Fou
Foundations
ndations of Special and Inclusiv
Inclusive
e Education
Diversity
The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization's Guide on Ensuring
Inclusion and Equity in Education (2017) defines diversity as "people's differences which which
may relate to their race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, language, culture, religion, mental
and physical ability, class, and immigration status."
Loden’
Loden’ss Dive
Diversity
rsity Wheel
In 1990, Judy Rosener and Marilyn Loden, leading American management specialists, developed
the diversity wheel as to show that are different dimensions of diversity in individuals and
institutions. Although this was developed for the workplace, Loden's Diversity Wheel can be
applied in different contexts, such as in education.
Loden believed that this framework can help people understand how group-based differences
influence people’s social and individual identities. Its function is to encourage people to engage
in discussions with each other and create new perspectives among members of a group. The
wheel also makes an individual aware of his/her differences and similarities with others. The
diversity wheel shows the importance of our social characters and the ways in which people
develop their identity when they are able to establish a connection with a specific group of
people. The wheel shows that there are different dimensions in diversity and each play a
significant role in forming identities. However, if these different dimensions of diversity are not
recognized in a group, dissatisfaction, distrust, and competition will ensue.
Ability (as a dimension of diversity)
The American Disabilities Act of 1990 “defines a person with disability as a person who has a
physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activity. This
includes people who have a record of such impairment, even if they currently do not have a
disability.”
Some Laws Concerning PWDs in Education
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Republic Act 1179 (1954) - An Act Creating the Rehabilitation and Vocational Program for
the Blind and other Physically Handicapped
Republic Act 3562 (1963) - An Act to Promote the Education of the Blind in the Philippines
was enacted to declare permanent government commitment to the training
of SPED teachers for the blind, the institutionalization of the residential school program and
the establishment of the Philippine Printing House for the Blind (PPHB).
Republic Act 5250 (1968) - specified the 10-year training program for special education
teachers.
Presidential Decree No. 603 (1974) - also known as the Child and Youth Welfare Code. Had
specific provisions for the welfare of children with disabilities. It entitles them to the right to
education as a means of providing them with proper treatment and competent care
required by their particular situations.
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Presidential Decree No. 1509 (1978) - established the National Commission Concerning
Disabled Persons (NCCDP). The creation of this government agency under the Office of the
President articulated the government responsibility for the fullest protection and assistance
to persons with disabilities
The Education Act of 1982 - declares that the state shall promote the right of every
individual to relevant Quality education, regardless of sex, age, creed, socio- economic
status, physical and mental condition, racial or ethnic origin, political or other affiliation.
The state shall grant them the benefits of education enjoyed by all its citizens.
Batas Pambansa Bilang 344 or the Accessibility Law of 1983 - enacted to enumerate
measures on making public buildings, transportation and communication services accessible
to persons with disabilities.
RA 7277 (1992) – Magna Carta for Disable Persons (later renamed as Magna Carta for
PWDs) enshrines equal rights and privileges of PWDs on employment, education, health,
telecommunications, auxiliary social services, accessibility, political, and civil rights. It also
imposes penalties for violators of the law.
Models of Disability
1. Religious or Moral Model of Disability
- Medieval Ages
- Children with disabilities borne to parents were thought to be a) a punishment for
the sins of their parents, b) a blessing/special gift from God, or c) a test of faith
- Many societies responded to this model by establishing segregated institutions where
PWDs are kept (i.e. asylums, workhouses, etc.)
2. Bio-medical or Medical Model of Disability
- AKA personal-tragedy model of disability
- PWDs are people who have illnesses/diseases and must be treated to regain their
normalcy
- Disability is viewed negatively and the focus is on curing the patient
- People who had no disabilities were considered as normal and superior
- Terms like ‘invalid’, ‘incapacitated’, ‘cripple’, ‘handicapped’, ‘retarded’ etc. find their
root in the medical model of disability
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3. Functional Model of Disability
- Similar to the Biomedical Model but instead of habilitation (help given to maximize
function), it is about rehabilitation (assistance by professionals to regain one’s
functionality)
- Puts the PWDs at a disadvantage because they are perceived as inferior
4. Social Model of Disability
- Was developed as a reaction/response to the Biomedical and Functional Models
- disability is a social construct, where standards and limitations that society places on
specific groups of people are what disables a person
- any meaningful solution must be directed at societal change rather than individual
adjustment and rehabilitation
5. Twin Track Approach
- A holistic approach that combines the social model and the rights-based model
- emphasizes on human dignity of PWDs
Special Needs Education
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an “attempt to increase fairness of universal public education for exceptional learners”
a set of services provided to students who experience exceptional learning needs (i.e.
special difficulties or extraordinary abilities in learning)
The goal of special needs education is to ensure that those perceived to have difficulties
in learning will still be taught but in a different manner
Inclusive Education
• An education practice that places learners with disabilities in the general education
classroom with typically developing children under the supervision of a general
education teacher
• Anchored on the philosophy that every child has an inherent right to be equally
educated with his/her peers, no matter how different he/she appears
• 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child
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1993 UN Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with
Disabilities
In 2005, the UNESCO published the Guidelines for Inclusion which highlights the
following:
• Inclusion is a process (a never-ending search to find better ways to address
diversity)
• Inclusion involves a preventive dimension (i.e. remove potential barriers to the
process)
• Inclusion is about the “presence, participation, and achievement” or learning
outcomes of all students
• Inclusion puts emphasis on learner who are at risk of marginalization, exclusion,
or underachievement
Index of Inclusion (Booth & Ainscow, 2002) – framework for educational institutions to
develop their own plans for inclusion. It highlights Creating inclusive cultures, Producing
inclusive policies, and Evolving inclusive practices as the three dimensions are connected
to direct thinking about school change
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Universal Design for Learning - refers to the design of instructional materials and
activities to make the content information accessible to all children. Students are
allowed to construct learning in more than one way, hence, it ensures that all
students learn genuinely. The three elements of UDL are: multiple means of
representation, multiple means of action & expression, and multiple means of
engagement
Differentiated Instruction - “a way of thinking about the classroom with dual goals of
honoring each student’s learning needs and maximizing student’s capacity.” Using a
variety of learning and teaching strategies so that diverse needs of students are met.
The curriculum can be differentiated through its: content, process, product, and
learning environment in response to the students.
Components of Special and Inclu
Inclusive
sive Education
Child Find System – systematic method of finding students at-risk or suspected to have
disabilities or special needs
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Screening (aka pre-referral process) – teachers, guidance counselors, daycare
workers, even parents can initiate this step when they observe that a child has
significant difficulties in reaching developmental milestones.
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The children may be observed using norm- and criterion-referenced tests, but
they are not immediately referred for special education testing. Academic and
behavioral support (interventions – accommodations or curriculum modifications) are
first applied to address noted challenges.
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Assessment - the process of collecting information about a child’s strengths and
needs. It uses a problem-solving process that involves a systematic collection as well
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as interpretation of data gathered. The results of an assessment are used to make
decisions about a child’s educational placement and instructional programs specifically
for a child with additional needs.
Another type of assessment is the progress monitoring and evaluation of
teaching programs and services. This is done to determine the effectivity of programs
are in assisting the inclusive and special education teacher
Placement - A general education classroom is the least restrictive environment
for a child with additional needs. He/she will have the same learning experiences and
opportunities as his peers. Hence, this can be the “most normalized or typical
setting”). Additional support through accommodations or changes in expectations
may be provided by the teachers within the classroom.
Parent involvement - Directly related to academic achievement and
improvements in the school performance of children. Educational support and
collaboration between parents and teachers promote child success in school.
Accommodations and Curricular Modifications
Accommodations – behavioral or instructional support provided to students with disabilities or
additional needs
1. Presentation - Instructional or test materials are presented in a different manner
compared to the standard print. It provides alternative modes of access in auditory,
multi-sensory, tactile, and visual formats
2. Response - Changes how student answers are recorded. It allows students to complete
activities, assignments, and assessments in different ways or to solve and organize
problems using some type of device or organizer.
3. Setting - Changes in the location in which a test or assignment is given or the
conditions of the assessment setting. These may be necessary for students who need
support in terms of behavior, attention, and or organization of space
4. Scheduling - Changes in time allotment, schedule of tasks and assessments and
management of time. This provides additional time to complete assignments and/or
assessments for the way time is organized and is helpful for students who need more
time to process written text, write, use assistive technology device, have limited
attention.
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Curricular Modifications - Any adaptation made to the general education curriculum to prevent a
mismatch between a student’s skill level and the lesson content to promote student success in
learning. Its goal is to allow students with disabilities and additional needs to continue
participating in general education classes but with the performance outcomes altered to be
more aligned with the students’ abilities and needs.
Typical and Atypical Dev
Development
elopment among Children
Studies have shown that early childhood development is crucial to an individual’s long-term
health and well-being. It is often regarded as one’s foundation for lifelong learning, behavior,
and even future potential.
When a child follows the usual pattern or normal progression of development, this is known as
typical development
development. This means that the child is able to acquire knowledge, skills and behavior
within a certain age when he/she is expected to do so.
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On the other hand, atypical development means that the child’s development does not follow a
normal progression; he/she may reach developmental milestones earlier or later that his/her
same age peers.
While there is no standard way of identifying whether a child is experiencing atypical or typical
development, parents, caregivers, and educators are reminded that – 1) the rate of
development may differ among children, 2) development occurs in a relatively orderly process,
and 3) development takes place gradually.
It is, however, important to note if a child is missing developmental milestones. Parents or
caregivers should consult with their pediatrician if a child is missing several developmental
milestones so that the child may be evaluated and recommended with interventions if a delay is
identified.
Domains of Developmen
Developmentt
A child’s developmental milestones are classified into four domains namely, cognitive, social and
emotional, language, and physical.
1. Cognitive Domain includes intellectual development, creativity, critical thinking, problem
solving, and decision making.
2. Social and Emotional (or Socioemotional) Domain includes the management and control
of emotions. It is in this domain that a child learns to establish and process relationships
with himself/herself (intrapersonal) and with others (interpersonal).
3. Language Domain refers to the process of acquiring language in a consistent order
without the need for explicit teaching from the environment. However, it must also be
noted that this domain is dependent on the other developmental domains.
4. Physical Domain refers to the development of physical changes, which includes growing
in size and strength as well as the development of (gross and fine) motor skills and the
five senses. It is worth noting that the development in this domain can be influenced by
nutrition and illness.
Learners with Additional Needs
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Gifted and Talented Learners – this type of learners are students with
higher abilities than average and are often referred to as gifted students. They have
talents, abilities, and potentials that are developmentally advanced and are not typical for
children their age. “Giftedness” usually refers to students with extraordinary abilities in
various academic areas while “talented” students are those who have extraordinary abilities
in a specific area.
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Gifted and talented learners often exhibit a combination of the following
characteristics in various degrees:
-high level of curiosity
-active reader
-highly verbal
-very keen observant
-gets bored easily
-highly imaginative
-independent learner
-retains and recalls information very well
-excited about learning new concepts
-looks for new ways of doing things
-high degree of commitment to a task
-gives uncommon responses to common questions
-good comprehension of complex concepts
It is also worth mentioning that a gifted or talented learner may not exhibit all
these characteristics. The abovementioned characteristics is not a checklist but simply a
compilation of characteristics common among gifted and talented learners.
Learners With Difficulty Seeing – these learners are those with issues regarding
sight that interfere with their participation in academics. The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) defines it as “an impairment in vision, that, even with correction,
adversely affects a child’s educational performance which includes both partial sight and
blindness.”
These learners often have physical signs such as cross-eyed, squinting, and eyes
that turn outwards. They may also be clumsy, often bumping into objects, and like to
sit/stand near the instructional materials. They may also show poor eye-hand coordination
and have difficulty in reading and writing.
Learners With Difficulty Hearing – are students who have hearing issues that
interfere with academics. IDEA gives this definition, “an impairment in hearing whether
permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance but is not
included under the definition of deafness.” It must be noted that a hearing loss below 90
decibels is only considered as a hearing impairment while above 90 decibels is deafness.
Most hearing-impaired students identify communication as their main challenge
since they have various ways of communicating. There are different factors that affect the
development of their communication skills such as intelligence, personality, degree and
nature of deafness, family environment, and the age of onset. It must be noted that the
latter is crucial in the development of language. It has been observed that those who
suffered from hearing loss at birth are more functionally disabled that those who lost
hearing after language development.
Often, students who have difficulty hearing do the following:
 Speaks too loudly
 Positions his/her ear toward the direction of the speaker
 Asks information to be repeated several times
 Has a speech delay
 Watches the face/lips of a speaker intently
 Favors one ear
 Not responding when called
 Has difficulty following directions
 Does not mind loud noises
 Leans close to the source of sound
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These learners use various methods of communication such as the use of hearing aids and
lip-reading. There may be a delay in their communication skills since vocabulary
development is slower. Modifying sentences into simpler structures can help them as well
as allowing the use of note-takers in class.
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Learners With Difficulty Communicating – these are learners who have difficulty
in either verbally expressing their ideas or understanding what others are saying. They may
have a clinical diagnosis of a disability, a developmental delay, or difficulties in the language
domain.
In terms of communication disorders, it is important to distinguish between
speech impairments and language disorders. The former includes stuttering, impaired
articulation, and language or voice impairment. These disorders can negatively affect a
student’s performance in school. There are four basic types of speech impairments as
described as follows:
 Articulation disorder – The individual cannot physically produce the given sound.
When the disorder is severe, it can make a person’s speech unintelligible. Examples of
these are substitutions, omissions, distortions, and additions of speech sounds. Ex.
The sentence, “”I refuse to leave you alone.” can sound like “I wefuse to weave you
awone.” and the sentence, “Did you eat?” can sound like, “Jeet?”
 Phonological disorder – The child produces multiple patterns of sound errors with
obvious impairment of intelligibility. Sounds are also inconsistently misarticulated.
 Fluency disorder – This refers to difficulties with rhythm and timing of speech.
Stuttering is an example of fluency disorder. A person who stutters often rapidly
repeat a consonant or vowel sound at the beginning of words, prolongations,
hesitations and verbal blocks.
 Voice Disorder – Problems with the quality or use of one’s voice resulting from
laryngeal disorders. A person may have a voice that is to excessively hoarse. Breathy,
or too high pitched.
On the other hand, language disorders involve problems in one or more of the five
components of language (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics).
According to the American Psychiatric Association (2013), language disorders are
characterized by continuing difficulties in language acquisition use which result from deficits
in comprehension that include reduced vocabulary, limited sentence structure, and
discourse impairments that limit function.
Language disorders can be expressive which interferes with the production of language,
receptive which interferes with the understanding of language, or a combination of both.
It is important to note that students who fall within the Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
often display speech and language difficulties. Kirk et al. (2015) explained that ASD is an
umbrella term for related disorders that affect social development and communication. Very
frequently, students with ASD display deficits in the practical use of language which impact
their social relationships.
The difficulty in communication exhibited by a child is a common marker observed by
parents, caregivers, and early childhood teachers. Oftentimes, when they observe a delay
or difficulty in speech of a child, experts are consulted.
Specialists employ a variety of tests and tools as well as a rigorous process to determine
whether a child has speech and/or language problems. A diagnosis cannot be made
through a simple examination. The assessments in speech, language, and communication
must also take into account, the culture and language context of the child.
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Learners With Difficult
ifficulty
y Moving/W
Moving/Walking
alking – learners whose physical domain is
affected and have mobility issues
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Developmental coordination disorder (aka dyspraxia) – refers to significant and
persistent deficits in coordinated motor skills that are way below the expected typical
development. These difficulties are exhibited as clumsiness, inaccuracy of motor skills,
and slowness. This disorder is not a result of intellectual disability, visual impairment,
or any neurological condition affected movement.
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Stereotypic movem
ovement
ent disorder – refers to the uncontrolled repetitive and nonfunctional motor behavior. This disorder is not a result of any neurodevelopmental
disorder.
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Cerebr
Cerebral
al p
palsy
alsy – refers to a disorder of movement and posture that result from damage
to the areas of the brain that control motor movements. This damage to the brain can
occur before, during, or after birth due to an accident or injury. There are different
classifications of cerebral palsy depending on which parts of the body are affected.
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Learners With Difficulty Remembering And Focusing – refer to a heterogenous
group of students who have difficulties with memory and attention functions specifically,
Learning Disability (LD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD).
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Learning Disability – a term coined by Samuel Kirk in 1962 to describe learners who
had neurologically-based problems that affected their learning in different ways.
Gargiulo (2012) identified common components of LD namely, intellectually functioning
withing normal range, having a significant gap between a student’s assumed potential
and actual achievement, having a difficulty in learning in one or more academic areas,
and inference that LD is not primarily caused by other disabilities.
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Specific Learning Disability - “a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which
disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write,
spell, or do mathematical calculations."
 Dyslexia – characterized by difficulties with accurate and fluent word recognition
and by poor spelling and word reading abilities that resulted from a deficit in
phonological processing abilities
 Dysgraphia – affects the development of writing abilities which can exhibit as
spelling,
handwriting,
and
expressive
writing
difficulties
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Dyscalculia – affects how students acquire and develop their numeracy skills
despite average intelligence. May exhibit in children as difficulty in remembering
and understanding math concepts and using math symbols or functions
Att
Attention
ention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder – is a medical condition that is characterized by
inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, or a combination of both. For a child to be
diagnosed with ADHD, the abovementioned behaviors must have been observed in two
or more settings, displayed persistent pattern of hyperactivity and/or impulsivity for at
least six months which interferes with child’s functioning or development, and several
symptoms were present before 12 years old. It must also be noted that these
behaviors are not a result of other disorders.
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Signs of ADHD in children:
 Inattention – does not pay attention to details and works in a careless manner,
has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks, easily gets distracted by external
stimuli, forgets following through or fulfilling instructions, appears distracted or
inattentive when spoken to directly; tends to lose things for schoolwork, tends
to forget daily tasks and routines, has problems organizing tasks
 Hyperactivity and impulsivity – often restless and fidgety, cannot sit still on a
chairs and roams the class, very talkative and interrupts in conversations,
impulsive with words and actions, finds it difficult to be patient and wait for
his/her turn, struggles with following instructions and rushes through tasks
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Students with LD and ADHD tend to be disorganized and forgetful of their
routines. Sometimes those with ADHD, due to their impulsivity, also exhibit
disruptive behavior that create a negative impact on relationships with family and
peers. However, neurodiversity highlights that children with LD and ADHD also
have strengths and abilities despite the challenges and difficulties that they face.
Students with LD are known to be very creative, have strong artistic abilities, and
excellent visual-spatial skills.
Learners With Difficulty With Self
Self--Care – this refers to students who have
difficulties in personal care. This means that they have challenges in performing daily
activities for body care such as washing oneself, brushing teeth, dressing, eating, etc. Most
of these students are those with moderate to severe cognitive deficits, such as Intellectual
Disability or Intellectual Development Disorder (ID or IDD).
 Kirk (2015) defined intellectual disability as a developmental disorder that affects the
intellectual and adaptive functioning across the conceptual, practical, and social
domains that happens during the developmental period. A student diagnosed with
ID/IDD has deficits in both the cognitive and adaptive domains.
 Children with ID/IDD are often identified at a very young age due to their inability to
do certain things. The conventional approach to measuring the level of severity of
ID/IDD is through intellectual tests, ranging from Mild level (IQ 50-70) to profound
(IQ below 20). However, there are other ways of identifying learners with ID/IDD
aside from measures of intelligence, such as through direct observation, structured
interviews, and standardized scales.
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