U N I T
CHRISTINE MOORCROFT
WORLD WATCH
SECOND EDITION
GEOGRAPHY
A Geography Course for Grade 7
2
I
Title verso
Introduction
Key features of Student’s Book 2
•Book 2 begins with bringing the students’ focus on the physical features of the Earth and
their formation: mountains, plateaus, valleys, and plains. The course of a river is explained
through a trip along the Indus from its source to its delta.
•It explains how the movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates created different landforms
and continues to change the land. It also explains the causes of violent natural events
such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes.
•It builds on the students’ existing knowledge of the water cycle and introduces the
conditions that affect water in the atmosphere, on the Earth’s surface, and under the
ground. It explains how our water supply is produced, how we collect, store, and distribute
it, and how it can be protected from waste and pollution.
•It focuses on Pakistan’s rich supply of mineral reserves: metals, non-metallic minerals,
gemstones, coal, gas, and oil, and its place in world commerce.
•It discusses the origin, extraction, and uses of different energy resources and its
environmental cost.
•It explains different types of settlements, how and why these develop layouts, in certain
locations, and in particular ways, and how they affect their surroundings.
•It discusses different types of agriculture and farming, including forestry and fishing. It
also explores the importance of agriculture to Pakistan’s economy.
•It introduces different types of forests and explains how people live and work in the forest
and the importance of forests to the environment.
•Building on the students’ knowledge of different climates and the structure of the Earth’s
atmosphere, the book explains climate change, global warming, and greenhouse gases,
and their causes and effects.
Learning features of World Watch Geography series.
Carefully selected activities and research topics
engage students to develop mapping skills, explore
options for sustainable usage of land, resources,
and environment, and find out the limitations of
such options for developing countries.
Building Skills
List the advantages and disadvantages of using
chemical fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides, and
biomedical engineered seeds. Do you think Pakistan
should use these to increase its agricultural output?
Conversation boxes follow an
enquiry-based approach to
induce classroom discussions
and build geographical
skills and knowledge
It’s a fact!
•
Did you know that the study of
geography helps
us to explore and
understand space
and place?
Yes! It helps us in recognising
the similarities and differences in
landscapes, climates, availability
of resources,
cultures, political
systems,
Pesticides are chemicals that kill
insects and other small creatures that
eat or damage plants.
Fact boxes are information prompters to engage
the learner into diverse geographic data and to
explore different sources and perspectives.
economies, and
environments
across the world.
III
Contents
Page
1
Plains and Rivers
1
Students will be able to:
• Inquire Earth’s processes and patterns and how landscapes have changed over time (Types
of plains features of the river).
• Compare the geographical features of plains & rivers.
• Compare urban and rural infrastructure to understand adaptation according to human
needs (People living near rivers and on plains).
• Find out the differences in lifestyles of people living near rivers and on plains to appreciate
and respect diversity.
• Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images,
and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform.
• Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, Google Earth, satellite images,
photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to
derive information of the physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of
the world to develop and support conclusions.
2
Water Resources and Management
Students will be able to:
• Inquire why landforms are changing due to the natural processes of the Earth (Causes and
consequences).
• Inquire why landforms are changing due to human activity (Causes and consequences of
pollution).
• Analyse patterns of distribution and consumption of water resources of some selected
geographical regions of the world.
• Inquire why landforms are changing due to human activity (With respect to water) (Causes
and consequences of pollution).
• Analyse that scarcity of resources compels people to wisely use resources.
• Suggest ways to utilise and conserve (Water) resources.
• Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images,
and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform.
• Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, Google Earth, satellite images,
photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to
derive information of the physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of
the world to develop and support conclusions.
IV
15
C O NTE NTS
3
Settlements and Land Use
27
Students will be able to:
• Analyse patterns of distribution and consumption of resources of some selected
geographical regions of the world (Feasibility of human settlement).
• Inquire and describe the interaction between physical and human geography in terms of
types of settlements.
• Explain that the economic progress of a region relies upon the advancement in
infrastructure, transport, and use of science and technology.
• Describe the effects of excess land use (Causes and effects of population increase,
excessive agriculture, and excessive urbanisation).
• Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images,
and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform.
• Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs,
diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive
information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world
to develop and support conclusions.
4
Agriculture
47
Students will be able to:
• Explain patterns of distribution and consumption of resources in Pakistan in terms of
agriculture.
• Inquire and describe the types of agriculture in Pakistan.
• Explain that the economic progress of a region relies upon the specialisation of resources
through education, scientific research, and technology (Modern methods of farming).
• Deduce that high revenues can be generated by exporting finished goods as per current
demand (Raw materials from farming and fishery to other countries).
• Explain the basic role of the global economic system and interdependence within the
global economy (Raw materials from farming and fishery to other countries).
• Describe the effects of excess land use (Effects of excessive agriculture).
•
Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images,
and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform.
• Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs,
diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive
information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world
to develop and support conclusions.
V
C ONTENTS
5
Climate Change
65
Students will be able to:
• Construct arguments to describe the interaction between physical and human geography.
• Investigate how and why our climate is changing (global warming, greenhouse effect).
• Inquire why landforms are changing due to human activity (causes and consequences of
pollution.
• Find ways to improve the quality of their own and global environment.
• Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images,
and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform.
• Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs,
diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive
information of the physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the
world to develop and support conclusions.
6
Minerals and Power
79
Students will be able to:
• Analyse patterns of distribution and consumption of resources of some selected
geographical regions of the world. (Minerals and Power)
• Describe economic activities related to natural, capital, and human resources.
• Explain that the economic progress of a region relies upon the specialisation of resources
through education, scientific research, and technology.
• Deduce that high revenues can be generated by exporting finished goods as per current
demand.
• Suggest ways to utilise resources and conserve them. (Minerals, fossil fuel, alternate
sources of energy)
• Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images,
and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform.
• Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs,
diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive
information of the physical, human and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the
world to develop and support conclusions.
Glossary
VI
102
1
1
UNIT
UNIT
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
Plains and rivers
Plains and Rivers
What is a plain?
Knowledge
•
Describe the physical features of plains.
•
Differentiate plains from the other landforms.
•
Identify some major types of plains of the world
•
Describe the river plain.
•
Explore a river system.
•
Describe the importance of the middle course of the river.
•
Discover why delta is found on the lower course of the river.
•
List different features of the upper, middle and lower courses
of a river.
•
Explain how rivers are important in the biodiversity and
economy of the region.
Skills
•
Use maps, GIS or Google Maps , Google Earth, to identify
different types of plains and their features.
•
Inquire about the working of a river system.
•
Investigate reasons why the Arctic plain is known as
barren plain.
•
Investigate the living conditions in a Desert or the
Arctic Tundra Plain.
•
Gather, organise, and interpret data to analyse the
impact of rivers on the biodiversity of the region.
•
Exceeding use of vocabulary to describe
physical, human, and environmental geography
and economy related to them.
What is a plain?
Look at the land around you. Is it flat or hilly? If it has
slopes, is the slope gentle or steep? If it is a large,
wide area of land that is flat, or almost flat, it is a
plain. A plain might slope gently, but never steeply.
One of the world’s largest plains is the Eurasian
Steppe. Steppes are found in places with a temperate
climate and very little rain. Another very large plain
region is the Great Plains of North America.
What are plains like?
Kyrgyztan is part of the Eurasian steppes
which is a large area of un-forested grassland.
There are different types of plains—each characterised
by its unique features like climate, vegetation, and location. Some plains, like the Great Plains of North
America, are bounded on one side by mountains. Some are found along the banks of rivers, like the Indus
river plain in Pakistan. It is a vast expanse of fertile land, covering about 517997.6 km2 with a gentle
slope from the Himalayan piedmont in the north to the
Arabian Sea in the south. Coastal plains are found
along the coasts of continents. Let’s find out about
some other types of plains.
Grasslands
Grasslands receive enough rain for grasses to grow
up to about 1 metre high. Scattered trees grow in the
wetter parts. The Eurasian Steppe and the Great Plains
of North America are grasslands.
In North America grasslands are called prairies. The
Plain’s bison on the American Prairie Reserve in
Montana, USA; these animals are also known as
buffalo.
1
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
temperate grasslands of South America are called pampas. The
Serengeti Plains of central Africa are called savannahs. Savannahs have
grass, other small flowering plants, and a few trees. There are also
savannahs in Australia and the southern part of North America.
Deserts
Some plains are deserts. Deserts are places that have less than 250
mm of rainfall per annum. The weather in deserts is usually hot, but it
becomes cool at night. Most deserts are located between the latitudes
of 20° and 35° north and south of the Equator. The land is flat but as
the climate is very dry, there is very little vegetation. Parts of the Thar
Desert in Pakistan and the Sahara Desert in North Africa are plains.
There are also desert plains in Australia.
Temperate or cold deserts are found in higher latitudes. Its dry
environment is due to the presence of high mountains and its distance
from the sea. The largest area of temperate desert lies in Central Asia,
western North America, southeastern South America, and southern
Australia. Katpana desert in Pakistan is an example of a cold desert.
Although cold deserts experience
lower temperatures than hot deserts,
temperate deserts are similar in
aridity, landforms, and soil.
So grasslands are
plains with
temperate
climates?
Not always! There are
grasslands called savannahs
in tropical climates. These
are warm
throughout
the year. They
have wet and
dry seasons.
Arctic Tundra
Plains of Arctic region where
the ground is frozen are called
tundra. The frozen ground is called
permafrost. It can be up to 450
metres thick. In the coldest tundra
plains, the surface of the soil
remains frozen. In warmer tundra
plains, the surface thaws in the
summer. Tundra plains receive very
little rain but the water from melted
ice forms bogs and shallow lakes
in the summer. Few trees grow on
the tundra, but many small plants
survive.
The Thar Desert stretches over 446 square km and covers large areas of
both Pakistan and India.
Building Skills
List the similarities and
differences between the living
conditions in deserts and arctic
plains.
2
Permafrost in an Arctic tundra plain in Alaska, USA
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
Floodplains
Plains which are built by river sediments are called floodplains. These
are usually flat lands next to a river which are flooded regularly. The
rivers flow slowly across plains because the land slopes less steeply.
Floodplains form along the banks of a river that has collected a large
amount of water, for example, the Indus and the Nile floodplains.
Let’s take a look at the Indus floodplain. The river erodes its banks
and leaves an area which is lower than the land around it. Most of the
time, the river stays in its channel but sometimes it floods, usually in
the rainy season. The flood water brings a huge amount of sediment to
this land and, after the flood recedes, the nutrient-rich sediment is left
behind—thus making the soil fertile. For centuries, people have used
the fertile land of floodplains for farming, such as that of the River Nile
and the River Indus. However, in modern times,
people have built settlements on floodplains that
face the threat of flooding.
Plains are all densely populated
around the world because of its
flat land and availabilty of water.
People are involved in a range
of economic activities here like
farming, industries,
mining, etc. However,
these areas are also
liable for flooding.
River Indus originates near the Mansarovar Lake
in the Tibetan plateau and runs most of its course
through Pakistan. It is the most important
supplier of water to the Punjab and Sindh
plains. It forms the backbone of agriculture
and food production in Pakistan. This is why
most of its population is settled in Punjab
and Sindh, along the Indus Plain. The river is
especially critical as rainfall is scarce in the
lower Indus valley. Many industries and urban
centers are on the Indus Plain.
River Indus flowing from the Himalayas
An aerial view of the Indus floodplain
3
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
Locating plains on the world map
Look at the map below. See if you can find the large plains of the world. Use the key to identify these
regions on the map. Remember that plains are regions with the lowest elevations. Physiography (physical
geography) has a direct impact on human activities.
Time zones aid in international trade and communication. A time zone on the globe is approximately 15°
longitude wide and extends from pole to pole and within which a uniform clock time is used. They are
the functional basis of standard time and were introduced in the late 19th century as railways connected
places that had differing local times.
World plains and types of land
GILGIT
J &
F R O
N T I
E R
K
Line of
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
rol
Cont
U N
D E
F I
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D
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
A
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
*
Wo
rk
ing
Bou
ndar
y
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
Key
P
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
P
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
Tundra
LEGEND
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Savannah
Desert
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
Temperate
grassland
69°
Scale in km
2000
0
3000
71°
72°
4000
23°
G U L F
O F
K U T C H
68°
I
N
D
I
A
22°
5000
24°
22°
M
1000
70°
23°
SIR CREEK
AN
24°
AD
AV
BANTVA
JUNAGADH
AR
Rivers
Have you ever wondered where a river begins? Take a look at the
River Indus on the map on page 5. The Indus is the longest river
in Pakistan (2900 km). Its plains make up 20% of the total land of
Pakistan. Let’s take a trip down the river from where it begins.
Source of a river
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
21°
LF
OF
CAM
GU
A
68° E. of GREENWICH.
Y
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71°
21°
A
72°
Building Skills
Using the Internet, research
difference between economic
activities conducted on plains of
Pakistan and any other country of
your choice.
The place where a river starts is called its source. Our journey
begins at this point. Some rivers start in a lake or a glacier, but
many rivers come from a spring on high land. A spring is formed
when ground water pushes its way to the surface through holes or weak places in the rock.
The spring becomes a stream as it flows downhill. The fast-flowing water carries sediment. As it flows,
the water cuts a v-shaped valley. The valley is not straight because the stream changes direction if it
comes to hard rock, called a spur. Where there are lots of spurs they are called interlocking spurs. This is
the upper course of a river, where water flows fast downhill.
4
GILGIT
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
F R O
N T I
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K
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Line o
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
J &
As the Indus flows away from its source, four main rivers join it at
different places in Punjab. These are called its tributaries known as
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej. These rivers come from streams,
snow, and glaciers in the Himalaya, Karakoram, and Hindu Kush
mountains.
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Cont
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
A
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
*
LEGEND
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N
*
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
70°
71°
K U T C H
DU
N
D
I
A
AN
21°
EN
GU
68° E. of GREENWICH.
A
B
I
A
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70° E. of GREENWICH.
S
E
71°
A
RI
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TL
SU
R
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RI
OF PAKISTAN
GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT
OF
PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS
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COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
JUNAGADH
& MANAVADAR
LEGEND
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
I
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68°
71°
72°
23°
23°
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. . . .. .. .. . .. .. ... .. ... .ISLAMABAD
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the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
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The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
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INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
its STATUS
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R
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rk
Line of Contro
MUZAFFARABAD
AB
N
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24°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
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LG
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*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
G
24°
Wo
rk
U N
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F I
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F
GI
M
Tanda Dam
A
Taunsa Barrage
Thanedar Wala
Uchhas Complax (including
Khabbaki. Uchhali and Jahiar)
C
*
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
SIR CREEK
68°
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
A
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
F R O
N T I
E R
P
Courses of River Indus and its tributries
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
The movement ofWetlands
water in in
a river
is called
Pakistan
a current. The current
is
usually
strongest
1 Astola (Haft Talar Island)
2 Chashma
Sarrage
near the river’s source.
Storms
can increase
3
Dah
Akro-II
Desert
Wetland Complex
the magnitude of4 the
current
Drigh
Lake which can even
move large boulders.
TheLake
broken pieces
5 Haleji
6 Hub
(Hab)
Dam
of rocks scrape and
dig
into
the riverbed.
7 Indus Delta
Gradually a river 8tears
away
rocks
and soil
Indus Dolphin Reserve
9
Jiwani
coastal
Wetland
along its bed, and carries them downstream.
10 Jabho Lagoon
The river carves a
V-shaped
11 narrow,
Kinjhar (Kain)
Lake valley
12 Miani
Hor
and creates rapids,
waterfalls,
and gorges.
13 Nurri Lagoon
A gorge or canyon
is
a
deep
valley
that has
14 Ormara Turtle Beaches
A
15 Runn of Kutch
H
been cut by a river.
16
17
18
19
GILGIT
ry
K
trol
f Con
Line o
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
The upper course of a river
P
ing
Can you trace
the course of the
Indus river?
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
M
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24°
A
AN
24°
R
A
B
I
A
N
S
LF
70° E. of GREENWICH. 71°
69°
GOVERNMENT
OF PAKISTAN
RESERVED
JCOPYRIGHTS
U
A
72°
AR
I R A N
N A
G A
D H
21°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
21°
GU
E
JUNAGADH
AD
AV
BANTVA
68° E. of GREENWICH.
M
CA
OF22°
Y
BA
M
LF
OF
CA
GU
21°
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
A
R
A
B
The upper course of a river
68° E. of GREENWICH.
I70° A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
69°
S 71°E
71°
A
72°
72°
23°
G U L F
SIR CREEK
O F
23°
K U T C H
source
68°
I
N
D
I
A
24°
S
DU
IN
R
A
B
I
A
N
S
E
68° E. of GREENWICH.
OF
CA
A
R
A
B
I
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
S
71°
E
21°
A
72°
interlocking spur
k
an
rb
ive
r
Y
BA
M
LF
GU
69°
interlocking spur
It’s a fact!
• ‘River’ means the whole course of the river
from the source to the sea. ‘Stream’ usually
means a very narrow, shallow body of flowing
water.
• ‘Downstream’ means towards the mouth of
the river.
• ‘Upstream’ means towards the source of a
river.
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
v-shaped valley
A
JUNAGADH
AR
RI
stream
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
BANTVA
AD
AV
VE
24°
AN
A
This tiny spring in the Pennines mountains in England is the source of the South
Tyne. The South Tyne is a tributary of the
river Tyne, which is one of the longest rivers in England.
22°
M
R
22°
spur
channel
rocks and soil
rock
river bed
The upper course of a river
5
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
Rapids on the upper course
of the River Hvítá in Iceland
Gullfoss (“Golden Falls”), a waterfall
close to the rapids on the same river
Dams
A dam is a man-made wall built across a river to control the flow of the water. It is a form of hard
engineering that involves building artificial structures to control rivers. Dams trap water behind the walls
built to create a reservoir. It helps store water and release it in a controlled way from its channels. The
Indus plain fulfills diverse human needs as it offers a variety of activity and operations, such as:
•
•
•
•
•
farmland for food and raw material for industries
land for settlements
industrial setup since it has flat land, raw material, transport routes, electricity, labour, etc.
fresh water for inland fishing
irrgation canals for arid areas away from rivers
During our trip down the River Indus we have passed some large dams. The largest is the Tarbela Dam in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. This is the largest Earth-filled dam in the world. It is 193 metres high.
Lake or Reservoir
Dam
The Tarbela Dam
The reservoir at Tarbela holds 14.3 billion cubic metres of water. Engineers can let the water flow through
the dam when it is needed. It serves many purposes:
•
•
•
•
•
6
It
It
It
It
It
helps irrigating farms for agriculture.
generates hydroelectricity.
helps to control river floods by saving the rainwater in reservoirs.
supplies water for homes, industry, and agriculture.
provides important habitats for plants and animals.
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
According to World Bank, Pakistan has 47.09% of
agricultural land but most of it is not irrigated by
canals. To address this deficit, currently DiamerBhasha Dam, Naulong Dam, Kurram Tangi Dam, Nai
Gaj Dam, and Dawarat Dam are in the initial stages
of development in Pakistan. This has boosted
economic growth in agriculture and industries.
Some areas of deserts in Sindh and Punjab are also
inundated by canals linked to dams.
The River Nile in Egypt also has dams. Like the
Indus, the Nile floods each year. The Aswan High
Dam was built to control the river floods. Floods can
be controlled by letting the water through the dam
whenever it is needed. It is located at the border
between Egypt and Sudan.
The Aswan High Dam is the world’s largest
embankment dam built across the Nile in Aswan,
Egypt, between 1960 and 1970.
There are some limitations and disadvantages
of making dams. It is an extremely expensive
development project which has a high maintenance
cost to avoid sedimentation in dams. Widescale
displacement of people for construction can change
demography of the area and disrupt ecosystems
from deforestation. It also adversely affects the
groundwater table and can block progression of water
to other countries, states, or regions by redirecting the
natural course of the water.
Building Skills
Using the Internet, find out more hard and soft
engineering methods of river management to list
alternatives for countries that cannot make dams.
Key
fastest
flowing
water
1.
The middle course of a river
Let’s continue our journey down the Indus. The river
flows across wide flat land called floodplains. By this
time, it has collected a lot of water from streams and
other rivers that run into it, so it flows with more energy.
The river cuts a deep, wide channel and continues to
flow within it. Where it meets high ground made of
hard rock, it flows round it, thus making a bend in the
river. Look at this diagram to find out what happens.
The water on the outside of the bend flows faster than
the rest and cuts a cliff on the riverbank.
In the middle course, the river carries a higher
volume of water. The angle of the land is less steep
due to the lateral (sideways) erosion, which has
widened and deepened the river channel.
A larger river channel has less friction, so the water
flows faster. As the river erodes land laterally, it
forms large bends, and then a horseshoe-like loop
is formed which is called a meander. They are
formed due to both deposition and erosion.
eroded
areas
areas where
material is
deposited
A cliff might
form here.
2.
3.
The gap
between
the banks
becomes
narrower
4.
The river
flows
straight
across
the gap.
The
meander
becomes
larger.
The
meander
becomes
an oxbow
lake.
The middle course of a river
7
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
A satellite photo of the River Indus in 1992. The main
channel of the river has cut across a meander.
The same part of the River Indus in 2002. Ten years
later the meanders are much larger. A meander is cut
off from the river and has become an oxbow lake.
Meanders gradually migrate downstream.
The force of the water erodes and undercuts the
river bank on the outside of the bend. Here, a
river cliff is formed since the water flow has most
energy due to decreased friction. On the inside of
the bend, where the river flow is slower, material is
deposited, as there is more friction. This will form a
slip-off slope.
Over time, the horseshoe becomes slimmer with
deposition, until the ends are very close together.
A large meander. See if you can tell which the left
When the river will have a higher discharge, for
bank is and which is the right bank.
example during floods, the river will breakthrough,
and the ends of the horseshoe will join, cutting-off
the loop from the main channel. This cut-off loop is called an oxbow lake. (oxbow lake, meanders will be
bold)
The lower course of a river
The river channel at this stage is deep and wide and the
land around it is quite flat. As we reach the mouth of the
River Indus, on the coast of the Arabian Sea, it spreads
across a plain and splits into several smaller branches.
This is called a delta.
Building Skills
Make an animated presentation on the
differences between the upper, middle, and
lower courses of river to explain the working
of a river syterm.
Why does a river form a delta instead of just flowing into
the sea? Well, the water has flowed a long way and collected sediment. In the upper course of the river,
when the water carries the sediment, it flows faster. The surface is flat in lower course of a river. This is
why they deposit fine material to form delta at the mouth of the river, called an estuary.
At the mouth of the river, the sea waves take the sediment to the ocean. However, if the river deposits
sediment more quickly than the sea can take it away, the sediment gets heaped up. Consequently, the
river splits up to flow round the heaps. The world’s longest river, the Nile, in Egypt, also has a delta. The
mouth of the Nile is on the coast of Egypt, on the Mediterranean Sea.
Where tidal action is strong, the sediments arrange widely, forming an estuary. This is where the fresh water
of the river mixes with the salt water of the sea. Slow-flowing water deposits sediment on the riverbed or
seabed. Sometimes the sediment is carried out to sea and deposited along the coast.
8
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
Course of River Nile
Ni
GILGIT
Libya
K
Egypt
rol
Cont
Saudi
Arabia
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
A
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
*
P
White N
il
Sudan
P
ing
Bou
ndar
y
ile
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
e
N
Wo
rk
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
J &
Line of
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
F R O
N T I
E R
le
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
Blu
eN
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
A satellite photo of the lower course and
mouth of the River Nile.
ile
LEGEND
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
South
Sudan
Ethiopia
levees
floodplain
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
70°
71°
72°
23°
Zaire
23°
G U L F
SIR CREEK
O F
K U T C H
Kenya
68°
I
N
D
I
A
22°
22°
AN
24°
BANTVA
AD
AV
JUNAGADH
AR
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
Y
BA
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
LF
OF
CAM
GU
A
68° E. of GREENWICH.
estuary
M
24°
69°
R
A
B
I
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
S
71°
E
21°
A
72°
The middle and lower courses of a river and an estuary
It’s a fact!
• A delta gets its name from the Greek letter delta ( )—a triangle.
• The shape of a delta when you look at it from above is a triangle.
Rural and urban settlements on plains
More than half of the world’s population lives in towns and cities,
however, majority of Pakistanis still reside in rural areas. Rural and
urban settlements on plains offer different lifestyles.
Building Skills
People in rural areas are mostly engaged in farming and labour
Draw a diagram or a digital
activities. People have started to engage in small-scale and sustainable
poster to show the impacts of
businesses like tourism, setting fish farms, organic farming, etc.
human activities on landforms.
The upper Indus plain in Punjab is the largest in Pakistan. It joins 5
tributaries in Panjnad to river Indus and flows as one in Sindh and drains
in the Arabian Sea at delta. The largest plain of Philippines is situated in the Central Luzon region and
produces most of the national rice supply, earning itself the nickname “Rice Bowl of the Philippines”.
Urban areas attract people from rural areas for many reasons. It holds most of the educated workforce of
a country, jobs for all sectors of industry, widely distributed transport routes, better healthcare, etc. How
many cities can you name on the Indus plain?
9
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
River habitats
It’s a fact!
A habitat is where organisms live or grow naturally.
Some of the living things in a river habitat are too
small for us to see without using a microscope. They
might live in the water, on the river bed, in nearby
rocks or soil, along the river banks or on its flood
plain. Some may spend a lot of their time in the air.
Some of them are there all the year round; some
arrive for different seasons; others move along the
river at different stages of their lives. A river affects
the biodiversity of a place: that is the variety of plant
and animal life there.
Pakistan has an arid climate, it has more
than 780,000 hectares of wetlands. These
cover about 9.7% of the country’s land,
and they contain 225 nationally important
wetlands. Nineteen of these have worldwide
significance and are RAMSAR sites (Convention
on Wetlands of International Importance
Especially as Waterfowl Habitat). Waterfowl are
birds that depend on wetlands.
An ecosystem is a collection of living things that
depend on each other. Pakistan has many rivers
draining in the Arabian Sea. You have learned about the Indus River and how it changes along its
course. All along the Indus are important wetlands, from the glaciers and high altitude lakes, flood
plains, freshwater lakes to the coastal wetlands of the delta.
Wetlands in Pakistan
GI
LG
GILGIT
US
IND
I TB
ER
AL
RIV
TI
H
ST
N
I
N
W
A
IND
Line of Contro
l
E
S
Pass
Karakoram Pass
Karakoram
AN
MUZAFFARABAD
US
RIV
ER
SRINAGAR
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
(DISPUTED TRRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
N
*
M
LU
E
JH
R
VE
RI
Wo
rkin
g
Bo
un
dary
Scale 1: 3,000,000
R
VE
RI
VE
R
S
A
AB
RI
S
EN
IN
DU
CH
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in
Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession
is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United
Nations Security Council Resolutions.
ER
V
RI
VI
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED
appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities
RI
VE
R
RA
concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
R
VE
AB
RI
EJ
*AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim
Constitution Act, 1974.
TL
SU
LEGEND
A
N
I
T
EN
Astola (Haft Talar Island)
Chashma Sarrage
Dah Akro-II Desert Wetland Complex
Drigh Lake
Haleji Lake
Hub (Hab) Dam
Indus Delta
Indus Dolphin Reserve
Jiwani coastal Wetland
Jabho Lagoon
Kinjhar (Kain) Lake
Miani Hor
Nurri Lagoon
Ormara Turtle Beaches
A
Runn of Kutch
H
G
Tanda Dam
F
A
Taunsa Barrage
Thanedar Wala
Uchhas Complax (including
Khabbaki. Uchhali and Jahiar)
CH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
C
I
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
D
R
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N
VE
RI
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
S
DU
IN
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
I R A N
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
70°
71°
72°
23°
23°
G U L F
SIR CREEK
O F
K U T C H
68°
I
N
D
I
A
24°
AN
24°
DU
S
IN
A
R
A
B
I
A
N
S
E
A
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
69°
R
A
B
I
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
Y
BA
M
LF
OF
CA
GU
A
68° E. of GREENWICH.
10
JUNAGADH
AR
RI
BANTVA
AD
AV
VE
22°
M
R
22°
S
71°
E
A
72°
21°
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
Types of Wetlands
•
•
•
•
•
Marine (coastal wetlands including lagoons,
rocky shores and coral reefs)
Estuarine (deltas, tidal marshes, and
mangrove swamps)
Lakes and the land around them
Riverine (wetlands along rivers and streams)
Marshes (swamps and bogs)
Importnce of Wetlands
Wetlands are important for many reasons:
Boreal Forest
• They store water. This is vital because it
helps to make up for any shortages in our
reservoirs, natural lakes and marshes.
• They support fibre and fuel production (logs,
fuel wood and peat) and fodder for livestock
from mangroves. Many wetlands have the right
type of land for growing rice.
• They help in reducing global warming.
Wetlands are a ‘carbon sink’. They help to
contain greenhouse gases.
• They refill the water table supplies.
• Natural processes in marshes and swamps
break down organic pollution, but they cannot
cope with great amounts of pollution from
untreated waste.
Aerial view of Okavango delta swamps
• They help to control erosion by holding soil and sediment in marshes and swamps. They also
help to create fertile soil when temporary lakes dry out. Riverbank forests help to cut down
erosion during floods.
• Floodplains and marshes give protection from floods and storms. Mangrove forests and coastal
wetlands hold back floodwater from tsunamis .
• Wetlands can be a habitat for pollinators such as bees and other insects. Without pollinators
most plants cannot reproduce. Mangroves are perfect for keeping bees for producing honey.
Indus dolphin
The best-known animal of the Indus is the Indus
River dolphin. It is one of the world’s rarest
mammals. Most dolphins live in the sea, but this
is a freshwater dolphin, which is only found in
the Indus. It lives in the lower parts of the river’s
course, where it has adapted to living in muddy
water. It feeds on crustaceans such as prawns,
and fish such as carp, catfish and gobies.
Indus dolphin can only be found in the lower parts of
the Indus River in Pakistan and in River Beas, India.
11
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
The Indus dolphin is blind and finds its way around using echolocation—like bats. You have probably
heard echoes—where sounds are reflected back to you. There are now only about 2,000 Indus River
dolphins. Their population has reduced due to many reasons like water pollution, reduced habitat by
setting of barrages, dolphins becoming stranded in irrigation canals or entangled in fishing nets and
poaching (people catching them illegally). The Indus River dolphin is protected as an endangered species,
and scientists from World Wildlife Fund Pakistan are studying them to learn more about how to help them
to survive. They are also working with communities around their habitats to help to protect them: for
example, by helping farmers and factory owners to avoid polluting the river.
Changing plains and rivers
Historically, settlements have flourished along riverbanks, however,
rivers routinely flood and sometimes abruptly shift their course. These
‘channel-jumping’ events have changed landscapes and caused some
of the worst floods in human history. They are also called avulsions.
Over time, rivers deposit sediment at the avulsion site, and create
different features. The dispersed deposition of sediment and water
across the rivers’ floodplains form its characteristic triangular shape,
also called an alluvial fan.
River Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum flow westward to join the Indus
River and drain into the Arabian Sea (west of Pakistan). But research
suggests that these rivers once flowed eastward into the River Ganges
and drained into the Bay of Bengal (east of India). Scientists predict
that the rivers were rerouted five million years ago due to the ongoing
collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates that bulldozed the
terrain, tilting it westward or lifting up river-diverting mountains.
Scientists have found that avulsion sites on deltas can move from
their historic locations to new areas. Rapid increase in the sea level
can move avulsion sites inland on deltas, which can expose new
communities to catastrophic flood risks. Climate change has increased
flooding in many parts of the world. Human activities, such as
converting forests to farmlands, are also increasing sediment loads.
It’s a fact!
•
•
Avulsions on China’s Yellow
River killed over 6 million
people in the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries.
A river does not change course
more than once over many
decades, or even centuries.
Do you know that the
Mississippi River in USA
has changed course
many times over the
last 7,000 years. Today,
a multi-dam keeps the
river from joining with the
Atchafalaya
River.
However, scientists have
warned that a megaflood could overwhelm
these barriers and cause
widespread economic
damage
across
southern
Louisiana.
Aerial view of the Indus River Delta bed in Sindh
12
Plains and Rivers: Assessment
A Choose the correct answer:
I. One of the world’s largest plains is the __________
a. Great Plains in USA
b. Nile Plains in Egypt
c. Eurasian Steppe
II. Plains where the ground is frozen are called
__________.
a. Grasslandsb. Tundrac. Floodplains
III. River __________ forms the backbone of agriculture
and food production in Pakistan.
a. Jhelumb. Nilec. Indus
IV. A __________ is formed when ground water pushes
its way to the surface through holes or weak places
in the rock.
a. Rapidsb. Springc. Gorge
V. A __________ is a deep valley that has been cut by
a river.
a. Rapidsb. Canyonc. Gorge
VI.The largest is the Tarbela Dam in __________.
a. Sindhb. Punjabc. Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
VII.River __________ is located at the border between
Egypt and Sudan.
a. Indusb. Nilec. Rosetta
VIII. Pakistan has more than 780,000 hectares of
__________.
a. Grasslandsb. Plainsc. Wetlands
B 1. What is a plain?
2.Draw a table like the one below for your answers:
Type of
grassland plain
C 1.
2.
Climate
Example
a)Name four types of grassland plain.
b)Describe the climate of each of these types of
plain.
c)Name an example of each type of plain.
Refer to the map on page 4 and list
a) Three countries that have tundra plains.
b) Three countries that have desert plains.
Consult your Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan.
a)In what ways are desert plains and tundra plains
similar? Try to give three similarities.
b)In what ways are desert plains and tundra plains
different?
3. Locate the following plains on the map on page 4:
a) The Great Plains of North America
b) The Eurasian Steppe
c) The Serengeti Plains of Central Africa
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
4. Copy and complete the chart below in your
notebook.
a)Write the different names that you know for
plains.
b)Name any countries where each type of plain
can be found.
c)Write what you know about the vegetation of
these plains.
Type of plain
Countries
Vegetation
Steppe
Mongolia,
Russia, Siberia
Grass
D 1. Write the words that have the following meanings:
a) The place where a river begins
b)A piece of rock that changes the direction of a
stream or river
c)A set of spurs that change the direction of a
stream or river
d)A deep valley cut by a river
2. Explain how a river can change the land it flows
across in its upper course.
3. Explain how a floodplain is formed.
4. Draw a sketch of the meander as on page 7. Mark
on your drawing: the directions ‘upstream’ and
‘downstream’, the right bank, and the left bank.
E 1. Do all rivers not flow to the nearest coast?
2. Name two different types of river mouth.
3. Explain why a river deposits sediment in some
places.
F 1. Define the following terms
a) Habitat
b) Ecosystem
c) Wetland
d) RAMSAR
e) Echolocation
f) Biodiversity
2.a)Name and describe five different types of
wetland.
b)Write an explanation of why we should look after
our wetlands.
c)Find out about the nearest river to where you
live. Look at maps and draw your own map of its
course. On your map add details about the plant
and animal life along the river.
G 1. Copy and complete these sentences:
a)In the middle course of a river there are often
bends called _____________. The river might cut
straight across one of these bends and form an
______________lake.
b)The water flows faster on the ___________ of a
bend than on the __________.
c)When water erodes the bank on the outside of a
bend it forms a ________.
d)The material that the river erodes is called
13
U N I T 1 P l a in s a n d R iv e r s
_________________. The river deposits this on
the inside of a bend and forms a ____________.
2. Write a word for each definition.
a)the place where a river meets the sea ________.
b)the place where a river splits into smaller rivers
before flowing into the sea ________.
c)the place where a river is very wide when it
meets the sea ________.
d)fragments of rock and stone carried by a river
________.
Overview
Plains and rivers
Plains
•
A plain is a large, flat, wide area of land.
Types of plain
The course of a river
Grasslands receive enough rain to grow
grasses. Examples are the Eurassian
Steppes and the Great Plains of America.
Different terms for plains are:
•
•
Steppe
Pampas
•
Deserts receive very little rainfall. There
is very little vegetation, e.g. the Great
Sahara and Thar Deserts.
Tundra plains have permafrost. They
receive very little rainfall. Only small
plants can grow when the ice thaws in
summer, e.g. the Arctic Tundra.
The soild on river plains is very fertile
due to sediment carried by the rivers.
The land is used for farming, e.g. the
River Nile and River Indus.
•
•
• Savannah
• Prairies
Importance of IndusPlain
•
•
•
•
•
•
14
Rivers
Farmland for food and raw material for
industries
Land for settlements
Industrial setup
Raw material, transport routes,
electricity, labour, etc.
Fresh water for inland fishing
Irrgation canals for arid areas
Source
• A river may start from a spring, a lake, or a
glacier.
Upper course
• Water flows very fast and carries sediment.
• It cuts valleys, rapids, waterfalls, canyons,
and gorges.
• Dams are built to produce hydroelectricity.
Middle course
• Sediment is deposited at the banks of the
river.
• River water cuts meanders and oxbow lakes.
Lower course
• The river slows down and deposits sediment
at the mouth of the river, forming a delta.
• Where the water cuts a very wide mouth, it is
called an estuary.
Rural settlements
•
•
•
Farming
Labour activities
Small-scale businesses like tourism, fish
farms, organic farming, etc.
Urban settlements
•
•
•
•
Variety of jobs for all sectors of industry
Widely distributed transport routes
Better healthcare
Better and higher education opportunities
UNIT
2
Water Resources and
Management
Knowledge
•
Identify the major sources of water on the Earth and in
Pakistan.
•
Explain different types of precipitation.
•
Describe the process of Water Cycle in maintaining water
supply of the Earth.
•
Identify different uses of sewage waste.
•
Identify biogas as a source of energy.
•
Identify various water purification methods before supplying it
to cities and villages.
Skills
•
Draw and label Water Cycle.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Evaluate the reasons for low water table in Pakistan.
Devise ways to solve the shortage of water in Pakistan.
Evaluate ways of using wastewater.
Analyse methods of sewage treatment.
Organise information about water purification methods
into flow charts.
Analyse the reasons for the scarcity of drinking water
in cities.
Enhanced use of vocabulary to describe physical,
human, and environmental geography and
economy related to them.
Sources of water
Do you know the Earth has the same amount of water as
it did at its creation? The major exchange processes for
water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface
are evaporation and precipitation. Water evaporates from
plant leaves through a process called transpiration. This
is an important part of the water cycle.
The main water sources in Pakistan include surface water,
rainfall, and groundwater. Surface water resources include Rain is an important source of water for life on Earth.
the River Indus and its tributaries. About 70% of the
annual rainfall comes from the summer monsoon during
the months from June to September. Pakistan has varied rainfall
distribution ranging between 125mm in Balochistan in the south-east
It’s a fact!
to 750mm in the northwest. Most of the groundwater resources of
the Indus Plain extends from Himalayan foothills to the Arabian Sea
• Runoff is water that runs off the
and are stored in its alluvial deposits. The Plain is about 1600 km
surface of the ground and into
long and is blessed with extensive unconfined aquifer, which is fast
rivers, lakes, or the sea.
becoming the supplemental source of water for irrigation through
• Percolation means water soaking
conventional methods such as tubewells, Karez system, Persian
through the ground.
wheel, etc.
• The water table is the highest
Where is water stored on the Earth?
The Earth and the troposphere (the lowest layer of atmosphere)
always contain about the same amount of water. This water can be in
different states: liquid, solid, or vapour.
level of the ground that is
saturated with water.
• Water table flow is an
underground flow of water.
• Water table can fill natural
underground reservoirs.
• Water table might find an
opening where it can flow out of
the ground as a spring.
15
U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt
The ocean holds almost 97 percent of the
Earth’s water; the remaining three percent
is found in glaciers and ice, below the
ground as water table, in rivers, and in
lakes
Pakistan has more area under glaciers
than any other country (13,680 km2). The
largest is Siachen glacier, which is 78 km
long, in the eastern part of the Karakoram
mountains.
Water cycle
Water is also stored inside plants or
animals—including people! Water is
always on the move—the same water
keeps going round and round. This
movement of water is called the water
cycle. The water cycle is also known as
the hydrological cycle. It describes how all
the water in the hydrosphere continuously
moves between oceans, lakes, rivers,
land, and the atmosphere. The water
cycle is driven by the sun.
precipitation
clouds
condensation
snow and ice
air
transpiration
percolation
evaporation
run off
ocean
water table
groundwater flow
Look at the diagram and note how
complex is the water cycle as it includes
The water cycle
many different processes. Water moves
in different phases moves through the
atmosphere (transportation). Liquid water flows across land (runoff), into the ground (infiltration and
percolation), and through the ground (groundwater, also called the water table). Water table moves
into plants (plant uptake) and evaporates from plants into the atmosphere (transpiration). Surface and
groundwater evaporates into water vapour (gas) and rises high above the ground. It condenses at a
certain height in the atmosphere to form clouds, and precipitates back to the Earth in the form of rain
and snow.
Precipitation
Precipitation means any water that falls from the atmosphere. Cover the captions below and see how
many different forms of precipitation you can name. Here are some examples of precipitation:
rain
16
drizzle
snow
sleet
hail
U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt
Look at the pictures on this page and think
about the differences between each type of
precipitation.
•
•
•
•
•
How
How
How
How
How
is rain different from drizzle?
is sleet different from snow?
is hail different from snow?
are rain and drizzle alike?
are snow, sleet, and hail alike?
Evaporate
liquid to vapour
(change from liquid to gas)liquid to vapour
liquid to vapour
vapour to liquid
liquid to vapour
Condense
vapour to liquid
(change from gas to liquid)
vapour to liquid
liquid to solid
vapour
totoliquid
liquid
solid
Freeze
liquid to solid
solid to liquid
(change from liquid to solid)
liquid
solidtotosolid
liquid
How are rain and drizzle different from snow,
solid to liquid
sleet, and hail? Water can be in any of three
Melt
solid to liquid
states: liquid, solid (ice), or gas. Did you know
(change from solid to liquid)
that solid can convert to gaseous state with
no intermediate liquid stage? This is called
sublimation. Its most common example is the
process of snow and ice changing into water vapor (gas) in the air without first melting into water. The
opposite of sublimation is “deposition”, where water vapor changes directly into ice; such as snowflakes
and frost.
Sublimation occurs with certain weather conditions, such as low relative humidity, dry winds, stronger
sunlight, and higher altitudes, where the air pressure is less than at the lower altitudes. For example,
sublimation happens a lot at the south face of Mount Everest. It has low temperatures, strong winds,
intense sunlight, and very low air pressure. You can see the results of sublimation by hanging a wet shirt
outside in-O°C day. Eventually the ice in the shirt will disappear.
Frozen precipitation
Have you ever wondered why some water in the atmosphere freezes to form snow or sleet and some freezes
to form hail? Snow forms in very cold, moist air. A snowflake is formed when water vapour freezes around a
microscopic grain of dust. The diagram below explains what happens.
If the air temperature is higher than 0°C, the snowflakes begin to melt and if the temperature is upto 2oC,
they fall as sleet. The opposite can happen too: raindrops that fall from a cloud can freeze if they pass
through colder air on the way down. The result is freezing rain—not hailstones. A hailstone is formed
when a drop of water is sucked up into a storm cloud. The diagram below explains what happens.
4. The snowflake
continues
to grow.
5. The weight of the
snowflake is greater
than the force of the
air moving it upwards,
it starts to fall.
3. More water vapour freezes around it.
2. The speck of dust and air rise into the air.
1. Water vapour freezes around a tiny speck of dust.
How a snowflake grows
storm cloud
3. The raindrops
are now
hailstones.
4. They grow as
more ice forms
on them.
2. The air is colder
up here, so the
raindrops freeze.
1. Raindrops are
sucked up into
the storm cloud.
cold air
5. Hailstones
fall to the
ground.
warm air
How hailstorms are formed
17
U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt
Fog
Fog and mist are caused by water in the air.
When droplets of water hang near the surface
it causes fog. Some parts of Pakistan have
thick fog in the winter. Sometimes in Punjab,
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and upper Sindh, cold
air from the north keeps the temperature cold
during the day. If the cold air moves back,
warm, humid air comes in from the sea. If
this warm, humid air cools, the water vapour
in it changes into droplets, causing fog. If the
droplets freeze, we have freezing fog.
Winter fog in Islamabad
mist
When you heat water in a kettle, it boils. The water evaporates: it changes into water vapour. You cannot
see water vapour. What you see are droplets of water that have condensed from the water vapour. These
droplets have formed a mist. This is just like a cloud.
Parameter of Comparison
Clouds
Fog
Altitude
Clouds are present at any altitude.
Fog is present at ground level only.
Significance
Clouds are significant because they
contribute to the water cycle.
Fog is not so significant.
Existence
Throughout the year.
Winters only.
Density
0.5g/m3
0.05g/m3 – 0.5g/m3
Occurrence of condensation
Precipitation of Water back
Condensation occurs high in the
atmosphere.
Clouds precipitate water back in the
form of rain.
Uses of water
Life on the Earth is dependent on air and water. It sustains
biodiversity on land and in water through minerals for
fishes and supporting habitats in forests. For humans,
It is essential for many domestic purposes like drinking,
cooking (boiling, steaming, and simmering food), cleaning,
to maintain hygiene, recreational purposes, and for linear
plantations along roads to avoid soil erosion.
Condensation occurs close to the ground.
Fog doesn’t precipitate water back.
Is fog not the same as
humidity?
No. Humidity means the amount of water vapour
in the air. You cannot see water
vapour. Fog is like a cloud near the
ground. It is made of tiny drops of
water, so you can see it.
Water is also used for irrigation to grow crops and in
making of agricultural products like fertilisers, pesticides,
insecticides, etc. Industries use water to generate electricity, making of iron and steel,
chemicals, medicines, textiles, leather, processing of food, etc.
Water supply of Pakistan
If you look at the climate distribution map of Pakistan in the Oxford School Atlas, you will notice that most
of the land is arid. Do you know where your water supply comes from? Most of Pakistan’s water comes from
18
U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt
rivers, mainly (65%) from the Indus River system.
Northern Pakistan has more of the world’s highest mountain
peaks per square kilometre than any other country. The water
comes from glacier melt, snow melt, rainfall, and runoff from
the mountains. Some of our water also comes from below
the ground. This is water that has soaked into the ground and
collected in aquifers. Pumps and wells bring it up to the surface.
Pipelines carry water from reservoirs to cities, towns, and some
villages. Pipelines and canals carry water from reservoirs and
storage tanks to fields for irrigation.
It’s a fact!
•
•
According to UNICEF, four billion
people, which is almost two
thirds of the world’s population,
experience severe water scarcity
for at least one month each year.
Over two billion people live in
countries where water supply is
inadequate.
Only 3% of the world’s water is
fresh water, and two-thirds of that
is tucked away in frozen glaciers
or otherwise unavailable for our
use.
•
However, even with all this water, there is not quite enough for all
our needs. Our population is growing faster than the water supply
can keep up with. The water table in Pakistan is getting lower, so
wells have to be dug deeper and deeper. In 1947, Pakistan had
5600 m3 of water per year for each person. By 2020, we had
less than 1000 m3 per person. Scientists are working on ways to
look after our water so that we will have enough in the future. Common reasons for this shortage is the
increasing population, overuse of water, water pollution, conflicts over water resources, droughts, global
warming, and ground water polution.
Scarcity of water affects the lifestyle of people everywhere, be it plains, deserts, and mountains.
Construction of dams, reservoirs, barrages, etc. to meet the agricultural, industrial, and domestic
needs of people leads to deforestation, mining for raw material, and large scale displacement of
people.
The Khanpur Dam is built on the Haro River in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa. The reservoir provides water for homes
and industries in Rawalpindi and Islamabad, and irrigation for agriculture around the twin cities.
A tube well that uses solar power to pump water
from under the ground. This saves using electricity or
diesel and makes good use of the sunshine.
Indus floods
When the River Indus floods, it leaves a rich layer of sediment that creates fertile farmland.
Embankments have been built to protect land and buildings from floods. An embankment is a high bank
made from materials such as stone, the Earth, or wood. It makes the riverbank higher and stronger. In
1947, 1958, 2010, and 2022 the embankments gave way, and floods destroyed large areas. There is
plenty of water in the summer from monsoon rain, but much less in the winter (only 10% of the summer
flow). However, climate change has disturbed the patterns of monsoon and increased the rate of intense
heat waves in the country.
19
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INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
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Reduce wastage of water
Water is wasted when it leaks from pipes, tanks, or reservoirs. The Pakistan Water and Power
Development Authority helps the water supply companies to manage water more carefully. We can all
help. Does your family wastewater? Do you have leaking pipes or equipment? Do you leave taps running?
Stopping pollution
Most of our water pollution comes from sewage. This spreads disease through drinking water and through
vegetables and other crops irrigated with polluted water. It pollutes rivers and kills plants and animals,
including fish.
20
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GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
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ul
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Legend
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Sukkur
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
72°E
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Mirani
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s
INDIA
21°N
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9
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
TAJIKISTAN
H
A R A B I A N
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Abbasia
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TC
22°N
69°E of Greenwich
Sujawal
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ha
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68°E of Greenwich
26°N
72°E
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along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
Sanghar
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Hyderabad
Karachi
Data Source: Development Statistics 2019 of all Provinces
njn
24°N
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l
na
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appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign
Pa
MUZAFFARABAD Desert Canal
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SRINAGAR
69°E
The red dotted line represents approximately the line
Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and i
is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the rele
Nations Security Council Resolutions.
*AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu &
the AJK Interim
Constitution Act, 1974.
Panjnad
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f
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*AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the
Constitution Act, 1974.
River
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le
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as defined
Diversion
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Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER U
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INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHM
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IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
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Jinnah
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g Boun
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6
dary
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(1.5%)of Jammu & Kashmir andJheits
Jammu & Kashmir. The Nstate
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l
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be decided
a
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10 relevant United
(18.5%)
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(80%)
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Nations Security
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FRONTIER
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vi
7
a
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n
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mbe
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MUZAFFARABAD
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OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
INDIAN2ILLEGALLY
Haveli
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TO BE DECIDED
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TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS
(DISPUTED
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I
Islamabad
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m Orakzai
RESOLUTIONS)
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Scale 1: 12 ,500,000
GILGI
sh
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iari
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al
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Hub
i Ca
Barrages help
to control the flow
Kotri
Hab in a river. A barrage is a
of water
Darwat
Fu
le
type of dam with many
gates that
can be opened and closed. It helps
to prevent floods
and it can direct
Pinyari
Canal canals. A dam or
river water into
barrage can also direct water to a
hydroelectric power station.
76°E C
hill
torrent
H flood irrigation
Nagar
Pe
51–70
Astola Island
Gaj Nai
Amandarra
karez
Hunza
per
at
Sw
71–90
Dasht
Jamrao Canal
72°E
FRO N TI E
R
Above 90
G w a d a r
Controlling the flow of
water
diversion canal
TAJIKISTAN
l Up
31–50
26°N
We can build water tanks to hold
Mithan Kot na
water. We can also
dams
Canal
hibuild
Barrage ad Ca
Kach
Bolan
across
rivers to make reservoirs.
Pa
Desert Canal solid wall
A dam is a very thick,
Begari Canal can Guddu
across a river. People
use the
reservoir for boating and fishing.
The water can also beSukkur
used for
fisheries. Dams can control the
flow of water and so help to
prevent floods.
1
2
canal
Qadirabad
Rivers, barrages,b and dams in Pakistan
Irrigated Area, 2019
As a Percent of Cultivated Area (%)
P a n j g u r
hr
Ro
Hingol
Storing water
Diamir
Bhasha
small dam
l
Shera
I
Gomal
These
N problems can be solved by:
• A Storing water from the times
H when there is plenty of water.
G
Sabakzai
• Controlling the flow of water
F
Khushdil Khan
A
from rivers.
• Not wasting water or letting itTaunsa
become polluted.
10
CH
I NA
GILGIT
ary
Khanki
dam (proposed and under construction)
lu
Jhe
Tank Zam
nal
Gomal
Zam Zam
Thal C
a
S
T
barrage, weir or headwork
dam
N
A
Rasul
Jinnah
henab C
anal
Baran
er C
Kurram Tangi
21°
S
71°
U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt
Water supply
Does your water at home come from taps? This is more likely if you live
in a city where water is supplied through pipes. In rural areas, the main
supply of water is from hand pumps and tube wells. Many people also
have to carry water in buckets from ponds, lakes, and ditches to their
homes.
Building Skills
ollect and present data in a
C
Powerpoint presentation digitally
on how water pollution has
affected people and environment
in your neighbourhood.
In cities with a large population, there is not enough water to be
supplied all the time. Therefore the water supply is turned off in some
areas so that it can be supplied to others. People store water in tanks so that they can still have water
even when the supply is turned off. In many Middle Eastern countries where fresh water is scarce, water
is supplied to homes and industries through desalination plants. Desalination is a process in which salts
are separated from sea water to make it drinkable. There are also nature-based systems for treating
sewage, such as specially designed wetlands and reed beds.
A canal bridge over water in rural area is supplying water from the river to farmlands far away from it.
Recycled water
To improve the quality of water, wastewater is carried through sewage pipes to sewage treatment plants
where it is recycled to obtain clean water. It is then carried back into the rivers. But most sewage in
Pakistan is not treated and many of the drains that take sewage away are open. If open drains get
blocked, they overflow. This leads to the spread of germs and disease. In the Orangi district of Karachi,
the open drains became blocked with plastic bags and other rubbish. The local people got fed up with
having pools of sewage near their homes. A non-governmental organisation, named the Orangi Pilot
Project, helped the people to lay an underground sewer and drains to their homes.
The main way of treating sewage is to take it through
drains and sewers to large tanks. Light material floats
in the tanks, while heavier material sinks to the bottom.
A rotating arm skims material off the top. Solid material
is separated from liquid. The liquid goes through filter
materials such as pumice, gravel, or sand. Other
treatments, such as adding chemicals, help to make the
waste harmless. It can then flow back into the rivers or
the sea. Bacteria are added to solid materials called
sludge which break them down. Chemical treatments
help to make these harmless.
Sewage treatment works at Karachi
21
U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt
A village water supply—from drains!
Have you heard of a village in Sindh called Majeed Keerio? It is on the outskirts of Nawabshah in the
centre of Sindh province. Most of its people are farmers or livestock herders. Their crops and animals
suffered as the water supply became less and less. The nearby forests began to die. This raised the local
temperatures. Conditions became worse and worse.
Building Skills
The open drains in the village became blocked with rubbish, and waste
collected in pools and ran into people’s homes.
Using the Internet, find out about
the impact of scarcity of water
on people’s lifestyle, economy,
weather, and the environment.
With the support of UN-Habitat and WWF-Pakistan, an NGO built
Pakistan’s first biological wastewater treatment plant at Majeed Keerio.
The drains take wastewater to a special wetland that treats it in a
natural way.
The wetland is shaped like a shallow basin. The basin is filled with a filter material such as sand or
gravel. Then it is planted with plants that grow well in very wet conditions and polluted water. The
wastewater flows into the basin from a pipe. Microbes in the water break down the sewage. The liquid
then filters through material such as gravel and sand in the wetland. The water that flows out can be used
for most purposes except drinking and cooking. Now the farmers can water their crops and grow food for
their animals. The treated wastewater also irrigates the local forests, so the environment has become
healthier, too.
emergent
wetland plants
It’s a fact!
• Microbes are tiny living things,
such as bacteria.
• Biogas is like natural gas. It is
made up of methane, carbon
dioxide, and other gases.
• Biogas can be burned in
boilers and stoves.
• Biogas can be burned to
produce electricity and heat.
• After treatment, biogas can be
used as vehicle fuel.
water
level
inlet
structure
collection
chamber
pretreated
waste water
final disposal
(reuse)
waterproof
basin
distribution zone
(coarse gravel)
Water Pollution
wetland
surface
filter material
(finel gravel)
collection zone
(coarse gravel)
outlet
structure
How a wetland treats sewage
All over the world rivers are filled with harmful substances. There are forms of this pollution, such as
rubbish that people throw away: shoes, clothing, paper, plastic, shopping trolleys and even bikes and cars.
As well as blocking waterways and injuring wildlife and people, some of these contain harmful materials.
Plastic is very harmful to wildlife; animals become trapped in plastic bags or other containers or tangled
in fishing lines, netting or cord. Many starve because their stomachs fill up with tiny pieces of plastic or
because birds and mammals mistake these for food, and feed them to their young.
22
U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt
When plastic reaches the sea, sunlight,
wind, and waves break it down into small
particles called microplastics. These have
been found all over the world, even in the
Mariana Trench – the deepest part of the
Pacific Ocean.
Other pollutants that we might see include
chemicals from factories, which colour the
water, and oil, which floats on it. You may
have noticed blue or green algae on water.
Algae grow in water that contains a lot of
nitrogen, which can come from fertilisers
and other waste materials.
Plastic dumped in the environment tends to bind with environ-
mental pollutants. Many animals mistake it for food.
There are also pollutants that we can’t
see. These include pesticides, weedkillers
and fertilisers, drugs such as antibiotics from medicines, and
radioactive waste that has escaped from nuclear power stations.
These pollutants also soak into water table – underground water
deep in the Earth that collects when rainwater seeps into cracks and
Building Skills
into an aquifer (an underground store of water).
Water table is very important; 99% of all liquid freshwater on the
Earth is water table. It is usually pure and needs very little treatment
before it can be used. It makes up about half of the volume of water
used in homes around the world. Most people who live in rural areas
depend on water table for their drinking water. They use wells or
pumps to get their water supply. Water table also makes up around
25% of all water used for irrigation.
Design digital inforgraphs
to explain causes of low
underground water in three
countries: Pakistan, Qatar and
Greece.
Sustainable water management
Sustainable water management will meet the current environmental, social, and economic needs of people
and other living beings dependent on it without compromising the
ability to meet those needs in the future.
Energy from biogas
Biogas can help to solve two problems at once. More than four
thousand small biogas plants have been set up in rural areas of
Pakistan. They need warmth to work well, so places with a warm
climate are ideal. Human and animal waste goes into the tank.
Microbes digest the materials. This produces gas. The waste material
left over is safe to use as a fertiliser.
Building Skills
Using the Internet, do class
presentations on water
conservation and its value for
sustainable development.
Cleaning the rivers
Local authorities in many places around the world are working hard to help people to make changes so
that they stop polluting rivers: for example, helping farmers and enforcing strict measures so factory
owners to improve their drainage and dispose of waste materials and prevent runoff.
23
U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt
In some places there are floating barriers that trap rubbish such as plastic bottles and cans in areas of
the river where it can be taken out before it reaches the sea and breaks into tiny particles. There have
been trials for swarms of tiny self-propelling robots called microbots that can remove poisonous materials
such as lead, arsenic and mercury from river water. And microbes have been used for removing some
pollutants by digesting them.
Sewage Treatment
Sewage contains water from drains, rainwater
running off buildings and roads, and even liquid
waste from factories and farms. Sewage contains
materials that can harm vegetation, animals,
people and their habitats. These include:
•
Organic material such as human and animal
waste
Harmful bacteria
Harmful chemicals
Fertilisers or pesticides.
•
•
•
Sewage treatment in Karachi
The drains it runs into take it to sewage treatment centres, but in
some places the drains empty into rivers, streams and seas, and
pollute them. It can also seep into the ground and be washed into
streams when it rains; eventually it can get into water table.
Building Skills
There are different types of septic tanks. Some have separate
Make a 3D model for a smallscale water treatment project
chambers. the sewage enters the first chamber, where solids settle
to raise awareness among your
and scum floats. Microbes are used to digest the settled solids;
school community.
this reduces their volume. The liquid flows into the second chamber,
where any remaining solids settle. In some systems the liquid then
drains into the drain field which is specially prepared to absorb it.
But in many it just soaks into the ground. By this time the water is fairly clear. If the septic tank starts to
fill up with sludge, this is removed and taken away in tankers. After that it can be dried out and used as
fertiliser after treatment as in the main sewage treatment plants.
2. Grit removes
smaller pieces
of material.
3. T iny particles separate from water and
settle at the bottom
of sedimentation
tanks.
4. In the aeration tank
oxygen is pumped into
the water. Bacteria break
down the remaining
waste.
5. T he sewage
sludge is separated from
the water.
6. E
ffluent is water
that is now safe to
release into waterways.
7. T he sewage sludge
is dried out. It can
berecycled and
used as fertiliser.
1. Screens remove
large objects.
24
U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt
Our water supply: Assessment
A Choose the correct answer:
I. _________ has more under glaciers than any other
country in the world.
a. Canadab. USAc. Pakistan
II. The hydrologic cycle describes how all water in the
_________ continuously moves between oceans,
lakes, rivers, land, and the atmosphere.
a. Hydrosphereb. Stratosphere c. Lithosphere
III. _________% of the world’s water is fresh water, and
two-thirds of that is stored in glaciers.
a. 3b. 5c. 7.5
IV. The Khanpur Dam on the _________ River provides
water for homes and industries in Rawalpindi and
Islamabad.
a. Hubb. Sutlejc. Haro
V. _________ valley are formed when fast flowing
water cuts through mountains rocks.
a. V-shapedb. U-shapedc. Rift
VI.Climate change has disturbed patterns of valley
and increased the rate if heat waves in Pakistan.
a. Mistb. Monsoonc. Fog
VII.The _________ helps the water supply companies
to manage water more carefully in Pakistan.
a. KESCb. WTOc. WAPDA
VIII. _________ are used to digest settled material in
a septic tank.
a. Biofuelb. Microbesc. Fertilisers
B1. a)Which layer of the Earth’s atmosphere contains
most of the planet’s water?
b)Discuss with a partner how water moves
around the Earth.
2. Match the words to the definitions:
Words
a) Runoff
Definitions
The highest level of
ground that is saturated
with water
b) Percolation
Water vapour changing to
liquid
c) Water table Water soaking through the
ground
d) Transpiration Water changing from liquid
to vapour
e) Evaporation Water in any state that
falls from the air
f) Condensation An underground flow of
water
g) Precipitation
h) Freezing
i) Sewage
j) Sludge
k) Microbes
l) Biogas
Water given off by plants
Liquid water changing into
solid
A natural gas made when
microbes digest waste
material
Human waste from toilets
and drains
Tiny living things such as
bacteria
Solid waste from sewage
C1.List some things people can do to help to keep
their water supply clean.
2.List three ways in which dams and barrages are
useful.
a) ____________________________________
b) ____________________________________
c) ____________________________________
3. What problems can open drains cause?
4. a)Name three systems for treating sewage before
it flows out into waterways.
b)Which of these systems do you think are the
most useful, and why?
5 a)What kind of sewage treatment turns sewage
into a useful gas?
b)What kind of sewage treatment produces
water that is safe for irrigation?
c)What are the advantages of biogas plants?
D. Draw a table like the ones in Sections A and B.
Include rows and columns where you can list the
different pollutants that harm rivers, where they
come from and the harm that they do.
E1.a. What are agricultural uses of water?
b.What are industrial uses of water?
c.Suggest ways to store water in a water scarce
country like Pakistan.
2. Find out 2 ways to treat polluted water for drinking
and industrial purposes.
F1. Copy the passage and write the missing words.
a)The water supply in Pakistan comes mainly
from the River __________. There is plenty of
water in the __________ season but very little
in the _________ season. Three solutions to
this problem are: _________, _________, and
25
U N I T 2 W a t e r R e s o ur c e s a n d M a n a g e m e nt
_________.
b)Most of our water pollution comes from
__________. This spreads disease through
__________ water and through __________ and
other crops irrigated with __________ water.
It pollutes rivers and kills plants and animals,
including __________.
c)Plastic is very harmful to __________;
animals become trapped in plastic bags,
other containers or tangled in fishing lines,
__________ or cord. Many __________ because
their stomachs fill up with tiny pieces of plastic
or because birds and mammals mistake these
for food, and feed them to their __________.
When plastic reaches the sea, sunlight, wind,
and waves break it down into small particles
called ___________________.
Overview
Our water supply
Water cycle
• Water occurs in three
states: solid, liquid,
and vapour. It keeps
changing its form and
the same water goes
round and round in the
Earth’s atmosphere.
This is called the water
cycle.
Scarcity of Water
• 3% of the world’s water is
fresh water
• Two-thirds of water on
Earth is tucked away in
frozen glaciers
• Two-third of the world’s
population faces water
scarcity for at least a
month every year
Water pollution
• Sewage
• Chemicals from
mining, farming, and
factories
• Rubbish from
industry
• Animal and human
waste
Managing
wastewater
• Wastewater can be treated
in sewage treatment
plants.
• Biogas can be produced
from human and animal
waste.
• Wetlands can be used
to treat wastewater as in
the Majeed Keerio village
where Pakistan’s first
biological waste treatment
plant has been built.
26
Precipitation
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Rain
Drizzle
Snow
Sleet
Hail
Fog
Mist
Water
supplies
•
•
•
•
•
Glacier melt
Snow melt
Rivers
Rainfall
Aquifers
Preventing floods
• Embankments along the banks of the
rivers can protect the land and buildings
from floods.
• Excess water can be stored in tanks and
reservoirs.
• Dams can control the flow of water and
produce hydroelectricity.
• Barrages can direct the flow of river
water into canals or hydroelectric power
stations.
UNIT
3
Settlements and
Land Use
Knowledge
•
Classify different types of settlements.
•
Identify the functions of a settlement.
•
Describe how towns are different from cities
•
Explain the conditions that are suitable for a settlement.
•
Compare two major types of settlements.
•
Identify the major types of settlements in Pakistan.
•
Identify the advantages and disadvantages that people of
rural settlements face.
•
Identify the advantages and disadvantages that people of
urban settlements face.
•
Describe the difference between conurbations and
megapolis.
Skills
•
Use maps, GIS or Google Maps to identify different types of
settlements of the world.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Gather, organise, and interpret data to investigate the
different patterns of settlements and their impact on the
lifestyle of people living in them.
Investigate how the pattern of the settlement determines
the lifestyle of the people living in it.
Inquire how commercial land use is different from
residential land use.
Reflect on why few cities in Pakistan are growing bigger
every year.
Predict that there will be no land left on Earth if
settlements will keep growing at the current pace.
Enhanced use of vocabulary to describe physical,
human, and environmental geography and economy
related to them.
What is a settlement?
A settlement means any place where
people live, from an isolated dwelling
to a huge urban area. A dwelling
might be a permanent place to live
or a temporary home, such as a tent,
hut, caravan, or any type of shelter.
Geographers classify settlements
according to their size. They call this
the ‘settlement hierarchy’ (say ‘hi-rarky’). The settlement hierarchy can be
used for classifying settlements all
over the world, although a settlement
called a ‘town’ in one country might
be called a ‘village’ in other countries;
or a ‘large town’ in some countries
might be a ‘city’ in others.
The pyramid diagram shows that the
smaller the type of settlement is, the
more there are; the larger the type of
settlement is, the fewer there are; for
example, there are more villages than
towns, more cities than conurbations,
and so on.
megalopolis
Increase in size of
settlement, higher
population and
more services
conurbation
metropolis
city
More people,
fewer settlements
large town
small town
village
hamlet
isolated dwellling
The settlement hierarchy
27
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Settlement type
megalopolis
conurbation
Description
a settlement where conurbations have joined up to form a huge urban area
a group of large cities and their suburbs that have joined up or have strong links
connecting them
a city and its surrounding towns that have begun to join up
a city that has a large population and many services, such as several hospitals, banks,
large businesses, large shopping centres, high schools, colleges/universities, sports
centres, theatres, and cinemas, as well as factories and other industries
Approximate population
10 million +
3–10 million
city
has many of the services a large city has but not in such large numbers
100,000–300,000
large town
town
has some of the services a city has; a greater variety of shops than smaller towns
some of the services a large town has; usually at least one supermarket and a greater
variety of shops than a village has; at least one secondary school, a few primary
schools, police station, medical centre, and a market
a few services: perhaps a shop and a workshop
hardly any services—perhaps none
usually in a rural area, for example, a farmhouse
20,000–100,000
1000–20,000
metropolis
large city
village
hamlet
isolated dwelling
Services
The larger a settlement is, the more services it provides. Small
settlements provide low-order services such as a small shop and
dispensary. Large towns, cities, and conurbations provide high-order
services such as leisure centres, chain stores, and hospitals, as well as
the low-order services. Services such as department stores need more
people to support them than small shops, so they are only found in larger
settlements.
The range of a product or service is the maximum distance people are
prepared to travel for it. For example, the range of a washing machine
is much larger than the range of a newspaper; so there are more
small shops selling newspapers than there are large shops selling
washing machines.
The influence of a settlement
1–3 million
300,000–1 million
100–1000
<100
1 family
How can I decide whether
a settlement is
a village or a
town, a town or
a city, a city or a
conurbation?
Think about the size of its
population, the services it
has, and whether
it is made up of
other settlements
that have joined
up.
A larger settlement influences more people over a larger area than a
smaller one. This means that it has business and trade connections over a larger area than a small one
as more people visit large settlements and more people trade there.
Hyderabad is the second-largest city in Sindh. People
from the surrounding villages and small towns use its
shops, banks, hospitals, and other services who cannot
afford to go to a bigger city. Tourists visit because of its
historic surroundings, but mainly it influences people
within 80 km.
28
Karachi is the financial and industrial capital of Pakistan.
It is home to Pakistan’s Central Bank and the State Bank
of Pakistan. Nearly all banks that operate in Pakistan
have their corporate headquarters in the city. It influences
people all over the world.
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Megalopolis (or megacity)
What a word! Split it up to say it: ‘meg-a-lop-o-lis’. A megalopolis is where the urban areas are close but
not completely joined up. There are few true megalopolises in the world. Here are some examples:
•
•
•
The Karachi metropolitan area, with a
population of 16.094 million, is large
enough to be called a megalopolis, but
the settlements have joined up to make
one large urban area, and they are not
conurbations.
Gauteng City Region in South Africa,
includes the cities of Pretoria and
Johannesburg, with several other cities, and
has a population of 15.2 million.
Manila, the capital city of the Philippines,
also known as the ‘Mega Manila’ includes
conurbations across more than half of
Luzon Island (almost 14 million people).
A photo of the ‘Mega Manila’, Philippines,
taken from the International Space Station
Building Skills
ake a 3D model or a diorama of a rural and urban area in Pakistan and in UK. Explain key differences between
M
rural and urban areas.
Conurbation
In a conurbation, nearby settlements have developed because their populations have grown and the
settlements have expanded to cover more land. They have joined up to form a continuous urban and
industrially developed area.
In Pakistan, an example of a conurbation is the ‘twin
cities’ of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, with a population
of almost 3.5 million. The centres of these two cities
are only 14 km apart and after Islamabad was built in
1960, Rawalpindi joined up with it, so that it is hard
to tell where Islamabad ends and Rawalpindi begins.
Main roads and railways link the two cities.
Conurbations in other countries include:
It’s a fact!
• The situation of a settlement is its location in
relation to other settlements and the physical
features around it.
• A settlement’s situation is a very important factor
in how it develops; for example, whether it grows
into a town, city, conurbation, and so on.
•
Frankfurt Rhine-Main in Germany, with a population of almost 5.8 million, combining the city of
Frankfurt with Offenbach and surrounding towns.
• Greater Boston in the USA, whose population of around 4.8 million includes the cities of Boston and
Providence.
Each of these conurbations has large areas of fairly flat land and good road and rail links between the
settlements that have combined.
29
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Metropolis
A metropolis or a metropolitan area is a large important city. It is
economically and socially closely connected with its surrounding area
through commuting. Here are some examples:
Building Skills
• Faisalabad in Pakistan, was built at the end of the 19th century as a
planned city for about 20,000 people. Its population is now around
Illustrate differences between
3.462 million.
conurbations and megapolis by
using an organogram.
• Greater Manchester in the United Kingdom, with a population of more
than 2.78 million.
• Rabat-Salé in Morocco with a population of almost 1.9 million.
All large settlements need suitable land and good transport routes in order to develop, so megalopolises,
conurbations, and metropolises usually develop on plains. Barriers such as mountains inhibit the expansion
and joining up of cities.
Settlements in Pakistan
Let’s compare the sizes and services of some cities and towns in Pakistan.
Quetta: a city
A population of nearly 2.3 million in the 2017 census makes Quetta, the capital of Balochistan, a large city.
It is located near the Pakistan-Afghanistan border, and is a centre for trade and communication between
the two countries. Quetta has all the services of a large city: several universities, colleges, secondary
schools, hospitals, sports centres, stadiums, and shopping centres. The city has numerous hotels, including
some four star hotels. It has road, rail, and air links to many major cities of Pakistan and international
destinations.
The city has spread across two main valleys and some narrow river valleys—and even some of the
slopes of the surrounding mountains and has joined up with nearby towns and villages. It has become a
metropolis according to settlement hierarchy.
Quetta is Pakistan’s only high-altitude major city, with an average altitude of 1680 m.
An aerial photo of Quetta
30
An market place in Quetta
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Kotri: a large town
Kotri, in Sindh, is near Jhirk, which was
Sindh’s busiest river port in the 19th
century, when the Indus River was an
important route for steamships to and
from Karachi. Nowadays, the railway is the
main route for goods, but river steamers
to Sukkur and Multan go from Kotri.
Kotri is called a city, but with a population
of 437,561, it would be classed as a
large town in the settlements hierarchy.
Kotri has more services than most large
Kotri railway bridge on River Indus
towns, with part of Mehran University,
several high schools, and three hospitals. It has a railway station with links to major cities such as
Karachi and Hyderabad. Kotri is close to the N5 and N55 motorways and the M9 Hyderabad bypass.
Rasool Pur: a village
Rasool Pur lies to the west of Hafizabad, in Punjab. It is called a village, but its population of 5548
people and the range of its services make it a small town in the settlements hierarchy. The main road to
Rasool Pur has a tarmac surface but the smaller roads and tracks are made from bare Earth. The town
has primary schools, high schools, various food shops, and services such as car/motorbike repairs.
In Rasool Pur everyone is literate—all
adults have completed matriculation.
This is because when they settled
in this area in the late 19th century,
one of their ancestors was very well
educated and he persuaded the others
of the value of education. By 1935,
they had built a boys’ school and a
girls’ school. They had no land for
farming but their education helped
many of them enter professions such
as medicine, engineering, and banking.
Advantages of living in rural areas
The centre of Rasool Pur
Disadvantages of living in rural areas
Fewer vehicles and industrial pollution lend to less noise,
light, air, and other forms of pollution.
They do not have a wide network of metalled and all-weather
roads connecting far away areas.
Scenic beauty that also attracts tourists and supports
cottage scale industry in the region.
There are few opportunities for higher and better standard of
education and widespread healthcare.
It is easier to maintain law and order in small communities.
Some areas do not have access to basic infrastructure such as
electricity, tap water supply, sewage, and public transport.
There is less competition for jobs.
Less variety of goods and services in the market.
Small towns or villages provide opportunities for affordable
and a subsistence lifestyle.
Some rural areas offer poor Internet and phone reception that
hinders communications for trade.
31
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Siddique Roonjho: a hamlet
Siddique Roonjho is a hamlet on a piece of land
almost surrounded by water on the bank of the
River Indus in Sindh, with a population of 140.
It has no services. The land is not suitable for
farming because of salt water in that part of the
river.
So—why did people settle there? The people of
Siddique Roonjho migrated from Sokhi Bander
near the Indus Delta many years ago because
there was no longer any freshwater there. They
now face the same problem once again, but the
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Pakistan has
helped by building a reservoir to store rainwater
and fresh river water from the monsoon season.
The reservoir has bio-sand filters that help to
purify the water.
Village women and young children outside a
house in Siddique Roonjho. They are wearing hand
embroidered dresses.
There are two fishing boats in the village and the
people make a living mainly from fishing and the
food they grow. They have built their own houses
and a mosque from wood.
The village has no electricity and no one has a
car. The nearest doctors and dentists are in the
outskirts of Karachi—a journey that takes more
than seven hours by public transport. To reach
Gharo, the nearest town with shops, takes more
than an hour, by boat and then on foot. Villagers
have to make this journey to buy anything they
Siddique Roonjho village men with
cannot produce for themselves, or to buy bottled
one of the village’s two fishing boats
water if the reservoir runs dry before the monsoon.
The women rarely leave the village. They make their own clothes, including beautifully embroidered
dresses. The village has no school or teacher and the nearest school is far away, so the children do not
go to school and hardly anyone can read or write even their names.
What makes a place suitable for settlement?
People started to build settlements where they could farm, rather than just hunting or gathering food.
They chose places that had suitable land for raising livestock or growing crops. They needed water,
shelter from severe weather, and wood for fuel and building.
Can you think of anything else a settlement might need? Well, other people might like the look of the
settlement and its valuable items such as livestock—or, a place that was easy to defend. A hilltop was
ideal because the settlers could see anyone approaching and prepare to defend their settlement. An
island was preferred for the same reason, and because it was difficult for others to reach. Settlements
in valleys, such as the Indus Valley, were more sheltered than on hilltops, and if they were surrounded by
mountains, it would be difficult for attackers to reach these settlements.
32
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
The main factors that influenced where an early settlement developed were:
• Wet point: a supply of water in a dry region.
• Dry point: little risk of flooding on low or marshy land.
• Defence: high ground, island, or difficult land around them (e.g. mountains or marshes).
• Aspect on the sides of valleys: that face the Sun (south in the northern hemisphere and north in the
southern hemisphere)
• Shelter: shelter from rain and prevailing winds.
• Trading point: where natural trading routes meet, such as along rivers or natural pathways
• Access to resources: close to where natural resources could be found.
When people began to trade, they needed good routes to reach their markets. Their regular paths and
tracks became trade routes, and settlements developed along them, where they joined other routes, and
where bridges were built across rivers. These settlements became resting places for travellers, trading
posts, and market towns.
When people began trading overseas, ports began to develop in natural harbours such as bays or the
mouths of rivers. Many modern
settlements are on the sites of these
ancient hamlets and villages. Later
settlements needed other features:
• Raw materials for industry (e.g.
Coal, metal ores, precious metals
and minerals, or oil).
• A nearby port for transporting
materials or manufactured
goods.
• Fast and convenient land
transport, e.g. Railways, roads
(and later, motorways), and air
transport.
• An attractive setting or landscape
Size and variety of products in a market are an important factor for
that makes people want to live
settlements
there.
An aerial photo of Karachi, a coastal metropolis in Pakistan
33
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
The functions of settlements
The function of a settlement means its
main economic activity and purpose. Most
settlements initially have a single main
function, but over time they might take on other
functions.
Countries focused on improving their
economies work on manufacturing goods for
exports and find ways to attract investors. This
is possible through building and investing in
modern infrastructure, educated work force,
and adopting technological advancement.
An educated workforce, widespread access
to markets through land and air routes, and
advanced communication and technology can
help attract investors and build sustainable
economies.
Small towns are easy to plan and manage
Market town
Amboise, in the Loire Valley, France, is a market town with a population of 13,119. It had a busy
agricultural market by medieval times (mainly cattle, grapes, and cheese). Agriculture is still the main
industry there, but the warm summers, beautiful scenery, and historic castles also make it an important
centre for tourism.
Port
Karachi, with a population of over 16 million,
according to the census of 2017, was a fishing
village that developed into an important port
and industrial centre. Keamari Port has been
functioning since the late 19th century. Port
Qasim was built as a port in the 1970s in an old
channel of the River Indus. This provides a long
navigation channel with a safe approach for very
large ships. Port Qasim is very close to major
shipping routes and has excellent transport
connections: a railway in the terminal, it is 15
km from the national highway, and 22 km from
Jinnah International Airport.
Kemari Port in Karachi.
Industrial town
Industrial towns develop where useful raw materials, such as minerals, metals, or coal are available.
Salt was discovered at Khewra, in Punjab, in ancient times but it was not mined until the 16th
century CE. The salt mining business grew in the late 19th century when the roads to the region were
improved. The town grew with it. Nowadays Khewra Salt Mine is also a major tourist attraction and the
town has a population of more than 34,000.
34
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Khewra, in Punjab
Resort
Resorts are settlements whose main industry is
tourism. Some resorts develop near historical
sites, or around another industry such as forestry.
Others develop because of their attractive
landscape, such as coasts or mountains. Malam
Jabba, Pakistan’s only ski resort, is in the Swat
Valley, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, with beautiful scenery
and snow. The remains of Buddhist monasteries
from at least 2000 years ago, and 19th century
European colonial buildings can still be seen there.
Good transport connections enable the tourists
to reach the resort. A road links Malam Jabba to
the Islamabad Highway, and it is only 51 km from
Saidu Sharif Airport.
Malam Jabba ski resort
The pattern of settlements
Settlements have different shapes, sizes, and functions. Why do settlements develop particular shapes?
The shape of a settlement is influenced by its situation and function. The main patterns are:
Nucleated or cluster
The homes and other buildings are close
together around a centre. The centre could
be a marketplace, place of worship, where
two routes meet, a river crossing, or a
harbour.
Nucleated
Linear
Linear or ribbon
As homes and other buildings are built, the
settlement spreads along a valley, road,
railway, coast, or the banks of a river.
Dispersed
Isolated
A diagram showing settlements that have developed
into different shapes because of their situations
35
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Planned cities of Karachi
Planned cities of New York
Dispersed
Homes are quite far apart in their own useful situations—perhaps surrounded by farmland or forest.
Isolated
Single dwellings that are very far apart, sometimes because the land is not suitable for building on.
Nucleated settlement
Planned settlement
Key
house
shops
cropland
river
guest house
basic health unit
terraced cropland
karez
school
union council
forest plam
graveyard
mosque
flour mill
date
road
Linear settlement
Maps showing linear, planned, and nucleated settlements in Pakistan
Planned settlements
The shape of this type of settlement is planned. It does not develop naturally like other settlements, but
it has to fit into the shape of the situation. Many planned settlements have a grid pattern for their roads,
so that all the land is used well.
Planned settlements have different purposes: for example, a new capital city, such as Islamabad, the
capital of Pakistan; Astana, the capital of Kazakhstan, and Brasilia, the capital of Brazil.
36
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
It’s a fact!
With a population of 8 billion,
the landforms have changed
drastically in the last 50 years.
Population density places a
pressure on the limited resources
of Earth, like land, minerals,
water, etc. Overcrowding has led
to unsustainable deforestation
on a large scale for settlements,
farming, industry, roads, etc.
The remains of Mohenjo-Daro, built around 2500 bce, in Sindh.
Others have been planned to provide homes for workers in a large industry, such as Port Sunlight in
England, UK (soap and detergent industry); and Barhill, New Zealand (sheep farm).
Pakistan has the world’s oldest planned settlements at Harappa, Lothal, and Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus
Valley. The streets were planned in a grid layout, like many modern planned cities. Mohenjo-Daro also had
a planned water supply and drains, with wells throughout the city, and most of the houses had a bathing
area and a drain.
The ancient Greeks also planned their cities, as you
can see from the plan of the city of Miletus from
around 470 BCE.
N
Brasilia
Brasilia was founded in 1960 to replace Rio de
Janeiro as the capital city of Brazil. If you turn the
book clockwise to look at the aerial photo from the
east instead of the south, you will see that it has
an interesting shape! Can you tell what the shape is
meant to be? Yes—it’s either a bird or an aeroplane!
The site chosen for this new capital city had no
natural settlement because it was mainly forest, and
it had a good underground water supply. Unlike Rio
de Janeiro, the site is inland, where the city could
not be attacked from the sea.
A main road runs along the centre of the ‘bird’ or
‘aeroplane’ shape. This road is the Monumental
Axis. The city’s other main roads cross the
Monumental Axis at intersections. This road splits
the city into the north and south sectors. Each of
these sectors is split into numbered sectors.
The map of Miletus
37
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Each type of human activity has its own sector of the city, with the government sector in the centre.
Other sectors include: the diplomatic sector, the banking sector, the north and south hotel sectors,
commercial sectors, and residential sectors. Brasilia even has an artificial lake that covers 48 km2. You
can see how big the lake is in the satellite photo. The lake was planned to add surface water to this very
dry place, and for recreation.
Brasilia was planned mainly as a city for government authorities and staff—a population of about
4.646 million. However, in 2020, there were 4.6 million people in Brasilia and its metropolitan
area. Its population grew much more rapidly than expected, mainly because Brazilians from all
over the country, as well as immigrants, migrated there for work. Many migrant workers who came
to build Brasilia have stayed, but they cannot afford to live in the city itself. Some of them live in
small settlements around it—but many live in the wooden houses in the workers’ camp that they
built when they arrived. They have built their own community with fruit trees and vegetable plots,
and they fish in the lake.
A satellite photo of Brasilia, the capital city of Brazil
The Monumental Axis—the main road through Brasilia
Islamabad
Karachi was the first capital city of
Pakistan after it gained independence
in 1947. Karachi had become a centre
of commerce and industry, but it was
located in the far south of the country.
The site for the new capital was selected
nearer the centre of the country, near the
army headquarters in Rawalpindi, and
close to the Margalla Pass, which has
long been a gateway between Punjab and
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
Islamabad, on the Potwar Plateau, has a
Faisal Mosque—one of the main landmarks of Islamabad
cooler climate than Karachi and is sheltered
by the Margalla Hills. Also, away from the
coast, it cannot be attacked from the Arabian Sea. Simly Dam was built on the Soan River to provide
water. There is also water table from tube wells in the national park area, and diverted springs at Saidpur,
Nurpur, and the Shahdra Hills. Like Brasilia, the new capital of Pakistan was built in the 1960s. Its shape
is roughly triangular.
38
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Islamabad was planned with eight main zones: administrative,
diplomatic, residential, educational, industrial, commercial,
rural, and green areas. It attracted migrants from all over
Pakistan; some of them came to work on the construction
of the new city, and others have continued to migrate to the
capital for work. The current population of Islamabad is 1.129
million, mainly aged under 64, and the total migrant population
is around 35,000.
Building Skills
sing the Internet, explain the adverse
U
effects of excessive urbanisation and
how it can be avoided without stopping
social development.
Settlement for workers
Port Sunlight village is near Liverpool, in the north of England, UK. It was
built in 1888 by a soap manufacturing company to provide homes for the
workers in their factory. The site was flat marshy land between the River
Mersey and a railway line and main roads to Liverpool and Manchester,
with space for the factory and village to expand.
The village had 800 houses, for a population of about 3500. Nowadays,
families are much smaller, so fewer than 1500 people live in those
houses. In the 19th century many workers lived in poor houses—some
in slums in the cities and towns. The company wanted to provide good
quality houses that workers could afford to rent. All the houses had
gardens, and large houses were mixed in with the smaller houses so that
all parts of the village were equal.
The village was planned so that the workers had opportunities for
education and leisure as well as good healthcare: there was an art gallery,
a small hospital, schools, a concert hall, an open-air swimming pool, and
a church.
Why is overuse
of land bad
for human and
environment?
The rise in population has led
to the excessive use of land
for settlements, agriculture,
industry, and communication.
It has increased soil erosion,
global warming, disturbing
water cycles,
causing
droughts and
floods.
Workers’ houses in Port Sunlight
39
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Mombasa: a large settlement in Kenya, Africa
Mombasa is the second largest city in Kenya, with a
population of around 1.3 million. (Nairobi, the capital, is the
largest.) It has an average elevation of around 50 metres and
its climate is tropical, with very little rain between January and
March and an average of around 7–14 mm for the months
from April to December.
There was a trading settlement on Mombasa Island in
ancient times. Different groups of people ruled the island
but a very learned Muslim settler named Shehe Mvita was
the first to build a town there, in around 900 CE, and the
people there are still mainly Muslims. By medieval times it
was an important trading centre for spices, gold, and ivory.
It traded with places as far away as the Indian subcontinent
and China. From about 1600 CE Mombasa was exporting
ivory, millet, sesame, and coconuts, and by the 19th century,
it was exporting tea and coffee from the plantations.
Nowadays the ivory trade is banned.
Diani beach, Mombasa
Let’s have a look at how Mombasa has grown from a small settlement to a large industrial city that is
becoming a metropolis. Mombasa is on a flat island that is linked to the flat mainland by a causeway—a
narrow strip of land. The city has spread onto the mainland, now linked to the island by a bridge and a
ferry as well as the causeway.
Mombasa has a natural harbour at Kilindini Port, a large, natural deep-water inlet of the sea. This large
harbour has berths for cruise ships as well as cargo ships.
A map of Mombasa and its
surroundings
Wetlands in Pakistan
C Haller Park
H
IGILGIT
N
A
N
GILGIT
rol
Cont
Line of
Pass
Karakoram Pass
Karakoram
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
ER
J &
RIV
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
A
US
IND
F R O
N T I
E R
Changamwe
1 Astola (Haft Talar Island)
W
E
GI
LG
I T2 Chashma Sarrage
Causeway
B Aea
K
L
S
3 Dah Akro-II Desert Wetland Complex
gow T I S T A
Mombasa
N
Kon
4 Drigh Lake
Moi International
Marine Park
5 Haleji Lake
Mombasa
Niyali
Airport
Port Reitz
6 Hub (Hab) Dam
7 Indus Delta
8 Indus Dolphin Reserve
9 Jiwani coastal Wetland
Kili
ndi
ni P
10 Jabho Lagoon
ort
N
11 Kinjhar (Kain) Lake
*
A
T
12 Miani Hor
S
13 Nurri Lagoon
I
Scale 1: 3,000,000
N
14 Ormara Turtle Beaches
A
15 Runn of Kutch
H
G
16 Tanda Dam
F
A
17 Taunsa
Barrage
The
mainland
part of Mombasa
includes settlements such as Nyali, with large houses, hypermarkets,
18
Thanedar
Wala
a multiplex cinema, shopping malls, banks, schools, post offices, and private schools. Not far from
19 Uchhas Complax (including
—aJahiar)
densely populated area that includes 15 villages. Farther north is Bamburi, with its
Nyali
is Kongowea
Khabbaki.
Uchhali and
*
Wo
rk
IND
Line of Contro
l
MUZAFFARABAD
ing
US
Bou
ndar
y
RIV
ER
SRINAGAR
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
(DISPUTED TRRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
UM
EL
JH
R
E
IV
R
R
RI
VE
R
VE
AB
RI
P
Wo
rkin
g
VE
RI
VI
R
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED
IN
DU
S
R
VE
EN
AB
RI
appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities
EJ
TL
CH
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in
Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession
LEGEND
is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Nations Security Council Resolutions.
RA
SU
Bo
un
dary
P
EN
CH
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
R
VE
RI
*AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim
Constitution Act, 1974.
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
supermarkets, department stores, salons, and boutiques. Its cafes, beach, and wildlife park attract tourists.
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
70°
A
LEGEND
71°
72°
23°
23°
I
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .G .U .L .F . O. .F IKSULT A
C HMABAD
SIR CREEK
R
VE
I
N
D
I
A
22°
22°
N
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24°
Boundary; Province . 24°
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .BANTVA
......
AD
AV
I
RI
AN
S
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
M
U
ND
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Some townships to the north-west along on the Nairobi Highway still have mud houses with corrugated
iron roofs, and problems with services such as electricity, water, and drains. However, they have health
clinics, shops, some public primary schools, and handicraft cooperatives.
68°
AR
I
JUNAGADH
Y
BA
J U
N A
G A
D H
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . 21°
..................
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
P
LF
OF
CAM
21°
GU
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P
A
R
A
B
I
A
N
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69°. . . . . . . . . . . 70°. .E..of.GREENWICH.
68° E. of GREENWICH.
S
71°
E
A
72°
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
I R A N
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
40
69°
70°
71°
72°
23°
SIR CREEK
68°
23°
G U L F
O F
K U T C H
I
N
D
I
A
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Changamwe is the main industrial area,
with power generation projects, an oil
refinery, and housing estates. Nearby Port
Reitz has a beach, oil refineries, Moi
International Airport, a hospital, and
housing estates. To the south, Likoni is the
terminal for the ferry, taking vehicles and
pedestrians from the mainland to Mombasa
Island. Not far from Likoni is Diani beach with
several hotels. Mombasa’s call centre
industry is developing fast because the
main intercontinental undersea telecom
cables reach the shore there.
Wildlife part in Mombasa
Container and tanker vessels in port of Mombasa
Advantages of living in urban areas
Disadvantages of living in urban areas
Regular and well-connected transport system in different
forms (public and private) facilitate trade and recreational
activities.
It is densely populated and polluted due to mismanagement and
strain on limited resources.
There are restaurants, cafes, malls, shops, mobile vendors,
e-markets, etc. to buy a variety of goods and avail services.
Life in urban areas can be stressful due to competition for jobs
and maintaining a good lifestyle.
Basic facilities (electricity, water, gas, sewerage, etc.) are
provided for a variety of low to high income households.
Crime rate and corruption is higher in urban areas.
There are plenty of job opportunities for skilled and low
waged labour in primary, secondary, and tertiary sector of
economy.
People living in cities have very little sense of community due to
their lifestyle.
There are variety of places to avail best healthcare and
education at different price rates.
Climate change is felt acutely in urban areas such as heat
islands, smog, accumulation of waste lending to diseases, and
urban flooding.
41
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Naro Moru: a small settlement in Kenya, Africa
Naro Moru is a small town on the Naro Moru River in the Rift Valley near Solio Game Reserve and Mount
Kenya National Park, with a
Location of Naro Moru
population of 9000 in the 2020
Kaongo
Mount Kenya
Burgurer
census.
5199 m
GILGIT
Co
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
GILGIT
*
US
IND
Wo
rkinR
E
RIV g Bo
IND
l
US
RIV
ER
SRINAGAR
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir ILLEGALLY
and its accession
is yet to be decided
through
INDIAN
OCCUPIED
JAMMU
& KASHMIR
(DISPUTED
TRRITORY
- FINAL
STATUS
BE DECIDED
a plebiscite under
the relevant
United
NationsTO
Security
Council
Resolutions.
IN LINE
WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
UM
EL
R
VE
RI
un
dary
LEGEND
Scale 1: 3,000,000
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working
. . red
. . . . dotted
. . . . . . line
. . . .represents
..
The
approximately the line of control in
Line of Control . .Jammu
......&
. . Kashmir.
. . . . . . . .The
. . . .state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession
a plebiscite under the relevant United
River . . . . . . . . . .is. .yet
. . . to
. . be
. . . decided
. . . . . . . through
...
RI
VE
R
R
VE
AB
RI
S
EN
VE
RI
VI
R
VE
CH
68°
G U L F
4500 m
4000 m
3500 m
3000 m
2500 m
2000 m
1500 m
1000 m
500 m
23°
*AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim
Constitution Act, 1974.
N
D
I
A
22°
22°
A
AN
AR
I
D
A
N
LEGEND
JUNAGADH
Y
BA
J U
N A
G A
D H
Capital of Country O.F .C . . . 21°
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
21°
69°
AD
AV
BANTVA
AM
LF
GU
A
B
I
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
A
N
S
E
A
71°
72°
Boundary;
International
... .......................
70° E. of GREENWICH.
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
R
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
70°
O F
K U T C H
I
D
I
A
22°
M
AN
JUNAGADH
AR
RI
V
BANTVA
AD
AV
68° E. of GREENWICH.
N
22°
24°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
72°
23°
G U L F
68°
24°
71°
23°
SIR CREEK
ER
Embu
K U T C H
I
24°
68° E. of GREENWICH.
D
IN
Ena
70°
71°
72°
appears,
would
ultimately
be decided by the sovereign authorities
O F
M
R
VE
RI
Kathunguri
concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
23°
SIR CREEK
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
US
Chickarige
Nations Security Council Resolutions.
RI
AB
EN
RI
EJ
TL
Nithi
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
69°
R
VE
SU
Fort Hall
Magutuni
Actual
boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED
JUNAGADH
& MANAVADAR
RA
R
IN
DU
CH
Githunguri
*A J W
&oK
rkinstands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
gB
in the AJK
Interim
Constitution Act, 1974.
o
24°
DU
S
H
P
JH
IN
G
A
N
I
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
*
A
Another
crop is eucalyptus trees.
T
SLivestock such as cattle and
chickens—even ostriches—are
farmed, too. The main industry of
Naro Moru is tourism, especially
for walking in the national park
and watching the wildlife, and of
course, climbing Mount Kenya. It has
several hotels and many holiday tour
organisers bring groups of tourists.
Most of the tourists arrive at Nairobi
Airport and then travel by road (mainly
in buses or minibuses) to Naro Moru.
This takes about 2¼ hours. The
town has girls’ and boys’ secondary
schools as well as a Roman Catholic
secondary school, and primary
schools. It also has a home for
children with disabilities, and a private
mixed primary school. In Naro Moru,
the people have worked together on
projects to improve their town, including
helping to build new classrooms for
one of the primary schools.
hi
Manyata
ary
Line of Contro
P
uc
Pass
Karakoram Pass
Karakoram
und
MUZAFFARABAD
N
Th
di
A
mplex
ntrol
Nyanan
J &
Line of
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
Chogoria
F R O
N T I
E R
The town has an average elevation
Naro Moru
N
i
C
of around 2200 metres and is K
ob
H
ain a
I
N
classified as having a tropical G
n
N
W
E
ga
IL
A
GI
Sa
savannah climate with a winter dry
T- B
AL
Kahigaini
TI
S
ST
season. There have been projects
AN
to help people to farm in this dry
Karatina
Key
Nyeri
area, and now there are farms
cities
growing vegetables such as beans,
main town
peas, chillies, and safflowers which
river
are pressed for their oil.
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
A
69°
R
A
B
I
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
Y
BA
M
LF
OF
CA
GU
S
71°
E
A
72°
21°
A school in Naro Moru
Building Skills
Using secondary sources and GIS maps, gather and organise data about the diversity in rural and urban areas of
Pakistan and Kenya.
42
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Impact of settlements on landforms
Human activities have contributed to changes in geological landforms as much as natural factors.
Urban Geomorphology studies the impact of urbanisation, farming, forestry, fishing, mining, industries,
communication etworks, etc. on the natural terrain. The increasing global population has put an immense
pressure on land. Forming settlements can impact the Earth systems in a variety of ways.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
It can cause loss of habitats and biodiversity due to deforestation.
It can alter or disturbe evolution of life cycles and traits that help species survive and reproduce in
ecosystems. For example, some bird populations living in urban environments have altered their beak
shape to be able to more effectively eat the seeds in human-made bird feeders.
It accelerates transmission of diseases and
epidemics in densely populated areas.
It increases the transport of invasive species,
Building Skills
either intentionally or by accident, as people travel
and import and export supplies in and out of cities
Use a range of multiple sources as Google maps,
disturbed environments where invasive species
satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS,
often thrive and out compete native species, e.g.,
GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps or field
trips to find out how high population and human
many invasive plant species thrive along strips of
activities has changed landforms in Pakistan.
land next to roads and highways.
It increases regional temperatures from the use of
asphalt that can create urban heat islands.
It increases land erosion and decreases soil quality from pollutants in rivers and streams.
It changes water cycles through the biosphere and atmosphere.
Sustainable settlements
It’s a fact!
The world is developing at an unprecedented scale. According to
World bank estimates, over the next twenty years, urban population
in developing countries will double to four billion, while the urbanised
land area will triple. Such rapid growth will create serious social,
economic, and environmental challenges. Local leaders also have
a responsibility to create equal opportunities for residents to earn
livelihoods, be economically productive, and engage in social and
leisure activities in a sustainable and secure environment for all,
with no one and no place left behind.
Governments can help plan, invest, and build sustainable
settlements by taking the following eco-friendly initiatives as an
alternative city infrastructure plan:
•
•
•
•
• According to the World bank,
today one billion people live in
urban slums.
• In the past decade, the number
of people affected by natural
disasters tripled to two billion.
• Low-income countries have
accounted for only 9% of the
disaster events but 48% of
fatalities since 1980.
• Studies show that political
conflicts, crime, violence against
communities, and even natural
disasters affect the poor most
around the world.
• In 2014, 54 % of the world’s
population was classified as
urban.
Plan cheap and environmentally sustainable settlements in terms
of cleanliness and efficiency.
Promote organic urban farming that can help reduce food
insecurity and reduce food imports.
Planting trees along transport tracks.
Promoting carpooling, planning a cheaper public transport
system accessible for all, and helping pedestrians by making walk and bike lanes on main roads.
43
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Solar farms help reduce GHG emissions and create jobs for people
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
44
Switch to clean energy by making it accessible
and cheaper through solar farms and increasing
the price on energy from fossil fuels.
Using smart technology as heating and cooling
systems that do not use as much electricity.
Promote green infrastructure, for example,
use natural building material rather than manmade (cement, concrete, etc.) which has low
greenhouse gas emissions, promote green roofs
to reduce heat island effect, reduce stormwater
runoff, and supports biodiversity, etc.
Plan for water conservation through rainwater
harvesting and adopting the 3Rs to reduce
unnecessary buying of goods.
Enforce regulations and fines to reduce waste
and promote cleanliness.
Ensure that existing and developing settlements
are well prepared for natural disasters, which
are increasing in intensity and frequency due to
climate change.
Promote inclusive community building to bring
all diverse groups of society into their markets,
services, and development benefits.
Ensure that private sector also complies and not
develop anything which will change landscapes
drastically and harm the environment and its
biodiversity.
Vertical garden is a passive cooling and eco-friendly
strategy to control air pollution and provide ventilation
Solar panels on a green rooftop with flowering sedum
plants to reduce heat island effect in urban areas
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Human settlements: Assessment
A. Choose the correct answer:
I. Geographers classify settlements according to their
__________.
a. Gendersb. Ethnicityc. Size
II. A __________ is where the urban areas are close
but not completely joined.
a. Megalopolisb. Conurbationc. Town
III. Historically, people preferred living on __________
to avoid attacks.
a. Megalopolisb. Islandc. Deserts
IV. Barriers such as __________ prevent the expansion
and joining of cities.
a. Riversb. Valleysc. Mountains
V. Industrial towns develop where __________ is
available.
a. Raw material b. Waterc. Gas
VI.__________ on the Potwar plateau, is sheltered by
the Margalla Hills.
a. Lahoreb. Islamabadc. Rawalpindi
VII.Mombasa is an island linked to the mainland by a
__________.
a. Railwayb. Highwayc. Causeway
VIII.__________ was Sindh’s busiest river port in the
19th century.
a. Ketib. Kotric. Karachi
B 1.List these types of settlement in order of size
(smallest to largest)
Metropolis town
Village Megalopolis
Conurbation
City
Hamlet
2. Name the type of settlement:
a) Islamabad
b) Siddique Roonjho
c) London
d) Quetta
e) Kotri
f) Rasool Pur
g) Faisalabad
3. List the factors that influenced the sites of:
a) Early settlements
b) Settlements built after 1800 CE
C 1. Name a planned settlement built in:
a) Around 2500 BCE
b) Around 470 BCE
c) 1880sd) 1960s
2.What similarities have you noticed between
the sites chosen for the planned capital cities,
Islamabad and Brasilia?
3. a)What factors are important for a settlement to
develop into a large city?
b)Describe a large city that has developed
because it has these factors.
D 1.Look at the aerial photo of Karachi on page 33 and
make notes about the features that might have
been useful for an early settlement.
2. a) Why did people first settle in Karachi?
b)What helped Karachi to grow from a village into
a city?
3. a)Explain why three other settlements are
developed in these situations.
b)Discuss this with a partner. Then discuss your
answers with your teacher.
E 1. a)First discuss with a partner the advantages and
disadvantages of living in Siddique Roonjho.
b)List these advantages and disadvantages on a
chart like this:
Life in Siddique Roonjho
Advantages
Disadvantages
2.In a newspaper report one of the villagers living in
Siddique Roonjho said that they did not want to go
to a city such as Karachi to find work because all
they know is fishing.
a)Do you think the villagers’ lives would improve if
they went to live in a city?
b)Explain your answer. (Think about what they
might gain and what they might lose.)
FCompare Mombasa and Naro Moru with the
settlement where you live. You could write your
answers in a table like this:
Where I live
Mombasa
Similarities
Naro Moru
Differences Similarities Differences
a)Which place is more like the place where you
live: Mombasa or Naro Moru?
b)Why do you think the settlement of Naro Moru
developed in this place?
c) What has helped the town to grow?
45
U N I T 3 S e tt l e m e nt s a n d L a n d U s e
Overview
Human settlements
Settlement hierarchy
• Shows the types of
settlements according to
their size
Types of settlements
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Isolated dwelling
Hamlet
Village
Town
City
Metropolis
Conurbation
Megalopolis
Services and
influence
The functions of
settlements
• Larger settlements
provide high-order
services and have a
greater influence on
people.
• Smaller settlements
provide low-order
services and have
very little influence on
people.
• The main economic activities or
purposes of settlements
The patterns of
settlements
Planned settlements
• Early planned settlements:
Indus Valley (Mohenjo-Daro),
Ancient Greece (Miletus)
• Post 1800: Port Sunlight (UK)
• Modern capital cities:
Islamabad, Brasilia, and
Astana
•
•
•
•
isolated
dispersed
linear/ribbon
nucleated/clustered
Comparing two settlements in Kenya, Africa
Mombasa
Naro Moru
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
46
Large city/metropolis
Port
Trading centre
Industrial city
Resort
Small town
Agricultural land
Livestock
Market town
Tourist centre
Original purpose
•
•
•
•
Market town
Industrial town
Resort
Port
Additional purposes
• Industrial town/city
• Tourist resort
• Technological centre
Why settlements
developed in certain
situations
Needs of the early settlers were:
• Water
• Food
• Shelter
• Flat land for farming
• Safety
• Fuel
Needs of the later settlers were:
• Raw materials for industry
• A nearby port
• Road and rail (later air) transport
• Attractive landscape
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
UNIT
4
UNIT
Agriculture
Knowledge
•
Explore the broader meaning and types of agriculture.
•
Recognise that Pakistan is an agricultural country.
•
Recognise the value of agriculture in terms of Pakistan’s
economy.
•
Name the main crops of Pakistan.
•
Describe different methods of agriculture.
•
Identify methods to evaluate agricultural projects.
•
Identify a few impacts of livestock (cattle) farming on the
environment.
•
Describe that raw materials from farming and fishery help
generate revenues.
•
Relate export of raw materials from farming and fishery to the
global economy.
Skills
•
Compare and contrast different methods of farming.
•
Differentiate between cash and staple crops.
•
Use maps to locate agricultural areas and products.
•
Develop links between population growth and agricultural
automation.
What is agriculture?
Agriculture or farming means cultivation of crops,
growing crops, and rearing of animals on a farm.
When a country’s production is calculated, forestry
and fishing are usually included with agriculture.
Agriculture is dependant on favourable weather
conditions, availability of water, and work force.
Pakistan: An agricultural economy
•
•
•
•
Differentiate between subsistence and livestock farming.
Analyse the factors (challenges) that affect agricultural yield.
Analyse challenges related to livestock farming in Pakistan.
Predict changes in the structure of agricultural production in
the future.
•
Evaluate the impact of agriculture on the environment.
•
Evaluate the effectiveness of the concept of 3R (reuse,
recycle and reduce) for farmers.
•
Evaluate the importance of agriculture for Pakistan in
terms of information and technology.
•
Evaluate the importance of agriculture for Pakistan in
terms of Pakistan’s economy.
•
Suggest ways for agricultural improvements in
Pakistan.
•
Conduct surveys and interviews to gather data about
the agricultural products and their utilisation.
Agricultural
output,
to 2019 to describe physical,
•
Exceeding
use1961
of vocabulary
human, and environmental geography and economy
related to them.
$70 billion
$60 billion
$50 billion
$40 billion
$30 billion
$20 billion
$10 billion
Pakistan is still mainly an agricultural country. About
47% of the land in Pakistan is used for agriculture and
more people work in this sector than in any other type of
industry. In 2022, Pakistan was the world’s 42nd largest
GDP and fifth most populous country in the world.
Agriculture accounts for roughly 25% of its GDP and it
is among the world’s top producers of wheat, cotton,
sugarcane, mango, dates, rice, and oranges. Pakistan
exports rice, cotton, fish, vegetables, and fruit (mainly
oranges and mangoes), and imports vegetable oil,
wheat, and pulses.
$0
1961
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2019
Source United States Department for Agriculture USDA Economic Research Service.
Agricultral output of Pakistan (1961-2019)
Pakistan’s agricultural exports
Rice
Fish and Fish preparations
Fruits
Wheat
Sugar
Meat and Meat Preparations
Raw Cotton
47
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
Food import, although less than export, is substantial
due to varied and unreliable rainfall in Pakistan as well
as needs of the increasing population.
Methods of farming
Farming can be subsistence or commercial. Subsistence
farms are small, and produce just enough for a family
to live on and sell any product that is not needed.
Commercial farms are much larger and make a profit.
Commercial farms usually have one main crop or type of
livestock. Subsistence farms grow small crops
of different plants and rear small numbers
(perhaps just one) of different animals.
Farming can be manual or mechanised (using
machines). Manual farming is still used on
some smaller farms where the farmers cannot
afford machinery. They plough fields with
a plough pulled by animals, harvest crops
using sickles, and gather them by hand. But
more and more farmers now use tractors and
combine harvesters. If they cannot afford
to buy these, they hire them when needed.
Similarly, education and research in agriculture
promotes use of modern methods for
higher yields. These machines are large and
therefore can only be used on large farms.
Most landholdings in Pakistan are small.
Pakistan’s agricultural imports
Milk & Milk food
Wheat Unmilled
Dry Fruits
Tea
Spices
Edible Oil (Soyabean & Palm)
Sugar
Pulses
Other Food Items
A modern farm where combine harvester is
used for farming
Organic farming in Pakistan
Building Skills
Nearly all farmers now use chemical fertilisers and pesticides
to increase their crop yields. Since the 1960s, the Pakistan
government has provided subsidised pesticides and fertilisers in
order to increase the country’s food production. However, more and
more people are choosing foods that have not been treated with
chemicals. Organic farming is not a new idea: in the
past all farming was organic. Farmers used natural
fertilisers such as manure, compost that they
made for themselves, and natural methods of pest
control, such as crop rotation.
The Pakistan Agricultural Research Council
supports organic farming by providing training,
bio-fertilisers, and indigenous seeds (seeds
from plants that have been grown in Pakistan
for many centuries). They believe that organic
farming produces safer food, does not pollute the
environment, uses water economically, and protects
the land for the future. Although organically grown
48
Make a video to show the
contrast between traditional and
modern methods of farming.
Mechanised harvesting uses machinery but very few
workers.
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
plants produce smaller crops than those from other farming, they sell
for much higher prices. Some agricultural experts think that if farmers
were subsidised for organic farming instead of for using chemicals,
many might switch to organic—and earn more money.
Building Skills
List the advantages and disadvantages of using chemical fertilisers,
pesticides, herbicides, and biomedical engineered seeds. Do you think
Pakistan should use these to increase its agricultural output?
Smart farms
By 2030, global food demand is expected to rise by 35%. With
a shortage of arable land due to making settlements, setting up
industries near water, mining for raw material, setting up infrastructure
for transport, etc. switching to modern methods of farming has become
unavoidable. Smart farming includes the use of technology in automated
farming. This helps farmers in many ways:
•
•
•
•
It’s a fact!
• Pesticides are chemicals that
kill insects and other small
creatures that eat or damage
plants.
• Fertilisers contain chemicals
that help plants to grow larger
or more quickly.
• Crop rotation means changing
the crops planted on a piece
of land each year instead of
planting the same crop every
year.
• Compost is made up of rotting
plant material that contains
useful foods for plants.
They get up-to-date information about the market for their produce. This helps them to plan what
to grow. They can also sell their produce through online stores or markets. Even better, they can
advertise through these, so that as soon as the crops or livestock are ready they will have buyers.
They get news of any likely diseases or pests, so that they can protect their crops or livestock.
They can also use mobile phone apps to detect diseases, and sensors on animals to check their
health.
They can use hydroponic systems to help cut down on fertilisers and pesticides. These are often used
Vertical farming
49
ILG
GILGIT
IT-B
ALT
IST
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
K
f Co
A
J &
Line o
in ‘vertical farming’ that uses IT systems
MUZAFFARABA
to control lighting, temperature, water
SRINAG
and carbon dioxide. Land that was once
INDIAN ILLEGALLY
(DISPUTED TERRITO
unsuitable for traditional farming can now be
IN LINE WITH RE
used, with the help of technology.
*
Technology can also be used to control
irrigation through automated sprinklers.
There are even robots that can clean
out buildings, grade and pack eggs. IT
can control the amount of food given to
livestock.
Use of technology also lowers the costs of
Smart farms save water, increase efficiency and reduce
Scale 1: 3,000,000
the environmental impacts of plant production
wages of labour, as fewer workers
are needed.
High-quality satellite imaging can be used for
inspecting farms; so fewer inspectors are needed.
•
•
W
ork
ing
Bo
un
da
ry
The red d
Jammu & K
is yet to be
Nations Se
Actual bou
appears, w
•
•
concerned
*AJ&K stan
Constitutio
Irrigation
The climate of Pakistan is arid to sub-tropical with unreliable
and scanty rainfall. Over half of the country receives less than
200mm of annual rainfall, and rainfall in excess of 400 mm
in the northeast. Most of the agricultural output is dependent
on irrigation. The two largest storage dams in Pakistan are
Tarbela and Mangla Dam.
Building Skills
JU
69°
Using GIS or Google Earth maps, make a
presentation on the agricultural regions
SIR CREEK
around the world. Can you trace
why
some areas have a higher output than
others?
23°
G U L F
68°
24°
22°
24°
The Tarbela Dam is located on the Indus about 47 km
upstream from Attock. It is a multi-purpose project designed to store 11.6 million acre-feet (14.3 km3)
A RABIof
ANelectricity. It irrigates part of the Potwar Plateau, but its
of water and to generate 2.1 million kilowatts
S EA
main function is to supply water to the Chashma-Jhelum
Link Canal through which the Trimmu-SidhnaiMailsi-Bahawal Link System is also fed. The Tarbela Dam also feeds the Taunsa-Panjnad Link Canal, and
the Jinnah, Chashma, Taunsa, Guddu, Sukkur, and Kotri Barrages built on the Indus are supplied with
water from Tarbela Dam in winter when
the flow is low.
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
68° E. of GREENWICH.
The Mangla Dam, which was
completed in 1969, is located on
the Jhelum River and has a storage
capacity of 5.5 million acre-feet (6.8
km3) that can be raised to 9.6 million
acre-feet (11.9 km3). The dam feeds
canals irrigating the Chaj and Bari
Doabs. Much of the land used to be
a desert before the canals were built.
Farms in the area only had seasonal
rainfall and tubewells for water. Now
there are farms in Thal desert and
even fish farms where farmers wish to
make an income in seasons when they
are not farming.
Tarbela Dam in KPK, Pakistan
50
21°
A
69°
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
Irrigation system of Pakistan on a map
70°E
Irrigated Area by
Source of Irrigation 2019
74°E
72°E
31%
Well
GILG
47%
36°N
2%
³
A
30°N
66°E
&
H
J
³
³
A
³
K
A
P
³
h
³
#
³
du
In
Ch
e
#
#
Su
tle
I
³
74°E
j
30°N
³
S
In
du
s
IRAN
P
#
I
P
A
Guddu
Bolan
28°N
72°E
³
D
Sukkur
I
#
N
Indus
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
³
26°N
Gaj Nai
Kotri
#
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
³
³
Hub
Hingol
H ingo l
³
Hub
Chur na Island
A R
A B I A N
S E A
62°E of Greenwich
I
N
D
I
A
22°
s
du
200
250 km
24°
In
150
h
utc
of K
Rann
M ud
Sir Cre
ek
100
150 miles
64°E
66°E
68°E
M ud
24°
BANTVA
M ud
JUNAGADH
AR
50
72°
23°
68°
M ud
0
71°
K U T C H
AD
AV
100
SIR CREEK
O F
AN
50
#
G U L F
M
0
70°
23°
22°
Scale 1: 7,500,000
24°N
Darwat
³
Astola Island
80°E
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
³
#
32°N
78°E
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
#
S I N D H
#
ht
ry
Mithan Kot Barrage
³
H
da
Link canals
1 Marala-Ravi
2 Bambanwala-Ravi-Bedian-Dipalpur
3 Balloki-Sulaimanke I
4 Balloki-Sulaimanke II
5 Qadira-Balloki
6 Rasul-Qadirabad
7 Trimmu-Sidhnai
8 Sidhnai-Mailsi-Bahawal
9 Mailsi-Bahawal
10 Chashma-Jhelum
11 Taunsa-Panjnad
Panjnad
³
C
un
76°E
³
Islam
Bo
#
vi
P U N J A B
#
Sidhnai
#
T
³
L #O
B A
28°N
Das
ing
³
Balloki
Sulaimanke
#
ork
Khanki
#
b
na
Ra
Taunsa
W
Marala
³
m
Qadirabad
A
64°E
elu
#
Trimmu
#
#
34°N
s
³
³
ob
Zh
Khushdil Khan
s
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
#
#
#
#
Sabakzai
G
Sw
at
A
62°E
32°N
du
36°N
Karakoram Pass
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
Rasul
J
³
F
#
Jinnah
Chashma
N
Data not Available
68°E
³
Tube Well
E
K H Y BTank Zam
Gomal
Zam G o m
a
Gomal l
Rawal
Mangla
³
A
H
Hill Torrent Flood Irrigation
Baran
In
A
*
Kurramgari
³
Karez
N
Tarbela
Khanpur
Tanda
IN
AN
Line of Control
³
River
Canal
Diversion Canal
K
#
³
I
Dam (Proposed or Under Construction)
Kurram Tangi
#
³
S
Small Dam
A
T
Dam
Warsak
R ³³
Barrage, Weir, or Headwork
34°N
l
³
Irrigation
N
bu
³
TU
Amandarra
Ka
³
Data Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2019-2020
TIST
Diamer Bhasha
N K
HW
20%
BAL
³
Others
IT-
80°E
³
Tube Well
Mirani
78°E
CH
³
Canal
26°N
76°E
TAJIKISTAN
24°N
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
M
LF
OF
CA
GU
A
68° E. of GREENWICH.
Y
BA
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
69°
R
A
B
I
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
S
71°
E
21°
A
72°
70°E
Arable farming
© Oxford University Press
Modified Secant Conical Projection
Arable farming means the systematic use of land to grow crops. These could be cereal crops, fruit, or
non-food crops. The world’s main food crop is wheat—a cereal. Farmers invest capital (money) and labour
to have a consistent supply of their products. They monitor the fertility of their land is and prepare it after
the previous year’s harvest.
Physical Inputs
Land; soil; climate; relief; water; drainage.
Human Inputs
Labour; capital; government policies; transport;
buildings; machinery; fertilisers; animal feed;
skills; knowledge; electricity
Processes
Milking; seeding; harvesting; ploughing; feeding;
shearing; fertilising; dipping; digging; spraying
Positive Outputs
Feedback
Profits; manure; animal feed; seeds; knowledge.
milk, meat; eggs; wool; animals; hay; straw;
namure; fruits; vegetables; cereals; money
Negative Outputs
Soil erosion; water pollution from pesticides;
dead animals
51
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
Top ten wheat-producing countries
Country million metric
tons (2019)
K
JAMMU & KASHMIR
J &
Boundary
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
Wo
rk
3000
P
Bou
ndar
y
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
P
4000
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
5000
LEGEND
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wheat
71°
72°
23°
G U L F
O F
K U T C H
68°
I
N
D
I
A
22°
24°
22°
24°
BANTVA
AD
AV
JUNAGADH
AR
Wheat is Pakistan’s main crop, followed by
sugar cane, cotton, maize, and rice. These five
crops make up more than 23.6% of the value of
Pakistan’s crops. But Pakistan produces many
other food and non-food crops. The climates
of most parts of Pakistan allow winter (kharif)
harvesting of some crops and summer (rabi)
harvesting of others. The dates of planting and
harvesting depend on the climate and whether the
land is on hills, plateaus, or plains.
70°
23°
SIR CREEK
AN
Pakistan was ranked 8th for wheat production in
2019, but it is much smaller than many of the
other countries, so it produces more wheat per
hectare than many countries. Wheat is grown in
every province of Pakistan. Punjab and Sindh are
the main growers, because they have the most
suitable climate and land. Their plains have rich
soil brought by the Indus and other rivers. They
do not have enough rain, but they have one of the
world’s largest linked-up irrigation systems.
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
M
In most countries wheat is a staple—a food we
eat every day. Wheat is a crop that requires flat
or gently sloping land in temperate climates.
It needs plenty of water while it is growing and
sunshine while it is ripening. It can grow in
different soils but grows best in a well-drained
clay/loam that has plenty of humus. The map here
shows the total weight of wheat grown in a year in
the top ten wheat-growing countries.
52
ing
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
2000
1000
rol
Cont
A
*
Scale in km
0
Line of
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
Line of Control
OCCUPIED
TO BE DECIDED
INDIAN ILLEGALLY
- FINAL STATUS
(DISPUTED TERRITORY
UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT
Working
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
133.6
103.6
74.5
52.3
40.6
32.3
28.4
24.4
23.1
19.5
F R O
N T I
E R
China
India
Russia
USA
France
Canada
Ukraine
Pakistan
Germany
Argentina
GILGIT
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
21°
LF
69°
R
A
B
I
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
Young wheat seedlings growing in a soil.
Stalks of wheat
OF
CAM
GU
A
68° E. of GREENWICH.
Y
BA
J U
N A
G A
D H
S
71°
E
A
72°
21°
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
Some
of the kharif crops are rice, sugar cane, cotton, maize,
GILGIT
and millet. Planting starts in February for sugar cane, March to
May for cotton, June and July for rice, and July and August for
maize. Harvesting crops starts in September and continues up
to K
December, butosugar
cane harvesting can continue to March
ntrol
of C
LineRabi
or even later.
crops include wheat, barley, peas, gram,
MUZAFFARABAD
and mustard.
Rabi crops are sown from October to December
SRINAGAR
and are INDIAN
harvested
during
March
ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED
JAMMU
& KASHMIRand April, but this depends on
the climate and when the monsoon ends, so it could begin in
September and continue to April.
It’s a fact!
U
N
D E
F I
N E
D
J &
F R O
N T I
E R
Pakistan is eighth worldwide in farm
output and is one of the world’s largest
producers and suppliers of the following
crops:
• Chickpeas (4th)
• Cotton (5th)
• Mangoes (5th)
• Milk (4th)
• Date palm (5th)
• Sugar cane (5th)
• Apricots (6th)
• Kinnows, mandarin oranges, and
clementines (6th)
• Onions (8th)
• Wheat (7th)
• Rice (10th)
A
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
*
W
ork
ing other crops include oilseed rape, sunflowers (for oil),
Pakistan’s
Bou
nda
ry
tobacco, canola,
potatoes, onions, pulses such as mash and
masoor, and chillies. Pakistan’s other wheat-growing areas are
the parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa that have irrigation canals,
parts of the Potwar Plateau where there is enough rain, and the
flat land of the plateaus and valleys of Balochistan. Use the
oxford school atlas to find out more crop areas in Pakistan
Wheat growing areas in Pakistan
GILGIT
K
tro
f Con
Line o
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
GIL
A
US
IND
K U T C H
J &
I
*
UM
EL
JH
Wo
rkin
g
concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
Scale
1: 3,000,000
*A J & K stands for Azad
Jammu
& Kashmir as defined
*AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim
in the AJK Interim
Act, 1974.
ConstitutionConstitution
Act, 1974.
R
VE
RI
AB
S
EN
CH
LEGEND
The red dotted line represents
approximately the line of control in
LEGEND
Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession
ISLAMABAD
Capital
of Country
. . . . .. . .. . ... . .. . ... . .. . ... .under
of Countrya. . .plebiscite
. . . ISLAMABAD
is yet to be decidedCapital
through
the relevant United
Headquarters;
Province
. . . . PESHAWAR
Headquarters;
Province
. . .. . ... . .. . ... . .. . ... ... . . PESHAWAR
Nations Security Council
Resolutions.
Boundary; International.. ... ... . . .
. . ... . .
. . ... . .
. . ... . .
. . ... . . . .
Boundary; International
Actual boundary in the
area
where
remark
FRONTIER
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UNDEFINED
.
appears, would ultimately
be .decided
authorities
Boundary; Working
. . . . . . . . . . . . .by
. . . . .the
. . . . . . sovereign
.....
Boundary;
Working
. . . . . .of. the
. . .Jammu
. . . . &. .Kashmir
. . dispute.
concerned after
the Line
final
settlement
of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of ControlRiver
. .. . .. . ... . .. . ... . .. . ... . .. . ... . .. . ... ... . ... ... . ... ... . ... .. . . .
*AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim
River
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .GOVERNMENT
.COPYRIGHTS
. . . . .OFRESERVED
. PAKISTAN
.........
Constitution Act, 1974.
R
VE
RI
VI
R
RA
R
VE
RI
EJ
TL
SU
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
JUNAGADH
& MANAVADAR
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
AN
AD
AV
P
D
N
72°
Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
O F
G U L F
K U T C H
O F
G U L F
SIR CREEK
K
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
N
D
I
22°
Boundary;
Working . . . .I. . . .N
. . . . .D
. . . . .I. . . .A
........
A
22°
24°
24°
BANTVA
AN
24°
21°
Y
BA
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OF
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21°
JUNAGADH
& MANAVADAR
A
R
SN E
A
A AR BA I B A I N A
S
E
A
A
69°
71°
J U
NOF
J U
A GPAKISTAN
GOVERNMENT
N A
A D
G A
H
COPYRIGHTS
RESERVED
D H
AR
E
21°
AR
AD
AV
S
JUNAGADH
River . . . . . . . . . .BANTVA
. . . . . . . . . . . .JUNAGADH
....................
21°
International
Boundary
International Boundary
alongEastern
EasternBank
Bank
along
ofthe
theCreek
Creek
of
A R A B IA N
B
I
A
N
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22°
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24°
AD
AV
CA
M
OF
23°
23°
Boundary; International
... .......................
U T C H
68°
M
LF
70° E. of GREENWICH.
69°
23°Headquarters;
SIR CREEK
AN
A
68°
71°
69°
Capital
of Country . . . 70°
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71°
. . . . . ISLAMAB72°AD
23°
M
68° E. of GREENWICH.
R
R
70° GEND
LE
69°
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
22°
AR
A
S
E
IV
Y
BA
P
GU
R A N
Actual boundary
in theThe
area
where
Jammu & Kashmir.
state of
Jammu &remark
Kashmir andFRONTIER
its accession
is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United
UNDEFINED
appears, would ultimately be decided by
Nations Security Council Resolutions.
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
Bo
un
Actual
boundary
in
the
area
where
remark
FRONTIER
UNDEFINED
dary settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities
I
M
DU
IN
JUNAGADH
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
The Wred dotted line represents approximately the line of
of Jammu &
B
be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
R
R
BANTVA
INDIAN ILLEGALLY
JAMMU & KASHMIR
INOCCUPIED
DU
l
(DISPUTED
TERRITORY
-S
FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANTRUNSC
IVE RESOLUTIONS)
R
VE
RI
22°
24°
S
Pass
Karakoram Pass
Karakoram
A Control
Line ofN
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in
ER
V
RI
A
22°
4°
ST
A
D
TI
I
N
A
*
68°
I
E
ry
ou
(DISPUTED TRRITORY - FINAL
STATUS TO BE DECIDED
nd
ary its accession is yet to
Kashmir and
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
DU
O F
E
S
ork
INDIAN ILLEGALLY
OCCUPIED
JAMMU
& KASHMIR
ingin Jammu
control
& Kashmir.
The State
CH
EN
23°
G U L F
K
W
N
Line of Contro
72°
23°
AL
SRINAGAR
RI
VE
71°
ER
RIV
MUZAFFARABAD
IN
70°
-B
W
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
AB
69°
GIT
GILGIT
N
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
H
-BA
I
*
GILGIT
LTI N
GI
Wo
rkin
STA A
LG
gB
oun
IT
N
da
P
P
C
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
J &
l
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
Wetlands in Pakistan
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
Astola (Haft Talar Island)
Chashma Sarrage settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
Dah Akro-II Desert *A
Wetland
Complex
J & K stands
for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
Drigh Lake
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
Haleji Lake
LEGEND
Hub (Hab) Dam Percentage of the total area
Indus Delta
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Indus Dolphin Reserve
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Jiwani coastal Wetland
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jabho Lagoon
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kinjhar (Kain) Lake Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . A. . N. . . . . . .
Miani Hor
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . S. .T. . . . . . . . . . .
Nurri Lagoon
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N
Ormara Turtle Beaches
Scale 1:
3,000,000A
GOVERNMENT
OF PAKISTAN
Runn of Kutch
H
COPYRIGHTS
RESERVED
G
Tanda Dam
F
JUNAGADH
& MANAVADAR
A
Taunsa Barrage
Thanedar Wala
Uchhas Complax (including
Khabbaki.
Uchhali and Jahiar)
SIR CREEK
F R O
N T I
E R
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
GREENWICH.
68°E.E.ofofGREENWICH.
68°
72°
70°
69°
70° E. of GREENWICH.
71°
E. of GREENWICH.
71°
70°
69°
72°
72°
71°
72°
23°
23°
G U L F
SIR CREEK
O F
K U T C H
68°
I
N
D
I
A
24°
AN
24°
BANTVA
J U
N A
G A
D H
S
DU
IN
A
B
I
A
N
S
E
A
53
JUNAGADH
AR
R
AD
AV
RI
VE
22°
M
R
22°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
21°
LF
GU
A
R
A
B
I
A
N
Y
BA
M
OF
S
E
A
CA
21°
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
Rice
Rice is a traditional Asian crop: 90% of the
world’s rice is grown and eaten in Asia. It
is the staple food for around 50% of the
world’s population and the main food for
75% of the world’s poor people.
You can see from the map above that the
world’s top rice-producing countries are in
the tropical regions. Rice is a tropical plant
that grows best on flat land or terraced
valley sides. It needs temperatures no lower
than 21°C during the growing season, and
an annual rainfall of at least 1000–1200
mm.
A close up of yellow green rice field
Rice is an important food in Africa, and
some African countries grow enough, or
almost enough rice to satisfy their own
needs without having to import any, for
example: the Democratic Republic of Congo,
Egypt, Burundi, and Cameroon. Rice is even
grown in Europe. This is a short-grained rice,
used in puddings and for making risotto. Italy
is one of the world’s leading exporters of this
type of rice.
A rice farm near Islamabad
70°E
Rice growing areas in
Pakistan (2010)
72°E
74°E
tral
Chi
er
Upp
Nagar
Ghizer
GILGI
Chitral Lower
36°N
CH
Hunza
T-BA
LTI
STA
Shigar
Gilgit
j
g u
A w
K e c h
a
r a
w
a
d
a
E
A
Sir Cre
ek
*AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act,1974.
A
gla
W
har
an
&
Torg
Sh
KH
J &
KH
A J
A
PA
arh
n
arg
ar
ul
zaff
ag
ln
ha
Ba
A
Mu
M
wa
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
I
D
N
of Jammu
& Kashmir
dispute.
Actual boundary in thesettlement
area where
remark
FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears,*Awould
ultimately be decided by
J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
the sovereign authorities
concerned
after the final
in the
AJK Interim Constitution
Act, 1974.
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
LEGEND
*A J & K stands for AzadCapital
Jammu
& Kashmir
of Country
. . . . . .as
. . .defined
. . ISLAMABAD
in the AJK Interim Constitution
Act, 1974.
Headquarters;
Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of
......................
JUNAGADH
& Control
MANAVADAR
69°
River . . . . . . 71°
. . . . . . . . . . . .72°. . . . . . . . . . . .
70°
68°E
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
23°
23°
26°N
Sanghar
G U L F
O F
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
K U T C H
69°
70°
71°
72°
23°
68°
I
N
22°
SIR CREEK
Umerkot
D
G U L F
I
23°
A
K U T C H
O F
22°
68°
24°
24°
Thar
BANTVA
24°
Badin
M ud
h
utc
of K
Rann
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
M ud
A
24°N
68° E. of GREENWICH.
I
68° E. of GREENWICH.
69°
22°
I
JUNAGADH
LF
J U
N A
GU
G A
D
OF
A
Y
BA
M
CA
21°
Y
BA
H
LF
OF
CAM
GU
A
B
I
A
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
69°
70°E
Modified Secant Conical Projection
D
22°
BANTVA
21°
R
M ud
Data Source :Pakistan Agricultural Census 2010
N
JUNAGADH
J U
N A
G A
D H
24°
21°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
AR
Actual Boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the soverign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu
& Kashmir. The
The red dotted line represents
approximately
theState
line ofofJammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
control in Jammu & Kashmir.
The State of Jammu &
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Kashmir and its accession
is Resolutions.
yet to be decided through
Council
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
Council Resolutions. UNDEFINED
appears, would ultimately be decided by
AD
AV
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a
plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions
66°E
32°N
80°E
78°E
76°E
SIR CREEK
M ud
64°E
y
AN
Sujawal
62°E of Greenwich
ER
YB
N
Tando
Allayar
ndar
Nar
Khairpur
Tando
M. Khan
Hyderabad
Karachi
Bou
owal
Sukkur
Naushero
Firoz
Jamshoro
Thatta
24°N
I
28°N
72°E
ing
y
M
S
Bahawalpur
Shaheed
Benazirabad
Churna Island
N
30°N
Rahim Yar Khan
Wo
rk
dar
B
Vihari
P
un
AR
A
A
Bo
AD
AV
I
ing
AN
B
ork
M
A
W
s
R
r
ha
A
J
Lodhran
rK
300 km
N
Ghotki
pu
Mir
Astola Island
us
Ind
S I N D H
Lasbela
Hingol
r
be
Gujrat
di
Man in
Sialkot
dd
Khushab
Bahu
b
Gujra
na
nwala
Sargodha Che
d
ba
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Ha
Shiekhupura
Chiniot
Nankana Lahore
Sahib
i
ad Rav
Jhang
lab
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isa
Fa
Toba Tek
Okara
Singh
al
iw
Sah
ttan
74°E
a
Khanewal
p
k
Pa tlej
Su
Shikarpur
ri
tia
Ma
G
Dadu
n
Dasht
Scale 1: 10,000,000
J
Kambar
Shahdad
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K h u z d a r
r
b
n
I
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Main
a
H
C
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k
*
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IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
a
u
ad
ab
sir
Sohbatpur
Kashmor P
ad
rab Jacobabad
P
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a
aff
rka
n
s h
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us
IRAN
Secondary
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*
MirpurBh
ta
n
kh
a
Ba
r
Kohlu
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A
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28°N
KH
ob
Zh
Duki
Sibi
Ind
Rice
54
TU
N
N
A
T
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I
N
A
H
G
F
A
Harnai
Kalat
i
Dera
Ghazi
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Rawalpindi
34°N
U N
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F I
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D
a
ar
g
aw
a
U
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h
ak
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h
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us
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K
m
el
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C
ail
s
du
In
Mianwali
n
ha
i
66°E
64°E
200 miles
ra
De
ran
Qilla Saifullah
30°N
100
l
Is
Attock
Karak
Lakki
Marwat
Tank
Go
ma
32°N
Ziarat
62°E
Rice and Maize
Regions, 2010
0
a
W
She
Ab
N
GILGIT
K
sh
uth
ah
Quetta
200
n
ta
is
zir
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la
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ir
Pe
No
ll
du
Qil
0
tan
iris
az
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rt
Insufficient or Negligible
Secondary
Up
Kohat
Hangu
68°E
36°N
Karakoram Pass
Diamer
Kohistan
Ghanche
Skardu
Kohistan
Lower
Astore
Kharmang
Neelum
Kolai Pallas
we
Batgram
rD
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ir
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Malakand Buner
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MUZAFFARABAD
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Abbottabad
SRINAGAR
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KASHMIR
&
JAMMU
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Haveli
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INDIAN ILLEGALLY
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
er
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(DISPUTED TERRITORY
FINAL
STATUS TO BE DECIDED
Khyb
Kurr
DECIDED
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(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINALIN STATUS
LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
Islamabad
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34°N
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International Boundary
Province Boundary
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Data not Available
Swat
IN
80°E
F R O
N T I
E R
Legend
Main
78°E
76°E
TAJIKISTAN
© Oxford University Press
R
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71°
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I
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71°
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72°E
74°E
78°E
76°E
TAJIKISTAN
Rice2010
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GILGI
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crop for Pakistan. Pakistan ranks 10th
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a
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ER
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70° E. of GREENWICH.
69°
E
A table showing the numbers of bales
of cotton produced by the world’s
main cotton-producing countries. ‘480
lb’ means 480 pounds (about 218 kg).
A
71°
2019/20 bales
29.5
25.8
14.9
11.2
9.1
21°
GU
Badin
72°
M ud
24°N
M ud
70°E
&
68°E
JUNAGADH
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
M ud
66°E
BANTVA
Umerkot
Thar
Sujawal
AN
24°
ha
Tando
Allayar
Karachi
M
24°
rK
Churna Island
A
Thatta
Haveli
70°E
72°E
74°E
78°E
76°E
TAJIKISTAN
CH
A
Bh
im
Chitr
r
Chitral Lower
W a
s
h
u
j
g
u
r
A w
a
ffa
Ja
Kambar
Shahdad
Kot
r
a
A
gla
an
K Hwat
W
Sh
J &
Torg
S
ER
A
J
Gujrat
n
ta
P
Vihari
30°N
ing
ar
ag
M
wa
ha
A
Ba
I
D
Rahim Yar Khan
I
28°N
72°E
Bo
un
Bou
ry
32°N
al
Narow
Scale 1: 10,000,000
0
100
0
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
200
kmThe State of Jammu &
control
in Jammu &300
Kashmir.
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
100
N
Actual boundary in the area
where
remark
Capital
of Country
. . . FRONTIER
. . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
UNDEFINED appears, would
ultimately
be decided
by
Headquarters;
Province
. . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International
. ............
the sovereign authorities concerned
after the. . final
Boundary;
Province
.
.
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of Control
. . . . . . . as
. . . defined
............
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu
& Kashmir
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
in the AJK Interim Constitution
Act, 1974.
Ind
Sir Cre
ek
66°E
68°E
N
D
I
BANTVA
D
I
A
A
JUNAGADH
22°
AR
24°
24°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
h
utc
of K
Rann
M ud
Y
BA
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
BANTVA
21°
LF
A
B
I
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
S
71°
LF
A
R
A
B
I
A
N
S
E
E
CAM
CA
21°
A
Y
BA
M
OF
GU
M ud
OF
GU
JUNAGADH
A
R
J U
N A
69°G A
D H
68° E. of GREENWICH.
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
Badin
M ud
64°E
N
22°
I
24°
22°
AD
AV
Umerkot
Thar
Sujawal
24°N
I
24°
AN
Tando
Allayar
Karachi
72°
23°
22°
68°
AR
A
O F
AD
AV
E
26°N
Sanghar
Tando
M. Khan
Hyderabad
G U L F
68°
AN
S
72°
K U T C H
O F
M
Churna Island
N
SIR CREEK
s
A
71°
23°
G U L F
K U T C H
ha
I
70°
23°
rK
B
71°
69°
23°
SIR CREEK
pu
A
70°
Khairpur
Mir
R
Jamshoro
200 miles
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED
appears, wouldthe
ultimately
be decided by
The red dotted line represents
approximately
line of
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
control in Jammu & Kashmir.
Theof State
Jammu
&
settlement
Jammu of
& Kashmir
dispute.
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
a plebiscite under the relevant
United
Nations
Security
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
Council Resolutions.
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
S I N D H
Lasbela
Hingol
r
80°E
78°E
76°E
JUNAGADH &JUNAGADH
MANAVADAR
& MANAVADAR
Shaheed
Benazirabad
n
y
da
Sukkur
Naushero
Firoz
ndar
LEGEND
Bahawalpur
Ghotki
ing
B
ul
P
A
ln
YB
KH
arh
zaff
arg
ork
M
a
Dadu
Thatta
62°E of Greenwich
J
Lodhran
Shikarpur
ri
tia
Ma
d
Astola Island
A
T
us
Ind
Sohbatpur
Kashmor P
ad
rab Jacobabad
P
us
n
b
a
Hu
a
S
K h u z d a r
Dasht
w
I
Wo
rk
W
69°
K e c h
G
H
C
L O
B A
P
26°N
k
s
Na
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH* RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
di
Man din
Jh
Sialkot
Khushab
ud
Bahb
Gujra
na
nwala
Sargodha Che
d
ba
a
fiz
Ha
Shiekhupura
Chiniot
Nankana Lahore
Sahib
d
vi
ba Ra
Jhang
la
Kasur
isa
Fa
Toba Tek
Okara
Singh
l
a
iw
Sah
an
tt
74°E
a
Khanewal
kp
Pa tlej
Su
N
34°N
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
& KASHMIR
WITH RELEVANT
UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
JAMMU
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIEDIN LINE
a
Sakandarabad
28°N
Dera Bugti
d
ba
ira
Jhal
Magsi
Mu
Kohlu
*
Jhelum
m
elu
Rajanpur
A
Kharan
TU
KH
PA
Zh
ob
rk
ha
Sibi
Kalat
i
N
a
rka
n
g
La
a
Dera
Ghazi
Khan
Ba
Mastung
Kachhi
h
U
us
M
Duki
Nushki
C
h
ak
n
A
66°E
Bhakkar
P
Layyah
Loralai
Harnai
30°N
64°E
ra
De
n
ha
l il K
a
m
Is
el
Pishin
Ziarat
62°E
N
N
A
T
S
I
N
A
H
Qilla Saifullah
Quetta
Tank
Go
ma
Chakwal
rol
Cont
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
la
Qil
az
W
i
ran
She
Insufficient or Negligible
ah
Ind
Line of
us
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
Kotli
Rawalpindi
K
Mirpur
s
du
In
Mianwali
Kharmang
Line of Control
ar
So
Lakki
Marwat
Attock
Kohat
Karak
36°N
Karakoram Pass
Ghanche
Skardu
Astore
K
aw
ir
uth
ll
du
Ab
n
ista
32°N
Zhob
rD
har
we
A
S GILGIT
TAN
Shigar
F R O
N T I
E R
Lo
Bannu
rt
68°E
Up
IN
80°E
LTI
Swat
ir
rD
pe
Hangu
tan
iris
az
hW
No
T-BA
Gilgit
sh
International Boundary
Province Boundary
District Boundary
Working Boundary
Line of Control
Coastline
River
Data not Available
GILGI
Pe
Legend
Nagar
Ghizer
Diamer
Kohistan
Kohistan
Lower
Kolai Pallas
Neelum
Batgram
a
ir
Bajur
hr
se
an
Malakand Buner
M
Mohmand
Ka
bu
Mardan
Muzaffarabad
l
Hattian Bala
Charsadda
Abbottabad
Swabi
Bagh
Haripur
Nowshera
er
Poonch
Khyb
Kurr
Islamabad Sudhnoti
am Orakzai
34°N
The table on this page
shows the world’s
main cotton-growing
countries. See if
you can name the
countries that grow
the most cotton per
hectare. One of these
countries is Pakistan
where cotton is the
main cash crop. A
cash crop is grown
for sale for profit and
not for the farmer’s
own use. Cotton has
been grown in Pakistan
since ancient times for
making cloth and for
trading.
Hunza
r
ppe
al U
be
36°N
IRAN
64°E
I
pu
I
23°
22°
26°N
Sanghar
Mir
B
72°
K U T C H
O F
G U L F
68°
ri
enwich
A
71°
Cotton needs plenty of sunshine and moderate rainfall (usually
N
S E A
around
250 to 1200 mm per year), or irrigation. This plant grows
best in alluvial soil (soil deposited by rivers). It can grow in places
that have some salt in the soil and can survive short droughts,
so it can be grown in arid and semi-arid areas. The places that
grow the most cotton
Cotton growing areas in
are tropical and
Pakistan (2010)
subtropical regions,
but you can see from
Cotton Regions, 2010
the map that cotton
Main
Secondary
also grows in colder
Minor
places of the world.
Astola Island
R
70°
23°
SIR CREEK
Tando
M. Khan
Hyderabad
million 480 lb.
China
India
The USA
Brazil
Pakistan
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
tia
r
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
28°N
Khairpur
Ma
a
of
Rice farming in the Democratic Republic of Congo
Sukkur
Naushero
Firoz
Jamshoro
32°N
80°E
72°E
S I N D H
Lasbela
da
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
Rahim Yar Khan
Shaheed
Benazirabad
n
Hingol
un
G
K e c h
Dasht
d
Dadu
Ind
Ghotki
rka
K h u z d a r
Bahawalpur
us
Shikarpur
La
L O
B A
Kambar
Shahdad
Kot
us
IRAN
ffa
Ja
W a s h u k
P a n j g u r
A
ad
Sohbatpur
Kashmor P
ad
P
rab Jacobabad
ab
sir
Na
Bo
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
30°N
N
Jhal
Magsi
Sakandarabad
a
Dera Bugti
A
Kharan
Rajanpur
N
Kalat
Vihari
Lodhran
Kohlu
Kachhi
g a i
zaff
Mastung
Ba
rk
ha
n
Duki
Nushki
a
Dera
Ghazi
Khan
Mu
Harnai
Layyah
l
Loralai
ul
M
he
ak
us
Pishin
M
Qilla Saifullah
Zh
ll
Quetta
66°E
Bhakkar
ag
i
ran
She
ah
30°N
64°E
ra
De
an
h
l il K
a
m
Is
ing
Gujrat
ry
di
Man din
Sialkot
Khushab
ud
Bahb
al
Gujra
na
nwala
Narow
Sargodha Che
d
78°E
ba
76°E
fiza
a
H
Shiekhupura
Scale 1: 10,000,000
Chiniot
100
200
300 km
0
Nankana Lahore
Sahib
i
ad Rav
Jhang
lab
Kasur
isa
0
100
200 miles
Fa
Toba Tek
Okara
Singh
l
The red dotted line represents approximately the line
iwa
n
Sah
74°E
atta
Khanewal
p
control
in
Jammu
&
Kashmir.
The
State
of
Jammu
&
k
Pa tlej
Su
lum
Jhe
ln
32°N
Zhob
Ab
Tank
Go
ma
Mianwali
D
68°E
Lakki
Marwat
I A
So
Ziarat
h
YB
a
W
uth
du
C
n
ta
is
zir
la
62°E
KH
rth
No
Qil
w
*
Most of Pakistan’s rice is grown in the
north-eastern regions because they have
more rain than the rest of the country
U N J A B
and favourable soil. But evenP here
the
Insufficient or Negligible
plants need irrigation to provide enough
slow-flowing water in the growing season.
When the plants mature they need less
water, and while they are ripening, the
T
field needs to
be almost dry to makeI
S
I
H easy.
harvesting
C
F
Legend
A J
PA
34°N
72°
21°
A
24°N
68° E. of GREENWICH.
69°
70° E. of GREENWICH.
71°
72°
M ud
70°E
55
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
A cotton plant
Majority of cotton in Pakistan is grown in Punjab and Sindh
Southern Punjab and central Sindh are Pakistan’s main cotton-growing areas. There is not enough
rainfall, but their arid climate protects the plants from attacks by
microbes that cause disease, and pests that damage them. Irrigation
It’s a fact!
provides enough water to make up for the low rainfall. The hot summer
weather (32°C average in June) is just right for the growing season.
•
A useful plant
Did you know that every part of the cotton plant is used? The main part
is the lint (fibre), used in making cotton textiles. The short fluff on the
seed is used for making cushion fillings, paper, plastics, and many other
products.
You might be surprised to hear that cotton seed oil can be purified for
making foods such as margarine and salad oil. The meal that is left
after the oil is removed is not wasted; it is used in feed for livestock.
Other leftover materials are used in making soap and floor coverings.
Even the stalks and leaves are used, as farmers plough them into the
soil as humus.
•
Economies dependent
on manufacturing goods
than just raw materials
have higher revenues
and less dependent on
imports.
Finished goods or
specialised goods involve
many processes making
them of higher value.
They are standardised
and of higher quality
due to the competitive
market.
Sugar cane
Sugar cane is Pakistan’s second most important cash crop. Sugar cane is a tropical plant that can
survive short periods of frost. It needs plenty of water in the growing season, and soil that is rich in
nutrients. It is grown all over Punjab and Sindh, a small area in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa that has rich alluvial
soil and good irrigation, and a little is grown in Balochistan.
Bagasse
56
Sugar cane
Crops and Cultivated Area
Pakis
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
A useful plant
70°E
72°E
74°E
tral
Chi
U
Nagar
Ghizer
GILGI
T-BA
LTI
Gilgit
A
J &
&
TU
N
Torg
S
har
K Hwat
W
Sh
an
gla
K
n
j
g
u
r
A w
a
r
a
n
rh
ta
ar
ul
ag
ln
wa
SIR CREEK
S I N D H
Tando
Allayar
Karachi
us
Ind
Sir Cre
ek
64°E
66°E
68°E
BANTVA
R
A
B
M ud
I
A
N
D
I
A
Y
BA
M
CA
OF
22°
21°
70° E. of GREENWICH.
24°N
A
68° E. of GREENWICH.
E
A
A
J U
N A
G A
D H
71°
R
JUNAGADH
S
21°
International Boundary
69°
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
68° E. of GREENWICH.
M ud
h
M ud
utc
of K
Rann
N
LF
24°
A
AR
62°E of Greenwich
I
J U
N A
G A
D H
GU
24°
Badin
23°
JUNAGADH
AD
AV
Sujawal
24°N
22°
21°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
72°
22°
BANTVA
68°
Thar
71°
A
AN
Thatta
70°
M
A
I
K U T C H
AR
E
D
O F
G U L F
AD
AV
Umerkot
N
23°
SIR CREEK
24°
AN
S
69°
I
22°
24°
M
Churna Island
N
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
26°N
Sanghar
Tando
M. Khan
Hyderabad
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
K U T C H
O F
G U L F
68°
s
A
23°
Khairpur
ha
I
D
N
23°
Naushero
Firoz
Jamshoro
Line70° of Control .71°. . . . . . . . . .72°. . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69°
rK
B
I A
ha
Ba
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JUNAGADH
& Working
MANAVADAR
Boundary;
..................
Sukkur
pu
A
72°E
Ghotki
Mir
R
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
in the AJK Interim Constitution
Act, 1974.
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28°N
Shikarpur
Shaheed
Benazirabad
Lasbela
Astola Island
A
Dadu
n
Hingol
r
zaffa
rga
K h u z d a r
I
Rahim Yar Khan
ri
a
J
Kambar
Shahdad
Kot
Bahawalpur
us
Ind
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
UNDEFINED appears, *A
would
ultimately be decided by
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. LEGEND
tia
d
I
Ma
a
A J
ER
YB
C
Dasht
G w
H
b
a
K e c h
26°N
k
L O
B A
P
A
KH
PA
u
ad
ab
sir
Sohbatpur
Kashmor P
ad
P
rab Jacobabad
Na
a
aff
a plebiscite under the relevant
United Nations Security
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
Council Resolutions. the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
na
h
Jhal
T Magsi
rka
IRAN
s
S
La
Sakandarabad
W a
Rajanpur
Dera Bugti
A
Kharan
28°N
A B
P
Lodhran
P
Kohlu
N
Kalat
i
Mu
Sibi
Kachhi
a
J
M
an
Ba
rk
h
Mastung
Nushki
g
N
Zh
ob
Pishin
Quetta
66°E
64°E
a
P U
ni
Ab
30°N
62°E
h
*
KH
ra
She
la
Qil
h
lla
du
Insufficient or Negligible
C
N
K
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
International Boundary
Province Boundary
District Boundary
Working Boundary
Line of Control
Coastline
River
Data not Available
STA
36°N
Karakoram Pass
Diamer
Kohistan
Ghanche
Skardu
Kohistan
Lower
Astore
Kharmang
rol
Kolai Pallas
Neelum
Cont
we
Batgram
Line of
rD
trol
a
ir
Ind
Line of Con
Bajur
hr
MUZAFFARABAD
us
se
an
Malakand Buner
SRINAGAR
M
Mohmand
Ka
34°N
bu
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
Mardan
Muzaffarabad
l
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
Hattian Bala
Charsadda
Abbottabad
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
Swabi
Bagh
Haripur
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
34°N
Haveli
Nowshera
Poonch
er
Khyb
Kurr
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
Islamabad Sudhnoti
am Orakzai
*
RESOLUTIONS)
UNSC
RELEVANT
IN LINE WITH
Wo
Kotli
Attock
rkin
Kohat
gB
Hangu
Rawalpindi
oun
dar
y
n
MirpurBh
im
Karak s
ista
be
W
zir
ork
r
du
Chakwal
Bannu
Jhelum
Wa
ing
In
h
rt
Bo
Gujrat
No
un
Mianwali
da
n
ry
m
ta
Lakki
di
elu
Man in
Jh
iris
Sialkot
z
Marwat
dd
Khushab
a
32°N
Bahu
W
b
wal
Gujra
uth
80°E
na
nwala
Naro
Tank
So
n
Sargodha Che
d
Go
78°E
ba
ha
ma
68°E
32°N
76°E
fiza
l il K
Ha
a
m
Shiekhupura
Scale 1: 10,000,000
Is
a
Chiniot
r
Bhakkar
De
0
100
200
300 km
Nankana Lahore
Sahib
Zhob
i
ad Rav
Jhang
lab
Kasur
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
isa
0
100
200 miles
Fa
Layyah
l
control
in
Jammu
&
Kashmir.
The State of Jammu &
Qilla Saifullah
e
h
Toba Tek
ak
Okara
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
Singh
us
l
M
The red dotted line represents
approximately
theUnited
line ofNations Security
iwa
a plebiscite
under the relevant
Sah
Dera
ttan
74°E
Ziarat
Khanewal
Loralai
CouncilThe
Resolutions.
control in Jammu & Kashmir.
State of Jammu &
kpa
Ghazi
Pa tlej
Su
Khan
Harnai
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
Duki
Vihari
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
30°N
ir
ar
aw
sh
Pe
Legend
A
GILGIT
rD
pe
Up
Lo
Minor
Shigar
Swat
IN
80°E
F R O
N T I
E R
Main
CH
Hunza
pper
Chitral Lower
36°N
Secondary
78°E
76°E
TAJIKISTAN
Sugarcane Regions, 2010
Hu
Sugar cane is used mainly for
making white sugar and gur,
as well as products such as
alcohol for the pharmaceutical
industry, and press mud,
used in organic fertilisers
for crops and in animal feed.
You might not have heard
of bagasse. This is a very
useful waste product from
sugar cane. Bagasse is fibre
from the cane. It is used in
making paper and chipboard.
Bagasse can also be used as
biomass (a fuel from plant or
animal material for producing
energy, such as electricity).
Bagasse could help to reduce
the amount of plastic we
throw away, for example in
disposable cups and plates.
Sugarcane growing
areas in Pakistan (2010)
B
I
A
72°
LF
CAM
21°
GU
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
69°
Y
BA
OF
S
E
A
71°
72°
M ud
70°E
&
Livestock farming
Haveli
70°E
72°E
A
TAJIKISTAN
be
tral
Chi
r
h
u
n
j
g
u
r
A w
b
a
a
r
a
r
A
gla
an
har
S
TU
KH
PA
ar
ag
ln
wa
ha
Ba
N
Naushero
Firoz
I
28°N
72°E
N
Khairpur
SIR
S I N D H
Jamshoro
26°N
Sanghar
Tando
M. Khan
Hyderabad
68°
Churna Island
N
S
E
A
Tando
Allayar
Karachi
Ind
Sir Cre
ek
Buffaloes are kept on farms as labour to
plow the land and as a vehicle for transport
64°E
66°E
24°
Thar
Sujawal
24°N
Umerkot
as
A
Kh
I
ur
B
Thatta
62°E of Greenwich
Rahim Yar Khan
Ghotki
p
Mir
Astola Island
A
Bahawalpur
us
Ind
Sukkur
us
a
t
kpa
Sut
Pa
Vihari
ri
d
R
a
al
iw
Sah
Shaheed
Benazirabad
Lasbela
Hingol
Bd
lab
isa
Fa
tia
a
Dadu
A
Lodhran
Shikarpur
Ma
w
A
Ja
Kambar
Shahdad
Kot
n
Dasht
G
I
ad
ab
Sohbatpur
Kashmor P
d
ba Jacobabad
P
sir
Na
ra
ffa
K h u z d a r
Hu
P
H
C
L O
B A
K e c h
26°N
k
Jhal
T Magsi
J
na
IRAN
s
S
Ma
Bah
na
Sargodha Che
fi
Ha
Toba Tek
Singh
Rajanpur
rka
Sakandarabad
Jhang
Khanewal
Kohlu
Dera Bugti
A
Kharan
W a
YB
ha
rk
Ba
Sibi
Kalat
i
La
a
Dera
Ghazi
Khan
Jhe
Chiniot
N
Mu
zaffa
rga
rh
M
ul
ta
n
Duki
n
A
g
KH
kh
a
us
Kachhi
a
U
Layyah
Loralai
Harnai
Mastung
Nushki
h
Bhakkar
Jhelu
lum
Khushab
n
P
Rawalpind
Chakwal
ha
l il K
a
m
Is
el
M
Ziarat
Quetta
66°E
64°E
s
du
In
Mianwali
ob
Zh
Qilla Saifullah
Pishin
30°N
62°E
C
ER
T
S
I
N
A
H
G
F
A
ar
la
Qil
ra
De
rani
Insufficient or Negligible
28°N
Cattle are often left to graze on large
expanses of grassy land that is unsuitable
for growing crops. On smaller farms, cattle
have to be moved to new pastures when
they have eaten about 50–70% of the grass
or it has been grazed to 5–6 cm high.
Zhob
h
lla
u
bd
Lakki
Marwat
Tank
Go
ma
32°N
se
an
M
Islamabad S
Attock
Karak
Bannu
n
She
Cattle are farmed mainly in temperate
climate zones. They are also kept in tropical
and subtropical regions but not in arid
or cold climates. Even some temperate
climates, such as Scotland in the UK, are
suitable only for very hardy breeds.
uth
So
68°E
Malakand Buner
Kohat
ta
iris
az
W
Kohistan
Kohistan
Lower
Kolai Palla
Batgram
aw
Cattle
ir
Mardan
Charsadda
Abbottabad
Swabi
Haripur
Nowshera
er
Khyb
am Orakzai
ir
z
Wa
rth
Swat
N
Mohmand
Ka
bu
l
Hangu
No
rD
K Hwat
W
Bajur
A
N
we
Kurr
n
ista
ir
rD
pe
Up
Lo
sh
International Boundary
Province Boundary
District Boundary
Working Boundary
Line of Control
Coastline
River
Data not Available
Ghize
Pe
34°N
Legend
er
Upp
Chitral Lower
36°N
Torg
im
Regions,
Livestock means animals that are kept for produce, such as meat, milk,Cotton
skins,
and2010
so on. You might be
Main
surprised to learn how many products come from livestock. Livestock are kept
on most parts of the world.
Secondary
The table on the next page shows the numbers of the main types of animalsMinorthat are farmed. You can
see that chickens, cattle, and sheep are the main livestock around the world.
Sh
Bh
68°E
Badin
M ud
h
M ud
utc
of K
Rann
M ud
70°E
57
M ud
24°N
68° E. of GREEN
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
Sheep
Sheep can graze on shorter grass than cattle, but they
need drier conditions, as very wet ground can cause
a disease called foot rot. They can graze on hills and
mountains where the land is unsuitable for growing crops.
Goats
Goats are an important sector of livestock farming around
the world. The countries with the most goats per sq km2 are
in Asia and Africa, particularly India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Somalia, and Sudan.
The main livestock farmed in Pakistan are goats; others
include cattle, buffalo, sheep, camels, horses, asses, and
mules. Many small farms are mixed (arable and livestock),
where farmers might keep just one cow and/or goat
and some poultry (hens, cockerals, ducks, and geese) to
produce food for their own use.
Sheep provide us with food and fiber
All provinces of Pakistan have livestock farming, with
Punjab having by far the largest numbers, followed by
Sindh. The main type of livestock in a region depends
on the land and climate: for example, buffalo need large
plains, sheep can survive on short grass on steeply
sloping land, and camels are well suited to hot, arid
regions.
Poultry includes any birds that people keep for their eggs,
meat, feathers, or just as pets. The main poultry are hens
and chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, and quails.
Goats are sure footed animals
Native chickens on subsistence farms used to be the main source of eggs and chicken meat in Pakistan.
In the 1960s, the government began to support commercial poultry farming because the population was
growing, and poultry is a good source of protein that need not
be imported. The government cut taxes, provided training for
Animal populations in Pakistan,
farmers, and gave other help, such as subsidised feed. Poultry
2019–2022
are now an important part of agriculture in Pakistan, including
2019-20 2020-21 2021-22
meat exports.
(Million. Nos)
Problem from livestock farming
Here are some of the main problems:
•
Overgrazing makes the grass too short for cattle to eat.
•
Cattle trample the soil, squeezing out air, water, and
nutrients, so grass cannot grow and the soil is more easily
eroded by wind and water.
Their hooves leave 10 cm deep holes that fill up with
water that does not drain away easily. These conditions kill
grass. After the water evaporates, weeds grow in the bare
•
58
Buffalo
41.2
42.4
43.7
Camels
1.1
1.1
1.1
Cattle
49.6
51.5
53.4
Goats
78.2
80.3
82.5
Sheep
31.2
31.6
31.9
Horses
0.4
0.4
0.4
Asses
5.5
5.6
5.7
(Million Nos.)
Chickens
33.40
33.65
33.90
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
patches.
It generates nearly 15% of the total global greenhouse
gas emissions, which is greater than all the
transportation emissions combined. This can increase
the rate of global warming and climate change.
Livestock farming uses almost 70% of the agricultural
land, which can lead to deforestation, loss of
biodiversity, and water pollution.
•
•
Building Skills
Find out about the economic importance of
livestock products in Pakistan. Use maps,
economic data, and other sources to support
your evidence.
Forestry
The estimated forest area of the world is 4.06 billion hectares. This was about 30% of all the land
on the Earth. You can see these forests in the map, which shows the percentage of land that was
covered by forest in each country in 2020.
You can see from this map that a very small part of the land in Pakistan is covered with forests—
only 5.01%. However, these forests are a very important source of income. You probably know about
timber and fuel wood, but did you know that our forests also provide income from materials for papermaking, latex for rubber-making, ingredients for medicine and food, and tourism?
When a forest is managed for timber and other
products, it does not mean that the forest will
be destroyed, because new trees are planted to
replace those that are cut down.
More than 60% of the forests of Pakistan are
coniferous and scrub forests on the northern hills
and mountains. Here there are alpine forests at
unusually high elevations—up to 4000 metres
above sea level. Also on high land (2000–3000
metres) in the Suleiman Mountains are the juniper
forests of Balochistan.
A small fishery: lobster pots on the harbour on
Lindisfarne Island, off the coast of Northumberland,
England, UK
Forest area
by country in
2020
GILGIT
J &
Scale in km
2000
0
1000
3000
4000
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
A
*
0–10
10–30
30–50
50–70
70–100
Wo
rk
ing
Bou
nda
ry
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
P
5000
rol
Cont
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
Key
F R O
N T I
E R
K
Line of
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
P
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
LEGEND
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
23°
70°
71°
72°
23°
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
The other 40% of Pakistan’s forests is made up of:
• Riverine forests (primary forests along riverbanks, with
new trees being planted).
• Irrigated plantations along the river indus and its
tributaries on the plains.
• Planted forests such as changa manga near lahore,
chichawatni near sahiwal, punjab, and khipro reserve,
near sanghar, sindh. These were planted to provide
timber for building the first railways.
• Mangrove forests on the indus delta (primary forests
along riverbanks that are disappearing very quickly, but the
government is taking steps to protect them, and new trees
are being planted).
• Trees planted on farmland.
A mangrove forest in the Indus Delta
Problems in Agriculture
Mechanised and smart farming has been successful in producing large
quantities of food. However, the future of food production is in jeopardy
due to the loss of agricultural land to meet other human needs, such
as clearing land for houses, industries, mining, and other amenities like
parks and malls, etc. This has led to scarcity in the varieties of crops
produced and livestock produced. According to World Bank reports,
2022 faced increasing food insecurity. Approximately 30% of the world’s
population lacked access to adequate food in 2020 and 2021.
According to Food and Agriculture Organisation of
the UN (FAO), global emissions due to agriculture
were 9.3 billion tonnes of CO2. Industrial scale
agricultural processes can lead to climate change,
land degradation, and water pollution. For example,
large-scale deforestation for farmland can decrease
biodiversity, increase global temperatures, and
disturb hydrologic cycle by changing in the amount
and distribution of rainfall. Unreliable and varied
rainfall can negatively impact the soil by reducing its
moisture content, lowering its output, and increasing
the chances of flooding in other areas.
Did you know, farming
releases significant
amounts of methane
and nitrous oxide. For
example, livestock farming
is responsible for 14.5
percent of
all global
greenhouse
gases
globally.
Agricultural land damaged by aggressive agriculture,
in the danube delta, Romania
Fishing
Most countries of the world have a fishing industry. This could be sea fishing or inland fishing (in lakes or
rivers). The fish could be caught wild or from aquaculture (fish farming). The people who catch wild fish
could be individuals who fish alone in a small boat, or employ one or two others, using a larger boat; or
they could be large commercial fishing companies that have large ‘factory’ ships.
Fishing is the most important economic activity along the coast of Pakistan; the Fisheries and Agriculture
Department of Pakistan estimated that around 400,000 families depend on fisheries for their livelihood.
Fisheries make a large contribution to Pakistan’s export earnings.
60
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
Pakistan has a coastline of about 1058 km. It has
sheltered bays and a broad continental shelf (shallow
area) near the Indus Delta that are ideal for fish
and other sea creatures, especially shrimps and
prawns. The Arabian Sea near the coast of Sindh and
Balochistan is also a rich source of fish that have
commercial importance. As well as shrimps and tuna,
other catches from the Arabian Sea include sharks,
rays, herrings, sardines, anchovies, croakers, grunters,
snappers, groupers, ribbonfish, and pomfrets.
The main fishing ports are Karachi, Gwadar, and Pasni.
Pakistan’s fishing industry is mainly along the coast,
but there are also inland fisheries along the rivers
and around the lakes, and aquaculture, mainly for
freshwater carp.
A fisherman weaves a large fishing net to be used
by the locals of the coastal town to hunt for fishes
in the adjacent Arabian Sea
Globalisation and agriculture
Since 20th century, the world has come to rely more
on political and economic cooperation than before.
This state of interconnected and interdependence is
achieved through collaborations in social, economic,
technical, political, cultural, and ecological spheres to
achieve common goals of providing economic progress
and technological advancment for their citizens and
businesses.
Fishing Boat with Nets at Wadden Sea in Evening
Light, North Sea, Germany
Globalisation in agriculture aimed to curb food insecurity around the
world. Sharing of human, mineral, technical, and other such resources
has helped improved availability of food for the poor, flexible trade for
exchange of food crops, created employment opportunities in different
economic sect, and enabled countries to earn foreign exchange from
cash crops.
Building Skills
Using the Oxford School Atlas,
find out the location and
importance of the shipping
ports in Pakistan.
According to Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN, Pakistan
is also amongst the world’s top ten producers of wheat, cotton,
sugarcane, mango, dates, and oranges. According to United
Nations COMTRADE database, Pakistan’s export of meat, fish and
seafood preparations was worth US$26.25 million in 2021. Major
crops (wheat, rice, cotton, and sugar cane) contribute around 4.9
per cent, while minor crops contribute 2.1 percent to the country’s
total GDP.
Pakistan exports rice, cotton, fish, fruits, vegetables and imports
vegetable oil, wheat, pulses, and consumer foods. It is also Asia’s
largest camel market, 2nd-largest apricot & ghee market & 3rdlargest cotton, onion, and milk market. The Pakistan Bureau of
Statistics reported that main exports during 2022 were Knitwear
worth Rs. 90,096 million; readymade garments worth Rs. 64,669
million; bed wear worth Rs. 51,398 million; cotton cloth worth Rs.
Abundance of multiple food
types from globalisation
61
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
38,763 million; towels worth Rs.19,974 million; cotton Yarn worth Rs.18,016 million; Basmati rice worth
Rs.15,198 million, and Surgical goods worth Rs.8,067 million.
However, there are negative impacts to such overuse of land. Clearing of the land, mechanisation, use
of chemical fertilisers, burning of fossil fuels, and using genetically engineered (GM) seeds has degraded
the land, cause waterlogging, salinity, disturb our food chain, polluted our enviornment, and global
warming.
Sustainable agriculture
Building Skills
Innovative farmers and scientists are developing new farming systems
Find out the differences
between the agricultural
that are environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable. Such
methods and output of Pakistan
methods include farms in different sizes, producing a diverse range
and Bangladesh.
of foods, fibers, and fuels that are adapted to local conditions and
their regional markets. Dependent on educated work force, research
and technology, it maximizes productivity and profit while minimizing environmental damage. Sustainable
farming methods are resilient to droughts and floods. These methods include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Crop rotation and embracing diversity. For example, rice-wheat rotation is practiced in north-eastern
districts of Punjab and northwestern and southern districts of Sindh. The maize-wheat rotation is
found in most of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa districts, four districts of Punjab, and three districts of
Balochistan Province.
Crop diversity, e.g. intercropping. In Pakistan, maize-soybean, wheat-soybean, and sugarcane-soybean
intercropping is being included to efficiently increase the agricultural output.
Planting cover crops and perennial crops.
Zero tillage planting can improve crop yield, reduce production cost, and GHG emission. Researchers
in Pakistan attempted field trials at six locations in Punjab and found that zero tillage produced 13%
and 9% higher wheat and mung bean yield in comparison to conventional tillage practice.
Organic pest management through botanical oils can save the land from soil erosion, soil degradation,
improve soil fertility, and enhance its moisture conservation.
Integrating livestock and crops for efficient and profitable farms.
Adopting agro-forestry practices to discourage water logging, salinity, create jobs, and carbon sinks.
WWF and its partners have co-funded an agroforestry project in Khanewal and Bahawalpur districts,
Punjab.
Sprinklers are storehouses for water and a smart
irrigation tool
62
Pivot farming in USA has a lower labour cost and
reduced soil tillage
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
Agriculture: Assessment
A. Choose the correct answer:
I. Pakistan exports more _________ products than it
imports.
a. Medicinalb. Industrialc. Agricultural
II. Organic farmers use manure, _________, and
natural methods of pest control.
a. Fertiliserb. Compostc. Herbicides
III. Global food demand is expected to rise _________%
by 2030.
a. 25b. 30c. 35
IV. Pakistan’s main crop is a kharif crop, _________.
a. Sugar caneb. Wheatc. Rice
V. _________ is a sensitive crop that needs ample
sunlight and water from rainfall or irrigation.
a. Riceb. Cottonc. Tobacco
VI.Most of Pakistan’s _________ is grown in northeastern regions because they receive more rainfall
than the rest of the country.
a. Riceb. Cottonc. Wheat
VII.The main livestock farmed in Pakistan are
_________.
a. Sheepb. Cattlec. Goat
VIII. Pakistan has a coastline of about _________ km.
a. 1000b. 1023c. 1058
B 1. Using the graphs on page 45, find out:
a)Between which years did the output of agriculture
go up very gradually?
b)Between which years were the steepest
increases?
2. Between which years did the population go up very
gradually and increase sharply?
3. Compare different methods of farming.
4.How well has the output from farming in Pakistan
kept up with the growth of the population?
5.What could be done to increase the output from
farming?
6.Differentiate between cash and staple crops.
C 1. a)Pakistan is a net exporter of food. What does
this mean?
b)Explain why it is good to be a net exporter of
food.
2.Use your Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan to help
you to find the countries.
a)Name two countries in Africa that grow cotton.
b)Name two countries in South America that
grow cotton.
c)Use what you know about the land and climate
to explain why China is among the leading
cotton-growing countries.
d)Which parts of Pakistan are the main cottongrowing areas, and why?
e)List as many products of the cotton plant as
you can think of.
f)Choose three parts of the cotton plant and
describe what they are used for.
3.Find out the meaning of ‘eco-friendly’. Which
product of the sugar plant is especially ecofriendly, and why?
D1. a) What is the relationship between population
growth and agricultural automation?
b) Describe the factors which effect agricultural
output.
2. a) Name the Pakistan’s six main types of livestock
in order, beginning with the largest population.
b) Explain why cattle are very useful animals to
farm.
c) Describe some of the problems caused by
overgrazing.
3. a) Which climate zone is the main one for cattle
farming? Explain why this is.
b) Which province of Pakistan is the main one for
livestock farming?
4. What is the difference between subsistence and
livestock farming?
5.Describe the three main types of fishing industry.
E1.Refer to the map on page 55 and answer the
following questions:
a) Which parts of the world have no forests?
Explain this.
b) Name three countries where approximately
70–100% of the land is forested.
c) H
ow much of the land in Pakistan is forested?
i) 4–5% ii) 10–20% iii) 30–40% iv) 50–60%
2. a) List four products from forests.
b)Describe three other ways in which forests are
important in any country.
c)What is an alpine forest? What is unusual
about the alpine forests in the north of
Pakistan?
63
U N I T 4 A g ri c u l tur e
F1.Some farmers think it is good to use chemical
pesticides and fertilisers; others do not. Use
a table like this to list the reasons: for each of
these views:
for using chemical
against using
pesticides and
chemical pesticides
fertilisers
and fertilisers
2. Describe the economic importance of agriculture
for local and global economy.
3. Describe ways to improve agricultural output.
G 1. Describe these different types of farming:
a)Subsistence b) Commercial
c) Manuald) Mechanised
e) Organicf) Arable
2. a)Why is wheat a very important crop worldwide?
b)Which country is the world’s leading wheat
producer?
c)Which provinces of Pakistan are the best for
growing wheat? What makes these areas good
for wheat?
3. a)Which country is the world’s main rice-grower?
Explain why this country is the main rice-grower.
b)Which parts of Pakistan are the main ricegrowing areas, and why?
4. Explain how agricultural methods affect the
enviornment.
5. Evaluate the effectiveness of the 3Rs for farmers.
Overview
Agriculture
Types of agriculture
Arable
• Kharif crop is grown in winter.
• Rabi crop is grown in summer.
Livestock
• Livestock animals are raised in
different parts of Pakistan to produce
meat, milk, leather, and other products.
Fishing
• Main catches in Pakistan are shrimps
and tuna.
• Karachi, Gwadar, and Pasni are the
main fishing ports of Pakistan.
Forestry
Different types of forest in Pakistan are:
• Riverine
• Irrigated plantations
• Planted forests
• Mangroves trees
• Trees planted on farmland
Poultry
• Chickens were reared on subsistence
farms up until 1960, after which the
government supported commercial
poultry farming.
64
Main agricultural
products
Methods of farming
Livestock products
• Small scale farming to
support a family
•
•
•
•
Cattle
Sheep
Horses
Mules
•2 Buffalo
•2 Camels
•2 Donkeys
Crop products
• Wheat
• Cotton
• Mangoes
•2 Rice
•2 Sugar cane
•2 Milk
Importance of
agriculture in
Pakistan’s economy
• Pakistan is mainly an
agricultural country.
• About 47% of the land
in Pakistan is used for
agriculture.
• Pakistan is a net exporter
of food.
Subsistence
Commercial
• Large scale farming to
earn profit
• Increased use of
machinery and chemical
pesticides and fertilisers
Manual
• Fields are ploughed by
animals and all farm work
is done by hand.
Mechanised
• Tractors and machinery
are used to do all farm
work.
Organic
• Use of natural fertilisers
such as manure and
compost, and natural
pest control with crop
rotation
UNIT
5
Climate change
Knowledge
•
Recall the difference between climate and weather.
•
Define climate change.
•
Explain the greenhouse effect.
•
Identify changes caused by the greenhouse effect.
•
Describe the importance of the Ozone layer.
•
Identify global warming and the greenhouse effect as the main
causes of climate change in the world.
•
Explain the main causes of climate change in the world and
some particular areas.
Skills
•
Investigate how human activity is causing climate change.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Investigate the effects of global warming on Polar Regions.
Analyse the effects of climatic change on flora and fauna.
Analyse the effect of climatic change on people, lifestyle,
and economy.
Analyse the effects of climate change on the Earth.
Evaluate the health and environmental effects of the
Ozone layer.
Investigate and suggest ways to reduce the
greenhouse effect.
Enhanced use of vocabulary to describe physical,
human, and environmental geography and economy
related to them.
Climatology is the study of the Earth’s regional climates whereas meteorology is the study of shortterm atmospheric phenomenon that makes the weather. To understand the distinction, weather relates
the current atmospheric conditions, whereas climate covers the long-term, aggregate weather and
seasonal conditions of a particular place. Weather is changing all the time while climate changes over a
period of 35 years.
What is climate change?
Climate change means a change in the Earth’s normal weather patterns for different climates. It is
normal for climates to change little by little over the years. The Earth has had cooler and warmer times. It
is now getting warmer. This phenomenon is also known as global warming. Since the 1980s, each decade
has been warmer than the previous one. The warmest seven years have all been since 2015, with 2016,
2019, and 2020 making the top three. (Source: World Meteorological Organisation)
Scientists collect weather data from weather stations, weather balloons, and weather satellites. They
record thousands of land and ocean temperature measurements each day around the world. These show
that the average temperature of the Earth’s land and oceans increased by 0.65°C to 1.06°C between
1880 and 2012. The average air temperature in the lower part of the troposphere has increased by
0.13°C to 0.22°C per decade since 1979.
What changes the Earth’s
temperature?
There are different causes for these changes such as:
• Changes in the amount of heat that oceans transfer
from one place to another.
• An increase in the number of volcanic eruptions
that can send out dust, thus blocking out the Sun’s
radiation over large areas.
• Changes in the amounts of different gases in the
atmosphere.
Heat waves have become
common due to climate change
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
Greenhouse effect
Do you know what a greenhouse is? This
picture of a greenhouse will help you
to understand the greenhouse effect. A
greenhouse is made from glass or clear
plastic. It is very useful for growing plants
in the winter in cooler climates.
The air in a greenhouse warms up
because the Sun shines through the glass
and warms the air and the ground in the
greenhouse. The air becomes warmer, but
it cannot escape from the greenhouse.
The ground takes a while to heat up, but it
retains the warmth for a longer time than
the air. It keeps the air trapped in the
greenhouse warm, even during the winter.
This is called the greenhouse effect.
A greenhouse. If the doors and windows are closed, the air is
trapped inside. It’s like the inside of a car on a hot day.
Which
gases
are called
greenhouse
gases?
There are greenhouse gases in our atmosphere, e.g. water
vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
These act like the glass walls of a greenhouse by trapping
the heat in our atmosphere.
They absorb heat from the Sun’s rays and radiate it in all
directions, which warms the Earth. Warm air cannot escape
from the atmosphere because the heat is radiated back to
the surface of the Earth. The Earth’s natural greenhouse
effect is essential to keep the Earth warm enough to
support life. But if greenhouse gases increase too much,
the Earth could become too hot.
Mainly water vapour, carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide, methane, and ozone. Ozone
is fine when it’s in the
stratosphere, but too much
of it in the lower part of the
troposphere is harmful.
1.2
It’s a fact!
Increased greenhouse
gases since the early
1900s are causing the
climate to warm quickly.
The increase comes from
vehicle exhaust, pollutants
released from smokestacks
at factories and power
plants, emissions from
agriculture, and other
sources.
66
°C anomaly, 1981-2010 baseline
0.8
0.4
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
NASA
Global surface temperatures recorded by 1970-2022 by NASA
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
The greenhouse effect
Sun
Solar radiation
Some of the solar radiation is reflected
by the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface
Solar radiation passes
through the atmosphere
Some of the infrared radiation passes
through the atmosphere and out into space
atmosphere
greenhouse gases
Radiation is converted to heat energy,
causing the emission of longwave radiation
back to the atmosphere
Earth’s surface
Some of the infrared radiation
is absorbed and re-emitted by
the greenhouse gas molecules.
A diagram to show how the greenhouse effect works in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Where are the extra greenhouse gases coming from?
Most scientists think that human activities such as
urbanisation, burning fossil fuels, using cars and other
vehicles, and clearing forests have increased the amount
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Most of the methane
comes from raising livestock such as cows, goats, and sheep,
decaying landfill, and peat bogs.
greenhouse effect and climate change
Building Skills
Collaborate with someone from a
different climatic zone of Pakistan.
List the challenges you both face
and what individual and community
actions can be taken to address it.
NASA and other climate observatories have noted an increase
in greenhouse gases and think it is directly responsible for accelerating the rate of climate change.
Too much of the greenhouse gases can trap heat in the Earth atmosphere and cause global
warming. Many scientists think that in general, the dry regions of the Earth will become even
drier and most of the wet regions will become even wetter. So dry places are more likely to have
droughts, and wet places are more likely to have floods. There could be more tropical cyclones.
Extremely high sea levels could become more common. Fires (such as bushfires) are more likely
where the climate becomes warmer and drier.
The amount of freshwater flowing
into the oceans has increased. This
is partly because global warming is
melting the ice around the Poles. In wet
regions, there has been an increase in
rainfall because water from the oceans
evaporates more quickly in higher
temperatures. For example, the mean
yearly rainfall in Singapore increased by
more than 400 mm between 1980 and
2015.
A drought-striken area
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
It’s a fact!
• The permafrost is the soil below the surface that normally stays frozen, even in the summer.
• Peat bogs are ‘carbon sinks’. These are areas that store carbon and help to keep carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.
• A trend is a gradual change towards something, for example: higher or lower rainfall, higher or lower temperatures, more
or fewer storms, or higher or lower sea levels
Higher temperatures have begun to melt the permafrost in Arctic regions, such as parts of Canada, Alaska,
and Russia. The permafrost stores carbon, but if it melts, it gives off carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. If
it continues to melt, it will also give out methane from peat bogs that are normally frozen.
What is the ozone layer?
You might have heard of the ozone layer, but do you
know what it means? Ozone is a gas in the Earth’s
atmosphere. It is created by a reaction between
ultraviolet light and oxygen. Ozone has a pale blue
colour but we do not notice this because there is
so little ozone in the air around us. Some people
can smell ozone, even when there are very small
amounts in the air. It smells similar to chlorine,
which you probably know, as it is in bleach and is
sometimes used to disinfect swimming pools.
Scientists have given ozone the symbol O3. The
symbol for oxygen is O2. There is a very tiny amount
of ozone in the atmosphere—about 0.3 parts per
million. Most of it is in the ozone layer (in the lower
part of stratosphere).
Sun
hole in the
ozone layer
ozone layer
ultraviolet rays
Earth
Earth’s atmosphere
A diagram that shows how the ozone layer blocks
out some of the Sun’s radiation. It shows how this
radiation can pass through a hole in the ozone layer.
Why is the ozone layer important?
The Sun’s radiation keeps the Earth warm enough for plants and
other living things to live. Part of the Sun’s radiation is called
ultraviolet radiation. Some of this is necessary for life, but higher
amounts of this radiation are harmful. The ozone layer keeps out
most of the harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Scientists have been measuring the ozone layer for more than half
a century. It has become thinner and holes have appeared in it
through which ultraviolet radiation can pass. Scientists have found
that gases from human activities damage the ozone layer as well
as cause global warming. Some of these gases can survive in the
atmosphere for 50 to 100 years.
Why is low-level ozone harmful?
Which human activities
can damage the
ozone layer?
The same activities that cause the
greenhouse effect. Gases from many
industries contain chemicals that can
reach the ozone layer. Ultraviolet light
helps these gases to break down the
ozone layer.
Ozone is a very active gas. When it is lower down in the
atmosphere, it is closer to living things and can harm them. It can damage the leaves of plants and affect
how they use sunlight to produce food. In humans, it can cause headaches, eye irritation, coughs, and
chest discomfort. It is one of the active gases in ‘smog’ (polluted fog mainly found in cities).
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
International action
Scientists found that chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) damage the ozone layer. CFCs were
used for many years in aerosols, insulation foam, fridges, and air conditioners. The good news is that 197
countries signed an agreement called the Montreal Protocol in 1987 to reduce the use of CFCs.
Disappearing ice
Scientists have found that higher
temperatures are causing most
glaciers to retreat. In some glaciated
valleys, lakes are being formed by the
melted ice. However, not all glaciers
are retreating, and a few are even
advancing. All the glaciers around
Mount Everest are retreating. The chart
shows how much each of these glaciers
retreated between 1976 and 2007.
A satellite photo of lakes formed in the Himalayas in Bhutan where
glaciers have retreated
Glacier or glacier region around Mount
Everest
Average distance retreated per year
(metres)
Rongbuk
20
Khumbu
18
Sikkim
13.02
Building Skills
Make a poster and video about
the cause of global warming and
climate change.
What happens to the ice from a retreating glacier?
The glaciers in the Greater Himalayan region that have been measured are retreating by an average of
between 18 m and 20 m per year. However, the glaciers in the highest parts of the Karakoram Range are
advancing. In some places, melting ice from glaciers can cause floods. This happened in Chitral in 2015,
when melting ice and heavy rainfall caused a glacial lake to overflow the Khanpur Dam on the Haro River
in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
In 2010, there was a landslide near Attabad that created a dam across the Hunza River. A lake formed
behind the dam and flooded towns, fields, and roads, including part of the Karakoram Highway. Following
this incident, a channel was dug to take away any water that overflowed the dam. This will help to prevent
floods farther downstream if the glaciers melt.
A satellite image of the ice cap
over the Arctic Ocean in 1983
A satellite image of the ice cap
over the Arctic Ocean in 2012
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
The frozen water around the North and
South Poles is called sea ice. Some of
this ice melts in the summer, but some
ice remains permanently. This permanent ice is the minimum size of the ice
cap. In 2012, the permanent ice in the
Arctic shrank to its smallest ever area.
Does the melting of the sea ice matter?
Well…when sea ice melts, it does not
change sea levels because the ice is
already floating in the ocean. However,
sea ice is important in holding back
global warming because its large white
Melting ice in Greenland
area reflects sunlight. You can test this
by leaving a piece of white cloth and a
piece of black cloth in the sunshine for about 15 minutes. You
Building Skills
can feel the difference in the warmth of each piece of cloth.
However, scientists have found that the sea ice in Antarctica is
Using GIS or Google Maps,
not shrinking. They think this is because Antarctica is so cold
make an illustrated PowerPoint
that global warming has not yet melted the ice. They have even
presentation to show the rise in
found that the ice has become thicker in some places.
Land ice
global temperatures in the last
decade.
Land ice is found on Earth in the form of glaciers. Did you know that
about 75% of all the Earth’s freshwater is contained in glaciers? If
all this land ice melted, sea levels around the world would rise by
approximately 70 metres!
Greenland, near the North Pole, is not as cold as Antarctica, so the
ice there is more likely to melt. Each spring and summer (April to
October), some of the ice in Greenland melts. In autumn and winter,
rain and snowfall freeze and replace the melted ice. From 1978–
2008, the total amount of ice that permanently melted grew from
around 14 million km2 to nearly 22 million km2. In July 2012, there
was a record-breaking melting of ice sheet surface in Greenland,
when 97% of it melted. Some scientists think that the pattern of ice
sheet melting in Greenland goes on for a while and then begins to
return to normal. Others think it is a trend that might cause sea levels
to rise and make the seas less salty.
It’s a fact!
• Average sea level around
the world has been rising
since the middle of the
19th century.
• During the 20th century,
sea levels rose about
1.5–2.0 mm each year.
This is about 15 –20 cm
rise in sea levels during
the century.
• Sea levels rose faster
at the end of the 20th
century than over the early
part of the century.
Causes of climate change
The global climate is always changing. However, since around 1950 there has been a dramatic
increase in global temperatures. This increase is known as global warming. The main
greenhouse gases whose concentrations are rising are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and ozone in the lower atmosphere.
Scientists and geologists have been calculating the potential of human activities to increase the
temperature of the Earth.
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
Causes
Effects
energy use
food insecurity
agriculture and land use
loss of land
industry and transport
displaced people
pollution
growing demands for food and water
natural disasters
Global warming: causes and effects
Energy from fossil fuels
Generating electricity and heat by burning fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, and natural gas) causes
majority of the Earth’s GHG emissions. These powerful gases blanket the Earth, trap the sun’s heat,
and cause global warming. Today, only a quarter of electricity comes from wind, solar and other
renewable sources which emit little to no GHG gases or pollutants into the air.
Industry and transport
Mining, manufacturing, and industry processes are responsible for global warming. They burn fossil
fuels to produce energy and extract other raw material for making things like cement, iron, steel,
electronics, plastics, clothes, and other goods. Most cars, trucks, ships, and planes run on fossil
fuels.
Overuse of land
Large scale deforestation to create farms, pastures, settlements, making roads and railways,
mining and industry adds to GHG emissions. This is because trees, when they are cut, release the
carbon they have been storing. Each year approximately 12 million hectares of forest are destroyed.
Agriculture also emits carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases in various ways.
Population and overconsumption
Meeting the basic needs for an overgrowing population is one of the most important contributors of
GHG gases. Deforestation, mining, and conventional industrial processes are adopted by most of
the population to provide food, urbanise land, and boost economic growth. Over consumption from
trends such as fast fashion discourages people from using the 3Rs and manage their waste in an
environment friendly manner.
Impact of climate change on animals and plants
Changes in climate have led to unfavourable conditions for animals and plants. Their survival,
growth, and reproduction have been affected to a great extent due to climate change. Many animals
have begun to migrate towards the higher latitudes or to higher ground to find a habitat with a
climate that suits them. This also happens because the plants or animals they feed on have begun
to migrate. Some animals could become endangered because their food supply is dying out.
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
Whales
Some whales feed on plankton (tiny living
organisms). Warmer water contains less plankton,
so many whales that feed on plankton are dying from
starvation. They travel farther in search of food and
they are being found washed up on beaches where
whales have never been seen before, such as on the
east coast of England.
Sea turtles
Sea turtles lay their eggs on beaches in Brazil. The
rising sea levels could endanger their eggs or very
young hatchlings. Typically, higher temperatures
are favourable to female hatchlings but cooler
temperatures are favourable to males. Due to
rising temperature in the world, the number of male
sea turtles is dropping. This could threaten turtle
populations.
Climate change is diminishing amount of prey
species for whales and dolphins
Polar bears
Polar bears live around the North Pole and feed
mainly on seals. They live on the sea ice and hunt for
seals in the sea around the ice. As the sea ice melts,
they have to swim farther to find stable ice. This
leaves them very tired, especially females who have
cubs to look after. Many adults and cubs are also
dying from starvation.
Some polar bears in Greenland have adapted to
hunt from blocks of ice from glaciers during summers
Coral and shellfish
Oceans are absorbing more carbon dioxide, which
makes the water more acidic. Corals and shellfish
cannot absorb the calcium carbonate they need for
healthy skeletons or shells in highly acidic water.
When the sea stays warm for longer than normal,
corals become white and do not regain their pink
colour. This affects their ability to fight off diseases.
Coral that has lost its pink colour
Fish
Rising global temperature reduces the age, size, and
the biodiversity of marine ecosystems. Inland fisheries
are also threatened by changes in rainfall and water
management. Temperature affects the metabolism,
behavior, locomotion, and its desire to obtain food. In
some places, floods in the spring have washed away
salmon eggs laid in stream beds. This could wipe out
entire salmon populations.
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A 5ºC rise in average global temperature could
wipe out 60% of all fish species
U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
Birds
Some birds that usually migrate to cooler climates during the summer are beginning to migrate
earlier. Due to this early migration, they could starve if the insects they usually feed on have not yet
hatched when they reach their destination.
Plants
Global warming has increased droughts,
wildfires, and invasive pest outbreaks. This has
led to the loss of some plant species and has
also lowered productivity, made conditions for
longer droughts and heat waves frequent.
Some plants are producing flower buds earlier
because of warmer temperatures. But overnight
frosts can kill these buds and affect plant
populations. Alpine plants grow on high ground. If
their habitat becomes too warm to survive, there
is nowhere higher for them to grow.
Drought damaged cornfield
Impact of climate change on people
Climate change is affecting freshwater supplies. Pakistan is one of many countries that already has
very little water. Higher temperatures and other changing weather patterns are changing the amount
of water in lakes, rivers, and streams. Some regions are even facing droughts. Where there are
floods, the flood water becomes polluted with sewage or other contaminants. The amount of water
that seeps into the ground to fill underground reservoirs is also changing.
In some places, temperatures could become too
high for the crops normally grown there to survive.
Changing weather patterns are also affecting the
amount of water that can be used for irrigation.
Stronger storms and floods can damage crops.
As well as producing greenhouse gases, the
burning of coal, oil, and natural gas produces air
pollutants such as ozone, sulphur dioxide, and
nitrogen oxide. These can cause many health
problems. Sunlight and low-level ozone can
increase the effects of pollutants. For example,
Tokyo, New Delhi, Riyadh, Onitsha (Nigeria),
New York, and London already have high levels
of pollution that are harmful for human health,
especially the very young, very old, or people who
have breathing problems.
Heatwaves are becoming more common. These
are especially dangerous to infants, older people,
and people with poor health. In 2003, a heatwave
in Europe caused about 50,000 deaths.
Building Skills
Give evidence that suggests how climate change
has impacted your country’s economy, its
agriculture, plants, and biodiversity in the last
ten years.
Air pollution has increased over the year.
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
In the summer of 2022, parts of Europe experienced drought conditions, worsened by heat waves. The
European High Commission researcher say it is Europe’s worst year in 500 years.
In June 2015, the heat wave in southern Pakistan brought temperatures as high as 49°C. It caused the
deaths of more than 1300 people, mainly from dehydration and heatstroke. As winters become warmer,
ticks and mosquitoes that carry diseases can survive longer throughout the year.
Settlements along some coasts and small islands, especially on lowland, will be threatened by floods if
sea levels rise. Hundreds of millions of people around the world could lose their homes or businesses
and face danger. As temperatures rise, more people need to use air conditioning during the summer,
which uses a lot of electricity. However, during the winter, many people will use less energy for heating
because of global warming.
Improving our enviornment
The Earth belongs to all of us and if countries work together they can do a lot to protect the Earth. Now
that some of the sources of greenhouse gases are known, many countries have agreed to find ways of
reducing them. Even better news is that the ozone layer is recovering. Here are some ways to reduce
greenhouse gases.
Power stations
Many countries have agreed to
reduce the use of fossil fuels
by developing power from wind,
solar radiation, and water
(hydro and tidal). Another way
to reduce this is by finding
ways to use less energy. For
example, many manufacturers
are making energy-efficient
electrical goods such as
fridges that use less power.
Hydel power station has low greenhouse gas emissions.
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
Industry
Many industries are finding ways to use
less energy in manufacturing. They are
looking for alternative energy obtained
from non-fossil sources for producing
heat and light in factories. Recycled
materials are also being used in many
industries, such as steel and aluminium
manufacturing. It is also important to
reduce waste and leakage of chemicals.
There are many ways to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions in the
industrial sector. This can be achieved
through switching to alternative
Industries have started to switch to renewable energy
fuels, efficient use, and recycling of
since it releases little to none greenhouse gases.
materials. Some industrial processes
which cannot switch from fossil
fuels have decided to use carbon capture methods to move and then store used carbon below the
Earth’s surface. Australia, Canada, Denmark, UK, and the United States are the only nations with this
technology at the moment. Refineries and other chemical using manufacturers are regulated by law in
some countries to forbid them from emitting pollutants.
Fuels for transport
Biofuels are being developed to replace fossil fuels, e.g.
petrol and diesel. Biofuels are made from living things or
their products, such as plant sugar and plant oils. The plants
grown for producing biofuels also absorb carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere. Electric and solar-powered vehicles do not
produce greenhouse gases and could prove to be a viable
alternative to vehicles powered by fossil fuels.
We can form car-pooling groups in our
school. Imagine how much fuel could
be saved if a group of children living in
the same neighbourhood
share one car to be
dropped at and picked up
from school!
Electronic cars have helped accelerate the world’s transition to sustainable energy by avoiding 5.0 million
metric tons of CO2 emissions in 2020
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
Buildings
Insulating buildings can reduce energy consumption to a great extent.
Many countries have regulations for new buildings to improve their
insulation and so reduce the use of heating and air-conditioning.
People in their workplaces are encouraged to switch off electrical
equipment and lights when they are not being used. We can all
do this at home and at school. Environment friendly infrastructure
practices include rain gardens, permeable pavements, green roofs,
infiltration planters, trees and tree boxes, and rainwater harvesting
systems.
Agriculture, forestry, and other land use
The greenhouse gases can be reduced by better management
of drainage, fertilisers, manure, and other waste products.
Waste products can also be used to produce energy. Many
countries are acting to prevent deforestation; however, 2.3
million km2 of forests around the world were cut down between
2000 and 2012. Only 6.2 million km2 are left of the 16 million
km2 of forest that once covered the Earth.
What else can
we do to reduce
greenhouse
gases in our
atmosphere?
Building Skills
Using primary and secondary
sources to gather, organise, and
interpret data that suggests the
importance of afforestation to
control the impact of global warming.
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach to manage croplands, livestock, forests and
fisheries to address the challenges of food security and increasing climate change. It focuses on
methods to produce more food which is resistant to pest, droughts, and other vulnerabilities. It also
aims to improve nutrition security, boost incomes, less prone erratic weather patterns, and climate
related risks . Its research is also focused on finding ways to reduce the greenhouse emission,
avoid deforestation, and identify ways to absorb carbon from the atmosphere.
Afforestation can slow the impact of climate change as forests are carbon sinks
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
Climate change: Assessment
A. Choose the correct answer:
I. ________ means a change in the Earth’s normal
weather patterns
a. Ozone layer b. Climate change
c. Greenhouse gases
II. Changes in the Earth’s average temperature
happens because of different ________ in the
atmosphere.
a. Sulphurb. Phosphatec. Methane
III. Settlements on lowlands are threatened by
________ due to climate change.
a. Floodsb. Heatwavesc. Deserts
IV. Most of the greenhouse gases comes in the
atmosphere comes from burning ________.
a. Woodb. Waterc. Fossil fuels
V. Oceans have become ________ due to
absorbing more carbon dioxide.
a. Permafrostb. Ultra-violetc. Acidic
VI.The symbol for ozone is ________.
a. O2b. O3c. O4
VII. ________ stores carbon but at melting, gives
off carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
a. Plantsb. Ozonec. Permafrost
VIII________ bogs are a carbon sink that keep
carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.
a. Oceanb. Peat c. Glasshouse
B 1.Copy the sentences and write the missing words.
a)_______________________ means a change in
the Earth’s normal weather patterns.
b)The Earth’s average climate is getting warmer.
We call this ________ ________.
c)___________ gases radiate heat in all
directions. They keep the atmosphere warm.
d)Carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane
are examples of _____________ gases.
e)Most of the __________ in the atmosphere
comes from agriculture, decaying landfill and
peat bogs.
f)Most of the _______________ in the
atmosphere comes from burning fossil fuels
for power.
2. a)What are the six main human activities that
produce the highest amounts of greenhouse
gases?
b)Write these activities in order from highest to
lowest amounts of greenhouse gases.
c)Suggest four different ways of reducing
greenhouse gases.
d)What are some of the climate changes
caused by the greenhouse effect?
3.Which of the following help to keep carbon
dioxide out of the atmosphere?
a)Healthy peat bogs
b) Farm animals
c) Forests
d)3Deserts e) Permafrost
4. Using the internet, find out the impact of climate
change on polar regions, plants, and animals.
C 1.Why has the flow of freshwater into the oceans
increased?
2.What will happen if the permafrost melts due to
global warming?
3.Write True or False for each sentence. Correct the
sentences that are false.
a)All the world’s glaciers are retreating and
forming glacial lakes.
b)Melting sea ice does not make sea
levels rise.
c) The polar ice caps are shrinking.
4. a)Why is Greenland’s ice sheet melting more
than the ice sheet in Antarctica?
b)What would happen to the world’s seas if all
the ice of Greenland and Antarctica melted?
5. a)Choose an animal and explain what might
happen to it if climate change continues.
b)Choose a plant and explain what might
happen to it if climate change continues.
6. a) Explain three ways in which people could be
harmed by climate change.
b) Describe how climate change negatively affect
the economy of an area.
D 1. a)The melting ice of Antarctica and Greenland
changes the oceans in more than one way.
Describe any changes that you know about.
b)Explain how global warming is affecting these:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
E 1. a)Which layer of the Earth’s atmosphere
contains the ozone layer?
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U N I T 5 C l im a t e c h a n g e
b)How does the ozone layer protect life on
Earth?
c)Name a gas that damages the ozone layer.
d) Describe the health and enviornmental effects
of ozone layer.
2. a)Write a short report about one way in which
climate change could be a particular problem
in Pakistan. Explain the harm it could cause
and say who might be affected.
b)What problems have melting glaciers caused
in Pakistan?
3.Think about any reports of unusual weather that
might be caused by global warming.
a) Describe the weather.
b)Write a sentence to explain how it was
unusual.
4. Suggest three ways to reduce greenhouse gases
in Pakistan.
Overview
Climate change
Global warming
• The temperature of the
Earth is rising over time.
This is called global
warming.
Reasons
• Heat transferred from
oceans
• Increase in volcanic
eruptions
• Amounts of different
gases in the atmosphere
Ozone layer
• Ozone is a gas in the
atmosphere of the Earth.
• Its symbol is O3.
• The ozone layer keeps out
the ultraviolet radiation
from the Sun.
• Due to human activities,
holes have appeared in
the ozone layer and it has
also become thinner.
• Chemicals like
chlorofluorocarbons
damage the ozone layer.
• Ozone is harmful for plants
and humans.
78
Greenhouse effect
• The greenhouse gases in our
atmosphere trap heat and radiate
it back to the surface of the Earth.
This causes the temperature of
the Earth to rise.
Causes
•
•
•
•
Burning fossil fuels
Using cars and other vehicles
Clearing forests
Methane released during the
digestive process of livestock
• Decaying landfill
• Peat bogs
Effects
• Dry regions of the Earth will
become drier and wet regions will
become wetter.
• Tropical cyclones
• Floods
• Bushfires
• Melting of glaciers, land ice, and
sea ice at the poles
Reducing greenhouse gases
•
•
•
•
•
•
Reduce the use of fossil fuels
Use biofuels
Opt for alternate energy solutions
Use recycled materials
Produce energy from waste
Control deforestation
Effects of climate
change
Plants
• Some plants produce
flower buds earlier
because of warmer
temperature. Overnight
frost kills these buds and
affects plant populations.
Animals
• Animals have to migrate
to places with a suitable
climate in order to survive,
grow, and reproduce.
Humans
Higher temperatures and
changing weather patterns
cause:
• Decrease in freshwater
supplies
• Droughts
• Floods
• Crop damage
• Pollution
• Diseases as mosquitoes
and ticks survive longer
• Increase in consumption
of electricity
UNIT
6
Minerals and Power
Resources
Knowledge
•
Name minerals found in Pakistan.
•
Identify industries related to minerals and power in Pakistan.
•
Identify areas of Pakistan that are rich in mineral resources.
•
Name some rare minerals found in Pakistan.
•
Explore the use of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) to generate
power in Pakistan
•
Differentiate between bituminous and lignite coal.
•
Describe the procedures of long-wall and surface mining.
•
Realise the risk factors associated with coal mining
•
Explore alternate sources of energy (solar, wind, and water) to
generate power.
•
Describe the importance of alternative energy sources for the
environment.
Skills
•
Locate areas of Pakistan that are rich in mineral resources on
maps.
•
Categorise the minerals found in Pakistan according to their
use and importance
•
Analyse factors that make gemstone mining difficult in
Pakistan.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Analyse the reasons that hamper the yield of gemstone
mining in Pakistan.
Suggest practical ways of getting high-income revenue from
Pakistan’s gemstones resources.
Investigate and suggest measures for improving the mining
industry.
Suggest measures to ensure the safety and health of the
coal miners in Pakistan.
Draw and label the procedures of long-wall and surface
mining.
analyse coal usage in Pakistan.
Evaluate the usefulness of coal against the risk factors
associated with it.
Write an essay on the importance of alternate sources
of energy.
Explore reasons for the scarcity of electricity and gas
in Pakistan during the recent years
Enhanced use of vocabulary to describe physical,
human, and environmental geography and economy
related to them.
What is a mineral?
Geologists have a ‘five point test’ to decide whether a material is a mineral. It must:
• be made naturally (usually through geological processes, such as volcanic action, heat, or pressure).
• be inorganic (not from a living thing).
• be solid.
• have a chemical formula.
• be made up of particles (atoms and molecules) that are organised in a pattern, usually crystals.
Minerals can be metallic or non-metallic. They are non-renewable. This means that eventually we could use
them all up as they took millions of years to form.
Metal ores
Most metals are found in ores that are made up of minerals. These are mainly taken from the ground by
mining, or sometimes quarrying. The pictures below show some of the most common metal ores.
A close up of the
mineral haematite
(iron ore), showing its
crystal structure
Cinnabar
(mercury)
Zincite (zinc)
Cassiterite
Ilmenite (titanium)
79
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Ore deposits in the world
GILGIT
l
u
Key
z
symbol metallic th l c
s
ngs
ni
i
z
i
J &
cr
i a
c n
i z
tu
m
z me
i mn z
u
a
me a
cr
l mu
ti
lz
i
n
a
P
t
v
s tu mn
im
t
v
c
c
ing
Bou
ndar
g
y
tu
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
a
l me
tu
i s
t
mn
ti
t
t
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
P
LEGEND
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
cr
g
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
G U L F
SIR CREEK
K U T C H
N
72°
D
I
l z
23°
A
22°
24°
22°
24°
BANTVA
AD
AV
cr
AN
JUNAGADH
AR
1000
O F
I
LF
OF
CAM
GU
69°
R
A
B
I
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
z
Y
BA
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
68° E. of GREENWICH.
2000
71°
68°
A
0
m
70°
23°
v
mn
Scale in km
ti
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
u
c
g
c
mn l
Wo
rk
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
a
i
*
l
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
M
a
c
cr
g
i
l
m
n
s
t
ti
tu
u
v
z
v
ore
g u
m
alluminum ti c
copper
s
l
chromium
gold
iron
lead
manganese
nickel
silver
tin
titanium
tungsten
uranium
vanadium
zinc
a
A
g
n
z
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
s
i v
u
rol
Cont
Line of
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
n
F R O
N T I
E R
g
K
g
S
E
21°
A
71°
Krin j
Chitral
Dam mer Nissa
72°
4000
5000
3000
Shah Der
Sh
Maneri
M ulla gori
Gh
Ta
Metals with impurities in nature make up ores. These metal ores are found in the Earth’s crust all over KohatPes haw ar
the world. Did you know that Pakistan has enormous deposits of many different minerals and natural
Jatta
B ahad ur K hel
Kalabagh
resources under the ground? These include metallic and non-metallic minerals, oil, natural gas, and K arak
Padhrar
Daud
M akar wal
Scale 1: 3,000,000
gemstones.
K hel
Is a K hel
Kat
Metallic minerals
Both copper and gold are found in Pakistan. In some places these are
found close together: for example, at Reko Diq mine in Chagai District,
Balochistan. This is one of the world’s largest copper deposits. The F G
A
copper deposits stretch through central and south-east Europe, Turkey,
Iran, and Pakistan, through the Himalayas into Myanmar, Malaysia,
Chagai
a k
Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. There are also Saind
copper
deposits
in
K oh-iChilg azi
S ultan
Daht-e-Kuhn, Nokundi, and Saindak in Chagai district. Excavators dig
the copper ore from open pits. Trucks take it away for the copper to be
extracted.
H
N
A
I
S
T
A
Muslim Bagh
R
A
B
I
A
N
W archa Sakesar
Pezu
It’s a fact!
Spin Ka n
Zindapi r
Qila Abdullah
Quetta
Chamalong
Harnai
Global institutions,
for
Spintangi
example the International
Koh-i-Maran
Monetary
Fund (IMF) and the
and Dilband
Sanni
World Bank, work to ensure a
strong system of international
trade and payments between
developed and underdeveloped
Sukkur
G un ga
countries. By providing loans,
Diji-Ranipu r
expertise, and Kottechnology
from
developed nations to those in
Kudni
need, they attract investment
B ankhri
to boost its economy.
M ult an
P
P
Pakistan also has significant deposits of gold worth billions of dollars.
I R A N
Most of gold deposits are mainly located in the rocks
of Kirana Group,
Chagai District (Saindak, Reko Diq), Makran Area, Siahan Shale, Shardi,
Shontar Nala along the Neelum river, Krinji Formation, Sewakht Formation,
tributaries of the Indus and Chitral rivers, Jijal Ultramafic complex, and
T han o B ula
at different locations of Gilgit-Baltistan. The United States of Astola
America
K han
Island
Pir M an g ho
holds the largest stockpile of gold in the world with over 8,100 tons of Churna Island K ara chi
reserves.
A
N
S
E
SIR C
68°
24°
G anjo Takka r
Inte
a
N agar Parkar
A
68° E. of GREENWICH
80
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Non-metallic minerals
There are many non-metallic minerals. They are all slightly different, depending on how they were formed
and the other materials they are made up of. Many of them are very useful. They are found all over the
world and are mined or quarried and then treated in different ways, such as cutting, grinding, heating,
mixing, shaping, and purifying. Some of the most useful mineral products include salt, lime, cement,
glass, fertilisers, silicon products for computers, and ceramics (including china clay, pottery, and tiles).
GILGIT C
C
K
J &
GILGIT
GILGIT
Chitral
H
E
N
S
E
A
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
Line of Control
A
Shah Deri
W
S
K
Dam mer Nissa r
N
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
mer Nissa r
Dam
Krin j
I
trol
f Con A
Line o
MUZAFFARABAD I
W
N
SRINAGAR
Krin j
Chitral
N
H
*
M ulla gori
Scale 1: 3,000,000
G
F
A
H
A
F
G
H
N
Scale 1: 3,000,000
A
N
T
A
S
T
I
N
A
N
A
Pes haw ar
Jatta
Kohat
G hu nd ai
Tara ko
Daud
K hel
Wo
rk
Lah ore
Muslim Bagh
Spin Ka n
Quetta Qila Abdullah
Quetta
nda
ry
nda
ry
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
Security
is yet to be decidedActual
through a
plebiscite under
the relevant
United remark
boundary
in the
area where
Nations
Security
Council
Resolutions.
Actual
boundary
in the
area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED
FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the final
settlement
of Jammu
& Kashmir
appears, would ultimately
be decided
by the sovereign
authoritiesdispute.
appears, wouldthe
ultimately
be decided
by the sovereign
authorities
sovereign
authorities
concerned
after
r
Zindapi
P
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED
P
concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
Chamalong
Harnai
Bou
Bou
The red dotted
represents
approximately
the line of
control Nations
in
a line
plebiscite
under
the relevant
United
Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession
Council
Resolutions.
yet dotted
to be decided
throughapproximately
a plebiscite the
under
thecontrol
relevant
Theisred
line represents
line of
in United
Nations
Security
Council
Jammu
& Kashmir.
The
state ofResolutions.
Jammu & Kashmir and its accession
Zindapi r
Spin Ka n
ing
ing
Lah ore
Muslim Bagh
Qila Abdullah
Wo
rk
Manhiala
*
S
I
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
Kalabagh
Khewra
l
Padhrar
Katha-Pai
Manhiala
archa Sakesar
M akar wal W Daud
Khewra
K hel
Is a K hel
Pezu
l
Katha-Pai
Sargodha
W archa Sakesar
Pezu
Sargodha
Wo
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
*
Kalabagh
Padhrar
Jatta
A
K arak
hel
ur Kwal
B ahad
M akar
Is a K hel
K arak
JA & J &
rkin
Sherwan MUZAFFARABAD
gB
ou
Kunhar
SRINAGAR
of Control ndary
Maneri
Line
K
Shah Deri
M ulla gori
G hu nd ai
MUZAFFARABAD
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
ko
Pes haw ar
Sherwan
Tara
Kunhar
(DISPUTED
TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
SRINAGAR
Kohat
Maneri
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
B ahad ur K hel
*AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim
*A1974.
J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir
Constitution Act,
M ult an
Chamalong
Harnai
*AJ&K stands for Azad
Jammu
& Kashmir
as defined
in the AJK Interim
in the
AJK
Interim
Constitution
Act,
Constitution Act, 1974.
M ult an
Spintangi
LEGEND
LEGEND
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Headquarters;
Headquarters;
Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Province
. . . . . . PESHAWAR . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary;
... ............
Boundary; International
. . . . . . . . . . International
................
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Province
................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary;
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Working
................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary;
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chilg azi
Sanni
NN
DD
Chilg azi
AA
Koh-i-Maran
Koh-i-Maran
and Dilband
and DilbandSanni
Chagai
K oh-iS ultan
S ultan
II
Chagai
Sainda
K oh-i-k
as defined
1974.
LEGEND
Spintangi
Sainda k
F R O
N T I
E R
Mineral deposits in Pakistan
P
P
II
P
P
GOVERNMENT
OF PAKISTAN
GOVERNMENT
OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS
RESERVED
COPYRIGHTS
RESERVED
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
G un gaG un ga
RESERVED
JUNAGADH
& MANAVADAR
JUNAGADH
& COPYRIGHTS
MANAVADAR
Sukkur
Sukkur
69° 69°
70°
70°
69°
I
Kot Diji-Ranipu
Kot Diji-Ranipu
r r
I R A N
R A
N
23°
Kudni
I
A
N agar Parkar
N agar Parkar
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
BANTVA
23°
21°
JUNAGADH
68° E. of GREENWICH.
22°
22°
R
A
69°
A
R
I
B
I
A
A
B
I
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
S
A71° N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
CA
CA
LF
OF
21°
GU
Y
BA
M
ECA
S
71°
OF
GU
21°
A
21°
72°
A
S
71°
OF
A GU N
E
Y
BA
M
LF
Y
BA
M
LF
70° E. of GREENWICH.
69°
A
69°
A
J U
N A
G A
D H
U N
A G
A
R AA D B
H
21°
68° E. of GREENWICH.
I
JUNAGADH
21°
JUNAGADH
BANTVA
J U
N A
G A
D H
J
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
68° E. of GREENWICH.
D
A
AR
E
A
23°
22°
AD
AV
S
K ara chi
E
24°
I
BANTVA
24°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
International
Boundary
N
A
R
N
S
24°
24°
G anjo Takka r
G anjo Takka r
I
D
DA
A
N
I
AN
T han oKBhan
ula
72°
M
I
A
D
N
A
AV
AN R
A
B
I
O F
24°
M
A
B
I
AD
AV
R
A
N
22°
AN
A
R
U L F
M
T han o B ula
A
G
K U T C H
22°
K han
Pir M an g ho
ChurnaPir
Island
M an g ho K ara chi
Churna Island
K U T C H
O F
22°
24°
Astola Island
71°
23°
K U T C H
68°
68°
B ankhri
Astola Island
O F
G U L F
68°
B ankhri
70°
23°
G U L F
SIR CREEK
SIR CREEK
SIR CREEK
Kudni
23°
JUNAGADH
& MANAVADAR
71°
72°
71°
72°
E
72°
A
72°
Cement
Different types of cement have been made since ancient
times. Modern cement is made mainly from limestone,
clay, and gypsum. Cement is mainly used as a binder
in concrete, which is a basic material for all types of
construction. Its industrial uses include housing, roads,
schools, hospitals, dams ports, as well as for decorative
applications for patios, floors, staircases, driveways, pool
decks, etc. China produces much more cement than
any other country, followed by India. Both countries have
large deposits of gypsum, which is also used in making
fertilisers, plaster, wallboard, and toothpaste. Pakistan
has twenty nine cement industries which play a vital
role in developmental work and economic growth of the
country. Other than local consumption, Pakistan also
exports cement to multiple countries.
It’s a fact!
Pakistan’s mineral production (2020)
Limestone
57,697,651 tonnes
Rock salt
2,613,031 tonnes
Gypsum
1,616,750 tonnes
Clay
3,600,517 tonnes
81
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Potash
Potash is a mixture of materials, including potassium. It is used for
making fertilisers, which help plants to grow. The main potash-producing
countries are Canada and Russia. Fertiliser industries in Pakistan
use potash to make fertilisers and other mixtures to reclaim soil after
over cropping or flooding. It is also used in the ceramics and cleaning
detergent making industries.
Phosphates
Phosphates are minerals containing phosphorus. They are important for
making fertilisers and chemicals used in industries. The main producer
and exporter of phosphates is Morocco. Phosphate deposits are found in
Kakul and Hazara in Pakistan.
It’s a fact!
The Earth has lost a third
of its arable land in past
40 years. This is mainly
due to population growth
and unsustainable
human activities that
have led to increased
soil erosion, pollution,
and climate change.
Salt
Most of the salt we use comes from mines, but salt can also be obtained from sea water. The world’s
main salt producing countries are China, the USA, and India, although the largest salt mine is in Goderich,
Ontario, Canada, and the second largest is at Khewra, Punjab, Pakistan.
You have learned about the Salt Range in Punjab, where one of Pakistan’s main non-metallic minerals are
found. The Khewra Salt Mines are among the world’s oldest salt mines which was discovered in 326 BCE
when Alexander the Great was fighting against Raja Porus in this region. They cover an underground area
of around 110 km2 and have about 6.5 billion tonnes of salt deposits. Other salt mines are to the south
of Islamabad: Warchi, Kalabagh (on the banks of the Indus River), Jatta (near Karak), and Bahadur Khel.
Most of the salt is used in chemical industries, but some is purified for food use.
Gypsum
Gypsum is also mined at Khewra, and in several other parts of Pakistan: Other important non-metallic
minerals are shown in the table below:
Mineral
82
Where it is mined
Uses
Calcite
Punjab
Cement, glass-making, lime production, steel-making
Kaolin
Punjab, Sindh,
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Making china, toothpaste, cosmetics, medicine, soap,
organic pesticides
Potash
Punjab
Fertilisers, electroplating, medicine, cement, fire
extinguishers, processed foods
Phosphates
Salt Range (Punjab), Pab
Range (Balochistan),
Hazara (Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa)
Fertilisers, animal feed, plant foods, many industrial
chemicals
Vermiculite
Kalat, Balochistan
Moulded shapes for fireproofing, brake linings for
vehicles, insulating boards, used instead of soil for
plants, packing material
Sulphur
Balochistan
Making sulphuric acid, textiles, fertilisers, pesticides,
fungicides
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Gemstones
A gemstone is a piece of mineral crystal that can be cut and polished
for making jewellery or other ornaments. Some rocks (such as lapis
lazuli) and organic materials that are not minerals (such as amber or
jet), are also classed as gemstones, because they are used in jewellery.
Gemstones are found all over the world. The world’s main producers of
gemstones are shown in the table below. Other important producers
of well-known gemstones are: Brazil (aquamarine and tourmaline); Sri
Lanka (ruby, topaz, tourmaline, amethyst, garnet, peridot); and Tanzania
(ruby, aquamarine, emerald, opal, peridot, topaz).
It’s a fact!
The world’s main gemstone producing countries
Gemstone
Country
Diamond
Emerald
Sapphire
Ruby
Opal
Russia
Colombia and Pakistan
Madagascar
Myanmar and Pakistan
Australia
It’s a fact!
•Since minerals have an
increased demand and
are a finite resource, its
sustainable extraction
is demanded by climate
activists. This can be
accomplished through
specialisation of
resources via education,
scientific research, and
environment friendly
technology.
•Minerals can be
conserved by reducing
wastage in the process of
mining, recycling of metals
using scrap metals, using
alternative renewable as
substitutes, etc.
Gemstone mining in Pakistan
Did you know that Pakistan is rich in high-quality gemstones? In fact, 30% of the world’s gemstone
deposits are in northern Pakistan and nearby areas of Afghanistan. Pakistan ranks the 4th or 5th country
in the world for the value of its gemstone deposits. These are in the mountains of Balochistan, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, and Gilgit-Baltistan. But the gemstone industry has been very slow to develop, even in the
province that has the largest deposits of gemstones—Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In some areas, particularly,
many gemstone deposits are still to be identified.
Peshawar is Pakistan’s main centre for gemstone
trading. The gemstones are sold mainly to the
jewellery trade in Pakistan and Afghanistan. The
export of gems is now being developed, with
gem bazaars in Quetta, Peshawar, Lahore, and
Islamabad.
On page 80 are some of the main gemstones
mined in Pakistan (and where they are found).
Imagine searching for gemstones in high
mountains with steep cliffs rising to 1200
metres and even higher! When you find
them, it is hard to tell what their quality is.
Mining is very hard work high in the mountains,
where everything has to be carried by horses
or donkeys, or by the miners themselves.
Some gemstone mines can only be reached by
climbing ropes up the cliffs.
Gemstone bracelets on sale
83
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Once you get all the equipment up there, you find that the ground is usually frozen and you have only a
few months of suitable weather—from June or July to September or October. So most gemstone mining in
remote places is run by small groups of miners using very simple methods. Large mining companies have
not developed the mines in high places because it is too difficult to get modern mining equipment up
there. Some modern equipment would not work up there because of the low air pressure.
The miners use simple equipment: hammers and chisels, gas or gas-powered drills, and sometimes
illegal explosives, which can damage the gemstones. The air in the mines soon becomes polluted with
gas and dust; when it becomes too bad, the miners have to stop work. They wait until the air has cleared
naturally overnight, and then they continue. These miners have no modern safety equipment such as
breathing equipment, air filters, or ventilation—not even face masks. Nearly all the miners have lung
problems and many suffer from carbon monoxide poisoning. But the main causes of death and injury are
falls from cliffs, being buried when mines collapse, and being hit by falling rocks.
So—do the miners who survive become rich? There are reports of some gemstone miners making a good
living, but most of the precious stones are not properly mined and are damaged. Most miners sell their
gems in their raw form—very cheaply. However, there are new projects to teach people in these mountain
regions how to cut and polish gemstones and to set up proper trading centres where miners can sell
their gems for better prices. On lower land, especially near the Karakoram Highway, mining is not so
difficult, and large mining companies have opened mines and built roads to reach some of the mines in
higher places.
Rare minerals in Pakistan
84
Emerald (Balochistan,
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Gilgit-Baltistan)
Sapphire (Balochistan,
Gilgit-Baltistan)
Ruby (Balochistan,
Gilgit-Baltistan)
Topaz (Balochistan,
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Gilgit-Baltistan)
Tourmaline
(Balochistan, GilgitBaltistan)
Garnet (Balochistan,
Gilgit-Baltistan)
Amethyst (Balochistan,
Gilgit-Baltistan)
Quartz (Balochistan,
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Gilgit-Baltistan)
Agate (Balochistan,
Gilgit-Baltistan)
Turquoise (Balochistan)
Lapis lazuli (Balochistan)
Corundum (Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa)
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Economic benefits of mining
Mining stimulates economic growth and provides the resources
and raw-material that can be exported and used to make our cars,
roads, bridges, railways, ships, planes, gadgets like computers
and phones, solar panels, medical technology, weapons for
defense, fertiliser industry, etc. They contribute to national income
as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product
(GNP).
GDP and GNP are health indicators of a country’s economy.
They measure the value of a country’s economic activity. The
main difference between them is that the GDP measures
productivity within a country’s geographical boundaries while
GNP records economic activity by that country’s citizens
and businesses, even outside their borders. Find out how
economists calculate the GDP and GNP of a country.
Since finished goods produce more
revenue than raw materials, countries
with economies
dependent on
manufactured goods
are less dependent on
other countries.
Building Skills
sing the Internet, find out why do
U
mineral rich countries like Pakistan are
not able to mine more minerals to benefit
their economy.
With increased economic interdependence due to
globalisation, countries that do not have means to mine but
are rich in deposits of minerals are still an asset. They can
attract investment for exploration and exploitation from other
developed countries. This way these countries can create jobs and invest in human development through
building research, developing rural areas, and modernise their infrastructure.
Electronic gadget factory
Cement factory
Car factory
85
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Impact of mining on the environment
Human life has become increasingly dependent on mining and its products. However, it is the direct cause
of many problems that humans face today.
Mining activities, include drilling, excavation, operation, maintenance and expansion. Sadly, most of the
miners abandon the sites of exploration without rehabilitation (afforestation and water treatment) that can
impact social and environmental systems in a range of ways:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Large scale deforestation and erosion.
Contamination of land, streams and wetlands.
Changing biodiversity of wildlife and fishery habitats.
Land, air, and water pollution.
Disturbing local climates due to global warming.
Diseases like cancer, hepatitis, tuberculosis, etc.
Loss of fertile land.
Increased surface runoff during rainfall.
Blasting for mining
Deforested land post for mining
Building Skills
sing the Internet, make a list
U
of environment friendly ways
of mining minerals.
Water pollution from a copper mine after rain
Sustainable mining
Through sustainable mining, we can extract essential resources
while limiting environmental damage and improving social and
economic outcomes. Such methods include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Modern methods of mining with little greenhouse emissions.
Treatment plants for disposal of waste.
Protective gear for miners.
Rehabilitation of land after mining.
Strict implementation of environmental laws to avoid air and
water pollution.
Using the 3Rs by reducing wastage, reusing resources for
production, and recycling of metals using scrap metals.
Use of alternative renewable substitutes.
Use of mineral resources in a sustainable manner.
Some minerals are only present
in very tiny quantities. Many
are used in today’s electronics
devices, such as smartphones,
and, increasingly, in renewable
energy products such as solar
panels and the
batteries for electric
vehicles (EVs). This
scarcity in minerals
can lead to increased
price and shortage of
products.
Power resources
Our social and economic well being revolves around the activities powered from energy. We use electricity
and other sources of energy for lighting, heating, cooling, and refrigeration and for operating appliances,
computers, electronics, machinery, and public transportation systems.
86
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
What is a fossil fuel?
Fossil fuel is a non-renewable resource formed naturally over millions
of years from dead trees and other plants. A fossil fuel power station
generates thermal energy by burning a fossil fuel (coal, crude oil, or
natural gas). The heat energy (steam) from this combustion is then turned
into mechanical energy to move electricity generators called turbines.
Since the invention of the first coal-fired steam engines in the 18th
century, burning of the fossil fuels has steadily increased for electricity
generation and other industrial processes.
It’s a fact!
Globally, humans are now
burning over 4,000 times
fossil fuels than we did during
the 1776.
Coal
Coal is a fossil fuel. It contains mainly carbon; when dead plant material is converted into coal, this is
called carbonisation. Pakistan produced over 7 million tonnes of coal. It has 175 billion tonnes of coal
reserves—according to the Geological Survey of Pakistan.
Major coal deposts
GILGIT
J &
F R O
N T I
E R
K
Line of
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR
rol
Cont
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
A
*
Wo
rk
ing
Bou
ndar
y
Line of Control
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
Working
Boundary
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
P
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
P
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
Key
Anthracite and
bituminous coal
Lignite
Scale in km
2000
0
1000
3000
LEGEND
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4000
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
5000
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
70°
71°
72°
23°
23°
G U L F
SIR CREEK
O F
K U T C H
68°
I
N
D
I
A
22°
24°
AN
BANTVA
AD
AV
JUNAGADH
AR
It’s a fact!
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
Y
BA
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
LF
OF
CAM
GU
A
68° E. of GREENWICH.
Country
22°
M
24°
R
A
69°
B
I
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
S
71°
E
21°
A
72°
TOP COAL PRODUCING COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD (2019)
Coal production
Known coal reserves
China
3.7 billion tonnes
142 billion metric tonnes
India
783 million tonnes
106 billion metric tonnes
Indonesia
616 million tonnes
37 billion metric tonnes
Australia
550 million tonnes
149 billion metric tonnes
USA
640 million tonnes
249 billion metric tonnes
Russia
430 million tonnes
162 billion metric tonnes
87
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
How coal is formed
Trees (even whole forests)
and other plants died
millions of years ago.
The plant materials heated
up as they sank deeper.
More and more soil piled
on top of the materials and
compressed them.
Peat can be burned as a fuel.
When dried it is very useful for
absorbing oil spills on land and
water. It is also mixed with soil
to help it retain water.
Lignite (brown coal) is the lowest grade of coal. It is used as
fuel for generating electricity.
Mud and water covered the
plant materials. This trapped
carbon from the plant
material in great peat bogs.
The high pressure and high
temperature converted some
peat bogs into lignite.
The plant materials were
covered and buried deeply
under sediment.
Sub-bituminous coal is used
mainly as fuel for heating
water to produce steam for
generating electricity. It is also
used in the chemical industry.
Bituminous coal is dense and
usually black, but sometimes
dark brown. It is used mainly
as fuel for heating water to produce steam for generating electricity. It is also used to produce
heat and power for factories and
for making coke, which is used
as a fuel for heating.
Anthracite is a hard, shiny,
black coal that is used mainly
for heating.
Graphite is difficult to light and
so it is not used as fuel. It is
mainly used for making pencils.
Powdered graphite is used as a
lubricant.
The pressure and heat
changed some lignite
deposits into sub-bituminous
coal, then some of this into
bituminous coal, and then
some of this into anthracite.
Pressure and heat changed a
few anthracite deposits into
graphite.
Coal mining in Pakistan
Most of the world’s electricity is produced by coal powered generators.
Most governments agree that this should be reduced because of
the greenhouse gases it produces. Coal provides less than 1% of
Pakistan’s electricity.
Most of Pakistan’s coal (around 98%) is in Sindh, mainly in the Thar
coalfield. There are much smaller coalfields in Punjab and Balochistan,
and small quantity/production occur in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Coal has
been mined here since the 1880s.
88
Building Skills
Make 3D models to explain
the procedures of long-wall and
surface mining.
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
You might think that a country with large reserves of coal has many people working in the coal mining
industry. But only 0.2% of Pakistan’s workforce was employed in all types of mining and quarrying in
2014. This is because the mining industry has not yet developed. Pakistan has mainly low-grade coal,
such as lignite and some sub-bituminous coal, but some reserves of high-grade bituminous coal are being
mined.
Deep mining
Pakistan’s coal is mainly from deep mining. There are
two types of deep mining:
Longwall
Most of Pakistan’s coal is cut using longwall mining.
This enables more than 75% of the coal to be mined.
Hydraulically-powered supports hold up the roof while a
machine cuts coal from the coalface. When all the coal
in the area has been mined, the supports are taken out
section by section, and the roof is allowed to collapse.
The coalface can be 100–350 metres long.
A coal miner in Punjab
However, few of Pakistan’s coal mines have such
modern equipment; miners cut the coal using pickaxes,
and place wooden pit props to support the roof.
Modern machinery is much safer.
Room and pillar
In room and pillar mining, miners cut ‘rooms’ into the
coal seam and leave behind ‘pillars’ of coal to support
the roof of the mine. The pillars of coal use up to 40%
of the total coal in the seam, but sometimes these
pillars can be taken out later. Room and pillar mining is
used in some of the mines at Lakhra, Sindh.
Modern mining equipment used in longwall mining
Surface mining
Surface mining (also called open pit or open cast) is used when the coal is near the surface. In a surface
mine, more of the coal deposit can be mined than in
an underground mine. These mines can cover an area
of many square kilometres and use very large pieces
of equipment, including power shovels, large trucks,
bucket-wheel excavators, and conveyors.
First, explosives are used to break up the soil and rock
covering the coal. Next, the soil and rock are taken
away. Machines or hand tools are used to drill and
break up the coal. It is mined in strips and loaded on
to trucks or conveyors ready for transport.
After the coal seam has been mined, the land should
be restored so that it can be used for other purposes.
Opencast mining destroys landscapes, forest, and
wildlife habitat at the mining site
89
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Safety
A report by Industrial Global Union in 2016 says that
workers in most mines in Pakistan have poor safety and
working conditions. Most mines do not have medical
help nearby, so when an accident happens, help is slow
GILGIT
to arrive. The union recommends that there should
be more inspectors to check mines and to force mine
K
ntrol
operators
toLineimprove
safety. At the new Thar coalfield
of Co
MUZAFFARABAD
there areSRINAGAR
plans for medical centres and good living
conditions and education for workers and their families.
Building Skills
J &
F R O
N T I
E R
sing the Internet, find out what kind of
U
problems do miners face from working in mines.
Suggest ways to ensure the well being of miners
in Pakistan.
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
A
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
*
Wo
rk
ing
Bou
nda
ry
Advantages of using fossil fuels
Disadvantages of using fossil fuels
Cheap source of energy
Limited reserves
Efficient as it produces more energy than renewable sources
Extraction leads to soil erosion
Easy to transport
Increases the rate of global warming
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of
control in Jammu (plastics,
& Kashmir. The State
of Jammu
&
Useful by-products
fuel,
etc.)
Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through
Few deposits lead
to imports and a dependent economy
GILGIT
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
K
trol
f Con
LinCe o
H
MUZAFFARABAD
SRINAGAR I N
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
J &
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
SIR CREEK
68°
Key
O F
A
K U T C H
I
N
D
I
A
22°
coal, oil, and gas
22°
Peshawar
N
M
24°
AN
24°
21°
AR
oil and gas
Y
BA
J U
N A
G A
D H
LF
OF
A
R
A
B
hydroelectric
I
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
69°
S
71°
E
H
AM
C
21°
GU
68° E. of GREENWICH.
A
JUNAGADH
AD
AV
BANTVA
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
A
23°
G U L F
G
F
A
I
S
T
N
Wo
rol
rLi
K
kinne of Cont
gB
oun
dar
MUZAFFARABAD
y
SRINAGAR
Wo
rk
JAMMU
AND
KASHMIR
(Disputed
Territory)
Islamabad
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
*
Northern
ing
Bou
nda
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED
The
red
dotted
represents
approximately the line of
appears,
would
ultimately be line
decided by
the sovereign authorities
concerned after the final settlement of the Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu &
*AJ&K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim
Kashmir
its accession is yet to be decided through
Constitution Act,and
1974.
a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security
Council Resolutions.
Central
Quetta
Lahore
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined
in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974.
N
East Central
Balochistan
and Upper
Sindh
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
N
East Central
Balochistan
and Upper
Sindh
A
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P
West Central
Balochistan
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
LEGEND
69°
23°
I
R
LEGEND
Actual boundary
in the area where remark FRONTIER
ISLAMABAD
UNDEFINED appears,
would ultimately be decided by
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute.
A
West Central
Balochistan
I
Central
P
Quetta
B
I
A
N
S
E
22°
24°
BANTVA
JUNAGADH
AR
A
K U T C H
AD
AV
R
22°
O F
AN
A
Churna Island
A
68° E. of GREENWICH.
Y
BA
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
A
72°
23°
68°
24°
71°
M
Karachi
Astola
Island
Lower
Sindh
Karachi
70°
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I Working
N D I .A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary;
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G U L F
SIR CREEK
Lower
Sindh
ry
The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in
Jammu & Kashmir. The state of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession
is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United
Nations Security Council Resolutions.
Lahore
Northern
72°
A
S
J &
72°
23°
(DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED
IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS)
A
71°
E
*
Peshawar
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
Scale 1:RESERVED
3,000,000
COPYRIGHTS
70°
W
A
INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
GILGIT
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
69°
N
U N
D E
F I
N E
D
LEGEND
Capital of Country . . . . . . . . . . . ISLAMABAD
Headquarters; Province . . . . . . . . PESHAWAR
Boundary; International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary; Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F R O
N T I
E R
Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER
appears,regions
would ultimately beof
decided
by
MainUNDEFINED
energy
Pakistan
the sovereign authorities concerned after the final
R
A
AM
GOVERNMENT OF F CPAKISTAN
O
21°
COPYRIGHTSGURESERVED
LF
JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR
B
69°
I
A
N
70° E. of GREENWICH.
69°
S
70°
E
A
71°
71°
72°
72°
23°
23°
G U L F
SIR CREEK
O F
K U T C H
68°
I
N
D
I
A
22°
22°
M
24°
AN
BANTVA
AD
AV
JUNAGADH
AR
90
24°
International Boundary
along Eastern Bank
of the Creek
J U
N A
G A
D H
21°
A
R
A
B
I
A
N
Y
BA
M
LF
OF
GU
S
E
A
CA
21°
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
It’s a fact!
Reported mining accidents in Pakistan in January–March 2016
Date
8/1/16
19/1/16
30/1/16
19/2/16
12/3/16
Place
Shahrig, near Quetta, Balochistan
Chamalang, Balochistan
Sor-range, Quetta, Balochistan
Duki, Balochistan
Orakzai, Balochistan
Details
2 workers seriously injured
2 workers killed
3 workers killed
3 miners killed by poisonous gas
10 workers killed
These figures were from IndustriALL Global Union, which collected information from news reports that showed from 2010
to May 2019 at least 414 coal miners were killed in about 93 accidents and that at least 104 mineworkers died in 2018.
Crude Oil
Crude oil is a viscous, inflammable, liquid fossil fuel with many hydrocarbons. It is the most valuable and
wanted fuel across the world since treated crude oil can be used as gasoline (petrol) for cars, diesel fuel
for diesel engines used in trucks, trains and ships, kerosene fuel for jets and as lubricants, and for the
manufacturing of plastics. Mostly it is extracted by drilling down through rocks on land or offshore on the
continental shelf.
Oil is considered a highly flexible
fuel that can accommodate
increase and decrease in its
demand. It is easy to store and
can be transported by pipelines.
According to NASDAQ, the top
five oil-producing countries are
the U.S.A., Saudi Arabia, Russia,
Canada, and China. These
producers provide 54% of the total
global output. Pakistan has very
little reserves of crude oil and is
dependent on imports to meet
its transportation, industrial, and
power needs.
Crude oil drilling pump
It’s a fact!
•
Crude oil is measured in barrels, which is equal to 42 US gallons or 159 liters
•
Major reserves of crude oil are in the Middle East, the Americas, and Russia.
•
Crude oil is also used to create medicine, recreational sports items, and cosmetics.
•People use approximately 100 million barrels of liquid fuels and oil per day, and this adds up to more than 36 billion
barrels of oil yearly.
•1 litre of oil can contaminate 1 million litres of water by spreading over its surface in a thin layer that stops oxygen
getting to the plants and animals that live in the water.
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U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Natural Gas
Natural gas is widely used for cooking and for
heating homes. It is also used as a fuel for
heating, generating electricity, and as a raw
material (feedstock) to produce chemicals,
fertiliser, etc. It consists mostly of methane and
is found near oil deposits below Earth’s surface.
Natural gas can be pumped out through the
same wells used for extracting crude oil.
According to IEA data, it releases 45% to 55%
lower greenhouse gases than coal when used
to generate electricity. It is easy to transport
on land through pipelines or on water through
A natural gas power plant
ship. Large networks of pipelines quickly deliver
natural gas on land to major processing facilities
and end consumers. The Sui Gas Field in Pakistan is considered to be
the largest natural gas field in the country with 1.6 trillion cubic feet
Building Skills
reserve estimates as of 2017.
To meet the energy deficit, Pakistan also imports Liquefied natural
gas (LNG), which is a natural gas that has been cooled down to
liquid for safe transport. It is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and noncorrosive and takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in
the gaseous state. When the shipment of LNG reaches its destination
at the receiving terminal, it is re-heated and converted back to a gas
via a process known as regasification
Coventional
Unconventional
Where does
the generator’s
energy come
from?
Natural Gas rig
Gas reservoir (sandstone)
Seal
Gas source rock
(Shale, coalbed methane)
Coventional and unconventional exploration of natural gas
92
Discuss and debate the impact
of Pakistan’s dependence on
energy from fossil fuels on its
economy.
Fuels—oil, gas or coal—are
stores of energy. When
they are burned they heat
the water. As
they burn they
release carbon
dioxide into the
atmosphere.
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Alternative energy resources
A power station is where electricity is made. Electricity is electrical energy. As you will know from science
lessons, we can’t make energy: we can change one form of energy into another.
You will also know that everything is made of microscopic
particles called atoms. Each atom has even smaller particles
called protons and electrons, which have an electrical charge that
makes them move around the centre of the atom (the nucleus).
Electrons have a negative charge; protons have a positive charge.
When electrons flow from atom to atom they become an electric
current – a flow of electrons. They need a source of energy to
make them flow.
A generator uses kinetic (movement) energy to start this flow of
electrons. It does this by moving a magnet past a coil of wire.
The magnetic force pushes electrons through the wires of the
coil, like when a pump pushes water through a pipe.
Biomass energy
Wave energy
Hydel energy
Heat is a type of energy—
so what energy is
converted into heat?
In thermal power stations heat is
used to boil water to produce highpressure steam. The steam
drives a turbine connected
to the generator.
Wind energy
Building Skills
Suggest ideas to reduce the
dependency on fossil fuels
and explore howa Pakistan can
benefit from using alternate
sources of power.
Tidal energy
Geothermal energy
Solar energy
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U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Biomass energy
Biomass energy comes from living or once-living organisms, such
as plants, for example, wood, corn, soy or even food or animal
waste. As with coal, oil and gas, we can burn these to create heat
for producing electricity.
It’s a fact!
•
According to International
Energy Agency (IEA) global
carbon emissions in 2021
from energy combustion and
industrial processes reached
36.3 gigatonnes (Gt), its highest
ever annual level.
•
According to BBC, China had
the biggest carbon footprint
in 2021, followed by USA,
European Union, Japan, and
Russia.
Nuclear power stations
Nuclear power stations use nuclear fission to heat water that
produces steam to spin turbines for generating electricity. Nuclear
fission is when atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms. This
releases energy. Most nuclear power stations use rods of uranium
to fuel nuclear fission because its atoms split more easily that
those of other materials. This is not a fossil fuel, so it doesn’t
produce greenhouse gases. But nuclear power stations produce
waste that is radioactive.
Pakistan uses nuclear power stations to help to provide energy for the country’s needs, and has uranium
deposits in several places – mainly in the central and southern parts.
Renewable energy sources
Unlike thermal power, renewable energy doesn’t use up materials to produce electricity. It includes hydroelectric power, tidal power, wind power and solar power.
Hydro-electric power
At one time 45% of Pakistan’s electricity came from hydro power, but by 1991 this was down to 28
percent, although we have more than 80 hydro power stations. Together they can produce around 10,000
megawatts of electricity by converting the energy from the movement of water into electrical energy.
However, many more hydro-power stations have been built, more are being built and others are planned
with the help of ally countries and institutions, like the World Bank and the IMF. Of the top 20 countries
that installed new hydro capacity in 2018, Pakistan came third, just behind China, then Brazil.
Hydro power doesn’t
use fossil fuels, so
it doesn’t release
greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere. Water
flows into a turbine and
pushes against the
blades. This makes the
turbine spin a generator
to produce electricity.
Most hydro power comes
from dams across rivers,
for example: Tarbela
Dam and Warsak Dam
in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa;
Mangla Dam in Azad
Kashmir; and Chasma
Dam in Punjab.
94
Transmission lines
Dam
Powerhouse
Reservoir
Transformer
Generator
Penstock
Intake
Turbine
Control of gate
How a hydro- electric power plant works.
Outflow
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Not all Pakistan’s hydro plants have dams or
barrages across rivers: for example, the micro
hydro power plants at Sabri waterfall, Chitral,
Jabban and Chitral in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and
in many places in the Neelum valley in Azad
Kashmir. These use naturally falling water.
There are some very small hydro plants that
local people have developed from waterfalls so
that they need not cut down so many trees for
wood, which is their main fuel for cooking and
heat. These small power plants have made great
changes to people’s lives: for example, they
have electric lights, so no longer need lamps
or candles, they can use mobile phones and the
internet, freezers for storing food and medicines,
and many more benefits.
Hydroelectric power is the most popular form of renewable energy due to its multi-purpose function
Tidal power
The power of moving water can be harnessed from tides in the sea.
Pakistan has not yet developed any tidal power, but some sites are
being explored off the coast of Sindh and Balochistan.
Wind power
Climate consciousness has
pushed governments and
organisations to lower their
carbon footprint by reducing the
waste released in
the environment
from energy
generation. This
is called energy
conservation.
Wind power plants use wind turbines to generate electricity. Without
wind they stop generating electricity, so they need to be in places
that are likely to be windy, for example, near coasts. Pakistan has
wind power plants at Jhimper and Gharo in the Thatta district of
Sindh, and is developing more in the coastal areas of Sindh and Balochistan.
Tidal power
Wind power
Solar power
Energy from sunlight is used to produce electricity. Solar power plants have panels made up of PV
(photovoltaic) cells. These cells take in energy from sunlight. This energy starts electrical charges. No
generator is used.
95
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Solar cells work whenever there is
sunlight, even when the sky is cloudy –
although they produce more electricity
in sunny weather. Pakistan has plenty of
sunlight – around eight and a half hours
per day, and there are a few cloudy days
even in the wettest regions. The country’s
first commercial solar power plant was
Aerial view of sunport in Delfzijl, Groningen. It is the largest park
completed in 2015, and by 2017 there
with solar cells in The Netherlands.
were six, with four more due to open in
2022. Together they can generate 430 megawatts
of electricity. There are some smaller, private solar
Building Skills
power plants that provide power for rural villages –
and some homes have their own solar panels.
Geothermal energy
Discuss and debate whether solar energy is the
resource of future.
Geothermal energy is heat that comes from the below the surface of the Earth. The deeper you dig into
the Earth, the higher temperature. That’s because the inside of the Earth is very hot. This energy can be
used for heating buildings such as homes:
•
•
•
•
For a house, flexible pipes run though a trench about 100 metres long and 1.5 metres deep (or down
a borehole about 100 metres deep).
Water flows through the loops of pipe.
In cold weather the water heats up as it
runs through the underground pipe.
The water is pumped up into pipes in
the house and transfers heat into it.
The water cools down after its heat
is transferred to the house. Then it is
pumped back underground where it is
heated again.
Geothermal energy can be used instead
of fuel in power stations, but this is only
useful in areas that have tectonic activity
such as volcanoes or where tectonic plates
collide.
Hellisheidi (Iceland) geothermal powerplant
Pakistan has no geothermal power plants,
but there are places where these could
be developed, for example, where the Indian Plate meets the Eurasian Plate. Parts of Pakistan have
geothermal energy in hot springs: for example at Garam Chasma in Chitral, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
Advantages of using renewable energy
Disadvantages of using renewable energy
Can be set up in remote areas
Expensive set-up and maintenance
Independent economy
Loss of land that can be farmed
Less greenhouse emissions
Unreliable (dependent on tides, absence of clouds, speed of
wind)
Inexhaustible resource
Disturbs ecosystems
96
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Economic dependence on energy
Historically electricity has been an enabler for human development. From industrial growth, improved
social welfare, and healthcare, the importance and reliance on electricity has only been increasing
everyday.
We can divide the usage of energy into four sectors:
•
•
•
•
Residential
Commercial
Transportation
Industrial
We require energy for all our daily life functions, for example,
using electrical appliances, communication, heating and
cooling our homes and offices, etc. All sectors of agriculture
and economy are dependent on energy supply, for example,
exploration of raw material, extraction, manufacturing, marketing,
sales, and modernisation through research and development.
Export of manufactured or specialised goods boost economic
growth by generating greater revenue.
Countries with shortage of energy supply face load shedding
and rely on fuel imports to sustain their economic activity.
Manufacturing and business transactions are delayed. It makes
operating business challenging and losses in revenue. An energy
crisis directly influences all the sectors of economy such as
agriculture, industries, moving away of businesses that leads to
unemployment, poverty, lower GDP and higher inflation.
Electricity is a crucial to construction work. for
equipment like excavators, bulldozers etc.
Assembling at a car factory
Worker assembling production at a line
conveyor
Much of the hospital machinery, labs, and
surgical tools depend on electrical power
Building Skills
Using Google Spreadsheets, collect and present data on the most viable alternate energy resource (wind,
water, solar, nuclear, etc.)
97
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Minerals and Power Resources: Assessment
A. Choose the correct answer:
I. Most of Pakistan’s coal is cut using __________
mining.
a. Surfaceb. Long-wallc. Room and pillar
II. A fossil fuel power station generates __________
energy.
a. Thermalb. Kineticc. Carbon
III. Most nuclear power stations use __________ rods
to fuel nuclear fission.
a. Copperb. Rhodiumc. Uranium
IV. __________ energy comes from living or once-living
organism waste.
a. Nuclearb. Coalc. Biomass
V. __________ is extracted by drilling down through
rocks on land or offshore on the continental shelf.
a. Coalb. Crude oilc. Natural gas
VI.__________ can help in rehabilitation of land after
mining.
a. Afforestation b. Flattening of land
c. Farming
VII.Global institutions such as __________ ensure
a strong system of trade and payments between
countries.
a. UNOb. IMFc. UNESCO
VIII. __________ is Pakistan’s main center for
gemstone mining.
a. Gilgitb. Quettac. Peshawar
B 1.Copy the table below and write the names of the
minerals.
98
Mineral Type
Where it is
found
What it is used
for
a)
Metallic
Balochistan
Jewellery
b)
Non-metallic Khewra,
Punjab
Plaster, cement,
toothpaste
c)
Non-metallic Khewra,
Punjab
Chemical
industries, food
d)
Non-metallic Punjab,
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa,
Sindh
China clay,
Toothpaste,
Cosmetics,
Medicine,
Soap, Organic
pesticides
e)
Non-metallic Balochistan
Sulphuric
acid, Textiles,
Fertilisers,
Pesticides,
Fungicides
f)
Gemstone
A blue/green
gem used in
jewellery
Balochistan
g)
Gemstone
Balochistan, A deep green
Gilgit-Baltistan gem used in
jewellery
2. a) L ist the countries that have important gold
mines.
b) Name two places where gold can be found in
Pakistan.
3. a) List the countries that have important copper
mines.
b) Name two places where copper can be found in
Pakistan.
4. Which metals are usually found together?
C 1. a) W
hich are the main regions of Pakistan for metal
ores?
b) Some of the metals in these regions are only
just being extracted. Why do you think this is?
2. a) Use your Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan or one
of the maps in this book to help you to draw a
map of Pakistan.
b) Mark the borders of the provinces.
c) Mark the capital city of each province.
d) Use symbols to mark the provinces where
different minerals and gemstones are found.
e) Draw a key for your map.
D 1.What problems do you think are faced by mining
companies that extract metals in:
a) Chagai and Khuzdar in Balochistan?
b) Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa?
2.What problems do gemstone miners face in the
mountains of northern Pakistan:
a) in finding, mining, and selling the gemstones?
b) for their health?
3. What could be done to improve
a) the health of these gemstone miners?
b) their income?
4. a) Give two reasons why Pakistan’s gemstone
miners get very low prices for their gems.
b) The mountains of Pakistan are rich in gemstones
but few large mining companies have opened
mines there. Explain this.
5. a) Discuss with a partner whether it would be good
for the local people if large mining companies
started mining gemstones high in the mountains.
b) Write your answer, giving reasons.
E 1. Using the Internet, find out what minerals are used
as raw materials in the following industries:
a) Cement
b) Fertiliser
c) Chemicals
d) Plastic
e) Detergents
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
2. What steps can be taken by the following to reduce
the harmful effects of mining:
a) Governments
b) Individuals
F 1.Copy the table below and write the names of the
minerals.
Mineral Type
Where it is
found
What it is used
for
a)
Fossil fuel
All provinces
of Pakistan
but 98% in
Sindh
Heating,
Generating
electricity
b)
Fossil fuel
Tiny holes
in rock
underground,
all provinces
Heating,
Cooking,
Generating
electricity
c)
Fossil fuel
Underground
reservoirs,
first found
at Sui,
Balochistan,
then Toot,
Punjab;
mainly in
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
Vehicle fuel,
Heating,
Cooking,
Generating
electricity
2. Copy and complete the flowchart to explain how
electricity is produced using coal.
Coal is a store of energy.
Coal is burned in a furnace.
The coal’s energy is
converted to ______________
Heat energy is transferred from
the burning coal to ___________
under pressure to form _______
The generator uses ___________
energy to start a flow of ____
Movement energy turns
_______________
G
In recent years, Pakistan has had a shortage of
electricity.
a)Find out about the amount of electricity that is
produced by all Pakistan’s power sources at the
present time.
b)Find out how this has changed in the last five
years.
2. a)List any changes that you think have made
people use more electricity.
b)Use what you have learned to explain why
Pakistan has a shortage of electricity.
H 1. a)Make notes about how they are used for
producing electricity. This should include the
materials used, any waste products and how
these affect the environment.
b)Use your notes to help you to write an essay
about why renewable energy sources are
important for the environment.
I 1. a) What is a fossil fuel?
b) Why are gas, oil, and coal deposits often found
close together?
c) N
ame and describe the types of coal mining.
2. a) Are Pakistan’s coal, gas, and oil industries
developed? Explain your answer.
b) Explain why Pakistan’s coal mining production is
much lower than that of countries that have less
coal.
3. a) What are the main differences between coal
mining in Pakistan and in Germany?
b) Explain why there are such differences.
4. a) Why are many European countries including
Germany closing their coal mines?
b) Why do you think Pakistan, like China, is
developing a large new coal mine at a time when
many countries are closing their coal mines?
c) D
escribe the ways in which the health and safety
of coal miners in Germany are protected.
J 1. a.Compare the economic advantages of using
fossil fuels and renewable and nuclear energy.
b)What are the disadvantages of using renewable
and nuclear energy on the environment?
2. Explain how does load shedding of electricity affect
the economic growth of a country?
The ________ under pressure
produces ______ energy.
99
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Overview
Minerals
Non-metallic minerals
found in the world
Metallic minerals
found in Pakistan
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Salt
Gypsum
Calcite
Kaolin
Potash
Phosphates
Vermiculite
Sulphur
Environmental impact
of mining
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Deforestation
Erosion
Water contamination
Loss of biodiversity
Pollution
Global warming
Diseases
Loss of fertile land
Gold
Iron ore
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Chromite
Manganese
Bauxite
Ilmenite
Magnesium
Sustainable mining
•
•
•
•
•
Research and development
Using eco-friendly methods
Eco-friendly waste disposal
Protective gear for miners
Rehabilitation of land after
mining
• Strict implementation of
environmental laws
• Recycling of metals
Gemstone mining
• Most gemstone deposits are found in Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Gilgit-Baltistan.
• Access to gemstone deposits is difficult due to their locations at high altitudes and lack of
modern mining techniques and equipment.
• Gems are mainly exported to China, Europe, USA, Bahrain, Thailand, and Europe.
100
U N I T 6 M in e r a l s a n d P o w e r R e s o ur c e s
Overview
Power resources
Alternative engergy
Fossil fuels
Renewable engergy
Biomass energy
Coal
Oil
• Comes from burning
living or once-living
organisms, such as
plants, wood, food or
animal waste
• There are two types of coal
mining:
• The first oilfield in Pakistan was found
in Sui, Balochistan.
• Pakistan’s oil production increased
to 75,575 barrels per day (bpd) in
2021.
Nuclear power
• Yses nuclear fission
to heat water that
produces steam to
spin turbines for
generating electricity
• Most nuclear power
stations use rods
of uranium to fuel
nuclear fission
• Produce radioactive
waste
Deep mining
• Longwall mining
• Room and pillar mining
Surface mining
• Most coalfields in Pakistan are
found in Thar, Sindh. Smaller
coalfields have been mined in
parts of Balochistan, Punjab,
and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
• Pakistan has greater coal
reserves than many other
countries in the world but it
does not produce enough coal
because the mining industry is
not yet developed.
• A comparison between coal
mining in Germany and
Pakistan shows lack of safety
precautions, health hazards,
and poor working conditions for
miners in Pakistan.
• European countries like France
and the United Kingdom have
closed down their coal mines
and switched to renewable
energy sources such as solar
energy.
Gas
• The main natural gas deposits
of Pakistan are found in Sui,
Balochistan.
• Pakistan produces 1,345,129 million
cubic feet of natural gas per year.
Hydel power
• The power of moving water can be harnessed
from water falling off a steep slope of a
mountain and from tides in the sea.
Wind power
• Wind power plants use wind turbines to
generate electricity
• The power plants are set up near coasts
Solar power
• Energy from sunlight is used to produce
electricity.
• Solar power plants have panels made up of
PV (photovoltaic) cells
Geothermal energy
• Uses heat from the below the surface of the
Earth to generate electricity
101
Glossary
Glossary
Aeration
Alluvial
Bio-fertilisers
Biogas
Carbonisation
Causeway
Channel
Climate change
Compost
Condense
Continental shelf
Conurbations
Cover crops
Crop rotation
Crustaceans
Delta
Desalination
Echolocation
Effluent
Erosion
Estuary
Evaporates
Exports
Fertiliser
Grasslands
Greenhouse gases
Habitat
Hydroelectricity
Import
Lubricant
Meanders
Megalopolis
Microbes
Mouth (of a river)
102
process by which air is circulated through, mixed with or dissolved in a liquid or substance
fertile sediment deposited by flowing water on floodplains
fertilisers with microorganisms that promote plant growth by improving nutrients
any gaseous fuel produced by the bacterial decomposition of organic matter
conversion of organic matters like plants and dead animal remains into carbon
a raised road across water
the hollow passage where a river flows
change in the Earth’s normal weather patterns for different climates
natural fertiliser made from plant material
change state of matter from vapor to liquid
area of seabed around a large land mass where the sea is shallow compared with the
ocean
a group of large cities and their suburbs that have joined up or have strong roadlinks
connecting them
crops that store nutrients from land until the following years’ crop can utilise them, reducing
nutrient runoff and leaching
planting different crops each year on a piece of land
hard, jointed-shell arthropods that live in fresh or salt water
the place near the coast where a river splits into smaller rivers and is shaped like the
Greek letter delta
the process of removing salt from seawater
sensing position of objects by sending out sounds that objects reflect
sewage or other liquid waste that flows into a body of water such as a river or lake
when fragments of rock are worn away and moved from one place to another
the wide part of a river’s lower end, where it joins the sea
turn from liquid to gas in the form of vapor due to heat
sell goods to other countries
chemical or organic material for feeding plants
large plains covered by grass
one of the gases in the atmosphere, for example, carbon dioxide, ozone, water vapour,
nitrous oxide, methane
where things live and grow naturally
a form of renewable energy that uses the power of moving water to generate electricity
buy goods from other countries
any material that is used to coat closely fitting moving parts to lower friction
a curve in a river
a very large, heavily populated city or urban complex
a microorganism causing disease or fermentation
the place where a river meets the sea
Glossary
Organic
Oxbow lakes
Pampas
Peat
Perennial crops
Permafrost
Pesticides
Prairies
Profit
Quarrying
Radioactive
Range
Reservoir
Retreat
Savannahs
Sediment
Septic tank
Sludge
Staple
Steppe
Subsidise
Subtropical
Sustainable
Swarm
Thaw
Thermal
Tributary
Turbine
Weathering
produced naturally, without using pesticides or other added chemicals
U-shaped lake or pool that forms when a wide meander of a river is cut off, creating a freestanding body of water
large treeless plains
soil from a wet area that is made up of decayed plants, can be used as a fuel or fertiliser
crops that do not need to be planted each year)
a layer of soil that is permanently frozen in very cold regions of the world
chemical for killing living things that damage plants
a large open area of grassland
money earned by a business after costs have been deducted
a large open hole or pit dug for mining
emitting or relating to the emission of ionizing radiation or particles
the greatest distance people will travel for a service or goods in a settlement
a place where water is collected and stored
when a glacier retreats it shrinks through melting
a flat plain covered with grass that also has scattered trees. Savannas are found in Africa
and other tropical regions
solid material that settles to the bottom of a liquid
an underground chamber made of concrete, fiberglass, or plastic through which domestic
wastewater flows for basic sewage treatment
dirt and sediment precipitated in a body of water
one of the most important crops or products of a region
a large area of flat unforested grassland
pay some of the cost of a product or service
being from the regions immediately north or south of the tropics
can continue for a long time
a large or dense group of flying insects
become liquid or soft as a result of warming up
related to heat
small river that flows into a main river
a machine that uses a moving stream of air, water, steam, or hot gas to turn a wheel to
produce mechanical power
when rock is broken into smaller pieces that stay in the same place
103
B ib l i o g r a p h y
Bibliography
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Survey of Pakistan
CIA Factbook
Britannica Encyclopedia
National Geographic
Physical Geography: The Global Environment Fifth Edition by Jason Burt, Harm de Blij, Joseph
Mason, Peter Muller
BBC Bitesize Geography
NASA Earth Observatory
Carbonbrief.org
Climate.gov
Pakistan GIS maps from Citypulse.com.pk
Economic Survey of Pakistan
Worldbank.org
UN.org
Footnotes of the Political map
from the Survey of Pakistan
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U N I T 6 F o o tn o t e s o f t h e P o l iti c a l m a p fr o m t h e Surv e y o f P a k i s t a n
106