a given situation? The answer to these questions will be provided in this and the following chapters and a start will be made by introducing the basic forms of the pneumatic conveying system. An explanation of how these work will be given first, along with brief comments on some of the constituent plant items (which will be enlarged upon in Chapter 13). Interwoven with this at appropriate points will be an explanation of some of the problems encountered and how they can be overcome. The main parameters which influence the choice of system and dictate design decisions will be considered and, in Chapter 14, some approaches to the design of pneumatic conveying systems will be outlined. 386 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 12.2 Modes of conveying-dilute-phase and dense-phase It is often useful to classify pneumatic conveying systems according to the mode of flow of the bulk solid as it travels along the pipeline. Although it is possible to identify several possible flow regimes, as described in Chapter 3, only two or three of these could really be regarded as stable and it is current practice to base the classification on just two broad categories-dilute-phase and dense-phase. In the case of dilute-phase flow the bulk solid is conveyed essentially in suspension with the particles more or less uniformly distributed over the crosssection of the pipeline. The solids loading ratio (that is, the ratio of the mass flow rate of the bulk solid to the mass flow rate of the conveying fluid) for dilute phase flows is likely to be less than ten, with the particles relatively widely spaced, typically with a centre-to-centre distance of more than about eight diameters. In order to keep the particles in suspension in the pipeline it is necessary to ensure that the conveying velocity does not fall below a certain minimum value which, for the majority of bulk solids, is about 13-15 m/s. Where the conveying velocity is less than that required to keep the bulk solid in suspension and particles begin to settle to the bottom of the pipe, the flow is said to be in a dense-phase mode. As explained in Chapter 3 (and illustrated in Figure 3.16), there is a wide range of flow behaviour that could occur at these lower velocities. In fully-developed dense-phase flow, which tends to occur at solids loading ratios greater than about 40, the product is conveyed through the pipeline in discrete masses, or 'plugs', which may form quite naturally, in horizontal flow, as a result of layers of particles sliding over the deposited layer and building up dunes of increasing thickness. The maximum value of solids loading ratio that can be achieved depends upon the nature of the bulk solid concerned and the conveying air velocity. With some materials, solids loading ratios of several hundreds are possible. The range of bulk solids that can be successfully conveyed in dense phase, by conventional means, is limited, but for those that can be conveyed in this mode the minimum conveying velocity can usually be reduced to about half that required for dilute-phase flow. However, for products that will not convey in fully-developed dense-phase flow, very little reduction in minimum conveying velocity is generally possible, especially in horizontal flow, since the consequent increase in product concentration will result in some particles dropping out of suspension. Blockage of the pipeline then usually occurs as the deposited material is swept up to fill the full bore of the pipeline, generally at a bend or some other pipeline discontinuity. 12.3 Low-pressure pneumatic conveying systems 12.3.1 Positit•e-pressure systems Probably the most fundamental form of pneumatic conveyor is the simple positive-pressure system in which air (or other gas) is blown along a pipeline BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 387 storage silo or hopper fan or blower - \ receiving hopper Figure 12.3 Simple positive-pressure pneumatic conveying system. ~~"~ ~ air (a) Rotary valve (b) Screw feeder air (c) Venturi feeder Figure 12.4 Examples of devices for feeding a bulk solid into a pipeline continuously against an adverse pressure gradient. picking up, at a feed point, the bulk solid to be conveyed and discharging it finally into a receiving hopper (Figure 12.3). These systems generally use fans or blowers which normally have a maximum pressure of under one bar (14.5lbf/in 2 ). Basically, the air is delivered from the fan or blower into the pipeline; the material is fed into this pipeline from the bottom of a storage hopper or silo and is then conveyed in suspension with the air along the pipeline to the discharge point; this is usually another hopper or silo, and from here the material can be gravity-discharged for use. This introduces two fundamental problems: how to get the material into the conveying air stream, and how to separate the material from the air at the end. The necessary two plant items will be introduced here briefly to help provide a basic understanding of the complete conveying system. The first of these problems, that is, introducing the material into the pipeline, arises because the conveying gas is under pressure, and so the feeding device has to cater for this. A number of pipeline feeding systems which will satisfactorily transfer material from a hopper into a pipeline under these conditions are shown in Figure 12.4. All three devices shown are capable of feeding at a controlled rate, and they are all capable of continuous operation, since the top of the supply hopper can be open to the atmosphere in each case. For feeding against pressures in excess of one bar the rotary feeder is generally unsuitable, and alternatives are the screw pump which is capable of working at pressures up to about 2.5 bar (36lbf/in 2 ) and, for higher pressures, the various types of blow tank. Blow tank systems are discussed in section 12.4 and all of the feeders mentioned above are described in more detail in Chapter 13. Separation of the conveyed bulk solid from the conveying air stream at the 388 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING I air airlsOif<t?A·'·''··· · •· ,, ·d sdids (a) Cyclone separator Figure 12.5 (b) Bag !iter lrit Gas/solids separation units. diverter valves conveying line storage silo or hopper \\ fan or blower /# ·/ receiving hoppers feeder Figure 12.6 A typical positive-pressure system showing delivery of bulk solid from one point to several receiving hoppers. discharge end of the pipeline is usually achieved with the aid of a cyclone separator or bag filter unit (Figure 12.5) and these devices are also mentioned in Chapter 13, but described fully in Chapter 5. Low-pressure pneumatic conveying systems can handle a wide range of pulverized, granular and fibrous materials. They can be readily adapted and extended to provide an economical and flexible installation in which a bulk solid, picked up at one point, can be directed to any one of a number of receiving hoppers using pipe switches or diverter valves. A typical plant layout is illustrated in Figure 12.6. In general, a positive-pressure system is not suitable for multiple pick-up points because the air leakage through several rotary valves can be quite high in relation to the total air requirement for conveymg. There are a number of precautions to be taken in the design and operation of any pneumatic conveying system and it is convenient to classify these under the following key areas: 389 BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS storage hopper convey~ ine --cyclone separator solids outlet Figure 12.7 (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) A closed-loop pneumatic conveying system. Supplying the product to the conveyor The pneumatic conveyor itself (i.e. the pipeline) Discharging the pneumatic conveyor The control of the complete system. Of particular concern in the case of positive-pressure systems are the feeding of product into the conveying line, the filter unit and/or vent lines on the receiving hopper(s) and the elimination of leakage from the system to the surroundings, the last-named being especially important where toxic materials are being conveyed. Problems with irregular feeding of product into the pipeline, which can cause undesirable pressure surges and even complete blockage of the line, may be the result of poor feeder design but can also occur as a result of hold-up in the supply hopper. Obstruction of air flow by a clogged filter or blocked vent line can also be the cause of localized high pressures leading to air leakage or unreliable solids flow through the system. The versatility of the pneumatic conveying system has already been well illustrated, but an important variation of the basic positive-pressure system is shown in Figure 12. 7. This diagram shows a closed-loop arrangement of the type that might be used where the conveying medium is some gas other than air, in order to minimize the wastage of the gas, or where it is essential to avoid pollution of the surrounding atmosphere, where the conveyed material is toxic for instance. A special precaution to be observed with closed-loop systems concerns filtration, in order to ensure that unacceptable levels of dust are not returned to the suction of the air mover. Also, when conveying under an inert gas such as nitrogen, it is important to monitor the oxygen level so that additional gas can be injected when necessary to make up losses through the rotary valve and at the solids discharge point. 390 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 12.3.2 Negative-pressure (vacuum) systems It is, of course, po~sible to convey on the suction side of the fan or blower. The humble domestic vacuum cleaner is a long-established and very familiar example of this. There is, however, a limit on the available conveying line pressure-drop (about 0.7 bar, in practice) and they are therefore not capable of achieving such high tonnages or of conveying over such long distances as are positive-pressure systems. A vacuum conveying system is fundamentally similar to a positive-pressure system in so far as the bulk solid is picked up at the inlet end of the conveying line and transported by the flowing gas to the discharge end. There are, however, three main differences, the most obvious of which is that the air mover is at the discharge end of the pipeline (Figure 12.8). The other significant differences concern the components required to feed the bulk solid into the conveying line and to separate it from the gas at the discharge point. Clearly, since the conveying gas finally has to pass through the fan or blower, it is especially important to ensure that the solid material is adequately separated from the gas. Thus a high-efficiency gas/solids disengaging device is an essential requirement except in certain circumstances where the air mover is specifically designed to handle solids-laden gas. At the inlet end of the conveying line the situation is somewhat easier since the solid material does not have to be fed against an adverse pressure. The feeding mechanism can therefore be very simple, often involving little more than a basic suction nozzle of the kind used on domestic vacuum cleaners. Where a rotary valve is used as the feeder it can be somewhat lighter (and cheaper) construction as it does not also have to serve as a pressure seal. However, the filtration plant would tend to be larger because of the larger volume of air that has to be cleaned under vacuum conditions. The main application of vacuum conveying is in installations involving the transport of bulk solids from several different locations to a single collection point (Figure 12.8). Thus it is well suited to unloading systems and in processing plant for handling ingredients fed from several hoppers into a single process line. Vacuum systems have the particular advantage that all air leakage is Figure 12.8 A typical negative-pressure (vacuum) system. vacuum ··! M· \ \ blower \ .. , n rner~age ~~1 !iter l.rits hoppers ,g/ receivi'lg / ~ clverter valves Figure 12.9 A combined negative- and positive-pressure pneumatic conveying installation ('suck-blow' system). hopper feed '''''""''''''" suction nozzle convey~~ cyclone separator > -l >0 w [/) ~ m [/) < [/) Cl z ~ < m z 0 (') n > -l ~ zm c -c [/) n 1:1:1 392 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING inward, so that injection of dust into the surrounding atmosphere is virtually feature that is especially important when handling bulk solids that are toxic or potentially explosive. It is still necessary, of course, to keep air leakages to a minimum, since inflowing air could result in unwanted contamination of the conveyed product and would tend to reduce the air available for conveying at the upstream (inlet) end of the pipeline. eliminated~a 12.3.3 Combined negative/positive pressure systems A fairly frequent requirement in industry is for a bulk solid to be collected from a number of different locations and then redistributed to several delivery points. This typifies the application of a combination system comprising vacuum pick-up and delivery to an intermediate storage hopper and positivepressure conveying from the intermediate hopper to the discharge points~the so-called 'pull-push' or 'suck-blow' system (Figure 12.9). Routing of the conveyed material would be by remotely-operated diverter valves. Because of the difficulties of passing solids-laden gas through the air mover it is usual to separate the solids from the gas stream and then re-feed it after the pressure of the gas has been raised (hence the need for an intermediate storage hopper). As with the simple vacuum system, and with the closed-loop system, it is essential that the air mover is adequately protected against ingress of solid particles. It should also be noted that the available power for the complete installation has to be shared between the vacuum side and the positivepressure side. The pipelines for the two parts of the system must therefore be carefully sized to take account of the different operating pressures and possible losses through rotary feeders. It may be noted that the same form of 'central processing installation', comprising gas/solids separator, air mover, hopper and feeder, could also be used as a booster station on long-distance positive-pressure conveying systems. 12.4 High-pressure systems 12.4.1 General features The systems considered so far have been essentially of the low-pressure type, operating with fans or blowers, and have been capable of continuous conveying. The available pressure of about one atmosphere, however, with rotary valve and Roots-type blower systems, imposes limitations on the product transport rate and, more particularly, on the conveying distance. Furthermore, the air velocity of 15-30 mjs necessary to maintain the product in suspension sets a lower limit to the air requirement for the successful operation of such systems. A direct consequence of this is that dilute-phase pneumatic conveying systems tend to have much higher running costs than mechanical BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 393 conveyors. Another disadvantage of this mode of conveying is that it gives rise to numerous particle~particle and particle~wall collisions which, with friable materials, result in significant degradation of the material with various consequent problems of excessive dust generation, such as coated system components and clogged filters. With abrasive materials the high particle velocities tend also to lead to erosive wear of feeders, piping and other fittings. In attempting to overcome these criticisms of pneumatic conveying, designers and manufacturers have moved increasingly towards the use of 'dense-phase' systems. The lower air consumption of these systems means that running costs are substantially reduced and also that filters will be smaller, again representing a useful cost saving. An important disadvantage, however, is the significantly higher pressure required which means an increase in the capital cost of the system when compared with dilute-phase conveyors of similar duty. Compressors of the reciprocating or screw type are invariably required to generate these pressures, which may be as high as 7~8 bar, even for systems of quite modest length, and the blow tanks needed to feed the bulk solid into the conveying line against these high pressures are coded pressure vessels and therefore expensive. The facility of operating at higher pressure levels means that bulk solid can be conveyed at much greater concentrations, and consequently lower values of specific energy consumption. Alternatively the higher pressures available can be used to convey over much greater distances, as discussed in section 12.4.4. 12.4.2 Single blow tank systems The most vital component of a simple high-pressure pneumatic conveying system is the blow tank itself, which provides the means for feeding into the pipeline the bulk solid to be transported. Blow tanks, also known by an assortment of other names, such as blow pots, blow eggs, pressure eggs and powder pumps, are described in more depth in the next chapter, and attention here is directed more to the types of system in which they would be used. Figure 12.10 illustrates the fundamental pattern of pneumatic conveying systems using a single blow tank. It is important to understand that in this type of system the solids flow through the conveying line is not continuous: product is delivered to the pipeline in batches as the blow tank is filled and emptied. The blow tank itself is essentially a pressure vessel which is gravity-fed with product from the top and then, after closing the feed valve, and with the valve on the conveying line closed, is pressurized. With the compressor still operating, the outlet valve is opened and conveying starts. Since the product flow is batchwise it is necessary, in order to achieve a required equivalent mass flow rate, to ensure that instantaneous values of flow rate during conveying are somewhat higher. This point is illustrated in Figure 12.11 which shows a number of successive blow-tank cycles. Air requirements and pipeline sizes have to be based on the maximum, or steady- 394 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING erlrit storage hc:JR)er conveyilg tne '111111 rr===c:f-=l Figure 12.10 High-pressure pneumatic conveying system using a blow tank feeder. tine- Figure 12.11 Single blow tank cycling. state, conveying rate and so the system designer will endeavour to ensure that the ratio of the time-averaged mean flow rate to the steady-state value is as high as possible. The system illustrated in Figure 12.10 incorporates a valve at the start of the conveying line, and this arrangement permits rapid pressurizing of the blow tank with a consequent increase in the time-average flow rate relative to the steady-state value. However, this valve inevitably is subjected to harsh service and it is common practice to omit it, so allowing the blow tank to begin discharging automatically, as soon as the necessary pressure has been reached. Figure 12.12 shows a typical operating cycle from which it is seen that after the product begins to enter the conveying line there will be a short time interval before steady-state conveying is achieved. Then, towards the end of the conveying cycle, when the batch of product has almost been discharged, the blow tank has to be de-pressurized and the entire conveying line has to be cleared of product and vented. This process also takes a significant interval of time and, when the time required to fill the blow tank and set the valves is taken 395 BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS Iota cycle ti'ne blowng cycle 20 G> 16 j~ 12 iO ~s ~.:::; 8 A 4 0 ' ~ I .S' > ·a > Qj ~ "' 0 2 3 tine CnrutesJ ~ A 5 4 Figure 12.12 A typical operating cycle for a single blow tank without a discharge valve. vent lne _ blow tank ar SI.WIY convey· ()"18 ~ I~ ~ ~ > i ~ i r.e cycle :~i ~~ ~ 'ia a.~l g !»> !!!~ i~' ttme Figure 12.13 Single-plug blow tank system and its operating cycle. into account, it is apparent that there is a considerable period during which the system is not actively conveying. Another approach to pneumatic conveying with a single blow tank is illustrated in Figure 12.13. In this system the whole charge of material in the blow tank is pushed into the conveying line as a single plug under the influence of air introduced to the top of the vessel at high pressure. This pressure has to overcome the frictional resistance ofthe plug of material in the pipeline, which places a limit on the length of the plug and therefore on the quantity of material in each batch fed into the blow tank. For example, a typical plug in a 150 mmdiameter pipe would be about 15 m long. This gives a plug volume of about 396 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 0.27 m 3 , and for a bulk solid having a density of 1600 kg/m 3 would represent about 430 kg of product. It should be noted that conventional blow tank and conveying line characteristics do not apply to the 'single plug' type of system, the operating sequence of which is shown in Figure 12.13, and the bulk solids flow rate is very much dependent upon the velocity of the plug and, particularly, the length of the conveying line. The velocity of the plug is usually quite low, typically around 3 mjs, but problems can arise on discharge as the highpressure air released behind the plug can cause severe erosion on venting. 12.4.3 Twin blow tanks and continuously operating systems If two blow tanks are used, rather than one, a significant improvement in performance can be achieved and a high-pressure pneumatic conveying system can be developed that goes a long way to meeting the objections to the Typical operatilg S9(J.IElrCe: Blow tar1< A Blow tali< B fl dscharge preSSllize change (: over chcn;J'l over ~ change (: over VEri! fil one cycle dsc:la"ge pressuize dscharge Figure 12.14 vent fiU preSSiiize cischarge ~ vent fl Parallel arrangement of blow tanks and typical operating sequence. BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 397 ___ vent ine pressl.fe balance and vent li'le transfer presstre vessel Figure 12.15 Series arrangement of blow tanks capable of continuous operation. batch operation of single blow tanks. There are two basic configurations of twin blow tank-arranged in parallel and in series. With the parallel configuration (Figure 12.14) one blow tank can be depressurized, filled and brought up to working pressure again while the other is being discharged. By this means almost continuous conveying can be achieved through a common pipeline, so that the ratio of the time-average flow rate to the steady-state value approaches unity. The alternative arrangement with the two blow tanks in series, vertically in line beneath a supply hopper, is shown in Figure 12.15. It is possible with this system to use a high-pressure air supply for the continuous conveying of a product. The transfer pressure vessel, rather than the main blow tank, cycles between the conveying pressure and atmosphere and thus allows the main blow tank to be kept topped up in order to maintain a continuous flow of product to the conveying line. Automatic sequencing of the valves is controlled so that when the bulk solid in the main blow tank falls to a predetermined low level the transfer pressure vessel is vented and then filled from the supply hopper. The vent line is then closed and the transfer pressure vessel is pressurized, either by means of a pressure balance line from the blow tank, or with a direct line from the main air supply. Once the pressure in these two vessels is balanced, the connecting valve is opened so that the product level in the blow tank is restored. It is an important feature of the system illustrated in Figure 12.15 that there is virtually no pressure difference between the lower pressure vessel and the conveying line. Thus, the feeding device can be a rotary valve or a screw feeder, as shown in Figure 12.16. A particular application of these systems is for the direct injection of pulverized coal (DI PC) into boilers and furnaces since the product often has to 398 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING c..---- va11 line ---- trcnsfer pr8SSU"e vessel __ product feed vessel air Sl.4)Piy conveyi1g line Figure 12.16 A twin blow tank system with screw feeding. be delivered against a pressure. Further general requirements ofDIPC systems are that the product must be conveyed at a very steady rate and that a high turn-down ratio, perhaps of the order of 10 to 1, should be possible. Blow tank systems are capable of operating quite successfully over this range and so they are ideally suited to such an application. 12.4.4 Long-distance conveying One of the oft-quoted drawbacks of pneumatic conveying, in comparison with other forms of bulk solids transport, is the limitation on distance. However, in certain industries, especially those associated with mining and quarrying, there is considerable interest in the potential for long-distance pneumatic conveying. Already there are examples of systems operating successfully over distances greater than 2500 m [2]. The high pressure required to maintain solids transport over long distances dictates the use of a blow tank system, either as a single unit or in a twinned arrangement as described previously. However, a further characteristic of long-distance conveying relates to the influence of the pipeline length on the solids mass flow rate. This effect itself is related to the variation in the velocity of the air along the pipeline and the influence that this has on the pressuredrop. The expansion of the air in the conveying line means that excessively high velocities are soon reached and it has become accepted practice to step up the diameter of the pipe at one or more locations in order to keep the air velocity within reasonable limits. Figure 12.17 shows a plot of conveying air velocity against pressure for flow in pipes of various diameters. In this example it is seen 399 BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS ~r------.-------.------~----~------~ 0 2 3 4 5 Figure 12.17 The variation of air velocity with pressure in a stepped pipeline (for a flow rate of 60m 3 /min). that, if the air expands from 4 bar gauge to atmospheric pressure, it will be necessary to increase the pipe diameter in two steps from an initial size of 125 mm in order to keep the velocity within a range appropriate for dilutephase conveying (that is, 15-30 m/s). The decision on where to step the conveying line is an interesting one that has exercised both manufacturers and research workers. Whilst the first criterion is to keep the transport velocity within acceptable limits, there might also be some latitude which allows the overall system pressure-drop to be kept to a minimum. However, as yet there appears to be no recognized procedure for optimally designing a stepped-pipeline conveying system. 12.5 Low-velocity conveying and the use of supplementary air feeds 12.5.1 General features For the reasons explained previously (that is, to minimize product degradation and erosive wear of the conveying line and system components) there has long been interest in transporting bulk solids pneumatically at low velocity. Conventional dense-phase systems have enabled conveying velocities to be reduced from the 15- 30m/s normal in dilute phase to somewhere around half these values, and recent research has shown that some materials can be reliably conveyed at velocities down to I m/s and less in such systems [3]. In order to extend the range of bulk solids, especially those of a friable or abrasive nature, that can be conveyed in dense phase at low velocity there have been developed a number of interesting systems designed generally with a view to keeping the product 'live' and moving along the conveying line, and to enabling flow to be re-started in a line full of stationary material. The systems 400 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING described here may not all be still commercially available, but are included for interest. Certainly some of these systems, although quite complicated and consequently expensive, have proved to be remarkably successful in transporting 'difficult' products that would be impossible to handle in more conventional pneumatic conveying systems. Before describing the various low-velocity conveying systems it is worthwhile to attempt to explain the manner in which plugs of particulate or granular material move along a pipe. Figure 12.18 illustrates the relationship, confirmed by experiment, between the length of a plug of material and the force required to push it 'mechanically' through a pipe. This shows the reason why bulk solids cannot be 'pumped' through a pipeline in a single-phase mode in the manner of a liquid: the pressures involved would be prohibitively high. In order to transport bulk solids in a similar mode the wall friction effects must be drastically reduced, and it is in this respect that using compressed air as the motive force plays a vital role. The effect of the air expanding through the interestices aerates the product so as to reduce the friction between the particles and the pipe wall, so that the relationship between the length of a plug of material and the force required to move it perhaps corresponds to the lower curve on Figure 12.18. There will still be a practical limit on the length of plug that can be 'pushed', as mentioned when discussing the so-called 'single-plug' blow tank systems, and with some materials there may be a critical length of plug, above which the plug becomes immovable as a result of the frictional resistance at the pipe wall increasing at a greater rate than the propulsive force. a. I j ·~ plJg length, L ----. Figure 12.18 Pressure required to maintain movement of a plug of bulk solid in a pipe. BASIC PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 401 'ar eu:tions' Figure 12.19 Relationships between pressure and plug length for continuous and intermittent dense phase conveying. Therefore, in order to ensure reliable continuous conveying at very high solids loading ratios, it is necessary to ensure that plugs of excessive length do not build up in the pipeline. One way oflimiting the length of plugs of material in a pneumatic conveying line is by the injection of air, either at the start of the pipeline or at intervals along it. Figure 12.19 shows how, by dividing the bulk solid into a series of short plugs separated from each other by 'air cushions', the pressure required to convey them is very much less than that needed to move a single plug of equivalent length. By increasing the length of the air cushions, thereby decreasing the number of plugs in the pipeline, it should be possible to convey over longer distances for the same system pressure, albeit at a lower solids flow rate. Thus it is apparent that achieving a given throughput over a given distance is largely a matter of optimizing the operating pressure, pipe diameter and plug/cushion length. 12.5.2 Plug-forming systems The 'Pulse-Phase' system, originally developed during the late 1960s by the Warren Spring Laboratory in the United Kingdom, operates on the shortplugs principle discussed previously. The system incorporates two key elements: 402 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (i) A steep-sided mass-flow blow tank which introduces a uniform plug of material into the pipeline (ii) An 'air-knife' which intermittently pulses air into the pipeline, thereby dividing the discharging bulk solid into discrete plugs. The basic arrangement of the hardware is as shown in Figure 12.20 and the operating sequence begins as follows. The bulk solid to be conveyed is introduced into the blow tank which is fitted with one or more aeration rings in the conical section (air injection into this part of the blow tank is said to be vital to the successful operation of the system since it keeps the product 'live' so that it flows more readily into the pipeline in an aerated state. Aeration enables the material to be more easily split into plugs and assists the movement of the plugs in the pipeline by reducing friction at the walls.) When the blow tank is full the inlet valve is closed and the vessel is pressurized. The product then flows into the pipeline through the 'air-knife', an annular device incorporating a series of small holes equally spaced around the conveying pipe. Intermittent switching on and off of the supply to the air-knife causes cushions of air to form between plugs of the bulk solid, and this continues until the blow tank is empty, after which it is vented to atmosphere and refilled so that the cycle can be repeated. soleroid valve ar knife prod.lcl Figure 12.20 The Warren Spring Laboratory 'Pulse Phase' system. BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 403 c:xn.1eYi1Q line air cushons Figure 12.21 The Buhler Takt-Schub' system. The original concept of the 'Pulse-Phase' system was proposed as a solution to the problem of conveying cohesive bulk solids, although the range of materials successfully handled in this type of system has now been increased to include coarser, granular materials. Many systems are operating successfully at high solids loading ratios (values greater than 300 have been achieved) and low conveying velocities (typically 1.5-3 m/s). The low air requirements also make the use of dried air for hygroscopic products and inert gas for explosive powders economically viable. A very similar system, which also aims to divide the bulk solid in the conveying line into discrete plugs, is the Buhler 'Takt-Schub' (Figure 12.21). In this case the air cushions are created by the injection of air intermittently through a simple swept tee, the air supply to this swept tee alternating with that to the blow tank. This system was developed for the handling of granular bulk solids, which are found to travel steadily along the conveying line, at velocities around 2-6 mjs, in plugs up to a few metres in length. 12.5.3 Plug-limiting systems Despite the use of air injection devices in systems such as the Pulse-Phase and Takt-schub, there is much evidence to suggest that, provided the conveying parameters are carefully chosen, most free-flowing bulk solids will tend to form plugs spontaneously in the pipeline [4]. However, as previously explained, it may be necessary, if reliable conveying is to be assured, to limit the length of plug that can develop. The Waeschle 'Pneumosplit' system and the Buhler 'Fluid-Schub' system both aim to do this by sensing the formation of a plug and automatically injecting air directly into the plug at one or more points in order to split it and so facilitate its movement. The essential features of the Pneumosplit system are shown in Figure 12.22. Reference [5] gives a detailed explanation of the operating principle of this system, but a general understanding can be obtained from the pressure plot 404 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING one-way vaNe / • Pf'OSSIIe i1 <D1Yeyf1g li1e wtilsl bbd<age IS fonrr.g location ot blockage / 1 /press..-e n by-pass me bbd<age n <Xnleyng IS fonrr.g Figure 12.22 The Waeschle 'Pneumosplit' system. shown in Figure 12.22. During normal conveying the pressure in the main conveying line will be almost equal to that in the external by-pass line that runs parallel to it from the blow tank. This results in a small steady flow of air (some 5- l 0%) through the by-pass line, but if a plug forms in the conveying line the situation changes, the pressure on the upstream side of the plug being greater in the conveying line than in the by-pass line, whilst on the downstream side of the plug the pressures are reversed. This makes it possible for air to flow from the by-pass line into the conveying line through a series of one-way valves, but additional valves, connected to special pressure sensors, ensure that the air is injected only in the vicinity of the plug itself. After the plug has dispersed, pressures return to their normal levels and steady flow is reestablished in the main conveying line and the by-pass line. Although the Pneumosplit system is expensive, with between two and ten one-way valves, typically five to ten pipe diameters apart, fitted between any two pressure sensors, it has been shown to be capable of successfully conveying BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS ---blow 405 tati< conveyi1g li1e by-pass ine d1eck valves Figure 12.23 The Biihler 'Fiuid-Schub' system. bulk solids that have proved impossible to handle in more conventional systems. The Buhler 'Fluid-Schub' system is very similar in concept [6], having a bypass line connected to the main conveying line via equally spaced check valves (Figure 12.23). The total conveying air is metered into the system at a constant rate and distributed to the blow tank, the discharge elbow and the by-pass pipe. If an excessively long plug forms in the conveying line, part of the air is automatically diverted into the by-pass line and from there it is injected into the plug, causing it to break up into smaller plugs. This is a dynamic process which is self-stabilizing and requires no external control or monitoring devices. 12.5.4 Air-injection and booster systems A number of systems available commercially are based on the concept of a continuous supply of supplementary air fed into the conveying line at intervals in a largely uncontrolled fashion. The purpose of the supplementary air is to ensure that the conveyed material is kept aerated and 'live' along the whole conveying line. One of the first of these systems was the Gattys, in which air at relatively low pressure is supplied continuously to the bulk solid in the conveying line through an internal perforated pipe which runs its whole length. The Buhler 'Fluid-Stat' and the Moller 'Turbuflow' are currentlyavailable commercial systems operating in a similar manner. The Fluid-Stat system features a small pipe running inside the conveying line and having fluted exhaust ports at regular intervals (Figure 12.24). If the conveyed bulk solid shows any tendency to block the pipeline there will be a flow from the higher-pressure region behind the plug through the by-pass line p 406 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 7 inner 1lbe e'-'L------\,---'"') H fllted nozzles L 1\t;{~:·~Jf,~:·:~-f~~&~--­ ~ ~ preSSU"e reQied 10 generate t i ' '' rrovement of ptJg of 1eng1t1 L '' , preSSU"e i1 by-pass line .>::: ' preSSU"e ~tream of pUg " preSSU"e avaiable to generate movement of "'plug of length L1 pl.Jgleng1h(b) The '!Ud-s1af b'anspOrt mecharism Figure 12.24 The Buhler 'Fiuid-Stat' conveying system. secondary air line conveying line Figure 12.25 The Miiller 'Turbuflow' system. into the forward end of the plug, thus causing it to be gradually cleared. The 'Turbuflow' system (Figure 12.25) is very similar, but is claimed to work by constantly restoring the turbulence of the conveyed bulk material as it moves along the pipeline [7]. The Semco Trace-Air' and the Dynamic-Air systems both use a series of 'boosters' to inject additional air at intervals along the conveying line. These BASIC PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 407 boosters, which are generally set to admit air only when required, may be located at equal intervals along the pipeline or may be placed at strategic positions only, for example just after pipe bends. It should be noted that, unlike the various forms of by-pass system, these boosters add air to the conveying line and therefore increase the conveying velocity. References and bibliography References I. Dixon, G. Pneumatic conveying. in Plastics Pneumatic Conveying and Bulk Storage, ed. G. Butters, Applied Science Publishers, 198 I. 2. Marcus, R.D. and Rizk, F. The reliability of long distance pneumatic transport. Conf on Reliable Flow of Particulate Solids, CMI, Bergen, August 1985. 3. Mainwaring, N.J. and Reed, A.R. Mechanisms for gas-solids flows at low velocity in pneumatic conveying pipelines. Proc. I Jth Powder and Bulk Solids Conf, Chicago, May 1986. 4. Hitt, R.J., Reed, A.R. and Mason, J.S. The effect of spontaneous plug formation in dense-phase pneumatic conveying. Proc. 7th lnt. Powder and Bulk Solids Conf, Chicago, May 1982. 5. Krambrock, W. and Parekh, S. Pneumatic conveying of poor flowing abrasive or fragile bulk materials. Proc. Pneumotransport 5, BHRA Conf., London, April 1980,419-442. 6. Maire, U. Low velocity pneumatic conveying of carbon black. Paper presented to Rubber Division Meeting, Am. Chem. Soc., May 1984. 7. Moller, H., Pust, J. and Lubble, T. Turbuflow: a pneumatic conveying system with economical power consumption. Bulk Solids Handling 5 (4) (August 1985) 789-794. Recommended further reading Kraus, M.N. Pneumatic Conveying of Bulk Materials. Ronald Press, New York, 1968. Stoess, H.A. Pneumatic Conveying. Wiley-Interscience, 1970. Dixon, G. Pneumatic conveying. In Plastics Pneumatic Conveying and Bulk Storage, ed. G. Butters, Applied Science Publishers, 1981. Kraus, M.N. Pneumatic conveying systems. Chem. Engg. 13 October 1986, 50-61. 13 Components of pneumatic conveying systems 13.1 Introduction In Chapter 12 the various types of pneumatic conveying system were discussed, and attention is now turned to the components that go to make up these different systems. In addition to the conveying line itself, which would normally be of steel but may be alternatively of aluminium, plastic, glass or rubber, the essential components of a pneumatic conveying system are the air mover (for example, fan, blower, compressor or vacuum pump), the feeding device, and the gas/solids disengaging device. In order to design and construct a reliable and economic pneumatic conveyor it is essential to have a good awareness of the different types of air-mover, feeder and disengaging unit that are available, their advantages and disadvantages, and the criteria for their selection. In this chapter the various designs of each of these components commonly used in practical pneumatic conveying installations are described and illustrated. 13.2 The air supply 13.2.1 General requirements The selection of an air mover is one of the most important decisions to be made during the design of a pneumatic conveying plant. It is often the largest single item of capital expenditure and the potential conveying capacity of the plant is dependent upon the correct choice being made. Air movers available for pneumatic conveying applications range from fans and blowers producing high volumetric flow rates at relatively low pressure to positive displacement compressors, usually reciprocating or rotary screw machines, capable of producing the higher pressures required for long distance or dense-phase conveying systems. The rating of the air mover is expressed in terms of the supply pressure required and the volumetric flow rate to be delivered. The pressure of the air supplied to a pneumatic conveying system will depend principally upon the operating pressure-drop over the conveying line, although allowance should be made for additional pressure losses, such as those in the connecting pipework between the air mover and the conveying line, across the feeding device (especially where a blow tank is used), and finally, across the filter unit. COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 409 The assessment of the overall system pressure-drop is discussed in the next chapter. The volumetric flow rate required from the air mover depends upon the conveying velocity and the size of the pipeline. It should be noted that the volumetric output of an air mover is normally expressed as 'free air delivered' (or FAD). This is the volumetric flow rate at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, not at the actual delivery pressure of the machine. In fact, the free air delivered will approximately correspond to the volumetric flow rate at the suction port of the machine, or at the discharge end of the conveying line, in a positive-pressure pneumatic conveying system. For a vacuum system the free air delivered will be nearly equal to the volumetric flow rate at the suction nozzle, or at the discharge from the air mover. In the following sections the main features of some air movers typically employed for pneumatic conveying duties are outlined. 13.2.2 Fans and turbo-blowers Fans provide high volumetric flow rates at low pressures and are often used for dilute-phase conveying. High product flow rates can be achieved with largediameter pipes. In pneumatic conveying applications, the fans used are normally the radial, flat-bladed type. Although fans are widely used on dilute-phase systems where the chances of blocking the conveying line are small, they do suffer from the disadvantage that their characteristic curve is relatively 'flat' (Figure 13.1) which indicates that the volumetric flow rate of air produced is very dependent upon the pressure against which they are working. Thus, if the solids feed rate to the system should become excessive for any reason, causing the line pressure drop to increase significantly, the air flow rate may become so low that solid material falls out of suspension, with the risk then of totally plugging the line. Positive displacement machines, for which the volumetric flow rate is largely ~ positive displacement blower volume flow rate Figure 13.1 Characteristic curves of low-pressure air movers. 410 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING independent of the discharge pressure, are less likely to cause this type of system failure. Single-stage fans capable of delivering air at a reasonable pressure tend to be rather large in diameter and pneumatic conveying applications therefore often involve the use of smaller multistage machines. However, these machines are still sensitive to fluctuations in back pressure and, except for very dilute, low- Figure 13.2 A cutaway view of a typical regenerative blower (photo courtesy of CompAirReavell Ltd). COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 411 pressure conveying, the current trend is towards positive displacement Rootstype blowers for all normal pneumatic conveying applications involving pressures up to about one bar gauge. Fans may be used on both positive and negative pressure systems and also on combined 'suck-blow' systems where, with light or fluffy materials, it is sometimes possible even to convey through the fan itself. For relatively low-pressure duties there may well be advantages in small regenerative compressors that have recently become commercially available (Figure 13.2). Although the efficiency of these machines tends to be rather low, they do possess a characteristic more akin to that of a positive displacement machine in that they do not display the very sharp fall in flow rate in response to a rise in back pressure. A beneficial feature claimed for these blowers is that they are less sensitive than Roots-type or sliding vane machines to erosive wear from dust-laden air. The multistage axial flow type of machine is manufactured only in larger sizes, producing extremely high flow rates that are rarely, if ever, appropriate for pneumatic conveying applications. 13.2.3 Roots-type blowers The well-established Roots-pattern blower, developed from F.M. Roots' original invention of 1859, is extensively used on pneumatic conveying applications where the operating pressure does not exceed about one bar. Greater pressures tend to result in deflection of the main shafts, which is unacceptable because of the necessarily small clearances between the rotors. However, it seems likely that in the near future Roots-type blowers capable of working reliably to somewhat higher pressures will become available. As an exhauster, this machine is also commonly used for negative-pressure systems. The basic construction of the Roots blower, which is available in sizes handling up to about 500m 3 /min of free air, is illustrated in Figures 13.3 and 13.4. Twin rotors (which usually have two straight lobes, but may have three) are mounted on parallel shafts within a casing and rotate in opposite directions, moving the air in a direction normal to their axes. Timing gears maintain the relative positions of the rotors so that a small clearance exists between them. As the rotors turn, air is drawn into the spaces between the rotors and the casing, trapped, and discharged as each rotor passes the outlet opening. It should be noted that although the Roots blower is a positive displacement machine, no compression of the air occurs inside the blower itself. 13.2.4 Sliding-vane rotary compressors For medium- and high-pressure systems the sliding-vane type of rotary compressor is well suited. These generally produce a smoother flow of air at a 412 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING ~ f intake operating principle Figure 13.3 A straight lobe rotary blower (Roots-type blower). higher pressure than the Roots blower, and a single-stage machine is capable of delivering more than 50m 3 /min of air at a maximum pressure of around 4 bar. Significantly higher operating pressures may be obtained from twostage machines. Oil-injection also permits higher working pressures (up to 10 bar), but this type of machine is generally not available in capacities greater than about 6m 3 /min. Figure 13.5a illustrates the operating principle of a simple sliding-vane compressor. It should be noted that some form of cooling is essential, since quite high temperatures can be reached as a result of the combined effect of the vanes rubbing against the casing and the compression of the air between the rotor and the casing. The cooling may be by water circulated through an external jacket or by injection of oil directly into the air-stream just after the beginning of compression (Figure 13.5b). As mentioned previously, the latter method does permit higher working pressures, but an efficient oil separation system adds to the cost of the plant. 13.2.5 Screw compressors A relatively recent innovation for medium- to high-pressure operation is the helical-lobe rotary or Lysholm screw compressor. This machine, illustrated COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 413 Figure 13.4 An example of an industrial Roots-type blower (cutaway view courtesy of Peabody Holmes Ltd). oi separator oi SI..IT"C (a) BaSIC panem (b) 01 injected machine Figure 13.5 Sliding-vane positive displacement rotary compressors. diagramatically in Figure 13.6, consists essentially of male and female intermeshing rotors mounted on parallel shafts. Inlet and outlet ports are at opposite ends of the compressor. Air entering one of the ea vi ties in the female rotor becomes trapped by a male lobe and as the rotors turn this trapped air is compressed and moved towards the discharge end. Continuing rotation of the lobes causes the discharge opening to be uncovered so that the trapped air, 414 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING discharge port Figure 13.6 Helical lobe rotary compressor (Lysholm screw). Diagrammatic view showing male and female meshing rotors. now at minimum volume, is released into the discharge line. Note that like the sliding-vane compressor, but unlike the Roots blower, compression of the air takes place within the machine, the compression ratio being fixed by the design of the rotors and the position of the inlet and discharge ports. An interesting variant of the machine described above is the Zimmern monoscrew type which is capable of operating at somewhat higher pressures. The single rotor may be in the form of a cylinder or a disc cut with helical or spiral grooves in which mesh the blades of two or more gate wheels. Air entering the grooves as the rotor turns is trapped by the gate wheels and compressed, eventually being released through an uncovered discharge port. Although better known in refrigeration applications, the Zimmern monoscrew has been produced as an air compressor. Lysholm-type screw compressors are manufactured with capabilities ranging from as little as 1 m 3 jmin up to more than 100m 3 /min and, with oilinjection, can develop maximum pressures of around 13 bar. As with oilinjected sliding vane machines, it is essential to remove the oil from the compressed air and with large compressors the injection, separation and filtration equipment represents a substantial proportion of the plant cost. Nevertheless, commercially available screw compressor packages are now competing strongly with reciprocating machines at the high-pressure end of the pneumatic conveying market. Figure 13.7 illustrates a typical airprocessing package consisting of screw compressor and motor, air and oil filters, oil separator and after-coolers. 13.2.6 Reciprocating compressors The familiar reciprocating compressor (Figure 13.8) is probably still the most widely-used machine for providing air for high-pressure pneumatic conveying 415 COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS ai" flow non-ren.m valve intake filer ~->c:--... - Figure 13.7 Typical screw compressor plant. Layout diagram to show oil injection/separation system and ancillary components. Figure 13.8 A reciprocating compressor suitable for pneumatic conveying applications (photo courtesy of CompAir-Reavell Ltd). 416 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING systems, although screw compressors are a serious competitor where large volumetric flow rates are required. Reciprocating compressors are available as single-cylinder machines or with multiple cylinders arranged to give one or more stages of compression, and they can be manufactured to give oil-free air without the need for additional separation equipment. A compressor of this type could thus be found to suit almost any pneumatic conveying application in the medium- to high-pressure range. Even the disadvantage of a pulsating air flow, usually associated with reciprocating machines, can be overcome by selecting one of the modern small multiple-cylinder compressors such as that in which several pairs of radially-disposed opposing positions are made to reciprocate by the motion of a centrally-placed wobble plate. 13.2. 7 Vacuum pumps Most of the air movers previously described (or suitable variations of these) can be used on negative-pressure pneumatic conveying systems. However, the most commonly used are Roots-type machines, operating as exhausters, which are capable typically of holding a continuous vacuum of around 500 mm Hg gauge (360 mm Hg absolute). Higher vacuums can be maintained by a Roots exhauster fitted with water injection, but it would be more usual to employ a liquid-ring vacuum pump which can reach 600 mm Hg gauge (1650 mm Hg absolute) in a single stage and over 700 mm Hg gauge in two stages. Liquid ring pumps having capacities from about 1m 3 jmin up to 70m 3 /min are available. A typical form of liquid ring pump is illustrated in Figure 13.9. As the impeller rotates, the service liquid (usually water) is thrown outwards to form a stable ring concentric with the pump casing. Since the impeller itself is eccentric to the casing, the spaces between the impeller blades and the liquid ring vary in size so that air entering these spaces from the suction port is trapped and compressed before being discharged through the outlet port. The suction port Figure 13.9 A liquid ring vacuum pump. Diagrammatic view of a typical pump showing the principle of operation. COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 417 liquid ring also performs the useful functions of cooling the compressed air and washing out small quantities of entrained dust. 13.3 Feeding devices Except for medium- and high-pressure systems using blow tanks, the product feed is usually from atmospheric pressure (as, for example, from an open supply hopper) to the conveying pipeline. This presents few problems when feeding vacuum systems since the product feed is in the direction of the pressure gradient. However, the product feed to a positive-pressure system must take place against an adverse pressure gradient, and the resulting leakage of air from the conveying line can, in certain situations, interfere with the feeding process. A feeder must therefore be capable of introducing the bulk solid reliably at a constant rate, even when there is a significant pressure difference between the conveying line and the supply hopper. Also, it is important that air leakage at the feed point is kept to a minimum, both to prevent undue interference to the feeding process and to avoid unnecessary reduction of the air available to convey the product. One further point to observe is that the pressure-drop caused by the feeder should be as small as possible. Some of the devices that have been developed to meet this requirement will now be described. 13.3.1 Rotary valves The rotary valve, also known as rotary feeder, rotary seal, star valve or rotary air-lock, is probably the most extensively used device for feeding low-pressure pneumatic conveying systems. It consists basically of a bladed rotor working in a fixed housing (Figure 13.1 0). Product from the supply hopper continuously fills the rotor pockets at the inlet port which is situated above the rotor. It is then transferred by the motor-driven rotor to the outlet where it is prodJct feed outlet port Figure 13.10 Rotary valve ('drop through' pattern). 418 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING air air + product air + product (a) Drop-out box Figure 13.11 (b) Venturi Typical entrainment sections. discharged and entrained into the conveying line. The ability to feed against an adverse pressure gradient is achieved by allowing a flow of air (leakage) to take place through the rotor casing clearance on both the product feed and empty return pocket sides of the rotor. The most commonly used design of rotary valve is the 'drop-through' pattern in which the bulk solid being handled (which should be reasonably free-flowing) is metered through the rotating valve and falls into a separate entrainment section beneath. This entrainment section may be nothing more than a simple 'drop-out' box (Figure 13.11 a), but an alternative configuration that seems to be gaining in popularity is the venturi entrainment section (Figure 13.11b). In the latter case, the reduced cross-section results in a higher entrainment velocity and a lower pressure in this region, with a consequent decrease in the air leakage back through the rotary valve. The net result is a significant improvement when handling the finer, free-flowing types of bulk solid. A variation on the standard pattern of feeder, intended primarily for handling granular and pelletized materials, where shearing of the product is to be avoided, is the offset rotary valve (Figure 13.12). This is designed, usually with a controlled supply of solids, so that the rotor pockets do not become full and therefore the chance of material becoming nipped between the rotating Figure 13.12 An offset pattern of rotary valve. COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 419 rotor air---:::J:::::::::=t:::::::::::r-a;:ir;-:+:-;p~roduct Figure 13.13 A rotary valve of the 'blow-through' type. blades and the valve body is virtually eliminated. Another variation, intended primarily for use with more cohesive materials that might tend to 'hang up' in a standard pattern of rotary feeder, is the 'blow-through' valve (Figure 13.13). In this device the conveying air passes through the rotor and purges the discharging pockets, entrainment of product thus occurring actually within the valve. Figure 13.14 illustrates some examples of modern, commercially available rotary valves. Before discussing the problems with and limitations of rotary valves it is beneficial to have an understanding of how they work. The most simple concept of the way in which these devices work is that the rotor pockets fill completely with material fed to them by the supply hopper. Under such circumstances the product mass flow rate m, for any rotor speed N is given by the simple equation ( 13.1) This equation represents the maximum possible throughput of a valve and is a measurable quantity since the volume of one rotor pocket is denoted by V, n is the number of rotor pockets and Pb is a characteristic bulk density of the product being handled, which experience has shown may be approximated by the 'poured' value obtained from static tests. This equation suggests that the feed rate depends only on the rotor speed, as shown by the straight line in Figure 13.15. However, when feeding a conveying line, the air leakage through the valve can impede the product flow into the rotor pockets and thereby reduce the feed rate. In extreme cases this can be a value much lower than that predicted by equation ( 13.1 ). Since it is evident that both the rotor casing clearances and system pressure affect the leakage, the feed rate depends in some way on (i) the product being handled, (ii) the rotor speed, (iii) the rotor casing clearances, and (iv) the system pressure. Consequently, valve performance is more likely to take the form of one of the curves shown in Figure 13.15. Unfortunately, there is little data available in manufacturers' 420 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Examples of modern commercially-available rotary valves. (Top) Drop-through pattern; (Bottom) blow-through pattern. (Photos courtesy of Rota Val Ltd.) Figure 13.14 COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 421 feed rate with no air leakage dependent on product, rotor clearances and system pressure rotor speed - Figure 13.15 Typical feed rate characteristics. literature on the effect of these operational variables on feed rate, and so the sizing of valves for a particular application has been, until recently, a matter of experience and good judgement. A second problem with rotary valves concerns the extent of the air leakage itself. As previously discussed, this will principally depend upon the system pressure, rotor clearances and the product being handled. Figure 13.16 shows a typical relationship between system pressure and leakage rate for various rotor clearances. A lack of knowledge about this leakage at the design stage of such systems can obviously lead to fans and blowers being incorrectly sized. When a blower is oversized, the conveying velocity of the solids is increased and, if the conveyed product is abrasive, this increased velocity may cause rapid wear and premature failure of pipe bends and fittings. If the product is friable, the increased velocity may cause excessive product degradation. Conversely, with an undersized compressor the air velocity may not be sufficient to hold the solids in suspension, resulting in the possibility of a blocked pipeline. For the reasons outlined here, rotary valves are not generally used to feed from atmosphere into systems which have a pressure above about 0.8 bar gauge, since the leakage, with its attendant problems, can become excessive at pressures greater than this. If the undesirable effects described above are to be minimized, reliable information on the valve performance is required when the 422 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING increasing rotor-casing clearances in this direction pressure gradient - - Figure 13.16 Typical leakage rate characteristics. conveying system is being designed. Simple procedures for estimating both feed and leakage rates of typical valves have recently been developed [1, 2] and if these are thoughtfully applied they contribute to reducing the 'judgement gap' which exists when predicting valve performance. A further limitation of rotary valves is that they are not particularly well suited to handling abrasive products. Although they can be manufactured with replaceable wear-resistant rotor blades and housing liners to enable mildly abrasive products to be handled, it is not generally considered good practice to use these feeders with products that have particle hardness greater than 2 or 3 on the Mohs scale. Products harder than this can cause a rapid increase in the rotor casing clearances, the consequences of which on system performance have already been discussed. For the majority of applications rotary valves perform perfectly satisfactorily. However, it is not uncommon for the valve to be blamed for poor system performance and, in some cases, this has proved to be justified for the very reasons outlined in this section. It is therefore worthwhile describing here some of the salient design features which help to ensure satisfactory valve performance. Rotors normally take one of two forms; that is, 'open-end' or 'closed-end'. In the 'open-end' pattern the blades are welded directly to the driving shaft, whilst with the 'closed-end' type discs or shrouds are welded to the shaft and blade ends to form enclosed pockets, as shown in Figure 13.17a. Although open-end r:J. COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS / / / ~ closed-end (shrouded) 423 / angled blades (for grarular pro<ilcts) (a) Rotor types shaHow rOU1ded pockets for cohesive pro<ilcts normal pattern replaceable blade t~s for abrasive products (b) Pocket configtxations Figure 13.17 Various features of rotor construction. rotors are less expensive they have several disadvantages. With more abrasive materials, wear of the rotor housing end plates is possible since the product is in constant contact with them. Also, they are not as rigid as the closed-end type since they have only one edge secured to the drive shaft. The closed-end type are more rigid and can be used with abrasive materials. However, they cannot be used in the blow-through types of feeders shown in Figure 13.13. There are basically two rotor pocket configurations in widespread use, and these are shown in Figure 13.17b. The most common is the type which has deep pockets and therefore maximum volumetric displacement. It is more suited to handling free-flowing products. The rotor with shallow, rounded pockets has a somewhat smaller volumetric displacement, but this configuration has been successfully used with the more cohesive types of product that could tend to stick in deeper pockets. With abrasive products there may be some advantage in fitting the blades with replaceable tips. As air from the conveying line leaks through the valve, each rotor blade in close proximity to the casing produces a drop in pressure in the direction of the pressure gradient. Consequently, a method of reducing the leakage is to increase the number of rotor blades. Obviously, there is a practical limit to the number of blades that can be used in a rotor when handling a given product. This constraint is largely dependent on the product itself, since increasing the number of blades decreases the angle between them, and this is sufficient with some products to prevent them from being discharged when presented to the 424 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING outlet port. It is for this reason that the number of rotor blades is optimized at between eight and ten on most commercially available valves. The rotor clearances can have a significant effect on valve performance and, in an attempt to minimize the effect of the leakage on the feed rate, manufacturers make these clearances as small as possible. Clearances on new valves are typically 0.075-0.15 mm, since clearances smaller than this would add considerably to the cost of manufacture and may even lead to the rotor binding in the housing due to deflection of the rotor and movement within the bearings when subject to the applied pressure gradient. Some manufacturers fit flexible elastomer/polymer wipers to the rotor blades so that they are in contact with the housing (Figure 13.17b). However, this approach is generally limited to low-pressure applications (less than 0.25 bar gauge) since the leakage at pressure gradients greater than this can deflect the wipers and so lose the advantages. A technique which has been developed by manufacturers and users of rotary valves as a practical solution to the problem of air leakage is 'venting'. This involves the provision of an alternative means of escape for the leaking air, so that it does not impede pocket filling. This is normally achieved by the provision of vent holes in the valve casing on the empty pocket return side of the rotor cycle, as shown in Figure 13.18. However, opinion is divided on the effectiveness of the technique. Some manufacturers strongly recommend its use in all situations where valves feed against pressure gradients. Others argue product teed ·'·r] )}:·~;t~ vented air . . . . L Figure 13.18 t vented ar + Valve venting. ar prod.ict air + product Figure 13.19 -- air Venting techniques. air + product COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 425 that, provided the rotor clearances are small enough, venting is unnecessary. Evidence exists to support both of these opinions and the decision on whether or not to incorporate venting usually depends on experience acquired from installing equipment in similar circumstances. Since the vented air will inevitably contain a carry-over of product, this is normally directed back to the supply hopper or to a separate filter unit, as shown in Figure 13.19. 13.3.2 Screw feeders The basic screw feeder, illustrated in Figure 13.20a, is rarely used to feed pneumatic conveying systems since, unlike the rotary valve, there is little in the design to satisfy the important requirement of feeding against an adverse pressure gradient. However, by designing the screw with a decreasing pitch it is possible to generate a plug of material within the barrel that effectively satisfies this requirement. As the screw continues to rotate the plug is pushed into the pipeline where it is dispersed and entrained in the conveying air (Figure 13.20b). Screw feeders are generally suitable for handling cohesive materials and an important advantage of a well-designed feeder of this type is that the discharge into the conveying line is continuous. Furthermore, since there is a linear relationship between the rotational speed of the screw and the feed rate, the discharge can be controlled within close limits. More sophisticated variants of the screw feeder have been developed for the purpose of feeding a product against somewhat higher pressures. The Mono pump (Figure 13.21 a) was originally conceived for pumping slurries but it has been demonstrated to be useful for feeding fine particulate products into conveying lines at pressures of up to 0.5 bar gauge, provided that the product is initially aerated so that it enters the pump effectively in a fluidized condition. Another device for use on similar applications is the screw-pump (Figure 13.21 b) which is capable of operating successfully at conveying pressures of up to 2.5 bar gauge and can therefore achieve reliable transport over considerable distances. This feeder, which is best known under the name Fuller Kinyon pump, although very similar versions are manufactured by a (b) Decreasng pitch screw (a) Slr(lle screw Figure 13.20 Screw feeders. 426 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (a) Mono purrp prod.ict - andai" out (b) FtJer-Khyon purrp Figure 13.21 Two forms of feeder-pump. number of different companies, is particularly common in the cement industry. The product is fed from the supply hopper and is advanced through the barrel by the impeller screw. Since the screw pitch decreases towards the outlet, this compacts the material as it advances and propels it through a provided nonreturn flap at the end of the barrel and into a chamber, to which air is continuously supplied through a series of nozzles. The air/solids mixture, at a pressure of up to about 2.5 bar gauge, then passes into the conveying pipe which depending upon the feeder size and the conveying distance, would normally be in the range 75 mm-400 mm. 13.3.3 V enturi feeders Since the basic problem with feeding positive-pressure systems is that the leakage resulting from the adverse pressure gradient can interfere with the flow of product into the conveying line, some improvement should be possible if the pressure at the feed point is reduced. The venturi feeder (Figure 13.22) is designed to achieve this by reducing the cross-sectional area of the pipeline at the feed point so that the pressure in this region is lowered to that of the supply hopper, with a corresponding increase in the velocity of the conveying air. In COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 427 product feed air+ product air IIToat - region of reduced presStre Figure 13.22 Venturi feeder. this way the air leakage from the conveying line to the supply hopper is almost eliminated and the product can flow more readily under gravity into the line. In order that a sufficiently low pressure is maintained at the feed point without the cross-sectional area becoming too small, the total pressure-drop through the conveying line must be kept quite low. For this reason the use of venturi feeders is usually restricted to applications where a free-flowing product is to be conveyed at low flow rates over short distances. A further constraint on the use of this type of feeder results from the high velocities that are reached in the throat section since serious erosion can occur in this region when abrasive products are being handled. Finally, it should be noted that the flow of product to the venturi feeder must be controlled by an appropriate metering device, such as a screw-feeder or belt-feeder, if blockage of the throat is to be avoided. 13.3.4 Gate lock valves These are probably the least used of all devices for feeding positive-pressure conveying systems. They are also known as double-flap valves and doubledoor discharge gates. They basically consist of two doors or gates which alternatively open and close to permit the passage of the product from the supply hopper into the conveying line (Figure 13.23). These gates may be motor-driven, cam or air-cylinder-operated, or may work under gravity. The air which passes the lower gate from the conveying line is vented so that it does \-,. )'·-'---~ ~-:· ..._;.::~7Figure 13.23 Operating sequence of a gate lock valve. 428 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING not interfere with the product about to flow through the upper gate. As with rotary valves, the blower or compressor should be sized to allow for this leakage. Like the venturi feeder, care must be taken to ensure that the product is metered into the gate lock since it will cease to function correctly if it operates under a head of material, as would be the case if it was situated directly beneath the outlet of the supply hopper. To a certain degree the gate lock might be termed an intermittent feeder since it discharges material between five to ten times a minute. In contrast, the rotary valve has up to approximately 250 discharges per minute from its pocketed rotor. This reduction in the number of discharges obviously means a higher volume per discharge when comparable rates are handled. This can, in turn, lead to a blockage in the entrainment region if the pipeline is not correctly sized. This type of feeder has been used successfully with system pressures up to 0.4 bar gauge, and with appropriate materials of construction it is suited to handling both pulverized and granular abrasive products. 13.3.5 Blow tanks All the devices considered so far are capable of feeding a bulk solid into a conveying line against an adverse pressure gradient. However, only the Fuller-Kinyon pump can operate successfully against a pressure much in excess of 1 bar gauge. Where it is required to convey a product in dilute phase over a distance of more than about 300 m, or in dense phase over more than about 50 m, it is likely that a high-pressure system will be required, and this may be beyond the operating range even of the Fuller-Kinyon pump. As explained in the previous chapter, feeding into high-pressure systems almost always involves the use ofblow tanks, and these devices are capable of working at pressures of around 7 bar gauge, or sometimes rather higher. The blow tank itself is essentially a pressure vessel which is gravity-fed with the bulk solid to be conveyed. The feed valve on the top of the vessel is then closed and, with the valve in the conveying line also closed, the blow tank is pressurized to the required conveying pressure. With the compressor still operating the outlet valve is opened and conveying begins. Since the blow tank delivers product to the conveying line in batches it is quite common practice to use two blow tanks operating in sequence so that one is being recharged while the other is discharging. A particular advantage with blow tank systems is that the blow tank itself serves as the feeder, and so the problems associated with feeding against an adverse pressure gradient do not arise. However, since there can be a considerable difference in pressure between the blow tank and the entrance to the conveying line, this must be taken into account when evaluating the requirements of the compressor. Another positive feature of blow tanks is that, unlike the feeders already discussed, they are generally free of moving parts. With the blow tank acting as the feeder, product degradation and erosion in COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 429 this region can also be reduced and so low grade blow tanks are often used in low-pressure systems as an alternative means of feeding the conveying line. However, a point that should be borne in mind is that, since the blow tank is essentially a pressure vessel, it has to be designed and manufactured to an appropriate pressure vessel code. Until recently such codes have been BS 1500 Part 1; 1958 and ASME 8. However, these have been largely superseded in the UK by BS 5500: 1976, which is more stringent in terms of design, manufacture and inspection requirements. A direct consequence of this is that blow tanks can be very expensive when compared with the feeders described in the previous sections. Blow tanks are invariably classified into either 'top-discharge' or 'bottomdischarge' types. This terminology refers to the direction in which the contents of the vessel are discharged (Figure 13.24). With bottom discharge the product is gravity-fed into the pipeline and if the conical section is sufficiently air • product 0 0 ·.. air • product (a) Bottom discharge supplementary a1r (c) Bottom discharge with supplementary air Figure 13.24 discharge. (b) Top discharge porous membrane (d) Top discharge with supplementary air Various blow-tank configurations showing aeration of the product to aid 430 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING steep the contents can be completely evacuated. Top discharge is arranged through an off-take pipe which is positioned above the base of the tank, and it is quite common for this configuration to retain a certain amount of product around the periphery of the bottom of the tank. This simple classification can become confused by the considerable number of different configurations that are used to admit air to the blow tank and conveying line. Ideally, all that is required is to admit air into the top of the blow tank until it reaches the pressure required for conveying. With the outlet valve open and the compressor still running, the air passing into the conveying pipe carries the product with it and so by this means the contents of the tank are gradually discharged. In such a system the pressure in the blow tank is obviously related to the product flow rate, and Figure 13.25a illustrates a typical relationship. It should be noted that the curve will not pass through the origin since there exists a finite (positive) blow tank pressure at zero feed rate. This represents the pressure drop through the system with only air flowing. Such a graph enables the designer to determine the blow tank pressure required to feed the product at the desired rate. With some products the method of admitting the air to the blow tank described above is sufficient to feed and convey at the desired rates. However, with others this has led to unsteady feeding, conveying below design ratings and even blockages in the entrance to the conveying pipe. Consequently, it has become almost standard practice to aerate the product in the region of the entrance to the conveying pipe with a view to aiding discharge and giving a air flow rate to blow tank 1.0 total air flow rate //\ 0.9 \ 0.8 0.7 Q) ~ -o X Q)- - - - .!!? ~ 0 en ~ :; .0 blow tank pressure(a) Typical relationship between blow tank pressure and bulk solid feed rate Figure 13.25 total air flow rate(b) Typical relationship between air and bulk solid flow rates Blow tank operating characteristics. COMPONENTS OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 431 more uniform feed. With the bottom discharge tank this is achieved by admitting air near the base of the cone, as shown in Figure 13.24c. With the top discharge type (Figure 13.24d) the air is admitted through a membrane which may be a porous plastic, porous ceramic or a woven belting material sandwiched between perforated plates. With this particular configuration it has been shown that the height of the off-take pipe above the membrane can have a significant effect on the feed rate. For this reason it is recommended that for the finer, powdery types of product, this distance should be about 20 mm whilst it is increased to about 40 mm when handling the more granular types of product. Experience has also shown that, with both of these configurations, a supplementary supply of air just after the product had entered the conveying line aids the conveying process. Unfortunately, the optimum proportions of these air supplies (blow tank and supplementary) are ill-defined and it has often required considerable skill on the part of the installation engineers during commissioning to adjust the blow tank performance so that it will yield the desired product flow rates. However, an insight into the relationship between the quantities of these air supplies has emerged with recent experimental data, which is shown in an idealized form in Figure 13.25b. This shows the effect of the total air flow supplied to the system (blow tank and supplementary air) on the product flow rate for various proportions of blow tank to total air flow rates. The significant implication of this information is that once the total air flow rate to convey at a given flow rate has been determined, this then enables the proportions of the air supplied to the blow tank and the supplementary tapping to be determined. For example, if it has been determined that to convey X kg/s of product required Y kg/s of air, then the intersection of these lines suggests that 80% of the air should be supplied to the blow tank whilst the remaining 20% should be supplied to the supplementary tapping. 13.3.6 Entrainment devices for vacuum systems The feeding of bulk solids into vacuum conveying systems is generally an easier matter than feeding a similar positive-pressure system since the pressure gradient is in the direction of the product feed and will in fact assist the flow of product into the pipeline. Where the feed rate of the product must be controlled, almost any of the feeders previously described would be suitable. However, if the feed rate is not critical it is possible to use a much simpler, and cheaper, device such as a slide- or gate-valve (Figure 13.26). A distinct advantage of a vacuum system is that it can be used to reclaim material from a 'free surface'; for example from a pile or from a bunker or ship's hold. In these circumstances a suction nozzle of the type shown in Figure 13.27 would be generally used. As with a domestic vacuum cleaner, it is essential when using one of these suction nozzles to maintain an adequate flow of air 432 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING adjustable air inlet Figure 13.26 Slide/gate valve. -conveying pipe (a) Suction nozzle conveying pipe (b) Shovel type suction intake Figure 13.27 Suction nozzles. through the suction tube at all times, and to avoid filling the tube solidly with the bulk material. Many different types of suction nozzle have been developed over the years but probably the most common pattern is that consisting of two tubes arranged eo-axially as shown in Figure 13.28. The annular passage between the tubes permits the air induced into the nozzle by the exhauster to entrain particles into the flow entering the inner tube. Recent research [3] has demonstrated that the relative positions of the ends of the inner and outer tubes can have a significant influence on the effectiveness of the suction nozzle, COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 433 \ r6t\k~~: r ~~~i~~ K'<-:~ ~:?~ (;~ ~i~'6.~~;. ."'r'i:.-· ·};..1-£~ \?-~i ~): ¥~;~ y:,,.,k!/J 'tt;r;,/ \"~~ 'IL--:;t.''V. ~~f.~M1i~~~~~~ [a) Inner tube retracted within outer tube Figure 13.28 [b) Air flow throttled on inlet to annulus Cc) Inner tube extended beyond outer tube Co-axial tube suction nozzle showing typical modes of operation. and therefore on the overall performance of the vacuum system, for a wide range of different bulk solids. In order to achieve the highest practical solids flow rates for any given air flow rate it is generally necessary that the inner tube of the nozzle should project beyond the outer tube, as illustrated in Figure 13.28e, The amount of the extension for optimum performance appears to depend upon the nature of the bulk solid being handled: up to about 25 mm gives good results with a 50 mm-diameter suction tube but more than this is likely to result in the tube becoming blocked. 13.4 The pipeline An extremely important part of any pneumatic system, but one which too often receives insufficient attention, is the pipeline itself. There are many materials from which the pipe could be manufactured, the commonest being seamless mild steel, stainless steel and aluminium. For short, light-duty pneumatic conveying plastic pipe may be considered, but care should be taken to guard against hazards associated with electrostatic charging. For special applications requiring, for example, a flexible pipe, various rubber compounds are available. Apart from the obvious need for physical strength when used on highpressure applications, the main criterion for the selection of a suitable pipe material is the nature of the bulk solid to be conveyed. In the food industry, or in other situations where rust contamination could be a problem, mild steel piping should obviously be avoided. There are many examples of problems arising with specific products: in the plastics industry, for instance, where the internal surfaces of pipes handling low-density polyethylene are specially 434 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (a) Standard flanged type (b) Sleeve-type allowing easy rotation of installed pipe to equalize wear Figure 13.29 Typical couplings for pneumatic conveying pipelines. roughened to prevent the formation of the streamers of plastic film known as 'angel hair' [ 4]. Joints between sections of pipe are often butt-welded but it is a good policy to design the system in such a way that appropriate parts of the pipework can be easily dismantled in the event of a blockage occurring. Whatever method is used for pipe jointing, it is necessary that two precautions be observed: one is that the pipes are accurately aligned as any ridges can deflect the flow to cause erosive wear, and the other is to ensure that electrical continuity is maintained across the joint components in situations where electrostatic charging represents a hazard. Simple welded or screwed flanges are a convenient and common method of joining lengths of pipe, but there are currently on the market several different patterns of compression-type sleeve coupling (Figure 13.29). There is frequently a need to change the path of a solids flow, from one hopper which has become has become full, to another, for example. Obviously this could be achieved by manually disconnecting the conveying line and reconnecting it to the appropriate point, but naturally manufacturers have developed a variety of flow diverters to achieve the same effect. These diverters are available in various forms, the flap valve and the slide valve illustrated in Figure 13.30 being perhaps the most widely used. By their very nature, diverter valves tend to suffer from the harsh service conditions and it is important that they should not be placed in inaccessible locations. Despite the fact that one of the main advantages stated for pneumatic (a) Flap type (b) Shde type Figure 13.30 Diverter valves. COMPO:-iEJ\TS OF PNEF:Vll\ TIC COSVEYlNG SYSiTMS 435 436 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING conveying systems is their flexibility of routing, it is always desirable for the conveying line to follow the most direct route from the feed point to the discharge. Pipe bends are to be avoided, as far as possible, because they represent a resistance to the flow of the bulk solid (and therefore add to the overall system pressure-drop) and also, when abrasive products are being conveyed, because they tend to be an Achilles heel in terms of erosive wear and subsequent leakage. Where bends are unavoidable it is usually recommended that they are of the 'slow' type, having a radius of at least five times the pipe diameter. In situations where erosive wear of the bend is likely to be a problem it is essential that flanges or couplings are used so that the bend can be easily replaced. Strengthening the bends with welded pads or other forms of 'wearback' is common practice and a number of special designs of bend, claimed to reduce wear, are commercially available (Figure 13.31). 13.5 Disengaging and collecting devices The choice of gas/solids disengaging system to be used on any given application will be influenced by a number of factors, notably the amount of bulk solid involved, the particle size range, the collecting efficiency required and the capital/running costs. In general, the finer the particles to be collected the higher will be the cost of a suitable disengaging system. Usually the choice is between some form of cyclone and a fabric filter, and where fine particles are involved (that is, less than about 25 ,urn) it is likely that only a fabric filter will give a satisfactory collecting efficiency. The loss of pressure in the gas/solids separator is unlikely to be significant in comparison to the overall system pressure drop, except perhaps in the case of fan systems. However, methods of estimating the pressure-drop are given in Chapter 5, along with descriptions of these components and guidance on their selection. 13.6 Notation m, N n V Pb Solids mass flow rate Rotational speed (revolutions/second) Number of rotor pockets Volume of rotor pocket Bulk density References and bibliography References I. Reed, A.R. and Mason, J.S. Estimating air leakage through rotary valves. Bulk-Storage. Movement, Control 3(3), (January/February 1977). 2. Reed, A.R. Estimating feed rates of rotary valves. Solids Handling 1(6) (November/December 1979). COMPONENTS OF PNEUMA TIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS 437 3. Reed, A.R. and Mason, J.S. The effect of suction nozzle design on the performance of vacuum pneumatic conveying systems. J. Powder and Bulk Solids Technol. 7(4) (1983) 9-14. 4. Dixon, G. Pneumatic conveying. In Plastics Pneumatic Conveying and Bulk Storage, ed. G. Butters, Applied Science Publishers, 1981. Recommende d further reading Kraus, M.N. Pneumatic Conveying of Bulk Materials. Ronald Press, New York, 1968. Anon. Industrial Reciprocating and Rotary Compressors: Design and Operational Problems. Proc. I M echE Con[., London, October 1970. Q 14 Pneumatic conveyor design 14.1 Introduction In the two preceding chapters discussion has been restricted to general details ofthe arrangements of pneumatic conveying systems and their components. It is necessary now to give some more positive pointers to successful pneumatic conveyor design. It is probably still true to say that in industry pneumatic conveying of bulk solids is widely regarded as something of an art. The specification of systems and the selection of components tends to rely heavily upon the judgement and practical experience of engineers who are familiar with the subject, and the relatively small (but increasing) number of companies that specialize in the manufacture and installation of pneumatic conveyors guard jealously the knowledge that they accumulate. Whatever the type of pneumatic conveying system to be installed, the design decisions must centre upon the pipeline diameter and the size (and power) of the air mover required. Amongst the many other design decisions to be made, probably the most important concern the method of feeding the bulk solid into the pipeline and the type and size of disengaging device to be used. It is possible to find in the published literature many suggested approaches towards the design of pneumatic conveyors, but none of these provides a single reliable method for designing a complete system from a knowledge only of the properties of the bulk solid to be conveyed. Certainly there has been, in recent years, an improved understanding of the characteristics of gas/solids flow in horizontal and vertical pipelines. There have even been papers reporting specifically on the influence of bends and fittings. It is beyond the scope of this book, however, to attempt a review of the different design methods available and attention here is restricted to a discussion of some aspects of a design approach that will enable a specification to be drawn up for a given application with reasonable confidence. In general, the designer would be presented with information on the material to be transported, the mass flow rate required, the rough layout of the conveying system and, possibly, the type of system (that is, positive-pressure or vacuum, dilute- or dense-phase, and so on). The first design decisions then concern the conveying velocity, the solids loading ratio (that is, the ratio of the mass flow rate of conveyed solids to the mass flow rate of conveying air) the diameter of the pipeline and the pressure-drop through the system, leading to the specification of the air mover in terms of flow rate and delivery pressure. The application and reliability of mathematical models is somewhat limited PNEUMATIC CONVEYOR DESIGN 439 in the field of pneumatic conveying. As explained in Chapter 3, many proposals have appeared in the technical literature for the modelling of gas/solids flows in dilute phase, and even some for dense phase. However, none of these has become accepted as sufficiently reliable for the confident design of pneumatic conveying systems. In the case of dilute-phase flow, since the solid particles are uniformly distributed within the gas stream, it seems reasonable to suppose that a simple analytical approach might allow the relationship between solids flow rate, gas flow rate and pipe size to be predicted with sufficient confidence to enable a preliminary design of the system to be undertaken. For dense-phase flow, the mechanism by which the solid particles progress along the pipeline is so complex that there seems to be little chance that any 'first-principles' modelling approach will really be useful. In order to design a pneumatic conveying system with confidence there is generally no alternative but to rely upon available test data for the bulk solid concerned. Frequently this data can be derived from previous experience with the same product, but if the product is a 'new' one and no information is available on its handling characteristics in a pneumatic conveying system, appropriate trials will have to be carried out in a pilot plant. Naturally the design engineer must make a decision on how closely the test data should parallel the actual installation that is to be designed. The extreme case of a fullscale 'mock-up' in which the actual bulk solid is tested might occasionally be justified, but usually the trials would be undertaken in a test rig that is smaller (either in terms of pipe size, or conveying distance, or both) and the results scaled appropriately. It is always good policy to test the actual bulk solid concerned, as even small differences in the physical properties of a material can cause major differences in handling characteristics. An expensive mistake could be made if, for example, a system successfully conveying cement is used as the basis for designing one to handle, say, fertilizer. In this chapter a general design procedure will first be outlined and then more detailed consideration will be given to the determination of the 'conveying characteristics' of a bulk solid and the application of this data within the design process. It should perhaps be emphasized at this point that it is not the intention of the authors to set out here a definitive procedure for the design of pneumatic conveying systems: for one reason, we do not have enough pages available! However, it is hoped that there is sufficient detail in the following discussion for it to be interesting, useful in giving an insight to the design process and, in particular, to draw attention to some of the pitfalls that may be encountered. 14.2 General design procedure 14.2.1 Conveying velocity and volumetric air flow rate As air flows along a pipeline, the decreasing pressure resulting from the 440 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING frictional resistance to the flow causes the air to expand. The average velocity of the air across a section of the pipe must therefore increase in the direction of flow so that in a pneumatic conveying system the lowest velocity normally occurs at or near the point where the bulk solid is fed into the line. Clearly this lowest velocity must be sufficient to transport the bulk solid without the risk of blockages occurring in the system and, since the 'minimum transport velocity' depends principally upon the nature of the bulk solid itself, it is usually the first design parameter to be fixed. Unfortunately the minimum transport velocities for different bulk solids are not easily predicted since this parameter is influenced by many diverse variables, including material properties such as particle size, density and shape, cohesiveness and abrasiveness, and also (significantly) the solids loading ratio. The only really satisfactory method of determining the minimum transport velocity for a given particulate material is to carry out tests on the material in a pilot plant having features that correspond as closely as practicable to those of the plant being designed. Clearly this is where the experience of the designer can be valuable, as he may have prior knowledge of the conveying characteristics of the actual material or of a similar one. As explained elsewhere in this book, there is a marked trend towards the use of dense phase in preference to dilute phase for pneumatic conveying systems because of the lower running costs and less severe effects on both the plant and the conveyed bulk solid as a result of the lower velocities involved. However, certain materials, especially those of a granular nature, cannot be conveyed in a conventional dense-phase system, and the minimum transport velocity is then determined by the point at which the particles begin to fall out of suspension. For a wide range of materials this will occur at a velocity of around 16 mjs and this is a good value at which to begin the preliminary design of a dilute-phase system. It should be understood, however, that with bulk solids containing large lumps, especially if the density is high, the minimum transport velocities may be very much greater. For bulk solids capable of being conveyed in dense phase the minimum transport velocity is typically around 5-10 mjs, but this is quite variable, and there is really no alternative but to design from observed behaviour of the materials concerned. In any case, for such materials, which generally tend to have good air-retention properties, the minimum transport velocity depends to a significant extent on the solids loading ratio. Conveying at higher values of the solids loading ratio can often allow the gas velocity to be reduced, so effecting a worthwhile saving in power consumption, but there is, of course, a practical limit which can be determined only from conveying trials. Once the minimum transport velocity has been determined, by whatever means, it is recommended that a value twenty per cent higher should be used for design purposes in order to provide a margin of safety against pipeline blockage. Velocities greater than this are generally not advisable because of the increased power and filtration requirements, the adverse effect (for most PNEUMA TIC CONVEYOR DESIGN 441 products) on the solids flow rate and the possibility of excessive degradation of the conveyed material and erosive wear of the system components. It will be necessary, in due course, to calculate the volumetric flow rate of air required ('free air' -that is, at normal ambient conditions) and this quantity is related to the conveying air inlet velocity u81 , discussed above, by the following equation: (14.1) where D is the diameter of the conveying pipe, p 1 and T 1 are the pressure and absolute temperature at the inlet, and p0 and T0 are the standard ambient pressure and absolute temperature. In SI units, taking Po = 1 bar and T0 = 288 K, the relationship becomes (14.2) where p 1 is in bar absolute, D is in metres, ug 1 is in metres/second and t 1 is the temperature in degrees Celsius, giving V0 in m 3/s. Note that this value of V0 will be the volumetric flow rate of air required to convey the bulk solid through the pipeline. The volumetric air flow rate to be specified for the air mover must be larger to take account of'leakage' from the rotary valve or other feeder or, in the case of a vacuum system, to take account of any additional air ingress along the conveying line. For a positive-pressure system fed by a rotary valve, an air leakage rate of 15-20% of the blower output would be quite normal. 14.2.2 Solids mass flow rate and solids loading ratio The specification for a pneumatic conveying system will generally include the required solids throughput as the number of tonnes of the bulk solid to be transported in one hour. The actual flow rate of the material along the pipeline can then be determined according to the proportion of the time that the system is actively conveying. Thus, in the case of a continuously-operating system, the design would be based on the steady hourly rate through the pipeline, whereas if the system selected is to operate batchwise (a single blow tank system, for example) the pipeline must be sized for a higher rate than the specified hourly rate to allow for non-continuous conveying. The ratio of the design flow rate to the specified hourly rate will depend upon the type of batch system to be used. Typical ratios would be about 1.25 for a twin blow tank system and about 1.5 for a single blow tank capable of conveying a one-tonne batch. Thus, if a single blow tank system is to be designed for a rate of 40 tonne/hour, the pipeline should be sized for a conveying rate of about 60 tonne/hour. The ratio of the mass flow rate of the conveyed bulk solid to the mass flow 442 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING rate ofthe conveying air, known as the 'solids loading ratio' or 'phase density', is another design parameter that is difficult to predict with much confidence. In so-called 'dense-phase' pneumatic conveying systems very large values of solids loading ratio (</J) may be obtained-possibly up to several hundredsand in the extreme, <P approaches the value corresponding to the minimum fluidizing condition. In fact, the conveying velocity and the solids loading ratio are interrelated and it is perhaps a matter for debate which should be selected first. To some extent the choice of solids loading ratio is dictated by economic considerations and involves a comparison between the cost of the largediameter pipeline that would be necessary for a low value of </J, and the cost of the compressor necessary to meet the greater pressure drop associated with high values of </J. Typical values of the solids loading ratio for dilute-phase systems would be between 5 and 15. In the absence of more reliable information (for example, from tests on a pilot plant) a reasonable procedure for the design of a dilutephase system is to begin by assuming a value of 10 for the solids loading ratio, and then to adjust this figure upwards or downwards in order to match the predicted pressure-drop through the system to the characteristics of the blower or compressor used. 14.2.3 Pipeline diameter Although it is not possible at this stage to make a final decision on the diameter of the conveying pipeline, an estimate must be made in order to begin the iterative procedure, involving the pipe diameter and the system pressure-drop, which will lead to a preliminary design for a dilute phase system. As mentioned above, the starting point is to take the solids loading ratio to be 10 and then to calculate the air mass flow rate for the required solids mass flow rate. Knowing the air flow rate and the conveying velocity, a suitable size for the pipeline can be determined. Thus, for the first estimate (14.3) where mg is the mass flow rate of air, Pg is the density of the air, ug is the conveying velocity and D is the pipeline diameter. Setting m,= 10 mg the above expression becomes D_ ( m, )112 7.9pgug (14.4) where m, is the mass flow rate of solids. When using equations (14.3) or (14.4) it should be appreciated that the density pg and velocity ug of the conveying air should be taken at the same section of the pipeline. The 'pick-up velocity' is PNEUMA TIC CONVEYOR DESIGN 443 usually the minimum value in the conveying line and, being at the upstream end, would correspond to the maximum pressure and density. It is therefore likely to be necessary to estimate the density using the anticipated delivery pressure of the air mover. The density of the conveying air can be calculated from the pressure p and absolute temperature T using the perfect gas equation (14.5) where R is the characteristic gas constant which, for air, has a value of 287 Jjkg K. Thus, in SI units, Ps = 287(273 + t) (14.6) where pis in bar absolute, and t is the temperature in degrees Celsius, giving p 8 in kg/m 3 . It must be stressed that, although for convenience the determination of pipe diameter and pressure-drop are discussed separately here, in practice these two variables should be considered together. Equation (14.4) gives a first estimate of pipeline diameter which should be used to calculate a value for the pressure-drop along the line at the required solids flow rate and conveying velocity. If the pressure-drop is found to be excessive, a larger-diameter pipeline should be selected andjor the solids loading ratio reduced. The full calculation should then be repeated. 14.2.4 Pressure-drop When calculating the pressure-drop through the conveying line it is advisable to keep in mind the acceptable figures for the system in question. For example, if the system is of the vacuum type the maximum practical value of the pressure-drop is limited to around 0.6 bar (9lbf/in 2 ). If the pressure-drop exceeds this value, the resulting low pressure and low density at the suction to the vacuum pump or exhauster means that this component has to be large, and therefore expensive. In positive-pressure systems the limiting factor is usually the solids feeder. As explained in Chapter 13, continuous conveying systems using a rotary- or screw-feeder are generally restricted to maximum pressure-drop of around 1 bar (14.5lbfjin 2 ), although considerably higher values can be achieved if special feeders, such as the Fuller-Kinyon pump, are employed. Still higher pressures, up to around 7 bar (lOO lbfjin 2 ), can be accommodated in batch systems using blow tank feeders. The reliable prediction of pressure-drop in a gas/solids mixture flowing along a pipeline is one of the major difficulties facing the designers of 444 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING pneumatic conveying systems. In recent years a considerable amount of literature has been published on the characteristics of two-phase gas/solids flow, but there is, as yet, no technique for predicting pressure-drop that is both reliable and convenient. Techniques that are simple enough to be readily used (so-called 'rule-of-thumb' methods) tend to be rather uncertain, and, at the other extreme, high-level mathematical models that are claimed to give accurate predictions of pressure-drop are usually complex and inconvenient, often requiring data on the particulate material that would not ordinarily be available. The use of computers to assist in the design process, particularly with regard to the calculation of conveying line pressure-drop, has naturally generated some interest in recent years. For mainframe and minicomputers sophisticated packages are available which may be configured for pneumatic conveying applications, but this high-level approach is of more interest to mathematicians and research workers than to the practising engineer. Computer-aided design techniques for desk-top microcomputers offer more immediate benefits, and a number of approaches have been presented in the technical literature [ 1-3]. Methods of predicting the pressure-drop in a gas/solids mixture flowing through a pneumatic conveying pipeline have been discussed at some length in Chapter 3 (section 3.6.5) and there is little purpose in repeating the full discussion here. The generally accepted approach for dilute-phase conveying is to calculate the wall-friction pressure-drop occurring as the air flows, at the required rate, through the pipeline on its own; and then to multiply the result by an appropriate factor to allow for the presence of the bulk solid; and, finally, to add on additional pressure-drops contributed by the various components such as feeders, bends, diverters, and so on. Thus, the wall friction pressure-drop in a flowing gas/solids suspension can be written (14. 7) where the 'pressure loss factor' or 'solids friction coefficient' a is a complex function of several different variables, as explained in Chapter 3. An approximate indication of the value of a can be obtained from the chart in Figure 3.22 (repeated here as Figure 14.1), which has been prepared from test results reported for a large number of different products, but it will be noted that, except at very low conveying velocities, a quick and convenient approach is simply to make a equal to the solids loading ratio, </J. Thus (14.8) The 'air-only' pressure-drop ~Pg can be determined using one of the approaches outlined in Chapter 3. Methods of estimating the pressure-drops due to the feeding device and the pipe bends are also given in Chapter 3. In pneumatic conveying systems the gas/solids disengaging device is usually 445 PNEUMA TIC CONVEYOR DESIGN 100 1 - - 1-- :\\. ,\.'\.'\. 50 I \.\.'\.~ I \_~ ~ \_'\ ~ ~ -""'."-.: ::-::::::: E ~ 20 a; \ 0 0 .§ ~ "' ~ 10 "'"~ ""'"" 5 ....... 20 ~~ -...____:: 12 10 8 6 ........ 1--- 4 ~ 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 conveying veloci1y (melres/second) Figure 14.1 Values of coefficient a in equation (14.7). a cyclone, a fabric filter unit, or a combination of the two. In the case of a cyclone the pressure-drop is generally quite low, but on low-pressure systems it may still be significant since the volumetric flow rate produced by the fan is very sensitive to the total system resistance. Variations in cyclone design to increase the collecting efficiency also tend to increase the pressure-drop across it. The pressure-drop across a fabric filter obviously depends principally upon the size of the filter, particularly the total area of filter fabric and its resistance to air flow. The length of time since the previous cleaning of the fabric will also have an influence. In order that the filter unit should not be too large, and therefore expensive, it may be necessary to accept that the pressure-drop across it will represent a significant proportion of the overall system pressuredrop. Consequently, any increase in the resistance of the filter may have a serious effect on the performance of the system and a regular cleaning routine is essential. Generally however, whether a cyclone or fabric filter is used, the pressuredrop across it should not exceed about 150 mm H 2 0 (0.015 bar), which may be safely disregarded in the majority of cases. Further discussion on the design and selection of gas/solids disengaging devices can be found in Chapter 5 on dust control. Once the overall pressure-drop has been estimated on the basis of a solids loading ratio and pipeline diameter selected as explained in sections 14.2.2 and 14.2.3 it must be compared with the 'maximum acceptable pressure-drop' previously decided upon. If the estimated pressure-drop is too great it will be 446 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING necessary to select a larger pipeline diameter and repeat the calculation. It may appear that reducing the solids loading ratio should also give a lower pressuredrop, but this can only be achieved by increasing the air mass flow rate (since the solids flow rate is fixed by the system specification), which leaves no alternative to increasing the pipeline diameter. 14.2.5 Stepped pipelines It will have been noted that the rate of change of velocity, and therefore the rate of change of pressure, increases as flow takes place along a pipeline. It may well happen that, in a long pipeline, the conveying velocity becomes excessively high with consequent degradation of the product or erosion of the pipe wall. If the preliminary design study shows such an occurrence to be likely it is normal practice to select a 'stepped pipeline' in which the pipe diameter is increased in one or more stages. This not only has the effect of reducing the conveying velocity but also reduces the pressure-drop along the line. Naturally care must be taken not to increase the pipe diameter by too much in one step as it is possible for the conveying velocity to be reduced to such an extent that saltation occurs. The calculation of pressure-drop in a stepped pipeline is somewhat more complicated than the method outlined in this chapter, although the general principles involved are the same. 14.2.6 Selection of the air mover The commonest types of air mover used on pneumatic conveying applications have been described in Chapter 13. The type selected for a given installation is usually dictated by the kind of conveying system planned; for example, for a high-pressure system a reciprocating or screw compressor, for a low-pressure (positive) system a fan or Roots-type blower, or for a vacuum system a liquidring vacuum pump or Roots-type exhauster. Figure 14.2 illustrates the approximate performance coverages of the main classes of air mover, although it should be emphasized that this chart is intended as a guide only since in most cases there are substantial overlaps in their ranges. In particular, reciprocating compressors are found in a great variety of sizes and types, and models are available to satisfy almost any operating condition shown on the chart. Centrifugal (turbo) compressors, and especially the multistage axial-flow type, are normally manufactured only in large sizes, handling very large volume flow rates, and therefore rarely find application to pneumatic conveying installations. The volumetric flow rate of air ('free air delivered') and the delivery pressure required are the two parameters that must be specified when selecting a blower or compressor for a pneumatic conveying system. Manufacturers of these machines will supply a chart showing their performance as a plot of delivery 447 PNEUMA TIC CONVEYOR DESIGN 0.05 fans 5 10 so 100 300 volumetric flow rate (FAD), m3/min Figure 14.2 Coverage chart showing approximate ranges of operation of various types of air mover on pneumatic conveying application. (Note that reciprocating compressors of suitable design are available and may be used to cover almost any operating condition above a pressure of one bar.) pressure against free air delivered for various running speeds. Superimposed on these operating characteristic curves are lines showing the power absorbed. A typical performance chart for a Roots-type blower is reproduced as Figure 14.3 and it is seen from this chart that locating the point corresponding to the required delivery pressure and FAD allows the necessary running speed and the resulting power consumption to be determined. 14.3 Summary of preliminary design procedure for dilute-phase systems It will have been appreciated that a certain amount of iteration is unavoidable when following this simplified design procedure in order to obtain an acceptable balance amongst the various design parameters. To clarify this point it is worthwhile here to attempt to summarize the design process as a series of steps, which begin with an outline specification of the pneumatic conveying system in terms of the required solids flow rate and the pipeline routing (overall distance, number of bends, etc.). 448 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING (i) Select suitable value of minimum transport velocity, say 15 m/s (referring to section 14.2.1) (ii) Select suitable value of solids loading ratio, say 10 (section 14.2.2) (iii) Calculate air mass flow rate and estimate suitable pipe diameter (section 14.2.3) (iv) Estimate overall system pressure-drop (section 14.2.4) (v) Consider whether this estimated pressure-drop is acceptable (that is, within a suitable range of values for the type of air-mover proposed); if it is, go to Step (x) (vi) Select next larger or smaller size of pipe, as appropriate (vii) Calculate new air flow rate required to give selected minimum transport velocity (viii) Calculate new solids loading ratio to give specified solids flow rate (ix) Go to Step (iv) (re-calculate overall system pressure-drop) (x) Estimate additional air requirement (for example, to include air leakage from rotary valve) and thus determine total air to be supplied by air mover, as 'free air delivered' (section 14.2.1) (xi) Using performance characteristics of selected air-mover, determine exact operating condition and power requirement (section 14.2.6) 14.4 Designing from available test data 14.4.1 Conveying characterisitcs It should always be regarded as preferable to design pneumatic conveyors on the basis of previously-obtained conveying data for the bulk solid concerned. It matters little whether such data comes from experience of a working industrial installation or from specially commissioned trials, although the latter would naturally be expected to yield data in a more immediately usable form. It is generally most useful if the data relating to the handling of a particular bulk solid are presented in the form of 'conveying characteristics', that is, a chart showing the relationships amongst the solids flow rate, air flow rate, pressure-drop and solids loading ratio. A typical set of conveying characteristics, in this case for powdered limestone ("' 75 11m) conveyed in a 125 mmdiameter pipeline, 80 m in length, is shown in Figure 14.4. The pipe route includes a 20 m vertical rise and seven 90° long-radius bends. It is necessary that full details of the conveying line are known because the conveying characteristics plotted in this way, are specific not only to the bulk solid concerned but also to the conveying system. A full performance chart similar to Figure 14.4 would not be easy to obtain from an average industrial pneumatic conveying system, but from a properly-instrumented test rig of the type that would be used by a major manufacturer or by a specialized research 449 PNEUMA TIC CONVEYOR DESIGN ....... 3 5 7 10 power absorbed (kW) 15 20 25 30 .g"' 0.5 H---\-=~--+--~c----\!--~-t--'~--'1<--~-+--''\. '5 c: 0 (J Cl> ~ 0.4 .5 ~~-.:....,-..t.::~_j3000 ~ ~\:::::l~:-f~::-~s:::;=:~:;::j2500 i "' > M~ 0.3 § Cl> ~ •t;; .Q ~ 0.1 1-~--...L E :J 0 > 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.2 a.s 0.3 pressure rise across blower (bar) tor atm. pressure at intake 0 .7 Figure 14.3 Typical performance chart for a Roots-type (straight-lobe) rotary blower. and development laboratory, complete data can be recorded for almost any particulate or granular bulk solid. Several observations can be made from a first inspection of Figure 14.4. Firstly, the range of solids loading ratios, up to a maximum of 10, suggests that the system was working in a dilute-phase mode, and this is confirmed by the fact that the lowest value of the conveying air velocity is 15 m/s. It should be noted that the air flow rate on the horizontal axis is expressed on a volumetric basis as 'free air', although an alternative is to use mass flow rate. It is immediately apparent that a wide range of flow conditions could exist in the pipeline to which Figure 14.4 relates. At an air flow rate of 15m 3 jmin (FAD), for instance, the solids flow rate could be anything from zero up to 11.8 tonne/hour (for which the pressure-drop would be 0.8 bar) or more. Operating with a greater air flow rate is generally not a good idea since a higher proportion of the available pressure-drop will be needed to overcome wallfriction losses for the air flow, leaving less for the conveyance of solids. 14.4.2 Scaling for pipe size and conveying distance For both dilute-phase and dense-phase conveying applications, conveying characteristics obtained from trials on a pilot plant obviously give a great deal of valuable information about the handling behaviour of the bulk solid 450 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING concerned. However, it is most unlikely that the pilot plant will be of exactly the same configuration as the system being designed, and therefore it will be necessary to modify the conveying characteristics so that they show the relationships amongst the solids flow rate, air flow rate, and pressure-drops for the required conveying distance and an appropriate pipe diameter. Much of the skill in designing a pneumatic conveying system is in this modification of existing data so that it becomes relevant to the system being designed, not only in terms of conveying distance and pipe size, but also in terms of the number of bends and their geometry, vertical sections of pipe (up and down), operating sequences (in the case of batchwise conveying), and so on. It is possible here only to give an outline of the technique of'scaling' for pipe size and conveying distance, but this should be sufficient for the reader to gain a general understanding of the design method. Further information can be found in [4] and [5]. Scaling the conveying characteristics for a specific bulk solid is best carried out in two stages. The first stage involves scaling to the required distance, with allowances for vertical sections and bends, and the second stage scales the conveying characteristics in terms of the pipe diameter. Scaling with respect to conveying distance is a fairly complex process and can result in marked 12 ]..... j conveying ar velocity (mls) 15 8 0.8 :a g D G> ~ 6 0.7. ~ 8 .;;; G> 3 t) "'"'G> CS. ~ 4 a. " -~ >- 2 G> c> 0 0 0 10 15 20 25 30 voumetric air flow rate (free air) (m 3 /min) Figure 14.4 Conveying characteristics for powdered limestone Pipeline: 125 mm diameter, 80 m long, with seven long-radius 90° bends. 451 PNEUMA TIC CONVEYOR DESIGN differences in conveying parameters. Significant changes can result in the solids flow rate, solids loading ratio and the air requirements, all of which are very much dependent upon the nature of the bulk solid concerned. In order to illustrate the steps involved in scaling, reference will be made to Figure 14.5. This is a set of conveying characteristics, presented in a similar way to Figure 14.4, but relating to the dense-phase conveying of pulverized fuel ash (PFA) in a 50mm-diameter pipeline lOOm in length. In the first instance the conveying characteristics for the PFA will be scaled up to a distance of 150 m. Now, provided that the extrapolation is not too great, scale up of solids mass flow rate with respect to conveying distance can be carried out with reasonable accuracy on the basis of a reciprocal law, that is . 1 ms ocL (14.9) The product mass flow rate scale on Figure 14.5 is thus changed according to the relationship . Lt . m.2 = L2 m.t 24 (14.10) 180 150 20 ]..... 3.0 16 ~ _g 12 2.6 ~ 2.2 -t; 1.8 "'aa> g a> ~ g "'"' ~ 8 1.4 0::J "8 a G> ~ 3: 4 1.0 : ·~a> 8 0 0.6 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 ar mass flow rate (kg/s) Figure 14.5 Conveying characteristics for pulverized fuel ash (PF A). Pipeline: 50 mm diameter, lOOm long. 452 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING so that when scaling from 100 m to 150 m, as in this example, all the product mass flow rates are reduced by a factor of 2/3. Now it is essential that conveying conditions, in terms of air velocities, are the same for the two situations and therefore scaling must be carried out for data points having the same conveying line pressure-drop and the same air mass flow rate. Furthermore, the 'datum' conditions, corresponding to the pressure-drop for air only flowing through the line, must be changed by an appropriate amount to reflect the fact that, for the same inlet air velocity in a longer pipeline, both the air flow rate and the pressure-drop will be different. Figure 14.6 shows the result of scaling for distance, from the original 100 m up to 150 m. It is immediately evident that over the longer distance the maximum solids loading ratio is very much less. When scaling for the size of the pipeline it will again be necessary to adjust the position of the 'empty line datum' since, in order to maintain similar air velocities, the mass flow rate will need to be in proportion to the crosssectional area of the pipeline. An acceptable degree of accuracy when scaling for pipe size is obtained on the basis of proportionality between solids mass flow rate and pipe cross-section. I u rrsss now rate (kgts) Figure 14.6 Conveying characteristics for PF A. Pipeline: 50 mm diameter, 150 m long (Scaled from Figure 14.5). 453 PNEUMA TIC CONVEYOR DESIGN I '- . - ·- I 30 solids loading ratio ---,- !-· - 1- 0 1- - c- 40 30 - f- · ~ 1-- 20 1- tO 5 I F---. ft~ I / - 1- - - "!'><(~ I"" 3.0 I - J .1-. / 60 - r- ~ / 7'1'----.. ~ A' r-..... ~/ ~~~ ~ ~ ~--__, ~D< - c- - - /'--. I 80 - ~ .......... .L I v!f - '1 ~+ c- ·- _! I ......... ::±/~ ::::::_ -....,..., ........ ~'....... ~ 1::::::-<r-.. /~-t:-r-- ~ -;....... it: - -- ~-f--. - -~- F- -t- :- ...... 15 10 air mass flow rate (kg/s) 1-r-r- 2.6 g 22 -5 :::>< .......... .......... ~ 11> , ia .8 -, ~ .4 .s :::::~ 1,Q_ l50 -~f:--r-e :::~ -~ -~ ---- 0 >- 11> > -- ~-- -;-.... 0 .6 20 Figure 14.7 Conveying characteristics for PFA. Pipeline: 75mm diameter, 150m long (scaled from Figure 14.5, via Figure 14.6). Thus (14.11) and the product mass flow rate scale on Figure 14.5 (or Figure 14.4, depending upon the conveying distance required) is then adjusted using the relationship • D2 m.2 = ( Dl )2 • msl (14.12) Figure 14.7 shows the result of scaling up from the 50 mm-diameter line to 75 mm by first adjusting the datum condition and then changing the vertical scale, increasing all product mass flow rates by a factor of2.25; that is, (75/50)2 • The outcome of this somewhat complicated procedure is that, for a specified bulk solid, the results of laboratory trials have been adapted to yield a set of conveying characteristics which are vital to the reliable design of a pneumatic conveying system that is required to transport the same bulk solid at the same (or greater) rates over a longer distance. The required pipe diameter is determined and a suitable operating condition can be selected, enabling the 454 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING air mover to be specified in terms of air flow rate (FAD), delivery pressure and size of driving motor (i.e. power). 14.5 Notation A D L rilg ms p Po P1 Apg Aps R T To Tl t tl ~g Vo r:x <P Pg Cross-sectional area of conveying line Diameter of conveying line Total conveying distance Mass flow rate of conveying gas (air) Mass flow rate of conveyed bulk solid Pressure in conveying line Atmospheric pressure Pressure at conveying line inlet Pressure-drop due to gas (air) alone in conveying line Pressure-drop due to two-phase (gas/solids) mixture in conveying line Characteristic gas constant Temperature (absolute) in conveying line Atmospheric temperature (absolute) Temperature at conveying line inlet (absolute) Temperature in conveying line Temperature at conveying line inlet Velocity of gas (air) in conveying line Volumetric flow rate of air ('free air') 'Pressure loss factor' in equation (14.7) Solids loading ratio ( = rils/rilg) Density of conveying gas (air) References and bibliography References 1. Parameswaran, M.A. and Mukesh, D. Computer-aided design of a pneumatic conveyor, Chem. Engg. World 13 (10) (October 1978) 41-46. 2. Woodcock, C.R. and Mwabe, P.O. An approach to the computer-aided design of dilute-phase pneumatic conveying systems. Proc. Pneumatech 2 Conf, Canterbury, UK, September 1984. 3. Latincsics, N. Pneumatic conveyors: computer aided design methods. Proc. lOth Annual Powder and Bulk Solids Conf., Chicago, May 1985. 4. Mills, D. Mason, J.S. and Marjanovic, P. The comparison of pressure drop in horizontal and vertical dense phase pneumatic conveying. Proc. 3rd Conf. on Pneumatic Conveying, Pecs, Hungary, March 1985. 5. Mills, D. and Mason, J.S. The influence of conveying distance on the performance and air requirements of pneumatic conveying system pipelines. Proc. Conf on Reliable Flow of ?articulate Solids, Bergen, August 1985. Recommended further reading Anon. Pneumatic Handling of Bulk Materials. EEUA Handbook No. 15, Constable and Co., London, 1963. PNEUMA TIC CONVEYOR DESIGN 455 Kraus, M. N. Pneumatic Conveying of Bulk Materials. Ronald Press, New York, I968. Stoess, H.A. Pneumatic Conveying. Wiley-Interscience, 1970. Wen, C.-Y. and O'Brien, W.S. Pneumatic conveying and transporting. In Gas-Solids Handling in the Process Industries, eds. J.M. Marchello and A. Gomezplata, Marcel Dekker Inc., 1976, 89-134. Dixon, G. Pneumatic conveying. In Plastics Pneumatic Conveying and Bulk Storage, ed. G. Butters, Applied Science Publishers, 1981, 19-145. Mason, J.S. Mills, D. Reed, A.R. and Woodcock, C.R. Pneumatic Handling of Bulk Materials. Notes for 4-day post-experience course, Thames Polytechnic, London, 1986. 15 Air-assisted gravity conveying 15.1 Introduction The three preceding chapters have been concerned primarily with pneumatic conveying by pipeline, and consideration will now be given to a variation on this technique in which the particulate bulk solid is made to flow along a channel inclined at a shallow angle. Pneumatic conveying has several advantages over other methods of transporting bulk solids, but it suffers from two drawbacks. Firstly, the power consumption is quite high; and secondly, especially when conveying in dilute phase, the solids velocity is relatively high and may cause problems as a result of particle degradation and erosive wear of the pipeline and system components. Both of these difficulties may be minimized by conveying in dense phase, that is, with a higher ratio of solids to air, so that the quantity of air used is smaller and the conveying velocity is lower. Air-assisted gravity conveying (or 'air-float conveying') can be regarded as an extreme form of the dense phase method in which the predominant factor causing flow is the gravitational force on the bulk solid. The technique is essentially to maintain an aerated state in the bulk solid, from the moment that it is fed into the upper end of an inclined channel, by the continuous introduction of air (or other gas) at a low rate through a false bottom, made of suitable porous material and fitted into the channel (Figure 15.1 ). Since the bulk solid is kept 'live' by the trickle-flow of air, it flows freely down the slope, even when the angle of declination is very small. The quantity of air used is kept to the absolute minimum necessary to reduce the interparticle forces, and the frictional forces between the particles and the internal channel surfaces, sufficiently to allow the bulk material to 'flow'. The general principle of airgravity conveying is thus very simple and the method has the big advantage of being essentially 'workable'; that is, a great deal of latitude is available in the design of installations, and provided that a few basic requirements are met they will generally operate without trouble. It is not known when aeration of a bulk particulate solid was first used as an aid to conveying, but one of the earliest relevant patents appears to have been that of Dodge in 1895 [1] who used air, entering an open channel through slits in the base, to transport coarse-grained material. However, significant progress in the gravity conveying of aerated powders was not made until some thirty years later when it was found that the method provided an excellent means of conveying cement. The German company Polysius was a pioneer in the development of air-assisted gravity conveying, but was followed into the AIR-ASSISTED GRAVITY CONVEYING 457 bulk solid feed Figure 15.1 channel. The principle of air-assisted gravity conveying: an aerated bulk solid flowing along a field by the Huron Portland Cement Company of America which obtained the first British patent in 1949. Huron's plant at Alpena, Michigan, was one of the first to make extensive commercial use of this method of conveying and employed 'Airslides', as they came to be called, at various stages of the production process from grinding mill discharge to finished cement. The third organization that played a prominent part in developing and establishing airgravity conveyors was the Fuller Company which manufactured them under licence from Huron. Although the air-assisted gravity conveyor first came to prominence for the transport of cement~-and this is still one of the main applications-many other types of material are now handled with relative ease, including such diverse substances as fly ash, coal dust, plastic and metal powders, alumina and sand. Typical of the large installations described in some detail in the published literature are a 50 000-tonne storage plant and an 80 000-tonne ship-loading plant, both handling alumina [2], and a Canadian aluminium smelter capable of handling 160 000 tonnes of alumina per annum [3]. Various sizes of conveying channel are used in these installations, one of the largest being a 915 mm-wide channel which transports alumina from a surge hopper to a main silo at a rate of 1500 tonne/hour [ 4]. Currently there are a number of different companies marketing air-assisted gravity conveyors under a variety of different trade names, such as Airslide, Fluidor, Whirl-Slide, Flow-Veyor and Fluid-Slide. Nevertheless, considering the advantages that they can offer over other forms of bulk solids transport, particularly in terms of low power consumption, the use of these conveyors is not as widespread as might have been expected. To some extent this may be the result of a lack of confidence on the part of the design engineer, since airgravity conveying remains something of an art! 458 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING In order to avoid the pitfalls that do exist and to enable systems to be optimally designed rather than over-designed, some understanding of the phenomena involved in air-gravity conveying is desirable. Observation of a particulate bulk solid being conveyed in this way will immediately suggest a similarity to a liquid flowing in an inclined channel, but it is also evident that the continuous supply of air that is necessary to maintain the liquid-like state of the material has a close affinity to the gas-fluidization process. The present study, therefore, extends the basic principles of fluidization introduced in Chapter 3 to deal with the flow of fluidized solids. The design, construction and operation of practical air-assisted gravity conveyors is discussed at some length and finally consideration is given to a number of interesting variations on the conventional air-gravity conveyor in which the transported material flows along a horizontal or even an upward-inclined channel. 15.2 The flow of fluidized solids It has been remarked previously that when particulate solids become 'fluidized' under the influence of a continuous upward flow of a gas they tend to display many of the characteristics of liquids. Amongst these characteristics are the ability to maintain a horizontal free surface and the ability to flow from a higher to a lower level. Thus, for example, a powder fluidized in a vessel would flow from a hole in the side of that vessel, and could continue to flow through a horizontal pipe fitted to the hole, provided that this pipe was not so long that complete defluidization occurred. If it were possible to keep the powder in its fluidized condition as it passed along the pipe, the flow could be maintained indefinitely. Some methods of conveying particulate bulk solids in dense phase have been discussed in Chapter 12, generally relying on a flow of high-pressure air to keep the powder on the move. A method which comes closer to providing a true fluidized flow is the Gattys 'trace-air' system which is just one of several similar systems that are, or have been, commercially available and in which air at a relatively low pressure is supplied continuously to the powder in the pipeline through an internal perforated pipe running the whole length of the conveying line. The motive force comes from a pressure-drop along the conveying line created by pumping air in at the upstream end, as in conventional pneumatic conveying by pipeline, but the pressures are lower and the risk of blockage is smaller. An alternative system could have a continuous portion of the pipe wall made of a porous material with additional air being supplied from a separate duct external to the conveying line, and combining this idea with the use of gravity of provide the motive force, a remarkably economical method of transporting bulk solids can be conceived. Figure 15.2 shows a different approach to the same concept of continuous fluidized flow, which illustrates quite simply the fundamental principle on which air-assisted gravity conveyors operate. Most free-flowing particulate AIR-ASSISTED GRAVITY CONVEYING 459 (a) Figure 15.2 Aeration of a particulate material to reduce the natural angle of repose. materials display a natural angle of repose of around 35o to 40° (Figure 15.2a) and in order to get such a material to 'flow' continuously, under gravity alone, on an inclined surface it would normally be necessary for the slope of the surface to be greater than this angle of repose (Figure 15.2b). Materials exhibiting some degree of cohesiveness have much larger angles of repose and often will not flow, even on steeply inclined surfaces, without some form of assistance, such as vibration of the surface. The introduction of air to a bulk powder, for example by supporting the powder on a plate made of a suitable porous substance and allowing the air to flow upwards through it into the powder, can significantly reduce the natural angle of repose. The powder will then flow continuously from the plate when it is inclined at a very shallow angle, which needs only to be greater than the so-called 'fluidized angle of repose' of the material-for most free-flowing powders, around 2°-6° (Figure 15.2c). This phenomenon of fluidized flow can form the basis of a simple and reliable method of bulk solids transport if a channel is constructed having a porous base through which air can flow from some form of plenum chamber (Figure 15.1 ). It is of course an essential requirement that sufficient 460 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING air flows into the powder in the channel to cause it to flow and therefore the porous base must be of high enough resistance to ensure that when part of it is clear of powder the remainder is not starved of air (Figure 15.3a). The other essential condition to be met is that the downward slope is sufficient to permit a steady continuous flow of the fluidized powder. Provided that these conditions are satisfied, the air-assisted gravity conveyor would normally prove to be a trouble-free and very economical method of transporting a wide range of powdered and granular bulk solids. The appearance of the flowing aerated powder in the channel can depend upon a number of properties that together might be termed the 'flowability' of the material, and also to some extent on the roughness of the channel surface. Thus, a very free-flowing dry powder having a relatively low natural angle of repose (that is, good 'flowability') would be likely to fluidize well, and in this 1 wt(1.:· lit.f ~&!·~: (a) Starting the flow: air velocity into the stationary powder must exceed Umf, even when a large part of the porous membrane is uncovered. porous membrane (distributor) ~~r~-~i·'--~~\~~~~~~~~~j 1r plenum chamber air ~ift: :;;.>:.,· >J'!. .,,Ji;(~ ,<'!; rl'!{A. (b) Free-flowing powders become fluidized and will normally flow along the channel when the slope is as little as 1 ° powder well fluidized :;·~~~--.~~~ ..~ ";-..;:n,~~-r.~'l) ~~~~ -1" ::.-"1~ (c) Slightly cohesive powders that do not fluidize well can often be conveyed if the channel slope is greater (up to about 10 O). The powder effectively slides on a layer of air trapped against the top surface of the distributor. Figure 15.3 The flow of aerated particulate bulk solids in inclined channels. AIR-ASSISTED GRAVITY CONVEYING 461 state to flow smoothly along a channel inclined at as little as one or two degrees to the horizontal (Figure 15.3b). Visual observation of the flowing powder would show distinct liquid-like characteristics such as a smooth or slightly rippled surface, a 'plume' set up from a partial obstruction to the flow, and a 'standing wave' set up from a more substantial obstruction. In contrast, a powder that is cohesive can show a markedly different behaviour in an airgravity conveyor. Very cohesive (sticky) materials are, of course, unsuitable for conveying in channels in this manner. However, powders that are only slightly cohesive can usually be conveyed provided that the slope of the channel is greater; perhaps 6°-10°. Observation of these materials suggests that the particles are not fluidized, but move virtually as a solid mass sliding along the channel (Figure 15.3c). Irregular zig-zag cracks in the flowing powder bed and the craggy appearance of its free surface suggest similarities to the channelling and slugging behaviour that can occur in stationary fluidized beds-indeed these cohesive powders could be expected to exhibit just such characteristics-and the nature of the motion is very much akin to that occurring in en-masse conveyors (Chapter 9). It is not clear whether the improved 'flowability' that results from the continuous aeration of powders results predominantly from the air filtering through the solid particles and reducing the contact forces between them (thus causing partial fluidization) or from the formation of air layers between the bed of particles and the channel surfaces allowing slip to take place with the consequent sharp reduction of the boundary shear stresses. Even with fine freeflowing powders there is some evidence for the latter effect (for example the bubbling behaviour of a stationary fluidized bed is almost entirely suppressed when the bed flows), but it seems probable that the former effect is predominant with such materials. 15.3 Practical air-assisted gravity conveying As has been previously explained, conveying on a downward slope has the great advantage of gravity to assist the flow of the aerated bulk solid. This is the conventional, low-energy application of air-assisted gravity conveying. Figure 15.4 represents a basic air-gravity conveyor in which the conveyed bulk solid flows continuously under gravity from the inlet to the discharge point. Essentially the conveyor consists of two U-section channels (one inverted) with the porous membrane clamped between them (Figure 15.5a). A variety of different materials may be employed as the 'porous membrane', some typical examples being woven cotton or polyester, sintered plastic or ceramic tiles, and laminated stainless steel mesh (Table 15.1). Where the channel is fairly wide and the porous membrane is not rigid (for example a woven fabric) some additional support for the membrane, such as a wire grid, may be required. The lower channel serves as a plenum chamber to which air is supplied at one or more points depending upon the overall length of the 462 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING solids feed inspection cover porous embrane supply of filtered air solids/ discharge j Figure 15.4 Arrangement of a typical air-gravity conveyor. channel plenum chamber inspection cover (which may be glazed) (a) Section of the conveying duct (b) A side discharge box, one of the many components that can easily be built-in to an air-gravity conveying installation Figure 15.5 Construction of an air-gravity conveying channel. AIR-ASSISTED GRAVITY CONVEYING 463 Table 15.1 Some features of materials commonly used as the porous distributor in air-assisted gravity conveyors. Material Woven fabric Cotton Polyester Asbestos Sintered plastic Sintered metal Ceramic tiles Woven steel laminate Compound materials, e.g. filter cloth sandwiched between perforated steel plates Relative cost Features Light and fairly strong, but has little rigidity and may need supporting in wide ducts; performance may deteriorate if fluidizing air or conveyed solids are moist. As for cotton, but less susceptible to Low moisture; unsuitable for use at elevated temperatures. Particularly useful in high-temperature Low applications. Has smoother surface and greater rigidity Medium than woven fabrics; appears very prone to deterioration through accumulation of atmospheric dust and fines in conveyed material which cause decrease in air flow. Hygienic (therefore useful in food industry); High gives good fluidization and can be made with high degree of uniformity; but very expensive. Perhaps less convenient than other materials Medium in that tiles must be fitted together and sealed, but widely used; good fluidization; ceramic is brittle and subject to impact damage, but is resistant to high temperatures. Qualities similar to sintered metal; resistant High to high temperatures. Low to medium Combines good fluidization qualities of fine filter cloth with strength steel sheets; can be easily made to any desired specification to suit user's application. Low conveying system. The presence of the covered top channel renders the conveyor virtually free from problems of dust leakage, but naturally it would also operate satisfactorily as an open channel. In this form the device has been widely employed for flow assisters mounted at the bottom of silos, bunkers, railway wagons and lorries, and so on, enabling these containers to be made with a virtually flat base and thus to have a substantially greater capacity. Where the conveyor is covered it is necessary for the top channel to be adequately vented through suitable filters. With short conveyors it may be sufficient to rely on the air escaping with the powder from the outlet end of the channel and then through the vent system of the discharge hopper, if one is in use. If the conveying system is long, or if there is a possibility of the channel outlet becoming choked with powder, it is better to vent from two or more points between the inlet and the outlet. It is likely to prove useful to have inspection or access ports fitted at convenient positions along the duct, 464 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING especially in the region of the inlet and outlet and in other positions where blockage may occur. In any case it is advisable to have a means of physically cleaning out the channel since it is a peculiarity of air-gravity conveyors that when the solids feed is reduced the flow becomes unstable and then stops. Thus, the base of the channel cannot be completely cleared of the conveyed material simply by shutting off the feed. The air-gravity conveyor may operate with flooded feed from a hopper where precise control of the solids flow rate is not required. The system is then effectively self-regulating and, with free-flowing powders, there should be little risk of the conveying channel becoming choked provided that its slope and the flow rate of fluidizing air are sufficient. Alternatively, the supply may be from some form of metering device such as a rotary valve or screw feeder. Another commonly used technique for obtaining some measure of flow control is to fit a gate or baffie in the conveying duct, close to the inlet from the hopper. Placing a flow-regulating gate near the outlet end of the conveyor is generally not advisable as the whole channel could well fill with powder backing up from the gate. Problems would then occur with venting of the fluidizing air and with erratic flushing of the powder under the gate as it opens. However, provided that care is taken over the design of the venting arrangement and also of the method of discharge control, the choke-fed air-assisted gravity conveyor can prove to be a very useful device, allowing material to be drawn at will from any of a number of outlets in what is effectively, a long fluidized header-tank. Solids flow control at the inlet end, although basically more reliable, does present a problem on long channels because of the considerable delay between making an adjustment to the control gate and seeing the effect of this adjustment at the lower end ofthe channel. In fact, where it is important to control the solids flow rate within relatively close limits it becomes almost essential to install some form of buffer hopper close to the discharge point. Air-gravity conveyors are available from a number of manufacturers as a range of standard bolt-together components which include straight and curved sections of various widths along with 'accessories' such as flow diverters, inlet and discharge ports, gate valves and scrap traps. One such component-a flow diverter-is illustrated in Figure 15.5b. Controlling the location at which a bulk solid is discharged from an airassisted gravity conveyor is likely to be much more satisfactory than controlling the rate of discharge. Using appropriate bends, diverters and outlet ports it is possible to construct quite complex systems. Figure 15.6 illustrates an ingenious but simple solution to the problem of automatically controlling the feed of materials to a stockpile. An overhead air-gravity conveyor discharges the fluidized bulk solid down each of a succession of outlet spouts until the rising level of the stockpile causes them to become blocked. It has been stated that air-gravity conveyors are usually trouble-free in operation, and whilst this is true, there are one or two ways in which problems may arise. One potential source of trouble is the porous membrane that forms AIR-ASSISTED GRAVITY CONVEYING '·· \ 465 \,, \., Figure 15.6 spouts. An air-assisted gravity conveyor feeding a stockpile through multiple discharge the base of the conveying channel. There are many examples of installations in which the same membrane has been in use continuously for a number of years, but in other cases replacement is necessary at quite frequent intervals. There is probably little that can be done about blinding of the pores in the top surface of the membrane, but precautions can be taken against deterioration of the underside by ensuring that the main air supply is adequately filtered. A further precaution concerns the need for the porous membrane to withstand a certain amount of ill-usage. It appears to be common practice for operatives to attempt to relieve suspected blockages with the aid of an iron bar or similar implement wielded against the outside of the channel or prodded through an inspection port, with the not uncommon result that the porous distributor is cracked (in the case of ceramic tiles) or punctured (woven fabrics). Blockage of the conveying duct is unlikely to occur unless the porous distributor is damaged or the nature of the conveyed material changes drastically (for example, becoming wet), both of which would tend to cause local, or complete defluidization of the flowing solid. Erratic flow in the conveying channel is unlikely to be caused by the air-gravity conveying system itself, unless the slope is too shallow or the bed depth is too great. It is more probable that the feed to the channel would be at fault, for example, as a result of arching in the hopper supplying the air-gravity channel. 15.4 Design parameters for air-gravity conveyors 15.4.1 Slope of channel Experimental investigation of the influence of channel slope suggests that there is an optimum value of the slope which depends principally upon the 466 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING nature of the bulk solid being handled. Attempting to convey at a slope less than this optimum value can result in the depth of the bed of bulk material in the channel increasing excessively, even to the point where the channel becomes completely blocked. Conveying at slopes greater than the optimum value should not cause any problems, but does not yield any significant advantage and does not make the best use of available headroom. However, this optimum slope is not easy to predict without undertaking tests with samples of the material in a small-scale channel. In general, for freeflowing materials a slope of around 3° should be sufficient, but more cohesive powders may require 7o to lOo to ensure continuous trouble-free operation. 15.4.2 Conveying distance Provided that the continuous downward slope can be maintained, there is generally no limit to the length of conveying channel that can be used. Airassisted gravity conveyors of 100 m or more in length are not unknown. It is necessary of course to arrange the air supply so that a uniform pressure exists beneath the distributor, and in very long conveyors it is usual to provide air inlets at several points along the length of the plenum chamber. It may also be advisable to vent the main channel at several points to prevent the build-up of an excessive air velocity over the top of the material being conveyed. 15.4.3 Width of conveying channel The main parameter governing the capacity of an air-gravity conveyor is the channel width. In the literature published by manufacturers of these conveyors, and in other sources giving basic design data, quantities described as 'typical capacities' are given as a function only of the channel width with little, if any, indication of how such figures would be modified for different types of conveyed material, and for different channel slopes and fluidizing air flow rates. This is not as unreasonable as it first appears in view of the fact that, provided the slope and air flow rate exceed the required 'minimum' or 'optimum' values for the particular material being conveyed, they will have little influence on the solids flow rate. A useful preliminary estimate ofthe width ofthe channel required for a given application may be made by regarding as constant the average velocity and the bulk density of the flowing suspension (although both are in fact functions of the channel slope and fluidizing air velocity). Thus the width of conveyor (b) required to handle a mass flow rate ms of a material having bulk density Pb is given approximately by rm b _( _ e_s_ r.pbus )112 ( 15.1) where r. is the operating aspect ratio, re is the expansion ratio of the conveyed 467 AIR-ASSISTED GRAVITY CONVEYING 3: g "'"'ro E "' :2 0 "' 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0 channel width (m) Figure 15.7 Chart giving the approximate relationship between conveying capacity and channel width for air-gravity conveyors operating at an aspect ratio of 0.5. material (that is, the ratio ofthe bulk density ofthe unfluidized material to that of the suspension) and u. is the average solids velocity along the channel. Taking suitable average values of the quantities u., ra and r., and introducing the particle density pP in place of the bulk density Pb• a convenient 'rule-ofthumb' may be proposed as b ~ 1.6(;;r'2 (15.2) where m. in kg/sand pP in kg/m 3 gives bin metres. This relationship has been used to plot the chart, Figure 15.7, which provides a quick reference for determining the approximate channel size for a given application. (It should be noted, however, that normal industrial practice would be unlikely to permit the widest channels to operate at an aspect ratio as high as 0.5, and caution should be exercised in this respect when using the above equations or chart.) 468 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 15.4.4 Air requirement In order to specify the air requirement of an air-gravity conveyor it is necessary to establish the volumetric flow rate of the air through the porous base of the channel and the pressure within the plenum chamber. The plenum pressure is clearly a function of the resistance offered by the porous base of the channel, but also depends upon the depth of the conveyed material in the channel. If it is assumed that the conveyed material is fully supported by the air it is possible to estimate the pressure on the upper surface of the porous membrane for any required aspect ratio of the flowing bed. Knowledge of the permeability of the porous base (that is, the air flow rate per unit area per unit pressure difference across it) would then permit the pressure in the plenum chamber to be estimated. In practice, however, it is difficult to predict with any confidence an optimum value for this parameter because of uncertainty over the actual pressure drop across the flowing bed of bulk solid. As mentioned previously, it is essential that the porous membrane is of sufficiently high resistance to ensure a uniform distribution of air into the conveyed material, and typically the plenum pressure needed is found to be approximately 250~500mm H 2 0. The flow rate of air that must be supplied to the air-gravity conveyor depends principally upon the length and width of the channel and the nature of the bulk particulate material to be conveyed. The air flow may be expressed conveniently in terms of the volume flow rate per unit area of the porous channel base; that is, as a 'superficial velocity' of air into the conveyed bulk solid from the chamber. The value of this superficial velocity that must be maintained can be predicted approximately from a knowledge of the fluidization characteristics of the bulk solid, although the slope of the channel and the solids mass flow rate required will also have an influence. The optimum superficial air velocity, at which the conveyor can be operated economically without undue risk of stoppage of the solids flow is likely to be between two and three times the minimum velocity at which the material could be fluidized (umr; see Chapter 3). For very free-flowing materials on a relatively steep incline an air velocity only slightly in excess of the minimum fluidizing velocity may be sufficient, but for very fine powders up to ten times umr may be needed. In addition to being wasteful of energy, operation at too high an air velocity can cause problems as a result of fine particles being entrained in the air stream leaving the surface of the flowing suspension. Therefore the designer requires some knowledge, not only of the minimum fluidizing velocity of the bulk solid to be conveyed, but also of the air velocity at which entrainment can begin, which corresponds approximately to the terminal velocity of the fine particles falling in stationary air. Many methods of predicting umr for bulk solids are to be found in the published literature (again, see Chapter 3). Figure 15.8 is a chart based on one of these correlations for powders fluidized with air at a condition close to AIR-ASSISTED GRA VJTY CONVEYING 469 'Cil l ·€ 0 a> > ·a 10 ea group A :§ /I i. :::> Ml !MUM FLUIDIZING VELOCITY (/) 50 100 mean particle diameter C /"ID) Figure 15.8 Minimum fluidising velocity and terminal velocity for a bed of particles fluidized with air at normal ambient conditions. normal ambient. Also shown on this chart are approximate values of u1, the terminal velocity of particles in free fall in still air. For a particulate bulk solid of known particle size and density, Figure 15.8 allows a fairly reliable estimate to be made of the minimum fluidizing velocity and, using the diameter of the smallest particles in the material, the air velocity can be predicted at which these fine particles may begin to be carried upwards from the surface of the bed. Approximate ranges of the types of fluidization behaviour, as given by Geldart's classification (Figure 3.13), are also shown on Figure 15.8, superimposed on the lines corresponding to the minimum fluidization condition, thus helping to provide a useful prediction of the likely behaviour of a particulate bulk solid in an air-assisted gravity conveyor. R 470 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING For a more detailed discussion of the various aspects of the design of airassisted gravity conveyors the reader is directed to [5]. 15.5 Properties of bulk solids for air-gravity conveying Almost any bulk particulate solid having good fluidizing characteristics will, when suitably aerated, flow easily down an inclined surface, and can therefore be transported satisfactorily in an air-assisted gravity conveyor. Although it is often stated that being easily fluidizable is an essential requirement for conveying in this manner, in fact, many materials having slightly cohesive properties can also be conveyed. However, very cohesive (damp or 'sticky') materials and powders of extremely fine particle size which 'smear' over the channel surface and 'blind' the porous membrane are generally unsuitable for air-gravity conveying. A list of materials that can be handled by a particular type of conveying system is often misleading because of the implication that those materials not on the list may be in some way unsuitable. Nevertheless, a list is given here as Table 15.2 with the intention of illustrating the wide range of bulk solids that can be successfully transported in air-gravity conveyors and the wide range of industries in which the system may be useful. It is perhaps of greater value in appreciating the versatility of air-gravity conveying to study some examples of actual applications of bulk solids transport by this method. Such information can often be obtained from manufacturers of air-gravity conveyors but there are also a number of useful references in the published literature to practical installations handling various bulk solids and some of these are set out in Table 15.3. The work of Gel dart in classifying bulk solids according to their fluidization behaviour has been discussed previously and a chart illustrating the ranges of Groups A, B, C and D, (e.g. Figure 3.13 or Figure 15.8), provides a useful guide to the suitability of powders and granular materials for air-gravity conveying. In general, materials in Group B, which includes most powders in the mean particle size and density ranges 40 to 500 11m and 1400 to 4000 kg/m 3 , are the Table 15.2 Twenty common particulate bulk materials that can be handled successfully in air-gravity conveyors Alumina Animal feedstuffs Barytes Bauxite Catalysts Cement Fertilizers Flour Gypsum Kiln dust PVC resin Potash Pulverized coal Pulverized fuel ash (pfa) Powdered ores Rockdust Sand Soap powder Soda ash Talc 471 AIR-ASSISTED GRAVITY CONVEYING Table 15.3 Some sources of information on industrial application of air-assisted gravity conveying Material handled Cement, fluidized and conveyed on woven canvas belting in a trough inclined at about 4o Hot metallic sulphide dust, fluidized on a porous medium of refractory aluminium oxide Alumina powder in a large Canadian smelting plant, conveyed on porous tiles at a 2.2° slope. (Conveying rate about 200 tonne/h in 500 mmwide channel.) Alumina transported on various sizes of air-gravity conveyor in ship loading and unloading plant. Rockdust handled in bulk to reduce costs in mining applications. ('Airslide' with 6° slope) General information; and reference to sodium tripolyphosphate and silica flour. Various bulk solids conveyed on 'airslides' in self-unloading railroad car. Author(s) and reference Avery, W.M. [6] Nordberg, B. [7] Anon. [8] Bushell, E. and Maskell, R.C. [3] Leitzel, R.E. and Morrisey, W.M. [2] Alston, G.L. [9] Anon., [10] EEU A Handbook Hudson, W.G. [11] easiest to convey and will flow well at very shallow slopes. When the supply of fluidizing air is shut off the bed collapses rapidly and flow stops, so that there are unlikely to be any problems with air retention. Materials of larger particle size and/or high density (Group D) can sometimes be conveyed in the same manner, b Jt the quantity of fluidizing air tends to become rather large, and other forms of transport, such as belt conveying, are likely to be more suitable. Group A generally includes powders of small particle size and/or low density which should flow well in an air-gravity conveyor; however, as a result of air retention, the material may have a tendency to continue flowing for a time after the fluidizing air supply has been shut off. Finally, Group C includes cohesive powders that are difficult to fluidize satisfactorily because of high interparticle forces resulting from very small particle size, electrostatic effects or high moisture content. The dividing line between Groups C and A is very indistinct and the only way of properly assessing the suitability of doubtful materials for air-assisted gravity conveying is by practical experiment in a small-scale test rig. As previously indicated, it may be found that apparently unsuitable materials will, by a combination of 'flowing' and 'sliding', move continuously along an inclined channel, provided that the slope and air supply are sufficient. Although for a given bulk solid, the parameters mainly influencing its flow behaviour are those that have already been discussed, there are several other effects which can cause changes to occur during conveying. The most significant of these are moisture, electrostatic charging and particle segregation. It is well known that changes in the moisture content of powders can seriously affect their handling characteristics and this is especially true in the case of fluidization and fluidized flow. Whilst a small increase in moisture may 1 472 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING be beneficial in reducing the tendency of the material to hold an electrostatic charge, too much moisture can cause normally free-flowing powders to become so cohesive that they cannot be fluidized. Electrostatic charging can have a similar effect and indeed can be a considerable hazard if the conveyed material is potentially explosive. The tendency for segregation to occur in fluidized beds has been mentioned previously, and this tendency for the coarser particles to drift down towards the distributor can also occur in flowing fluidized solids. Where the channel is short and relatively steeply inclined there would be little opportunity for segregation to occur, but in longer channels the problem may become significant. In extreme cases a deposit of coarse particles may continuously build up on the bottom of the channel until the solids flow ceases altogether. 15.6 Air-float conveyors for horizontal and upward transport It has already been established, through the example of the air-gravity conveyor, that a fluidized powder will flow along a channel, in the manner of a liquid, provided that there is an input of energy to the powder sufficient to maintain the flow. In view of the several positive features that air-gravity conveying has to offer it is not suprising that there have been a number of attempts to devise modifications to the basic system that would permit material to be transported horizontally or on an upward slope. In order to convey a bulk solid horizontally in an air-float system some additional source of energy is required to propel the material along the channel. Perhaps the most familiar device of this type is the one marketed under the name 'Jet Stream' in which the base of the channel consists of a flat plate with a large number oflouvred openings so that air enters from the plenum chamber with a significant component of velocity along the channel (Figure 15.9). This system works very well for transporting relatively large single items such as packets and boxes, but rather less well for bulk solids. Although the angled air jets should serve both to 'fluidize' and to propel the material along the channel, Figure 15.9 Perforated plate distributor of the type used in the 'Jet Stream' conveyor: the spacing of the openings, their shape and the percentage of open area may be varied to suit the material being conveyed. (Typical dimensions are given in mm.) AIR-ASSISTED GRAVITY CONVEYING Figure 15.10 473 Stepped or multi-section conveyor for horizontal conveying [10]. high-pressure air low-pressure air porous membrane (a) One form of Stegmaier"s air-jet conveyor ~- 19 I (Ref.12) 0.5 --~250 ~~- (b) A typical slotted plate distributor : the slots extend the full width of the con•,eying channel but their size and spacing could be varied (c) A combination of porous distributor and directional air-jets Figure 15.1 l Horizontal conveyors using air jets to move the bulk material along the channel. 474 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING problems arise with backflow of particles into the plenum chamber and degradation of friable materials as a result of the high velocity of the jets. Furthermore, the specific energy consumption (that is, the energy consumption per metre length conveyed at a rate of one tonne per hour) is rather high. Other proposals for horizontal air-float conveying included a stepped airgravity conveyor with 'air-lifts' at the end of each downward inclined section (Figure 15.10), an air-jet conveyor with forward-facing nozzles at regular intervals along the channel (Figure 15.11 a) and various designs incorporating inclined slots across the full width of the conveying channel (Figure 15.11 b, c). A number of attempts have been made to operate conveyors of the air-float type on an upward slope. In fact, the devices mentioned above will move particulate material up a slight incline, but not very efficiently. More ingenious systems have been described in the literature which will work on an upward gradient of around 10°-20° (Figure 15.12), but with the exception perhaps of some specialized applications, these devices are unlikely ever to be commercially viable. Although intended as a variant of the conventional downward-sloping airassisted gravity conveyor for handling 'difficult' materials, the 'Pneuslide' conveyor (Figure 15.13) is worth mentioning here. This conveyor, which is plenum chamber (a) The 'Pneumatic Escalator' of Shinohara and Tanaka (Ref.13) (b) The lsler conveyor, designed to operate by generating a pressure gradient within the conveyed material (Ref.14) Figure 15.12 Proposed methods of air-float conveying on an upward incline. AIR-ASSISTED GRAVITY CONVEYING Figure 15.13 475 Cross section of 'Pneuslide' and 'Pneudistributor' [15]. claimed to overcome some of the inherent disadvantages of the more usual rectangular section channel with porous base, uses a perforated-pipe distributor of special design running along a V-bottomed channel. The purpose of the V-bottom was to minimize the quantity of stagnant material held below the distributor and, to ensure that a layer of particles remained above the distributor, the lower edge of the discharge port from the channel is located some 50 mm above the distribution pipe. The Pneuslide represents an interesting development and in many applications its advantages of operation at high temperature and elimination of clogging and backfilling could outweigh the obvious disadvantage of stagnant material lying in the channel beneath the distributor. For a further discussion of these and other variants on the air-assisted gravity conveyors, see [16]. 15.7 Energy consumption of air-gravity conveyors It must be admitted that air-assisted gravity conveying suffers from disadvantages, notably that the installation is somewhat less flexible than a pneumatic pipeline system and the range of bulk solids that can be conveyed is rather narrower than could be handled by some mechanical systems. However, such disadvantages as the air-gravity conveyor has are largely compensated by the high transport rates that can be achieved and the remarkably low energy consumption when conveying moderately fine particulate solids on a continuous downward slope. It has been mentioned previously that the air supplied to the plenum chamber of a typical air-gravity conveyor would be at a pressure of around 250-500 mm H 2 0 and the superficial velocity of the air through the porous 476 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING base ofthe channel would normally not exceed 100 mmjs. A simple calculation then shows that, for example, the maximum power requirement of a 0.5 mwide air-gravity conveying channel should be around 250 watts per metre length. A channel of this width could be expected to have a capacity of at least 500 tonne/h so that the maximum specific power consumption is likely to be in the region of0.5 W/m pert/h. Since the air requirement of air-gravity channels is proportional approximately to their width whilst the conveying capacity is more nearly proportional to the square of the width, wide channels have a lower specific power consumption than narrow ones, provided that they operate at full capacity. The energy consumption of air-float conveyors operating horizontally or on an upward incline is less easy to estimate. However, the various forms of air-jet conveyor could be expected to require the same quantity of air for fluidization as the air-gravity conveyors, plus an additional air-flow to propel the powder along the channel. This 'additional' airflow can be several times that required for fluidization so that the energy consumption of the air-jet conveyors tends to be rather high. 15.8 Notation b rh. ra r. Umc ut u. Pb Width of conveying channel Solids mass flow rate Conveying aspect ratio (defined as the ratio of the depth of the flowing particulate bed to the width of the channel) Expansion ratio of particulate bed (defined as the ratio of the bulk density of the unfluidized material to that of the suspension) Minimum fluidizing velocity Terminal velocity of particles in free fall Average velocity of the conveyed material Bulk density References and bibliography References 1. Dodge, J. Verfahren zum FortschaiTen von Materialien in Forderrinnen mittels Luftdruck (Procedure for transportation of materials in conveying channels using pressurised air.) DRP88402, 1895 (German patent). 2. Leitzel, R.E. and Morrisey, W.M. Air-float conveyors. Bulk Materials Handling, Vol.1, ed. M.C. Hawk, Univ. Pittsburgh, Sch. Mechn. Eng., 1971, 307-325. 3. Bushell, E. and Maskell, R.C. Fluidised handling of alumina powder. Mech. Handling 47(3) (March 1960) 126-131. 4. Butler, P. No-moving parts conveyor shifts dry powdered solids. Process Engg. August 1974, 65. 5. Woodcock, C.R. and Mason, J.S. Aspects of the design of air-assisted gravity conveyors for AIR-ASSISTED GRAVITY CONVEYING 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 477 the transport of bulk particulate solids. Proc. 7Ist Annual AIChE Conf, Florida, November 1978. Avery, W. Meet the Airslide. Pit and Quarry 41(2) (1949) 62-67. Nordberg, B. Air-activated gravity conveyors. Rock Products, 52, August 1949, 115-124. Anon. Hot dust is conveyed pneumatically from precipitators to furnaces. Eng. and Mining, J., July 1954, 91. Alston, G.L. Advances in rockdusting procedures. Mechanisation, January 1961, 46-48. EEUA Handbook No.l5, Pneumatic Handling of Powdered Materials, Constable and Co., London, 1963. Hudson, W.G. Why use pneumatic conveyors. Chem. Engg., Aprill954, 191-194. Stegmaier, W. Pneumatic chute for the horizontal transport of powdered bulks. Bulk Solids Technology 2(1) (Spring 1978) 47-55. Shinohara, K. and Tanaka, T. A new device for pneumatic transport of particles. J. Chem. Engg. of Japan 5(3) (1972) 279-285. Isler, W. An air-slide type conveyor for horizontal and upward inclined transport. ZementKalk-Gips 10 (1960) 482-486 (In German). Singh, B., Callcott, R.G. and Rig by, G.R. Flow of fluidized solids and other fluids in open channels. Powder Technol. 20 (1978) 99-113. Woodcock, C.R. and Mason, J.S. Air-float conveying of particulate bulk solids. Proc. Int. Symp. on Fine Particles Processing, Las Vegas, February 1980. Recommended further reading Kraus, M.N. Pneumatic Conveying of Bulk Materials. The Ronald Press Company, 1968, 241-254. 16 Hydraulic conveying 16.1 Introduction Hydraulic conveying of bulk solids, or 'slurry transport', involves the conveyance of solid particles in suspension in a moving liquid. Although the majority of commercially viable slurry pipelines have been constructed to carry mineral particles in water, almost any combination of solids and liquids could be possible provided, obviously, that the solid material is not dissolved or affected in some other unacceptable manner by the carrying liquid. Hightonnage, long-distance transportation of coal, iron, copper, phosphate, limestone and various other minerals in hydraulic pipelines is now a wellestablished commercial alternative to other modes of bulk solids transport such as lorries, railway trains and barges. The essential elements of a general hydraulic conveying system are illustrated in Figure 16.1. Initially the bulk solid must be prepared, and this may involve several stages of size reduction by milling and grinding, followed by mixing with water (or other liquid) to an appropriate consistency. The slurry is then held in storage tanks, and agitated to keep the solid particles in suspension, before being pumped into the pipeline. Depending upon the length of the pipeline, additional pumping stations may be required at intermediate points. At the reception terminal it is usually necessary to remove most, if not all, of the carrying liquid in a 'de-watering plant', after which the bulk solid passes on to the next process. One of the first reported applications of the conveyance of particulate solids in hydraulic pipelines was in California around 1850 when gold-bearing sand was lifted through some 10-20 m and flushed down inclined sluice boxes, but it was some forty years later when a US patent was granted for pumping coal slurry [1]. A number of short-distance systems were demonstrated soon after this, and in 1914 the first medium-length slurry pipeline was carrying coal from Thames river barges to the Hammersmith power station in London, the distance involved being some 540m [1]. It was not until the 1950s that the slurry pipeline really began to compete against other forms of transportation for moving bulk solids at high rates over long distances, and in the next 30 years or so a large number of commercially operated pipelines began working, ranging in length from a few miles to around 1000 miles, and handling a variety of different bulk solid materials. Lists of important slurry pipelines have appeared in several publications, for instance, [1]-[3], and only two examples, representing landmarks in the development of hydraulic transport of solids, will be described here. . r- 1·: .:' 479 HYDRAULIC CONVEYING terminal facility dry solids plp.loo - · ~ r-----,~ carrier liQ.Jid Cw,ter) 1===91==~· ' PIPELINE L _____ j PIPELINE SLURRY PREPARATION MAIN PUMP INTERtvEDIATE PUMP DEWATERING PLANT dry solids carrier liquid to waste,or re-use ~ I I____ ---~------------------------' Figure 16.1 The essential elements of a hydraulic conveying system. The first long-distance hydraulic pipeline for the transport of iron ore was constructed in north-western Tasmania (Figure 16.2a) in the late 1960s to carry the low-grade ore from the mine site at Savage River, a distance of 53 miles (85 km) to Port Latta on the north coast [ 4]. The terrain is rugged and mountainous, rendering other modes of transport impractical, both from a technical and economic standpoint. The selected route involved crossing several deep river gorges, including that of the Savage River itself, which necessitated suspending the 230 mm-diameter pipe 140 m above the river from a 365 m long catenary. The annual throughput achieved with the pipeline is about 2.3 million tonnes. A pioneering development in the hydraulic transportation of coal has been the 273 mile (437 km) Black Mesa pipeline in Arizona, USA. The pipeline, which began commercial operation in 1970, is 450mm in diameter for most of its length and transports coal at a rate of around five million tonnes per year. It crosses a high desert plateau and four mountain ranges on its route from the Kayenta mine in north-eastern Arizona to the destination in the southern tip of Nevada (Figure 16.2b). Upward gradients are limited to 16%, principally to avoid problems occurring as a result of particles falling back along the pipe during shutdowns. Towards the end of the route the pipeline drops some 1070m in 12miles (19km), and in order to absorb the high pressure head during this rapid descent the pipe diameter is reduced to 300mm. Probably the biggest problem facing planners of long-distance pipelines concerns the acquisition of rights of way. Legal difficulties in this respect have caused a long delay to one of the most ambitious slurry transport projects ever proposed, the 1400 mile (2300 km) American ETSI coal slurry pipeline designed to carry 25 million tonnes per year through a 950 mm-diameter pipe from Gillette, Wyoming, southwards to the Gulf Coast. Of considerable interest recently, especially where the use of water presents insurmountable difficulties, are proposals to develop slurry systems that would use other liquids. The two combinations receiving greatest attention are coal-in-oil and coal-in-methanol [2]. There seem to be few problems with the 480 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 1, Port Latta Savage River t.tne The Savage River Pipeline in Tasmania r--L!!~----1 I The Black Mesa Pipeline in Arizona, USA Figure 16.2 The routes of two of the world's major slurry pipelines. flow behaviour of such slurries, although coal-methanol mixtures apparently have thixotropic tendencies which would result in higher pumping pressures than are desirable. A big advantage of substituting oil or methanol mixtures for the aqueous slurries is that the de-watering process is reduced or even eliminated altogether since the entire slurry can be used as a fuel. HYDRAULIC CONVEYING 481 The economics of slurry pipelining are interesting but quite complex with many factors to be taken into account, most of them specific to the project under consideration. In general, slurry transport has applications where: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Large annual tonnages are to be handled The transportation distance is large The terrain is too difficult to allow either road or rail systems to be viable Sufficient water is available The preparation of the bulk solid is not costed solely against the transport system but is necessary for a subsequent process (vi) The bulk solid is not damaged or spoiled by slurrification and has reasonable de-watering characteristics. The numerous variables and project characteristics interact in a complex way, however, to influence the selection of a transportation system and the only effective approach to establishing the economic feasibility of a hydraulic pipeline for a specific project requires estimates of cost based on an engineering study of that project. In this chapter only a brief overview of hydraulic conveying is presented. However, there now exists a vast quantity of literature on this fascinating subject and the reader wishing to undertake further study could begin with the books listed on p. 493 and progress to the more specialized technical papers, particularly those published in the proceedings of the Hydrotransport series of conferences. 16.2 Components of a hydraulic conveying system 16.2.1 Pumps Quite a wide variety of pumps are available for handling slurries, and a useful survey of these can be found in [5]. These fall into two main categories: reciprocating pumps, subdivided into plunger type and piston type, and rotodynamic (centrifugal) pumps. They each have advantages and disadvantages, the most significant being that the reciprocating type, being a positive displacement machine, can attain higher pressures (even to the extent of restarting flow in a blocked pipeline) whereas the centrifugal pump is capable of passing much larger particles (up to 100 mm diameter or more) without serious damage. The selection of pumps for a slurry pipeline project would be governed by three factors: the pressure required, the flow rate required and the nature of the slurry in terms of the size of solid particles and their abrasiveness. Table 16.1, from [6], summarizes the capabilities of the main classes of slurry pump on hydraulic pipeline applications. The pressure requirement is the first factor that dictates the type of pump to be used, since for pressures greater than about 45 bar the centrifugal machines must be ruled out. The choice between plunger 482 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Table 16.1 Performance capabilities of slurry pumps [6] Type Plunger Piston Centrifugal Max. Working Pressure (bars) 240~275 170~210 40~50 Max.flow* (m 3 /hour) 200 600 11000 Mechanical Efficiency Max. allowable particle size (mm) 85~90 2 2 150 %) 85~90 40~75 (*Note that these maximum flow rates can usually be obtained only at pressures much smaller than the maximum shown) plunger con~~;png Figure 16.3 The elements of a plunger pump. I Figure 16.4 A double-acting piston pump (fluid end). pumps and piston pumps would then depend mainly upon the abrasiveness of the slurry concerned (with the former being better for highly abrasive products) and the flow rate required. Costs, however, especially in terms of the number of pumps required (including those on standby), must be carefully considered. The plunger pump (Figure 16.3) and the piston pump (Figure 16.4) are generally similar in construction. Both have a crankshaft which drives the plungers or pistons through connecting rods and crossheads. The plunger-type pumps are necessarily single-acting, but piston pumps may be either single- or double-acting. Since abrasive particles trapped between the piston and the HYDRAU LIC CONVEYING 483 cylinder wall would result in very high rates ofwear, it is usual when handling such materials to employ plunger pumps in which the plunger is continuously flushed with clear water during the suction stroke. Valves are usually of the automatic type, designed to minimize the effects of erosion and to pass reasonable sized particles (up to about 1.5 mm). Figure 16.5 A centrifugal pump for slurry handling (pho to courtesy Warman International Ltd). 484 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Reciprocating pumps are used on both the Savage River and Black Mesa slurry pipelines. The former uses four 450 kW trip lex plunger pumps, arranged in parallel, two of them being variable-speed in order to allow some adjustment of the throughput and to make possible a gradual start after a shutdown. The maximum working pressure of these machines is 140 bar (2000 lbf/in 2 ) and each delivers 88m 3 /hour. The Black Mesa pipeline has four pumping stations each equipped with double-acting duplex piston pumps. One station has four 1300 kW pumps, each rated for 320m 3 /hour at 110 bar, and the others each have three 1120kW or 1300kW pumps, delivering 480m 3 /hour at the lower pressure of 76 bar. These pumps transport 670 tonnes/hour of coal at a concentration of 48% by mass, corresponding to a volumetric flow rate of 960m 3 /hour [6]. Centrifugal pumps (Figure 16.5) are more commonly used and tend to be the automatic choice for short-distance applications and on in-plant operation where the relatively low maximum working pressure (about 50 bar, for multiple pumps in series) does not prove to be a limitation. In order to minimize wear, centrifugal pumps are commonly lined with rubber, and this places a restriction on the impeller speed and the particle size of a slurry, since large particles travelling at high velocities can have sufficient inertia to cut the rubber lining. Pumps for coarse-particle slurries are lined with wear-resistant metal alloys and can operate at higher heads since greater impeller tip-speeds are permissible. However, the need to pass large particles means that these pumps are designed with impellers and casings having wide flow passages, and the hydraulic efficiency tends therefore to be low. A typical application of centrifugal pumps is on the Waipipi Iron Sands project in New Zealand, which includes a 6.4 km land pipeline followed by a 2.9 km undersea section. There are three pumping stations, having ten centrifugal pumps distributed amongst them, ranging in capacity from 190kW, 520m 3 /hour up to 600kW, 1460m 3 /hour. The smaller pumps, arranged five in series in the main booster station and three in series on a concentrator barge, have a maximum discharge pressure of 28 bar, whilst the larger ones, mounted six in series on a ship-loading station, are rated at 46 bar [6]. A system that has been developed for handling very abrasive slurries is based on the use of 'lock-hoppers' (Figure 16.6). These allow conventional multistage pumps to develop high heads with clear water whilst the slurry is switched in and out of the lock-hoppers by sequenced valves. Another device which has the same general objective of feeding the solids into the pipeline downstream of the main or primary pumps, so allowing these to work with clear water, is the jet pump (Figure 16. 7). The driving fluid, from a conventional primary pump, flows at high velocity through the central nozzle and entrains solids-laden fluid, mixing with it in the throat section. In order to obtain a reasonable delivery pressure, the flow rate of the driving fluid is likely to be of the same order as the entrained flow. 485 HYDRAULIC CONVEYING SIIITY from water rell.m Figure 16.6 A lock-hopper system for use with abrasive slurries. Note: system is illustrated with valves b, c, e and h open, and valves a, d, f and g closed so that lock-hopper A is discharging slurry into the pipeline under the action of high-pressure water being supplied through valve e. Lockhopper B is filling through valve c. All the valves are reversed when lock-hopper A is empty of slurry and lock-hopper B is full. / jet nozzle diffuser ni~ng tube ___ /_'-_ _ _ __ / - delivered flui9____ Figure 16.7 The principle of the jet pump. 16.2.2 Slurry preparation plant In its simplest form, slurry preparation consists of milling or grinding the bulk solid down to a size suitable for pumping and then mixing it with the carrier liquid before introducing it into the conveying pipeline. An important 486 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING economic consideration relates to the proportion of the cost of slurry preparation that has to be set against the transportation. Thus, if the bulk solid needs to be milled to a small size for a subsequent process (as would be the case with minerals extraction from ores, for instance) a fair proportion of the cost of the mills can be assigned to this. In all cases, slurry preparation will involve striking a balance between the size of particles giving optimum slurry flow characteristics and the size needed for any subsequent processes, which includes de-watering at the discharge end of the pipeline. Thus, if the particles are extremely fine, de-watering will be difficult, although the flow qualities of the slurry would be good. Coarse particles, however, generally require higher conveying velocities (and therefore cause higher energy consumption and greater rates of wear). Size reduction of bulk solids is generally by crushing or grinding, with modern practice being to reduce the size to about 2 mm in jaw or gyratory cone crushers, with further reduction, if required in rod mills or ball mills. For the Black Mesa coal pipeline, for example, the coal from the mine or stockpile is first passed through a cage mill and then, after mixing with water, undergoes further grinding in a rod mill to a size of 1200 Jlm. The two most important variables in slurry preparation are the density of the slurry and the top size of the particles since both affect the flow characteristics. The usual practice is to prepare the slurry in the agitated storage tanks to a slightly higher concentration than required, and then to make final adjustments by the addition of clear water as it enters the pipeline. Screening is the usual method of ensuring that oversized particles do not enter the main pipeline. 16.2.3 The pipeline The majority of operational slurry pipelines are of mild steel and, although the first consideration when specifying the pipeline is that it should withstand the applied pressure, attention must also be given to the effects of corrosion and erosive wear. Where there are significant changes of elevation in a longdistance pipeline the variation of pressure can be substantial. Worthwhile savings in the cost of the installation can then be made by using pipe sections of reduced wall thickness on the high levels where the pressure is lower. Typically, steel pipe for slurry pipelines will have a wall thickness in the range 5-15 mm. On the Black Mesa coal pipeline the 460 mm-diameter pipe has a wall thickness between 5.6 mm and 11.9 mm, and the 230 mm-diameter Savage River pipeline varies between 6.4 mm and 13.8 mm [ 1]. Other materials are used for slurry pipelines, including reinforced concrete, abrasion-resistant steel and high-density polyethylene (HOPE), the latter being particularly useful where corrosion is a problem. Linings of rubber or plastic may be used to combat erosive wear when handling abrasive slurries. Erosive wear of slurry pipelines is likely to become a problem when HYDRAULIC CONVEYING 487 conveying velocities exceed about 3 m/s, especially where the conveyed material is abrasive in nature. The mechanisms of abrasion and corrosion, however, are very complex and beyond the scope of this book: further discussion of the subject can be found in specialist sources such as [6] and [7]. 16.2.4 De-watering equipment Removal of the water, or other carrier liquid, at the discharge end of a pipeline can be a major problem, and this alone can be the deciding factor in a slurry pipeline feasibility study. In general, the finer the particles in the slurry the more difficult (and, therefore, expensive) it will be to de-water. There are essentially three processes involved in de-watering: (i) Particle sedimentation, which may be either natural (that is, by gravity) or assisted by centrifugal action (ii) Filtration, where the water drains through a cake of the solid -again this may occur naturally or with assistance by centrifugal action, pressure or vacuum (iii) Thermal drying. Any or all of these processes may be involved in a de-watering plant, the selection of the method depending upon the nature of the slurry to be dewatered, the final dryness required and, of course, cost considerations. Sedimentation techniques can involve the use of various forms of dewatering screen if the size of the particles in the slurry is relatively large. Separation of the fines can be assisted by washing the slurry over the screens with additional water. Rapping or vibrating can also help to achieve the best performance from the screens. Where the solid particles are too fine for dewatering screens to be effective, the slurry can be held in settling tanks so that separation occurs, over a period of time, by natural sedimentation. In order that the operation should be continuous, these thickening or clarification tanks are usually constructed with a conical bottom which is swept by a series of revolving rakes to direct the settled solids to a central outlet. Clear water is withdrawn from the top of the tank. The hydrocyclone is a device that is commonly used for liquid/solids separation. In appearance and concept it is very similar to the dry cyclone used for the separation of solid particles from a gas stream (see Figure 5.4), but the construction is considerably heavier. For centrifugal de-watering there are various forms of centrifuge commercially available, perhaps the most commonly used being the solid-bowl centrifuge and the screen-bowl or basket centrifuge. Figure 16.8 illustrates a typical solid-bowl centrifuge consisting of a rapidly rotating cylindro-conical bowl and a screw conveyor section of similar profile that revolves concentrically within the bowl, but at a slightly different speed. The slurry is fed into the centrifuge via the hollow central shaft and the solids form a layer on the inside 488 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING i ure 16.8 A olid-bowl centrifuge. Figure 16.9 Mode of operation of a rotary drum filter. surface of the bowl by centrifugal sedimentation. The liquid leaves the bowl over a weir-plate at the cylindrical end whilst the solids leave from the opposite end, propelled by the rotation of the screw relative to the bowl. Adjustment of the position of the weir plate allows the depth of the water layer in the bowl to be altered, greater depth giving a clearer effiuent but increasing the fines content and the moisture content of the de-watered solids. The basket centrifuge or screen-bowl centrifuge is somewhat similar, but the rotating cylindrical bowl is constructed of fine mesh, typically of 200-1000 Jlm aperture size. Slurry enters the bowl axially at one end and is distributed over the inside surface of the cylindrical screen. It is propelled along the bowl, either by the action of a rotating screw conveyor or by an axial oscillation applied to the bowl. The de-watering mechanism is thus essentially filtration, with the fine particles that pass through the mesh being returned to the bowl for further processing, and the caked solids being thrown off at the discharge end of the bowl. Vacuum and pressure filtration, particularly the former, are commonlyused ways of removing the water from a conveyed slurry. They offer a HYDRAULIC CONVEYING 489 somewhat more gentle approach to the recovery of the solids and are therefore better for fragile materials. The simplest form is the rotary drum filter in which the filter cloth covers the surface of a cylindrical drum arranged with its axis horizontal. The interior of the drum is evacuated as it rotates slowly with about one-third of its surface immersed in the slurry to be de-watered. Liquid passes through the filter and is collected in a filtrate tank whilst the solids cake on the surface of the drum is progressively dried as the drum turns (Figure 16.9). After about three-quarters of a revolution the de-watered solids cake is removed from the drum by means of a scraper knife or by a temporary reversal of air flow through one segment of the filter. There are many variations on the theme of filtration, with the filter cloth being arranged on plates or discs, for example, but their principle of operation is basically the same. 16.3 System design 16.3.1 General design approach A slurry pipeline can prove to be an acceptable method of transportation when (i) The bulk solid to be transported is compatible with the physical restraints of the state of the art (ii) Economics favour pipeline transport over other modes (iii) External restraints, related to the rights-of-way for example, can be satisfied reasonably. The physical restraints relate primarily to particle size and solids concentration. Thus, whilst it is true that virtually any combination of size and concentration can be pumped, in order to design a system that will not wear out the pipe at an excessive rate and that can be operated under predictable and stable flow conditions, it is necessary to place fairly strict limits on size and solids concentration. Two modes of flow are generally recognized-homogeneous flow in which very fine particles are carried in true suspension at high concentrations, and heterogeneous flow in which there exists a significant concentration gradient, often with large particles 'rolling' along the bottom of the pipe. Most longdistance slurry pipelines operate predominantly in the homogeneous flow regime. Tailings pipelines, however, are often in the heterogeneous flow regime simply because it is not practical or economical to perform any processing to enhance their transportation characteristics. On the other hand, for useful solid materials it is often economical either to grind the product or to thicken it in order to improve its flow characteristics. This approach has been the main feature of the development of slurry technology. Thus, slurry pipeline design philosophy is generally based on tailoring the slurry to be compatible with existing pipe materials, slurry 490 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING pumps, and long distance oil and gas pipeline construction techniques, rather than the development of new hardware to suit the slurry. Thus, a fundamental understanding of slurry flow behaviour in a stable and controlled environment was the basis upon which advances in the technology of slurry pipelines were made. The economics of slurry pipelines are 'site-sensitive' and so it is difficult to generalize. One major variable in comparing transport alternatives is the overall conveying distance. Since pipelines can often take a fairly direct route, they are usually significantly shorter than rail or road routes which have more severe grade and construction restrictions, or barge routes which have obvious length and location restraints. In addition, generalized comparisons are difficult where existing alternative transport modes are available. Some general observations which can be made are as follows. Annual tonnage. A throughput of one million tonnes per year (about 115 t/h on continuous operation) or more is likely to be necessary if transport by a new slurry pipeline is to be competitive with other transport modes. However, for certain applications, such as transporting high-value minerals such as copper from remote locations, annual throughputs of only a few thousand tonnes can be commercially viable. Distance. For pipelines that require slurry preparation and separation facilities, a distance of 50 to 100 miles is usually necessary to 'spread' the cost of the plant required to the end points. However for mineral pipelines, where no additional process facility investment is needed, pipelines as short as 10 or 20 miles can be commercially viable. Terrain and location. Slurry pipelines are often selected as the best mode of transport where the terrain is difficult and the location is remote. Pipelines are easier to construct in remote areas than roads and railways since they have less restrictive grade requirements and can be installed at rates of several kilometres per day by conventional long-distance pipeline construction techniques. Also, since the pipeline can be buried and pumping stations can be spaced 50-100 miles apart, remote operations and maintenance are relatively simple. External restraints. These can relate to the availability of water; ability to acquire rights-of-way (crossing of competing railway tracks, for example); and even environmental groups, which sometimes oppose slurry pipelines because they tend to foster development of mines, power plant or other facilities in conservation areas. 16.3.1 Flow characteristics and pressure-drop An understanding of the rheological characteristics of slurries and, m HYDRAULIC CONVEYING 491 solids concentration- Figure 16.10 General form of relationship between slurry viscosity and solids concentration. particular, the modes of flow that they exhibit when pumped through pipelines, is crucial to the successful design of hydraulic conveying systems. As mentioned previously, two distinct flow regimes can be conveniently identified-homogeneous flow (non-settling slurries) and heterogeneous flow (settling slurries). These have been described in more detail in Chapter 3 (section 3. 7.1) and at this point the reader should refer back to that and the following sections for a discussion of the modelling of the different modes of flow and the use of these models for the prediction of pressure-drops in flowing slurries. The various correlations given, and the associated charts, should enable pressure-drops to be determined with sufficient confidence at least for a preliminary design study. In practical slurry pipeline systems the critical variables, which are to some extent interrelated, are the pumping velocity and the solids concentration. The viscosity of the slurry is clearly dependent upon the concentration of solids, but in general the form of the relationship is not linear (Figure 16.10). The optimum working concentration for slurry pipelines is likely to be around the 'knee' of the curve in order to balance the requirements of maximum solids throughput and lowest pumping power. The pumping velocity will also influence the power requirement and for this reason, as well as to minimize problems of erosive wear, the velocity should be kept reasonably low. However, the velocity must not be so low that the solids begin to settle out of suspension (assuming that the system is being designed on the basis of homogeneous flow). 16.4 Recent developments Probably the most important recent development in the field of hydraulic conveying concerns the transport of coarse materials. Optimum slurry flow characteristics require that the solids are in the form of fine particles carried at high concentrations in the homogeneous flow mode. However, subsequent handling of the material would often be easier if the bulk solid were not so fine, and this is particularly the case with de-watering where, for coarse materials, 492 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING the relatively simple process of screening would be quite adequate. A number of installations handling coarse coal are already operational, although these generally only cover short distances. There is considerable interest, especially in Australia, in the long-distance transport of coarse materials. It has been demonstrated that, by using a non-Newtonian carrier fluid, coarse coal having a top-size of 20-25 mm may be transported at very low velocities (1-2 m/s) with acceptable pressure gradients and specific energies, and this work has more recently been extended to include mine-waste materials having density about twice that of coal [8]. The carrier fluid used in the experimental investigations is made from finely milled coal ( < 90 ,urn) mixed with water in a concentration of about 50% by mass to give the required Bingham plastic characteristics. It is pointed out that the application of this technology to coarse mine-waste slurries is particularly attractive since the underflow from the de-watering plant provides a convenient carrier fluid having suitable Bingham-type rheological properties. A development that is likely to have a considerable effect on slurry transportation, especially of coal, concerns the use of slurry fuels in industrial boiler plant. At a recent conference on the applications of coal/liquid mixtures (CLM) it was reported [9] that in several countries of the world boilers are being built or adapted to burn coal-water or coal-oil fuels, and research is beginning to show that CLM fuels may have advantages over dry pulverized fuels. Other recent investigative work concerns the use of alternative carrier liquids such as oil or methanol, as mentioned in the introduction to this chapter and, in the light of the comments above, this could generate much interest in the future. The use of small quantities of drag-reducing agents is also being examined by some research groups. Significant reductions in pressure losses have been shown to be attainable by the addition of soaps, polymers and other substances [10]. References and bibliography References I. Zandi, I and Gimm, K.K. Transport of Solid Commodities via Freight Pipeline (Freight Pipeline Technology; Volume 2). US Department of Transportation, Report No. DOT-TST76T-36, July 1976. 2. Link, J.M., Pouska, G.A. and Kirshenbaum, N.W. Mineral slurry transport-an update. Proc. Int. Symp. on Fine Particles Processing, Las Vegas, February 1980, 282-298. 3. Zandi, I. Freight pipelines, J. Pipelines 2(1982) 77-93. 4. McDermott, W.F. Savage River Mines, the world's first long distance iron ore slurry pipeline. In Bulk Materials Handling, ed. M.C. Hawk, Univ. of Pittsburgh School of Engineering, 1971, 216-238. 5. Thompson, T.L., Frey, R.J., Cowper, N.T.; and Wasp, E.J. Slurry pumps: a survey. Proc. Hydrotransport 2, BHRA Conf., Conventry, UK, September 1972, Paper HI. 6. Wasp, E.J., Kenny, J.P. and Gandhi, R.L. Solid-Liquid Flow Slurry Pipeline Transportation. Trans Tech. Publications and Gulf Publishing Company, 1979. HYDRAULIC CONVEYING 493 7. Baker, P.J., Jacobs, B.E.A. and Bonnington, S.T. A Guide to Slurry Pipeline Systems. BHRA Fluid Engineering, 1979. 8. Duckworth, R.A., Pullum, L., Addie, G.R. and Lock year, C. F. The pipeline transport of coarse materials in a non-Newtonian carried fluid. Proc. Hydrotransport 10, BHRA Conf., Innsbruck, October 1986, 69-88. 9. Davies, G. Coal slurry fuels get closer. The Chemical Engineer, January 1986, 17. 10. Sauermann, H.B. Recent developments in hydraulic pipelines. Materials Handling News, April 1982, 18-24. Recommended further reading Bain, A.G. and Bonnington, S.T. The Hydraulic Transport of Solids by Pipeline. Pergamon, Oxford, 1970. Baker, P.J., Jacobs, B.E.A. and Bonnington, S.T. A Guide to Slurry Pipeline Systems. BHRA Fluid Engineering, 1979. Wasp, E.J., Kenny, J.P. and Gandhi, R.L. Solid-Liquid Flow Slurry Pipeline Transportation. Trans. Tech. Publications and Gulf Publishing Company, 1979. 17 Capsule transport 17.1 Introduction In the preceding chapters (12-16) of this book, various aspects of the transportation of bulk particulate and granular materials in pipelines have been discussed. The concept was that if the bulk solid were to be fed continuously into a gas or a liquid flowing steadily along a pipeline, the particles would be conveyed by the fluid to the outlet end where they could be disengaged from the carrier fluid in a suitable separation unit. An alternative approach to the pipeline transportation of bulk solids, especially in cases where, for some reason, it is undesirable for the conveyed material to come into contact with the carrier fluid, is to enclose the bulk solid in cylindrical or spherical capsules, of diameter only slightly less than that of the pipeline, and then use the gas or liquid to propel these capsules from one end of the pipeline to the other. The term 'capsule transport' is used here to mean any system that involves the transportation of cargo (usually, but not necessarily, bulk solid) in capsules propelled by fluid moving through a pipeline. This definition could encompass the familiar systems, often seen in department stores, hospitals and factories, in which documents and small samples are transported in cylindrical containers through small-diameter pipes, usually operating under a vacuum. The definition could be extended to include the case where the bulk material is preformed (for example, by sintering) into relatively large solid cylinders or spheres. Although the mechanism of transportation is very similar, these solid cylinders or spheres should not, of course, be called 'capsules'. Of the two distinct methods of capsule transportation-by gas (usually air) and by liquid (usually water)-it was the former that was developed first and was the first to be used commercially. Pneumatic capsule systems were first built and demonstrated in England in the 1820s, although it was more than ten years earlier, in 1810, that George Medhurst, an English engineer, had suggested this method for the conveyance of letters and goods at high speed through small-diameter pipes [1]. The first experimental system is believed to have been that of John Valiance, which comprised a wheeled carriage 5! feet (1.7 m) wide and 22 feet (6.7 m) long, running on rails through a tube 8 feet (2.4 m) in diameter and 150 feet (46 m) long. Considerable development of the concept of pneumatically-propelled capsules for the conveyance of goods and personnel was undertaken during the mid-19th century by the Pneumatic Despatch Company [2]. They were responsible for laying an experimental CAPSULE TRANSPORT 495 Figure 17.1 An experimental pneumatic capsule pipeline laid alongside the River Thames, London, in 1861 [3] (Illustrated London News). tube, some 400 metres in length, along the bank of the River Thames at Battersea in London (Figure 17.1). This tube was moved and extended to 550 m to run underground between Euston Station and a nearby post office, carrying parcels in the wheeled capsules at speeds of about 7.5 metres/second (Figure 17.2). Various similar tunnels were constructed in London for the conveyance of parcels and, in August 1864, a full-size passenger-carrying pneumatic railway was demonstrated at Crystal Palace in London (Figure 17.3). Passengers were conveyed in a wheeled carriage through a tunnel approximately 3 m in diameter and 550 m long [2] but, since the journey was undertaken in darkness, the effect of claustrophobia must have been considerable! Shortly after this a similar underground system was constructed in New York with the intention of'demonstrating the practicability of passenger conveyance by the pneumatic method' [2]; however, it is doubtful whether fare-paying passengers were ever carried. There was little further progress towards the development of a pneumatic capsule pipeline for the transport of passengers, but the Pneumatic Despatch Company, and later the Post Office, built up a system of tunnels under London for carrying letters and parcels. A similar system using a 450 mm-diameter pipe 2 km in length, has been operating in Hamburg, West Germany, since 1962, and others have been developed in France, Japan and the USA [1]. In the use of pneumatic capsule pipelines for the transport of bulk solids the Soviet Union seems to have made the most impressive progress. Systems either in operation or under consideration (in 1978) included one for carrying ore at a rate of four million tonnes per year over a distance of 6 km, and another to transport broken stone a distance of 50 km at 2.4 million tonnes per year [6]. In Georgia in the Soviet Union there is a commercially-operated system carrying gravel in trains of six capsules which travel at 15 m/s through a onemetre diameter pipeline [I]. This pipeline was 2.2 km in length, but a second, some 50 km long and having a capacity of 2 million tonnes per year, was under construction in 1980. A system in Japan, consisting of a 600 mm diameter pipeline 1.4 km in Wheeled capsules used in an early form of pneumatic pipeline for the transport of parcels [4] (Illustrated London News). Figure 17.2 zCl r 0 z > "':I: s r ~ ;><; r c:: Ill I.D """ 0\ A pneumatically-propelled passenger-carrying 'capsule' demonstrated at Crystal Palace, London, in August 1864 [5] (Illustrated London News). Figure 17.3 \0 -.J """" "'..., ~ ;;l > zC/l m r c:: C/l n > '1l 498 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING length, having a capacity of 20 000 tonne/month, carries lime in trains of two 250 kg capsules [7]. In comparison with pneumatic capsule systems, hydraulic capsule transport is a much more recent development, originating in Canada in the 1960s, although it had been considered by the US Army as a means of supplying war materials to China during World War II [8]. It is still very much an emerging technology in transportation, and building on the research groundwork undertaken by the Research Council of Alberta, in Canada, hydraulic capsule transportation is now being extensively studied in the USA, Japan and South Africa, and a number of technical papers on the subject have been published, particularly in the BHRA 'Hydrotransport' series of conferences. However, the majority of these papers appear to have been directed towards the theoretical r- ~-- t CAPSULE LOADNG STO:RAGE STATION (SI\)INGS) I ~~::~~ry capsule;;::!~: ~~AIN ~;;E!I;;:;;::::ir··--, - ["~~-l--, PIPELINE Lr' PIPELINE 1:_, __ , : \ BOOS1ER(S) UNLOADNG CAPSULE MAIN AIR STAIDN STORAGE SUPPLy CAPSULE RETURN j :_ ___________________ (e:2:.EY_ ~o_a~(ri!~ 9~ !l_f:1<!~1!el ~~L _! Figure 17.4 The essential features of a pneumatic capsule transportation system. and analytical aspect of capsule transport in hydraulic pipelines, and the establishment of this method of transportation as an economically viable alternative to other methods seems to be still some way off. 17.2 Capsule transport in a pneumatic pipeline 17.2.1 General features of a pneuma-capsule system A typical pneumo-capsule transportation system (Figure 17.4) would include the following essential features, each of which will be considered separately: (i) the capsules, (ii) a loading station, (iii) the pipeline, with air supplied at appropriate points, and (iv) an unloading station. For the long-distance transportation ofbulk solids the pneumatic capsule pipeline offers a number of advantages over alternative methods such as slurry pipelines, rail vehicles and road vehicles. Possibly their most attractive feature in these days of high fuel costs is a relatively low power requirement, an approximate figure for the specific energy consumption being 0.6 kW per km tonne/hour. One reason for this low power requirement is that, in contrast to road and rail vehicles, no energy is expended in carrying the prime mover and its fuel. Another reason is that there is a useful regenerative effect from capsules travelling downhill. CAPSULE TRANSPORT 499 A second important advantage ofpneumo-capsule transportation relates to the manner in which the bulk solid is carried, that is, enclosed in a container. Since there is virtually no movement of the bulk solid particles, either relative one to another or relative to their containing walls, the risks of both degradation of the particles and abrasive wear of the system components are almost entirely eliminated. Also, as the particles are not conveyed in the form of a suspension in the air, the dust explosion hazard is minimal. 17.2.2 The capsules In pneumatic pipeline systems the capsules are usually cylindrical in shape. They comprise a container, wheels at each end for guidance and support, and some form of seal to prevent excessive flow of air through the space between the capsule body and the pipe wall (Figure 17.5). The capsule may be of the closed type or the open type (that is, without any lid or cover) depending upon the nature of the material being carried. The volume of material to be transported in one batch can be increased by using larger capsules or, very conveniently, by coupling together two or more capsules into a 'train'. The optimum capacity of a capsule and the number to be coupled together should be determined with a view to achieving maximum transport efficiency, taking account of the loading conditions and despatch intervals, the needs of the plant or process at the unloading point, the overall conveying distance, the diameter of the pipeline and the radius of curves. A practical size of capsule for a modern freight transport system would be about 500 mm in diameter and 2.5 m long overall, giving a load capacity of almost 0.5 m 3 . When carrying a high-density material the overall weight of the loaded capsule could exceed 750 kg, and since the air in the pipeline offers virtually no buoyancy it is essential that supporting wheels are fitted at each end. The wheel-sets are typically either three or six wheels arranged at 120° or 60° intervals and mounted on a stiffly-sprung suspension which serves to centralize the capsule in the pipe and also provides some shock-absorbing capacity. A critical aspect of capsule design is that of the wheel assembly and, in particular, of the wheels themselves. Reliability, wear and rolling resistance are all important factors. Whilst steel wheels on a steel running surface are probably best from the point of view of rolling resistance, plastic or rubber tyres bonded 'to steel rims are much less noisy. Figure 17.5 Typical wheeled capsule for use in a pneumo-capsule pipeline. 500 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Perhaps because it has been recognized that the wheels are almost invariably the weakest part of the capsule there have been attempts to eliminate them. One of the most interesting proposals is a system of magnetic suspension so that there is no physical contact between the capsules and the pipeline. The planned propulsion system in this case involves linear induction motors, but the use of air to drive the capsules might be a feasible alternative [9]. In general, bulk solids would be carried in closed capsules with automatic loading and unloading. In a conventional capsule fitted with a long curved lid, a useful arrangement is to fit one of the guide wheels at each end of the capsule to the lid. This serves to keep the lid firmly shut whilst the capsule is in the pipeline and provides a convenient means of opening the lid at the loading and unloading stations. The air seal is usually provided by a flexible skirt mounted between the wheel assembly and the capsule body. This is slightly smaller than the internal diameter of the pipeline in order to provide maximum aerodynamic thrust with minimum friction of the capsule against the pipe wall. The aerodynamic thrust, and therefore the velocity of the capsule, is clearly a function of the proportion of the pipe cross-section occupied by the capsule and its flexible skirt. In an interesting recent development, the seal was provided by an endplate fitted to the capsule, this end-plate being specially constructed to allow the opening and closing of ports by remote control. In this way the 'effectiveness' of the seal can be adjusted, giving some measure of external control of the capsule velocity [10]. The dimensions of the capsules are determined to some extent by the internal diameter of the pipeline and the radius of curvature of the bends (Figure 17.6). For any given pipe bend, the extremes of capsule size will range from a very short capsule with diameter only slightly smaller than that of the pipe, to a very long capsule of minimal diameter. Obviously neither of these extremes is practical as the volume in each case approaches zero, but somewhere between there will be an optimum value of the length/diameter ratio (or 'slenderness ratio') for which the payload volume of the capsule is a maximum. It is found [11] that, for a given pipe size and curvature, the volume of the capsule body is nearly proportional to its length and the body weight is nearly proportional to the cube of its length. There is therefore a practical limit Figure 17.6 Relationship between the geometry of the pipeline and that of the capsule. CAPSULE TRANSPORT 501 on the slenderness ratio that can be used, giving due consideration to the structural integrity of the capsule, and a value of about 7 is recommended [11]. Except for relatively sharp bends (having a radius of curvature less than about 30 pipe diameters) the length of capsule to give maximum payload volume would be too great for it to be structurally sound,-and therefore it is usually the limiting slenderness ratio of about 7 that dictates the dimensions of the capsules. 17.2.3 The pipeline Since the pipeline is likely to be the single most expensive component in the system it must be paid careful attention in order to limit costs. Although pipelines of 1.5 m or more in diameter may be feasible, the practical range of sizes is from 500-1000 mm. One manufacturer quotes suitable pipe diameters according to the annual tonnage rates as shown in Table 17.1. The pipe material would normally be of steel, but concrete offers a useful cheaper alternative, and there is no limit to the length of the pipeline provided that booster stations are incorporated at intervals, as necessary, to repressurize the air. The internal surface of the pipeline should be reasonably smooth, as undulations or other irregularities will give rise to undesirable dynamic forces on the capsule wheels and body. It will usually be necessary to install two parallel pipelines, one for the outgoing cargo-carrying capsules and the other for the return of the empty capsules. However, it might be feasible on short-distance applications to send loaded and empty capsules in alternate batches to and fro along the same pipeline, and if it happens that the capsules are disposable on arrival at the destination, obviously only a single pipeline would be required. An important consideration when planning the route of the pipeline is to ensure that curves are compatible with the capsules to be used. The minimum acceptable radius of curvature will be determined by the proportions of the capsule, as illustrated in Figure 17.6. However, as previously explained, the capsule proportions are generally dictated by structural considerations and a capsule built to the limiting slenderness ratio of about 7 is capable of negotiating quite a sharp bend. A bend radius of about 30 pipe diameters should be regarded as the tightest acceptable curve. Table 17.1 Recommended pipeline diameters for a pneumacapsule system [12] Transport rate (million tonnes per year) I 2 5 Pipeline diameter (mm) 600-1000 800-1200 1000-1400 502 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING Figure 17.7 17.2.4 Pressure variation in a capsule pipeline. The air supply The air requirement, in terms of the supply pressure and the volumetric flowrate, depends upon many factors, the most important being the length and diameter of the pipeline, the number of capsules and their loading and rolling resistance, and the pipeline gradient. The pressure of the air supplied to the upstream end of the pipeline can be regarded as the sum of the pressure required to overcome the wall friction resistance to the flow of air and the pressure required to propel the capsules (Figure 17.7). The former is determined relatively easily by well-established procedures, but the analysis of the motion of a capsule in the pipeline and the determination of the associated pressure-drop is more difficult. Detailed studies of this aspect of capsule transport have been undertaken and published, for example [13], [14], but further consideration of this is beyond the scope of this book. As a result of the gradual fall in pressure along the pipeline there will be an expansion of the air and, consequently, an increase in its velocity and in that of the capsules. In order to operate a capsule transport system over long distances it is necessary to install booster stations at intervals along the pipeline. The spacing of these booster stations would be related to the operating conditions of the system in terms of the velocity of the capsules and the number of them in the pipeline. Furthermore, the lengths of sections between booster stations might vary depending upon whether they are predominantly uphill or downhill. An important design feature of the booster stations is that they should allow the capsules to pass through without interruption. Annular jet pumps similar to those used in hydraulic capsule systems (Figure 17.10) have been tried but tend to have a very low efficiency, and a more satisfactory form of booster incorporates a flap-gate which shuts off the pipeline and so maintains a pressure differential between adjacent sections (Figure 17.8). Although the gate is normally kept closed by the adverse pressure differential across it, the approaching capsule or, more precisely, the pressure wave travelling in CAPSULE TRANSPORT 503 Sl.Wt 10 next section Figure 17.8 Flap-gate booster for pneumatic capsule pipeline. Pressure ahead of approaching capsule causes the flap gate to open automatically. Flap closes after capsule has passed. advance of it, causes the gate automatically to open so that the capsule passes through without making physical contact. Because of the practical limit on the air velocities that can be allowed in the pipeline there is no advantage in attempting to use very high pressures in order to reduce the number of booster stations required. Roots-type blowers, or machines having similar characteristics, are generally employed, providing air at pressure of 0.5-0.8 bar. The critical aspect of the system design is then, as explained previously, the spacing of the booster stations to maintain movement of the required number of capsules at the required velocity. 17.2.5 Loading and unloading stations Possibly the weakest link in a capsule conveying system is in the area of loading and unloading. These functions require careful planning and involve the use of reliable materials handling techniques to receive the empty capsules, fill them, re-introduce them into the pipeline, receive them at the destination, unload them and, finally, return the 'empties'. The dwell time is the most critical constraint associated with the design of the terminal stations at each end of the capsule pipeline since this affects the overall operating efficiency of the system and the number of capsules that are 'active'. In a typical system for handling aggregates, the design proposal called for 0.45 m 3 capsules to be automatically filled, accelerated under gravity and fed into the pipeline at a rate of 220 per hour [15]. Various practical approaches to loading and unloading are possible, with the capsules either moving slowly, bumper-to-bumper, along the main pipeline through the terminal, or removed to some kind of branch track. Where the pipeline is dedicated to one product, loading can generally be achieved by using volumetric feeders, set to deliver a pre-determined quantity of bulk solid into each capsule. The usual method of emptying the capsules involves the use of a rotary unloader in which the capsules are rotated about their longitudinal axis through 180° in order to discharge their contents into receiving hoppers located beneath the track. 504 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING 17.3 Capsule transport in a hydraulic pipeline 17.3.1 General features of a hydro-capsule system The transport of a bulk solid inside capsules in a hydraulic pipeline obviously has many similarities with the pneumo-capsule transport system previously described. The essential elements of capsules, pipeline, pumping and booster stations and terminals are required in each system and they share many of the advantages that capsule systems can offer in comparison to other forms of bulk solids transport. In comparison with pneumatic transport, hydro-capsule pipelining is a relatively new technology, having been developed, largely in Canada, during the 1960s. A substantial amount of information now exists in the form of published technical papers, especially concerned with the hydrodynamics of hydraulic systems. Information on the purely practical aspects, derived from operational experience of existing installations, is rather less easy to find. 17.3.2 The capsules For hydraulic transport systems the capsules are usually in the form of cylindrical containers having a diameter of about 85% of the internal diameter of the pipeline. Typically, the length of the capsule is about five times the diameter. Other forms of capsule have been used, notably spheres which are said to exhibit favourable transmission energy requirements for materials of high density. Some confusion has arisen over the use of the word 'capsule' to apply to solid cylinders or spheres manufactured from the material to be conveyed, although the hydrodynamic considerations will generally not be affected by whether the 'capsule' is hollow or solid. Semi-rigid capsules or 'baggies' represent another approach to the movement of bulk solids through hydraulic pipelines; in this case the flexible container normally is disposable so that the problem of returning empties is eliminated and a single pipeline can be used. Since the density of the conveying fluid (normally water) is relatively close to the effective density of the capsules, there is generally no requirement for the capsules to be fitted with wheels. An important consideration with hydro-capsule systems is the rate at which capsules can be supplied and introduced into the pipeline at the loading terminal. It is probably this factor more than any other which places a limit on the economic viability of bulk solids transport by hydraulically propelled capsules in comparison with slurry pipelines and with road and rail systems. To illustrate this point it could be noted that a 200 mm-diameter slurry pipeline should be capable of conveying an average bulk solid at a rate of about one million tonnes per year; to match this capacity in a slurry pipeline of the same diameter it is likely to be necessary to load one-metre-long capsules at a rate of one per second [ 16]. Although it is possible to manufacture solid CAPSULE TRANSPORT 505 cylinders or to fill hollow capsules at this rate, substantial equipment would be required, which raises questions of investment costs and reliability. 17.3.3 The pipeline One of the reasons why the hydro-capsule transport system has difficulty in competing with conventional slurry pipelines lies in the need for two pipes between the loading and unloading terminals-one to carry the loaded capsules out, and the other to bring the empties back. It is not surprising, therefore, that there has been considerable interest in alternative pipelining methods that will permit the benefits of capsule transport to be obtained with only a single pipe. For the transport of coal it has been suggested [8] that over short distances (less than 10 km) belt conveyors, lorries or coarse slurry pipelines may be more economical than a double pipe hydro-capsule system, and for long distances (more than 500 km) the fine slurry pipeline is likely to be the best option. Only over the mid-range of 10 to 500 km might the double pipe capsule system be competitive, but if a system could be devised to use just a single pipeline the capsules look much more attractive. On very short distance applications it could be feasible to pump the capsules first one way and then the other through a single pipeline. However, the 'dead time' while the empty capsules are returning represents a significant loss, and the fleet size would need to be considerably larger to compensate for the capsules temporarily out of service. Other approaches are to pack the bulk solid to be conveyed in disposable or re-usable lightweight containers or bags (the 'baggies' mentioned in section 17.3.2) or, alternatively, to mix the bulk solid with a suitable binder and form it into spherical or cylindrical slugs so that there is no container to return. 17.3.4 The water supply and pump system The hydrodynamics of capsule motion is quite complex and will not be dealt with in this book. Readers interested in this aspect of the subject can find much to satisfy themselves in the technical literature, particularly the proceedings of the 'Hydrotransport' series of conferences, some examples of papers being listed as [17]-[20]. Probably the most important point to appreciate is that the capsules are generally not wheeled and therefore, when loaded, will tend not to travel concentrically in the pipeline. Furthermore, their longitudinal axes will not necessarily even be parallel with the centre line of the pipe and the 'attitude' of the capsules can vary between 'tail up' and 'nose up'. The flow rate of water through the pipeline should be sufficient to ensure that the capsules are clear of the pipe walls and this requires that the capsule velocity exceeds the value corresponding to 'lift-off where the capsule adopts a nose-up attitude and rises clear of the pipe wall [17]. 506 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING As with pneuma-capsule pipelines, in order to use a hydraulic pipeline to transport capsules over long distances, means must be found of raising the pressure of the carrying fluid at appropriate intervals. The main problem at these 'booster stations' is to raise the pressure whilst allowing the capsules to pass through with minimum disturbance and minimum reduction of their forward motion. Since the capsule diameters are typically 85-90% of the internal pipeline diameter, devising a booster pump that would allow the capsule to pass straight through has proved something of a challenge to the design engineers. There are essentially two approaches which can be adopted: the first is to use conventional pumps to raise the pressure of the water, whilst holding the capsules in some kind oflock arrangement, and the second is to use a specially designed pump through which the capsule can pass relatively undisturbed. A very complete discussion of different forms of booster pump can be found in [21], and only a few examples, representing each of the two approaches mentioned above, will be briefly described here. A typical by-pass scheme, in which a set of valves is manipulated to allow the capsules to by-pass the booster pump, is shown in Figure 17.9. The operating sequence of this booster is as follows: (i) With valves 1, 6, 7 and 4 open (and the other valves closed) a series of capsules is drawn into branch A under the influence of the centrally placed pump and with the water circulating through the branches in the directions shown in Figure 17.9a. (ii) Valves 1, 6, 7 and 4 are now closed and valves 3, 8, 5 and 2 are opened. Water now circulates in the reverse directions through branches Band A, causing the capsules in branch A to be ejected into the conveying pipeline whilst approaching capsules are guided into branch B. (iii) Valves 3, 8, 5 and 2 are now closed, valves 1, 6, 7 and 4 are opened, and the cycle is repeated. This by-pass scheme is effective, but the fact that the capsules are stationary for a time, and the considerable extra distance that the water has to be pumped, mean that this form of booster is not very efficient. A form of annular jet pump is illustrated in Figure 17.10. Water is drawn from a point just downstream of the booster station and injected back into the conveying line at high pressure through the annular nozzle. Although the action of the jet pump increases the pressure of the water in the conveying line, and does so without impeding the forward motion of the capsules, the device is, unfortunately, very inefficient. Various other arrangements have been tried, including annular axial flow pumps and linear electric motors acting directly on the capsules rather than on the carrying liquid. The latter system seems to be particularly attractive since each capsule would tend to behave as the plunger of a plunger pump and a drive can be readily applied to the capsule in either direction without mechanical or electrical connections. Figure 17.9 A booster station, featuring a capsule by-pass arrangement, for a hydro-capsule transport system. (b) Capsule trail leaves Branch A, followilg trail enters Branch B Branch A (a) Capsule train enters Branch A, preceding train leaves Branch B 5 Branch A "'""c Vl -.1 0 ::0 ..., "" "' 0 z > ::0 ..., m r n > 508 BULK SOLIDS HANDLING annular diffuser \ no~ / capsule IJ.lide o,high-head centrifugaii:JU11J Figure 17.10 An annular jet pump. 17.3.5 Injection and ejection of capsules Capsules can be fed into a pipeline by means of a lock-type injector similar in arrangement to the by-pass scheme for booster stations shown in Figure 17.9. At the pipeline exit the capsules come out of the pipe with the water in a natural manner and no special effort is needed to eject them. Nonetheless, an automatic system is needed to collect the capsules and to convey them to terminal buildings where they are emptied of their contents, cleaned, and then either stored temporarily or sent back through the return pipeline, with or without another cargo. 17.4 Size of capsule fleet An important consideration in the planning of a capsule pipeline, whether pneumatic or hydraulic, is the total size of the capsule fleet that will be required. This number must include the capsules in active service, plus an appropriate number out of service, either for routine maintenance or on standby against unplanned maintenance or breakdown. The following analysis, based on that given in [11], shows an approach to the determination of the size ofthe capsule fleet, which depends upon the capsule design (payload and maintenance time) and the system operating conditions (line length, running speeds, terminal turn-round times, annual throughput and operating hours). Now, considering the outgoing (loaded) line, if N 1 is the number of capsules in the line of length L, and v1 is their velocity, they will be arriving at the destination at a rate of v1 N tfLcapsules per unit time. Thus, if the mass of cargo in each capsule is me, the instantaneous flow rate of cargo through the line could be expressed as (17.1) Capsules will need to be returned to the loading point at the same rate, and therefore assuming that the outgoing pipeline and the return line are the same 509 CAPSULE TRANSPORT length, (17.2) where N 2 is the number of capsules in the line and v 2 is their velocity. Thus and the total number of active capsules in the pipeline is given by Nv=N 1 +N 2 Le. (17.3) In terms of the required annual throughput mA (tonnes/year), the number of active capsules can be written (17.4) where hA is the annual hours of system operation (that is, hours/year) taking account of downtime for regular maintenance, shutdown at weekends, and so on. There will also be active capsules passing through the terminals and the number of capsules thus involved will depend on the proportion of the total cycle time that is actually spent in the terminals. Now the time taken for a capsule to travel along the outgoing pipeline is and for the return line so that the total time in the pipeline is ( 17.5) Then if the time spent in the loading station is ta and in the unloading station 510 is th, BULK SOLIDS HANDLING the total cycle time is tcycle = t. + t 1 + tb + lz and the total number of active capsules in the system is or (17.6) The capsule fleet size will exceed this total by some small number to allow for standby in case of breakdowns. 17.5 Notation hA L me mA m. Nl Nz NP Ntot tl t2 t. tb tcycle Annual hours of system operation (hours per year). Length of conveying line Mass of cargo in one capsule Annual throughput of bulk solid (tonnes per year) Effective mass flow rate of bulk solid through pipeline Number of capsules in outgoing (loaded) pipeline Number of capsules in return pipeline Number of active capsules in pipeline Total number of capsules in service Transit time for capsule in outgoing pipeline Transit time for capsule in return pipeline Time spent by capsule in loading terminal Time spent by capsule in unloading terminal Total time taken by capsule to navigate whole system (total cycle time). References and bibliography References I. Simper, J.l. and Baker, P.J. Pneumatic pipeline capsule systems-the future potential. Proc. Pneumotransport 2, BHRA Conf., Guildford, UK, September. 1973, F4. 31-39. 2. Lee, C. E. The Pneumatic Despatch Company's Railways. Trans. Newcomen Society 45 (1974) 67-88. 3. Illustrated London News, 24 August 1861, 178. CAPSULE TRANSPORT 511 4. Ibid. 28 February 1863, 213 5. I bid. I 0 September 1864, 276. 6. Alexandrov, A.M. Pneumatic pipeline container transportation of goods. Proc. Pneumatransport 4, Carmel-by-the-Sea, USA, June 1978, G5. 51-59. 7. Yoshitani, Y. Application of capsule transport system for raw material transport in steelworks. Proc. Pipeline 78 Seminar, Univ. of Witwatersrand, South Africa, October 1978. 8. Liu, H. Capsule pipelines: potential and research direction. Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on Freight Pipelines, Atlantic City, USA, October 1982. 9. Marcus, R.D. Pneumatic conveying update. Pneumatic Conveying Manual 1984, suppl to South Africa Materials Handling News, 2-12. 10. Tsuji, Y., Morikawa, Y. and Seki, W. Velocity control in a capsule pipeline by changing the area of the end-plate. J. Pipelines 5 (1985) 147-153. 11. Bunce, J.A. Capsules for pneumatic pipelines. Proc. Pneumotransport 4, BHRA Conf., Carmelby-the-Sea, USA, June 1978, G I. 1-18. 12. AI RAPID capsule-tube transport system. Brochure, Nippon Steel Corporation and Daifuku Machinery Works Ltd., Tokyo, Japan. 13. Carstens, M.R. Analysis of a low-speed capsule-transport pipeline. Proc. Hydrotransport 1, BHRA Conf., Coventry, UK, September 1970, C4. 73-88. 14. Tsuji, Y. Fluid mechanics of pneumatic capsule transport. Bulk Solids Handling 5 (3) (June 1985) 653-661. 15. Farahar, M.A. Transport of aggregates by the pneumatic capsule pipeline. Proc. Pneumatransport 3, BHRA Conf., Bath, UK, April 1976, A9 115-126. 16. Jensen, E.J. Capsule pipelining-the system and its potential. Proc. Hydrotransport 3, BHRA Conf., Colorado, USA, May 1974, G I. 1-11. 17. Ellis, H.S. An analysis of the lift-off of pipeline capsules. Proc. Hydrotransport 4, BHRA Conf., Alberta, Canada, May 1976, Cl. 1-12. 18. Kruyer, J and White, L.M. Hydrodynamics for the design of a capsule pipeline. Proc. Hydrotransport 4, BHRA Conf., Alberta, Canada, May 1976, C2. 13-22. 19. Polderman, H.G. Analytical and experimental studies on horizontal and vertical capsule transport. Proc. Hydrotransport 6, BHRA Conf., Canterbury, UK, September 1979, 169-186. 20. Lazarus, J.H. Hydraulic transport of capsules in pipelines. Proc. lnt. Con[. on Pipeline Transportation of Solids, Univ. of Witwatersrand, South Africa, 1981. 21. Lazarus, J.H. Booster pumps for hydraulic transport of capsules in pipelines. Proc. Hydrotransport 6, BHRA Conf., Canterbury, UK, September 1979, 02. 187-200. Index abrasive materials on belt conveyors 272 in bucket elevators 305, 308 in en-masse conveyors 323, 324 in hydraulic conveying systems 482, 484-6 in pneumatic conveying systems 385, 393,399,421-3,427,436 in rotary valves 421-3 in screw conveyors 347 in venturi feeders 427 in vibratory conveyors 375 abrasiveness 28, 275, 276, 305, 308, 323, 440 absorption infrared 44 microwave 44 acceleration pressure-drop 135 acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) 247 adhesion 30 aeration in air-gravity conveyors 456, 459, 461, 470 in blow-tanks 430- I in hoppers I 04, 188- 92, 197 in L-valves 81 in pipelines 122, 401, 403 in screw conveyors/feeders 344, 425 in vertical pipes 78 in vibratory conveyors 375 aerial ropeway 318, 331 - 3 aero-mechanical conveyor 327 - 8 air-assisted gravity conveyors 456- 77 air blasters 188- 91 air cleaners 211, 213 - 33 air-float conveyors 113, 456, 472-5 air injection 57, 122, 401 - 7 air knife 402 air retention 112, 122, 440, 471 Airslide 457 air-to-fabric ratio 229 alumina 44, 65, 206, 229, 245, 276, 352, 375, 457, 470, 471 aluminium 44, 235, 236, 245, 247 ammonium chloride 276 nitrate 276, 352 phosphate 254 angle of repose 30-2, 63, 67, 80, 81, 160, 264, 275, 330, 459, 460 apatite 28, 29 apron conveyor 328- 31 arch cohesive 41, 42, 55, 56, 63, 154, 155, 162, 177, 181, 190, 197, 198, 465 mechanical 41, 42, 56 Archimedean screw 335, 336, 338 Archimedes number 105 - 107 argon 249 asbestos 205, 206- 7, 382 asbestosis 205 ash 276, 306, 320, 347 aspect ratio 467, 468 asphyxiation 249 asthma 205 auger conveyor 337, 338-42 bacteria 204 bagasse 205, 375 bagassosis 205 baggies 504, 505 barge 478, 490 barley 276 barriers, explosion-proof 256 Bartknecht, W 253 barytes 352, 470 bauxite 276, 290, 470 belt conveyor 4, 65, 248, 256, 260- 97, 471, 504 acceleration of load on 287 drive arrangements for 268- 71 driving power in 267,281,284-8 idler less 290- I loading and discharge of 272 - 3 mass of moving parts in 285 - 6 operation on incline of 264, 269, 281, 287 power unit of 271 - 2 shape factor in 278- 9 slope factor in 277, 280 belt weigher 180, 183 513 514 INDEX belts 261-5, 282 cable 289- 90 cleaning 273- 4, 266, 288 cleated/profile 261, 262- 4, 304 creep in 270 jointing in 264 sag in 266, 267, 281-4 sandwich 293 - 4 sidewalls in 260, 261, 263, 265, 298, 304 speed of 260, 275-7, 281, tension of 266, 269, 270, 275, 281-4 tracking (alignment) of 266, 276 troughing of 260, 265, 278-80 wear on 266 bending in silo walls 177 bend pressure-drop 129, 135-6 bends in pneumatic conveying pipelines 124-5, 129, 135-6, 435- 6, 444, 448, 450 bentonite 352 beryllium 206 bin see hopper bin activator 194- 7 Bingham plastic 144- 8, 492 Black Mesa 479- 80, 484, 486 Blaine constant volume apparatus 28 Blasius formula 132 blow tank 387, 393-8, 402-3, 408, 417, 428-31, 443 blower 110, 387, 390, 392,408,411, 421, 428, 441, 446 bonemeal 352 boosters 405- 7, 501, 502- 3, 506 Bowerhill-Parcey discharger 199- 200 bran 196 bridge see arch Bridge Breaker discharge aid 197 British Materials Handling Board 178 Brownian diffusion 225 bubble-foam scrubbers 224 bubbling velocity, minimum 112 bucket elevator 298- 317 bucket filling efficiency of 314 centrifugal discharge in 300- I, 308, 315 continuous discharge in 301-2, 312 driving power of 315 - 16 explosions in 236, 251 loading of 308-9, 315 pivoted bucket in 303-4, 321 selection of 312- 13 speed of 300, 301, 304, 307, 312 Buhler 403 - 6 bulk density 7- 9 Bureau of Mines (US) 238, 248 Cable Belt conveyor 298- 90 caking 169-71, 231,487-9 calcite 28, 29 cancer 205 capacity factor (screw conveyor) 348, 349 capsule transport 380, 494- 511 carbon-black 204, 229, 375 carbon dioxide 249 carborundum 206 Carleton, A J 57- 9 Carman-Kozeny equation 87, 89 catalyst 11, 26, 470 cellulose acetate 385 cement 229, 276, 320, 324, 352, 375, 426, 439, 456, 457, 470, 471 centrifugal (turbo) compressors 446 centrifugal separators cyclone 213 - 18 mechanical 213 centrifuge 487- 8 ceramic tiles 189 cereals 16, 347, 375 chain and flight conveyors 318- 34 chalk 276, 306 channel 47, 49, 64, 104, 139, 456-77 channelling 102, 110 charcoal 306 chickens 382 china clay (kaolin) 207, 276, 352 choke length (screw conveyor) 341 choking 123 Churchill formula 129 chute 49, 64- 74, 272 chute splitter 5 circular bin discharger 198 - 9 classification (size) 98 clay 276, 306 coal 11, 44, 101, 136, 138, 183, 204, 207, 229, 235, 238, 245, 247, 260, 306, 347' 352, 375, 397' 457' 470, 478, 479, 484, 486, 492, 505 coal/liquid mixture (CLM) 480, 492 cocoa powder 30, 44, 49, 235, 238, 245, 247 codes of practice for electrostatic charging 258 for fabric filters 228 for hoppers 177- 8 coffee 229, 239, 247, 352, 375, 376, 382 cohesive materials in air- gravity conveyors 459, 461, 466, 470, 471 in bucket elevators 305, 312 flow behaviour 30, 41, 49 in hoppers 41, 53, 56-8, 63, 154, 164, 168 in chutes 65 fluidization 112, 113 515 INDEX pneumatic conveying 122, 423 in rotary valves 423 sampling 5 in screw conveyors 337, 347 sieving 16 voidage 8 coke 9, 276, 306 Colebrook formula 127 collecting efficiency of cyclones 215- 18 of electrostatic precipitators 233 of fabric filters 224-6 of wet washers 221, 222, 224 colloids 141 composite hopper 156, 158, 176 compressor 408, 428, 442, 446 centrifugal (turbo) 446 Lysholm 412, 414 reciprocating 393, 414- 16, 446 regenerative 410- 11 screw 393, 408, 412- 15, 416, 446 sliding vane 411- 12, 414 Zimmern 414 computer-aided design 155, 444 concentration, minimum explosible 239, 246 concentrator rolls 265 - 6 conductivity 44 cone-and-quartering 4, 5 cone crusher 486 containment (of explosions) 246, 249-50 conveying characteristics 439, 448- 53 conveyor see under type, e.g. belt-, pneumatic-, screw-, etc. copper 173, 276, 294, 478, 490 core flow 54-5, 58, 154, 157, 166, 176 cork 205 corn starch 229 corrosion 486, 487 corundum 28, 29, 206 cotton 207 Coulter counter 16, 22- 4 coupling eddy current 272 fluid 271-2 pipeline 434 cracks in silos 177 crushing 203, 209, 237, 486 Crystal ~alace railway 495 cube 11 cullet (glass) 352, 375 custard powder 236 cycle time (capsules) 509-10 cyclone dry type 203,211,213-18,225, 381, 388, 436, 445, 487 collecting efficiency of 215- 18 explosions in 235, 249, 251 irrigated 220, 221 - 2 pressure-drop 216 - 19 uniflow 214-15 Darcy formula 87, 126 degradation in air-gravity conveyors 456, 474 in capsule transport 499 in discharge chutes 272 in en-masse conveyors 321, 324 in micrographs 26 in pneumatic conveying systems 383, 385, 393, 399, 421' 428, 441' 446 in rotary valves 421 in vibratory conveyors 375 dense-phase flow 117, 122, 124, 136, 381' 383, 386, 393, 408, 428, 439, 442, 449, 456, 458 density bottle 9 density apparent 10 bulk 7-9 particle 8 - I 0 depth filtration 224- 5 detergents 141, 352, 375 de-watering 376, 478, 481, 486, 487-9, 491 diameter equivalent 11, 12 Feret's 12, 21 particle 12 - 25 projected area 12 sieve 12 Stokes 12 surface 11, 12 surface-mean 14 volume 11, 90 volume-mean 14 volume-surface-mean 15, 85, 90 diamond 28, 29 differential scanning calorimetry 246 differential thermal analysis 246 dilatant fluid 140 dilute-phase flow 117,118,123,129, 381, 386, 392, 409, 428, 439, 442, 444, 449, 456 discharge aids 56, 156, 164, 181, 186, 187-200 mechanical 198 - 200 pneumatic 188- 192 vibrational 192- 98 dispersed flow see dilute-phase flow dispersion 9 distributor I 09- 11, 189 diverter 392, 434, 444, 462, 464 Dixon, G 120, 132, 137 Dodge, J 456 516 INDEX dome 41 drag coefficient 92-8, 133, 149 drag conveyor 318- 20 drag reduction 129 drilling mud 145 drive factor (belt conveyors) 281-3 dune flow 117, 137 Durand equation 149 Dust Class 252, 253 dust control of 203- 33, 417, 445 generation of 190, 203, 209, 272, 393 dust explosions 44, 235- 8, 499 dustability 208 Dynamic-Air 406 earth 306 eczema 205 electrical sensing zone see Coulter Counter electron microscopy 16 electrostatic charging I, 16, 30, 31, 49, 112, 113, 224, 238, 248; 256-8, 433, 434, 471, 472 electrostatic precipators 211, 231- 3 elevators bucket 298 - 317 screw 354-6 spiral (vibratory) 376- 8 elutriation 16, 17, 98 emery 206 en-masse conveyor 319, 320-5, 461 energy, minimum ignition 44, 238, 240, 241, 246, 248 entrainment 109, 116 equivalent lengths of pipe fittings 129, 130, 135 Ergun equation 90, 105 erosion, erosive wear in blowers and compressors 411 in hydraulic conveying systems 483, 486, 491 particle hardness 28 in pneumatic conveying systems 383, 393, 396, 399, 421, 428, 434, 436, 441, 446, 456 ethylene glycol 21 ETSI pipeline 479 explosibility limits 239- 40 explosion hazard 235-59, 373, 380, 385, 499 explosion pressure 240, 241, 244, 246, 249, 250, 254 explosion rate constant 253 explosion tests 241 - 6 explosions see dust explosions explosiveness 44, 172, 499 fabrics for conveyor belts 261 - 4 for filters 226 for porous distributers 463, 465 face powder 11, 204 Factories Act (UK) 208 fans 387, 390, 392, 408, 409-11, 421, 445, 446 feeders 56, 155, 178, 180-7, 389, 417-33,443 apron 183 - 4, 272 belt 178, 180, 181-3, 272, 427 gate lock 427- 8 rotary (see also rotary valve) 183-4, 381, 387,417-25,443,464 rotary table 184- 5 screw 178, 180, 185-6, 199-200, 272, 337. 354, 387. 397. 425 - 6, 427, 443, 464 venturi 387, 426- 7 vertical load on 181, 358 vibratory 178, 180, 187, 272, 358-9, 365, 373 feed rate control 180 feldspar 28, 29 Feret's diameter 12, 21 fertilizer 227, 439, 470 fibrous materials 26, 388 filters 212, 224-32 in air-gravity conveyors 463 bag type 227- 32, 388, 445 cleaning 230- 2 collecting efficiency 224- 6 fabrics 226 in hydraulic conveying systems 487- 9 in pneumatic conveying systems 381, 388, 393, 425, 436 pressure-drop 229- 30 filtration 84, 203, 211, 224-32, 487, 488-9 filtration velocity 229 finite elements method for silo design 155, 178-9 Fire Research Station (UK) 238, 241, 248 fires 235 fish 382 Fisher sub-sieve sizer 28 flaky/flakiness 16, 17, 25 flap valve/ gate 427, 502- 3 fleet size (capsules) 505, 508- 10 flexible screw conveyor 339, 340 flocculation 138 flooding 55, 57, 184, 189, 195 flour 27, 30, 44, 49, 174, 196, 204, 229, 235, 245, 247, 347, 352, 381, 385, 470 flow factor (hopper) 63, 64, 165-8, 171, 174 517 INDEX Flow Function (material) 42, 64, 164, 165-6, 168, 170, 171, 172, fluid bed dryer 44, 256 Fluid-Schub conveying system 403 - 5 Fluid-Stat conveying system 406 fluidization 99- I 13, 458- 61, 468- 72 incipient (or minimum) 101, 104-9 fluidized bed 80, I0 I fluidizing velocity, minimum 101, 104-9, 110, 442, 468, 469 fluorite 28, 29 fly ash 204, 229, 247, 352, 457, 470 frequency distribution 13 free air delivered (FAD) 409, 441, 446, 447, 448, 449, 454 free fall surface 77 free fall velocity see terminal velocity friction angle of internal 37, 60, 63, 67, 167, 174 angle of wall 39, 60, 166, 167, 174 coefficient of (belt conveyors) 281-2, 285-7 coefficient of internal 34 coefficient of wall 39, 51, 70, 73 conveyor belt/ drum 269- 70, 281, 284 factor dense-phase 137 pipe 126- 9, 132, 147, 149 slurry 149 solids 132 in capsule systems 500 in pneumatic conveying line 440, 444, 449 in reciprocating conveyors 360 in screw conveyors 350 in vbratory conveyors 367, 369 wall 50, 60, 70, 122, 175, 400, 444, 449, 502 Fuller Co. 457 Fuller-Kinyon (FK) pump 425, 428, 443 funnel flow see core flow gas absorption of 28 evolution of 44 gassing up 81 gate-lock valve 427 Gattys conveying system 406, 458 Geldard chart/classification 112, I 13, 120, 469, 470 glass 136, 206, 229, 352, 375 gold 382, 478 grain 115, 236, 260, 300, 335, 337, 338, 341, 381 granular jump 68 graphite 207 grass seed 382 graticule 21, 22 gravel 306, 347, 375 gravity separators 211- 13 grinding 203, 209, 237, 248, 478, 485, 486, 489 gunpowder 385 gypsum 28, 29, 352, 470 hardboard fluff 27 hardness 11, 28 Mohs' scale of 28-9 Hartmann bomb 241, 243, 251 Health and Safety at Work Act (UK) 203, 208 Hedstrom number 145-7 helium 249 Herschel-Bulkley fluid 144, 145 heterogeneous flow 138, 139, 148- 50, 489, 491 high angle conveyor 294 Hogan discharge aid 195, 197-8 homogenous flow 138, 139-47, 489, 491 hoods, dust extraction 209- 10 hoppers 51 - 7 codes of practice for 177- 8 composite 156, 158, 176 core-flow 156, 157, 166, 171, 176, 177 design of 154-202 discharge from 56- 64, 178- 80, 187-200, 464, 465 explosion hazard in 235, 249- 53 flow in 47, 49, 51-6 geometry of 156-62, 172, 175-6, 188 mass-flow 156, 157, 159, 162, 166, 175, 176, 177 multiple-outlet 177 overall dimensions of 159- 62 plane flow in !57, 159, 168, 173, 175 pneumatic conveying systems and 380, 387-92, 397, 417, 425-8 shape of 156-9, 166, 175-6, 194 structural design of 176- 8 hopper/feeder interface 181, 184 horizontal tube apparatus 241, 244 Huron Portland Cement Co. 457 hydraulic conveying 138- 50, 478- 93 hydraulic radius 86 hydrocarbons, halogenated 249 hydrocyclone 487 hydrostatic pressure 50, 181 Hydrotransport conferences 481, 498, 505 ice 352 idler rollers 260, 265-8, 273, 285 catenary 265, 266 518 INDEX impact resistant 266, 267 pitch (spacing) of 266, 282, 284 spiral pattern 266, 267 transition 268 inflammator 241, 244 ignition, prevention of 246, 248-9, 250 ignition energy, minimum 44, 238, 240, 241' 246, 248 237, 238-9, 241, 246, 248, 253, 258 ignition temperature, minimum 44, 238, 246, 248 impingement separators 212 inert gas 237, 249, 253, 336, 389 inertial separators 211 - 18 inflatable cushions/pads 190, 192 ingestion (of dust) 204 inhalation (of dust) 204-8 ignition source injection of air 57, 122, 401-7 of oil 412, 414 of water 416 insecticide dust 204 iron 207, 276, 478, 479 ]-valve 79- 80 Janssen formula 51, 176 Japan pipe conveyor 292- 3 Jenike, A W hopper design procedures of !54- 5, 177 'flow - no flow' criterion of 162-4 shear cell of 35 - 7, 40- I jet pump 484-5, 502, 506, 508 JetStream conveyor 472 Johanson, 1 R 57-8, 63 kaolin 207, 276 kieselguhr 206 kiln dust 470 L-valve 79- 81 laser diffraction spectrometry 16, 24- 5 Lea and Nurse permeameter 28 limestone 207, 254, 276, 375, 448, 449, 478 linear induction motor 500, 506 lining high friction 370 low friction 173 - 4 of pipelines 486 of pumps 484 liquid ring pump/compressor 416, 446 loading factor (screw conveyors) 347, 349 lock hoppers 484- 5 lorry 463, 478, 505 lumps, lump size on belts 183, 275- 6, 281 in bucket elevators 30 I, 302, 305, 308 in pneumatic conveying systems in screw conveyors 376 lungs, lung disease 203, 205 Lysolm compressor 412, 414 machine coefficient, dynamic 440 363-5, 368 magnesium 44, 235, 245, 247 magnetic suspension 500 mass flow 54-6, 58, 156, 167, 168, 176 material coefficient, dynamic 363, 364, 366 material factor (screw conveyors) mayonnaise 141 measuring cylinder 8 mean diameter surface 14 volume 14 volume-surface 15 Mechanical Handling Engineers Association (UK) 281 Medhurst, George 494 median size 14, 110 mesh numbers 15, 18-19 metal powder 229, 457 mica 206, 352 micrograph 26 microscopy electron 16 optical 12, 16, 21, 26 milk powder 229, 352, 375 milling 351 478, 485, 486 minerals, mineral ore 486, 490 138, 347, 478, mineral slurries 141, 145 mixing paddles 348, 350 Mohr stress circle 34- 6, 42 Mohs' scale of hardness 28-9, 422 moisture effect on flow behaviour l, 30, 41, 49, 154, 169, 171-3,275 effect on fluidization 112, 471-2 after de-watering 489 analysis of 43 - 4 balance of 44 inherent 44 sampling of 4 surface 44 Mono pump 425 Moody chart 127, 128, 147 National Fire Protection Association (USA) 253 nitrogen 249 INDEX nomograph for equivalent lengths of pipe 130 for explosion vent areas 252 for hopper discharge rate (Carleton) 59 (Zanker) 62 for hopper wall/valley angles 175 non-Newtonian flow 138, 139-48, 492 non-mechanical valve 79- 81 nuclear magnetic resonance 44 nylon 247 oats 352 oil injection 412, 414 ore 183, 276, 306, 470, 478, 479, 486, 495 overload factor (screw conveyors) 351 overpressure 52- 3, 177, 253 oxidation 235, 238 oxygen 237, 239, 246, 249, 389 packed bed 84- 91, 100, 102, 104, 119 packed tower 220, 221 packing 7-8 paint pigments 11, 26, 44, 204, 229 paints 141, 245 paper pulp 141 particle density 8, 9-10, 28, 130 particle hardness 11, 28- 9 particle shape 2- 3, 11, 25- 26, 112, 130 particles, size distribution of 10- 25, 98, 104, 110, 138 (see also size distribution) peas 352 peat 306 perlite 207 permeameter 27 - 28 personality test 2 pH level 138 pharmaceuticals 44, 229, 300 phase density see solids loading ratio phase diagram gas/solids flow 118-20, 122-4 liquid/solids flow 148 phosphate 138, 260, 276, 306, 478 photosedimentometer 18, 20 pick-up velocity 127, 442 pipe see rat-hole pipe conveyor 291 - 3 pipette 5 plastics 44, 229, 375, 381, 457 plug flow 54, 75 Pneumatic Despatch Company 494 pneumatic conveying 84, 209, 380-455, 456 air movers in 409- 17, 446 - 7 explosion hazards of 235, 249, 256 519 feeders in 417-33, 441 gas/solids separation in 218, 225, 229, 436 high pressure systems in 392- 400 low pressure systems in 386- 92 low velocity systems in 400- 7 modelling of gas/solids flow in 116-37 pressure drop in 125-37, 443-6 stepped pipelines in 398, 446 system design for 438-46 vacuum conveying in 390- 2, 409, 416, 417, 431-3, 441, 443 pneumatic railway 495 pneumoconiosis 205 Pneumosplit 403- 4 Pneuslide 474- 5 Poiseuille equation 86, 142 pollen 204 polyethylene 239, 247, 352 polymer solutions 145 polypropylene 27 Polysius 456 pores 7, 10 porosity 7, 85 porous bed, irrigated 220, 221 porous media 84- 91 porous membrane/ distributor 109- 10, 461, 463-6, 468 potash 470 powder pump see blow tank power law fluid (Ostwald) 140- 4 power requirement of air-gravity conveyors 475- 6 of auger conveyors 341 -2 of belt feeders 183 of capsule systems 498 hydraulic conveying 491 of inclined screw conveyors 353- 4 of pneumatic conveyors 447, 448, 454, 456 of V -trough screw conveyors 349- 51 of vertical screw conveyors 354 of vibratory conveyors 374-9 pressure distribution 48, 71 pressure loss factor 129-33, 444 pressure rise, maximum rate of 240, 241, 244, 246, 251, 253 pressure piling 250 principal stress 34, 36, 53 probe, sampling 4 pseudoplastic 138, 140-3 pulse-phase conveying 401 - 3 pulverized fuel ash (PFA) 451, 470 pumps jet 484 - 5, 502, 506, 508 reciprocating 481 - 2, 484 rotodynamic (centrifugal) 481, 483, 484 520 INDEX PVC 21, 30, 352, 470 pycnometer, air-comparison pyrites 276 quartz 9-10 28, 29 railway wagon 463, 471, 478 rat-hole 55, 56, 154, 155, 181, 190, 197 reciprocating compressor 414- 16, 446 reciprocating conveyor 360 regenerative effects 498 Research Council of Alberta 498 resonance, nuclear magnetic 44 respiratory disorders 205 rice 11, 352 riffler 5 Rigden constant volume apparatus 28 rockdust 470, 471 Roots-type blower/exhauster 392, 411, 414, 416, 446, 447, 503 rotary sample divider 5, 6 rotary valves air leakage in 421-2 'blow-through' 419, 420, 423 'drop-through' 418, 420 explosion hazard in 248 explosion-proof 256 feed rate in 419, 421 for air-gravity conveyor 464 in pneumatic conveying systems 387-92, 397,417-25,441,448 offset 418 rotor clearance in 424, 425 venting by 424 - 5 roughness, pipe 127 rubber 375 sag in conveyor belts 266, 267, 281 - 4 in en-masse conveyor chains 323 salt 11, 229, 347, 375 saltation 120, 148, 446 sampling 3-5 sand 21, 27, 30, 44, 49, 77, 78, 93, 229, 245, 260, 276, 313, 347, 352, 367, 375, 382, 457. 470, 478 sandwich belts 293- 4 Savage River 479- 80, 484, 486 sawdust 306, 352, 381 Schiller and Naumann model 93 scoop 4 screening 376, 486, 492 scraper chains 319 scratch tests 28 screw compressor 393, 408, 412-15, 416, 446 screw conveyors auger 337, 338-42 centrifuge 487, 488 flexible 339- 40 industrial (heavy-duty) 342- 52 inclined 351 - 54 U-trough 337, 342- 54 vertical 352, 354- 6 screw flights 335, 343-4, 348, 350, 352, 355 screw pump 381, 387, 425 sedimentation 12, 16, 17- 18, 20, 91-8 in pipelines 138, 487, 488 segregation 3 - 4, 326, 382 in air-gravity conveyers 471, 472 by fluidization I 03 in hoppers 55, 171 in Selby coalfield 260 in vibratory conveyors 376 self-heating 238 self-unloading vessels 293 Semco conveying system 407 settling 91 - 8 hindered 91, 98-9, 139 sewage sludge 145 shaker conveyor 360 shape hopper 156-9, 166, 175-6, 194 particle 11, 25, 27, 85, 112,440 shape factor 12, 26 shear cell 35-9, 40, 164, 170 annular 37, 38 for wall friction 40 Jenike 35-7, 39, 41, 170 Portishead 37, 38 rotational 37 torsional 37 translational 37 Walker 37, 170 ship unloaders bucket-type 300 Simporter 294 Siwertell 355 shock loads in silos 177 sieve analysis 15, 16, Ill sieve shaker 16, 17 Siletta discharge aid 194, 197- 8 silica 203, 205-7 silo see hopper silo failure 52, 177 Simporter 294 Siwertell bulk discharger 355 size distribution, particle 3, 4, 10-15, 18, 19, 23, 24, 87, 98, 104, 110, 113, 138, 228 skimmer 213 slenderness ratio 500- I sliding vane compressor 411- 12, 414 521 INDEX slip ratio 134 slope factor in apron conveyor 329 in belt conveyor 277, 280 slugging 102, 112, 122 slurry 138-9, 148, 172, 478-93 smoke 204 snubbed drive (belt conveyors) 269 soap powder 352, 470 soda ash 229, 276, 470 solids friction factor 132, 133 solids loading ratio 117, 386, 438, 440, 441-2, 443, 444, 446, 448, 449 Soli tube conveyor 292- 3 sparks 238, 241, 248, 256, 258, 385 specific energy 393, 474, 475-6, 492, 498 specific gravity bottle 9 specific surface 27, 84, 85, 87, 106 sphericity 26, 85, 91, 106, 107 spinning riffler 5, 6 spiral elevator 376- 8 spouted bed 113 - 15 velocity, minimum 115 spray chanber 220- I spray scrubber 220, 222- 3 standing wave 461 starch 196., 236, 385 static electricity see electrostatics steel 352, 375 stepped pipeline 398, 446 stockpile 464, 486 Stokes' diameter 12, 96 Stokes' law 93, 108 stone 306, 495 Storall bin discharger 199- 200 stress field 53, 164 stress consolidating 63 Mohr circle of 34- 6, 42 principal 34, 36, 53 Sturtevant, B F 380 suberosis 205 'suck-blow' system 391, 392, 411 suction nozzle 409, 431 - 3 sugar 11, 30, 44, 49, 170, 205, 229, 235, 238, 245, 247, 276, 375, 381 sulphide dust 471 suppression (of explosions) 246, 253-6 surcharge in chutes 72 on apron conveyors 330 on conveyor belts 275, 278 surface area 14, 26- 7, Ill, 235 surface diameter 12, 14, 26 surface-mean diameter 14 surface tension 172 surge wave 68 suspension flow see dilute-phase flow switch 53, 176, 177 table sampler 5, 6 tailings 489 Takt-Schub conveying system 403 talc 28, 29, 205, 206, 352, 382, 470 Tasmania 479 temperature, minimum ignition 44, 238, 246, 248 tensioner 270- I, 282, 298 terminal velocity 92, 93, 95- 8, 109, 133, 139, 469 test sieves 16, 17 Thames Polytechnic 78, 120 thermal drying 487 threshold limit values 208 throw factor (vibratory conveyors) 363 tilting plate 40 time consolidation 168 - 71 time of storage 37, 43, 188 tin 207 titanium dioxide 207, 229 tobacco 204, 229, 375 topaz 28, 29 trace air conveying system 406, 458 trajectory belt conveyor discharge 272 bucket elevator discharge 311 - 12 in vibrating troughs 362, 363 transport velocity, minimum 440, 448 tripper 273, 288 troughing angle, optimum 265 tubular drag conveyors 326- 8 Turbuflow conveying system 405 twenty-litre sphere apparatus 241, 245, 253 twin blow tank 396-8, 441 two-phase flow gas/solids 116-37 liquid/solids 138- 50 U-trough (screw) conveyors 341-54 ultrasonics 44 337, vacuum conveying 390-2, 409, 416, 417, 431-3, 441, 443 vacuum pumps/exhauster 408, 416-17, 443, 446 Valiance, John 494 van der Waals forces 224 velocity deposition critical 149 minimum conveying 132, 386, 440, 448 fluidizing 101, 104-9, 110 spouting 115 522 superficial 99, 118-20, 123, 468, 475 terminal 92, 93, 95, 98, 109, 133, 139 venting of air-gravity conveyors 463, 464, 466 of blow tanks 395 - 7 explosion relief 240, 246, 249, 250-3, 254, 255 in rotary valves 424- 5 vent ratio 251 venturi 418, 426-7, 428 venturi scrubber 220, 222- 4 vermiculite 352 vertical tube apparatus 241 Verti-lift 356 vibration 43, 459, 487 vibrators 112, 156, 192-8 rotary eccentric 193, 372-3 electromagnetic 193, 370, 373 vibratory conveyors 358- 79 Vibro-Bi-Plan discharge aid 197 viruses 204 voidage 7-8, 85, 90, 91, 98, 104, 106 void fraction 7 volume diameter 11, 26, 90 volume-mean diameter 14- 15 volume-surface-mean diameter 14, 15, 85, 90 Waeschle 403 Waipipi Iron Sands project 484 Warren Spring Laboratory 401 WASP (photosedimentometer) 19, 20 water injection 416 wear in belt feeders 183 INDEX on bends 436 in blowers 411 in bucket elevators 307 in chutes 272 on components 26, 28, 399, 441, 456, 499 in en-masse conveyors 323 in feeders 393, 423 in fittings 393, 421 in pipelines 26, 393, 399, 421, 434, 446, 456, 486, 489 on rotary valves 423 on vibrating troughs 363, 375 wet sieving 16 wet washers/scrubbers 211, 212, 218-24 wheat 247, 276, 342, 352 Williams J C 57, 58, 60 wood 44, 115, 235,245,247,276, 321, 352, 375, 385 wrap, angle of 269- 70, 282 wrap factor 281 yield locus 33, 35, 36, 39, 42, 170, 171 effective 37 time 37 wall 39-41 yield stress, unconfined 34, 37, 42, 162, 164 Zanker's Nomograph 61-3 Zimmern compressor 414 zinc 207 zipper conveyor 292 zirconium 207