1. Stylistic Classification of the English
language
Vocabulary
In accordance with the division of
language into literary and colloquial, we
may represent the whole of the word
stock of the English language as being
divided into 3 main layers: the literary
layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial
layer.
The literary layer of words consists of
groups accepted as legitimate members of
the English vocabulary. They have no
local or dialect character. The literary
vocabulary consists of the following
groups of words: 1. common literary; 2.
terms and learned words; 3. poetic
words; 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms
and foreign words; 6. literary coinages
including nonce-words.
The aspect of the neutral layer is its
universal character. That means it is
unrestricted in its use. It can be employed
in all styles and in all spheres of human
activity. It is this that makes the layer the
most stable of all.
The colloquial layer of words as qualified
in most English or American dictionaries
is not infrequently limited to a definite
language community or confined to a
special locality where it circulates. The
colloquial vocabulary falls into the
following groups: 1. common colloquial
words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4.
professional words; 5. dialect words; 6.
vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages.
The common literary, neutral and
common colloquial words are grouped
under the term standard English
vocabulary. Other groups in the literary
layer are regarded as special literary
vocabulary and those in the colloquial
layer are regarded as special colloquial
(non-literary) vocabulary.
2. Connotation as one of the basic
categories of stylistics
Connotation: the additional content of
the word (or expression), its attendant
semantic or stylistic nuances that are
superimposed on its basic meaning and
express various expressive-emotiveevaluative overtones and can impart to
the utterance a solemn, playful, familiar,
etc. ring. Connotation appears to be
inherent not only in words but also in
units of the other language levels. Stylistic
variation is observable in pronunciation,
in morphemic forms and in syntax.
Beneath these fruit-tree boughs that shed
Their snow-white blossoms on my head,
With brightest sunshine round me spread
Of spring’s unclouded weather …
Connotation (also known as stylistic
colouring), consists of at least two
components:
(1) the stylistic colouring that discloses
the expressive-emotive content of speech
(2) the stylistic colouring that indicates
the sphere of social usage of the linguistic
unit.
Components of connotation: (All the
four may be present in one unit, or they
occur in various combinations, or they
may be totally absent.)
n emotive
n expressive
n evaluative
n functional-stylistic.
5.
Stylistic devices based on the
change of the traditional word order (
inversion, detachment)
Inversion is the violation of the fixed
word order within an English sentence.
There are two major kinds of inversion:
1. that one which results in the change of
the grammatical meaning of a syntactic
struc-ture, i.e. grammatical inversion
(exclamatory
and
interrogative
sentences), and
2. that one which results in adding to a
sentence an emotive and emphatic
colouring, i.e. stylistic inversion, e.g. And
the palm-trees I like them not (A.
Christie).
Inversion may be of two types:
1) complete, i.e. comprising the principal
parts of the sentence, e.g. From behind
me came Andrews voice (S. Chaplin);
2) partial, i.e. influencing the secondary
parts of the sentence, e.g. Straight into the
arms of the police they will go (A.
Christie).
Detachment is a separation of a
secondary part of the sentence with the
aim of emphasizing it.
Detachment is to be regarded as a special
kind of inversion, when some parts of the
sentence are syntactically separated from
its other members with which they are
grammatically and logically connected.
4. Stylistic syntactical patterns based
on the absence of obligatory elements
(ellipsis, aposiopesis, asyndeton).
Ellipsis
Ellipsis - is the omission of a word
necessary for the complete syntactical
construction of a sentence, but not
necessary for understanding. The stylistic
function of ellipsis used in author's
narration is to change its tempo, to
connect its structure. You feel all right?
Anything wrong or what?
More frequently it is used in represented
speech, it creates a stylistic effect of the
natural abruptness and the fragmentary
character of the process of thinking and
used to heighten the emotional tension of
the narration or to single out the
character’s or the author’s attitude
towards what is happening.
Aposiopesis (Break - in - the narrative)
is a sudden break in the narration has the
function to reveal agitated state of the
speaker. It is caused by strong emotion or
some reluctance to finish the sentence. In
belle-letters style a break in speech is
often used in dialogue to reflect its
naturalness.
Asyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of
conjunctions in constructions in which
they would normally used. He couldn't go
abroad alone, the sea upset his liver, he
hated hotels.
The connection of sentences, phrases or
words without any conjunctions is called
asyndentic. Asyndeton helps the author to
make each phrase or word sound
independent and significant, creates an
effect that the enumeration is not
completed, creates a certain rhythmical
arrangement,
usually
making
the
narrative measured and energetic.
3. Functional style as one of the basic
categories of stylistics
A style of language can be defined as a
system or coordinated, interrelated and
interconditioned
language
means
intended to fulfil a specific function of
communication and aiming at a definite
effect.
Each style is a relatively stable system at
the given stage in the development of the
literary language. Therefore style of
language is a historical category. The
development
of
each
style
is
predetermined by the changes in the
norms of standard English.
The notion of functional style. One and
the same thought may be worded in more
than one way. This diversity is
predetermined by coexistence of separate
language subsystems, elements of which
stand in relations of interstyle synonymy.
Compare: I am afraid lest John should have
lost his way in the forest (bookish) = I fear
John's
got
lost
in
the
wood
(conversational).
Such
language
subsystems are called "functional styles".
Functional style units are capable of
transmitting some additional information
about the speaker and the objective
reality in which communication takes
place,
namely
the
cultural
and
educational level of the speaker, his inner
state of mind, intentions, emotions and
feelings, etc. The most traditionally
accepted functional styles are the style of
official and business communication, the
style of scientific prose, the newspaper
style, the publicistic style, the belletristic
style, the conversational style. The style a
writer or speaker adopts depends partly
on his own personality but very largely
on what he has to say and what his
purposes are. It follows that style and
subject matter should match each other
appropriately. Just how important it is to
choose an appropriate style can be seen
by examining the following three
sentences, which all say the same thing
but in different ways: John's dear parent is
going to his heavenly home (bookish).
John's father is dying (literary colloquial).
John's old fella's on his way out (informal
colloquial). Though these sentences say
the same thing, the style is very different
in each.
The Belles-Lettres Style
Publicistic Style
Newspaper Style
Scientific Prose Style
The Style of Official Documents
6. Stylistic syntactical patterns based
on the excess of speech elements
(repetition,
polysyndeton,
parenthesis)
Repetition is a direct successor of
repetition as an expressive language
means, which serves to emphasize certain
statements of the speaker, and so
possesses considerable emotive force.
It is not only a single word that can be
repeated but a word combination and a
whole sentence too.
As to the position occupied by the
repeated unit in the sentence or
utterance, we shall mention four main
types, most frequently occurring in
English literature:
1) anaphora – the repetition of the first
word of several succeeding sentences or
clauses (a …, a …, a …);
2) epiphora – the repetition of the final
word (… a, … a, … a);
3) anadiplosis or catch repetition – the
repetition of the same unit (word or
phrase) at the end of the preceding and at
the beginning of the sentence (…a, a …);
The combination of several catch
repetitions produces a chain repetition.
4) framing or ring repetition – the
repetition of the same unit at the
beginning and at the end of the same
sentence (a …, … a).
Stylistic functions of repetition are
various
and
many-sided.
Besides
emphasizing the most important part of
the utterance, rendering the emotions of
the speaker or showing his emotive
attitude towards the object described, it
may play a minor stylistic role, showing
the durability of action, and to a lesser
degree the emotions following it.
Repetition, deliberately used by the
author to better emphasize his
sentiments, should not be mixed with
pleonasm – an excessive, uneconomic
usage of unnecessary, extra words, which
shows the inability of the writer to
express his ideas in a precise and clear
manner.
Morphological repetition, that is the
repetition of a morpheme, is to be
included into the stylistic means.
Polysyndeton
Polysyndeton is the connection of
sentences, phrases or words based on the
repetition
of
conjunctions
or
prepositions.
The repetition of the conjunction “and”
before each word or phrase stresses these
enumerated words or phrases.
Polysyndeton is sometimes used to
retard the action and to create the
stylistic effect of suspense.
Besides, polysyndeton is one of the
means used to create a certain rhythmical
effect.
Parenthesis.
Parenthesis should be distinguished from
detachment. It is a word or phrase that is
inserted abruptly into the sentence, so as
to attract the reader’s attention to one of
the aspects of the subject matter of the
utterance. It is usually set off by commas,
dashes or brackets to introduce an
illustration, explanation, definition, or any
other sort of additional information into
a sentence that is logically and
grammatically complete without it.
10. The newspaper style (the headline)
English newspaper style may be defined
as a system of interrelated lexical,
phraseological and grammatical means
which is perceived by the community
speaking the language as a separate unity
that basically serves the purpose of
informing and instructing the reader.
Since the primary function of newspaper
style is to impart information, only
printed matter serving this purpose
comes under newspaper style proper.
Such matter can be classed as:
1. brief news items and communiqués;
2. press reports (parliamentary, of court
proceedings, etc.);
3. articles purely informational in
character;
4. advertisements and announcements.
The most concise form of newspaper
informational is the headline. The
headlines of news items, apart from
giving information about the subjectmatter, also carry a considerable amount
of appraisal (the size and arrangement of
the headline, the use of emotionally
colored words and elements of emotive
syntax), thus indicating the interpretation
of the facts in the news item that follows.
The headline
The headline is the title given to a news
item of a newspaper article. The main
function of the headline is to inform the
reader briefly of what the news that
follows is about.
Syntactically headlines are very short
sentences or phrases of a variety of
patterns: 1. full declarative sentences; 2.
interrogative sentences; 3. nominative
sentences; 4. elliptical sentences; 5.
sentences with articles omitted; 6.
phrases with verbals; 7. questions in the
forms of statements; 8. complex
sentences; 9. headlines including direct
speech.
7. The belles-lettres style (language of
the drama)
The belles-lettres style is a generic term
for 3 substyles:
1. the language of poetry or simply verse;
2. emotive prose, or the language of
fiction;
3. the language of the drama.
The purpose of the belles-lettres style is
to suggest a possible interpretation of the
phenomena of life by forcing the reader to
see the viewpoint of the writer. This is the
cognitive function of the belles-lettres
style. An aesthetico-cognitive effect is a
system of language means which secure
the effect sought.
The belles-lettres style rests on certain
indispensable linguistic features which
are:
1. genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by
purely linguistic devices.
2. the use of words in contextual and very
often in more than one dictionary
meaning, or at least greatly influenced by
the lexical environment.
3. a vocabulary which will reflect to a
greater or lesser degree the author’s
personal evaluation of things or
phenomena.
4. a peculiar individual selection of
vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical
and syntactical idiosyncrasy.
5. the introduction of the typical features
of colloquial language to a full degree(in
plays) or a lesser one(in emotive prose)
or a slight degree, if any(in poems).
The belles-lettres style is individual in
essence. This is one of its most distinctive
properties.
Language of the drama
The first thing to be said about the
parameters of this variety of belles-lettres
is that the language of plays is entirely
dialogue. The author’s speech is almost
entirely excluded, except for the
playwright’s
remarks
and
stage
directions.
The degree to which the norms of
ordinary
colloquial
language
are
converted into those of the language of
plays, that is, the degree to which the
spoken language is made literary varies at
different periods in the development of
drama and depends also on the
idiosyncrasies of the playwright himself.
Any presentation of a play is an aesthetic
procedure and the language of plays is of
the type which is meant to be reproduced.
Therefore even the language of a play
approximates that of a real dialogue, it
will none the less be stylized.
8. The publicistic style (oratory and
speeches)
Publicistic style has spoken varieties, in
particular, the oratorical substyle. The
new spoken varieties are the radio
commentary, the essay and articles.
The general aim of publicistic style is to
exert a constant and deep influence on
public opinion, to convince the reader or
the listener that the interpretation given
by the writer or the speaker is the only
correct one and to cause him to accept the
point of view expressed in the speech,
essays or article. Due to its characteristic
combination of logical argumentation and
emotional appeal, publicistic style has
features in common with the style of
scientific prose, on the one hand, and that
of emotive prose, on the other. Its
emotional appeal is generally achieved by
the use of words with emotive meaning;
but the stylistic devices are not fresh or
genuine.
Publicistic style is also characterized by
brevity of expression.
Oratory and speeches
Oratorical style is the oral subdivision of
the publicistic style.
Direct contact with the listeners permits
the combination of the syntactical, lexical
and phonetic peculiarities of both the
written and spoken varieties of language.
Certain typical features of the spoken
variety of speech present in this style are:
direct address to the audience (ladies and
gentlemen, honorable member(s), the use
of the 2nd person pronoun you, etc.),
sometimes constractions (I’ll, won’t,
haven’t, isn’t and others) and the use of
colloquial words.
The stylistic devices employed in
oratorical style are determined by the
conditions of communication. Repetition
can be regarded as the most typical
stylistic device of English oratorical style.
Almost any piece of oratory will have
parallel
constructions,
antithesis,
suspense, climax, rhetorical questions
and questions-in-the-narrative.
9. The newspaper style (brief news
items)
English newspaper style may be defined
as a system of interrelated lexical,
phraseological and grammatical means
which is perceived by the community
speaking the language as a separate unity
that basically serves the purpose of
informing and instructing the reader.
Since the primary function of newspaper
style is to impart information, only
printed matter serving this purpose
comes under newspaper style proper.
Such matter can be classed as:
1. brief news items and communiqués;
2. press reports (parliamentary, of court
proceedings, etc.);
3. articles purely informational in
character;
4. advertisements and announcements.
The most concise form of newspaper
informational is the headline. The
headlines of news items, apart from
giving information about the subjectmatter, also carry a considerable amount
of appraisal (the size and arrangement of
the headline, the use of emotionally
colored words and elements of emotive
syntax), thus indicating the interpretation
of the facts in the news item that follows.
Brief news items
The function of a brief news item is to
inform the reader. It states only facts
without giving comments. Newspaper
style has its specific vocabulary features
and is characterized by an extensive use
of: 1. special political and economic
terms; 2. non-term political vocabulary; 3.
newspaper cliché; 4. abbreviations; 5.
neologisms.
The following grammatical peculiarities
of brief news items are of paramount
importance, and may be regarded as
grammatical parameters of newspaper
style: 1. complex sentences with a
developed system of clauses; 2. verbal
constructions; 3. syntactical complexes; 4.
attributive noun groups; 5. specific word
order.
11.
The
newspaper
style
(advertisements and announcements)
English newspaper style may be defined
as a system of interrelated lexical,
phraseological and grammatical means
which is perceived by the community
speaking the language as a separate unity
that basically serves the purpose of
informing and instructing the reader.
Since the primary function of newspaper
style is to impart information, only
printed matter serving this purpose
comes under newspaper style proper.
Such matter can be classed as:
1. brief news items and communiqués;
2. press reports (parliamentary, of court
proceedings, etc.);
3. articles purely informational in
character;
4. advertisements and announcements.
The most concise form of newspaper
informational is the headline. The
headlines of news items, apart from
giving information about the subjectmatter, also carry a considerable amount
of appraisal (the size and arrangement of
the headline, the use of emotionally
colored words and elements of emotive
syntax), thus indicating the interpretation
of the facts in the news item that follows.
Advertisements and announcements
The function of advertisement and
announcement is to inform the reader.
There are 2 basic types of advertisements
and announcements in the modern
English newspaper: classified and nonclassified(separate).
In
classified
advertisements
and
announcements
various
kinds
of
information are arranged according to
subject-matter into sections, each bearing
an appropriate name.
As for the separate advertisements and
announcements, the variety of language
form and subject-matter is so great that
hardly any essential features common to
all be pointed out.
12. The scientific prose style
The language of science is governed by
the aim of the functional style of scientific
prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to
create new concepts, to disclose the
internal laws of existence, development,
relations between different phenomena,
etc. There are following characteristic
features of scientific style:
1. the logical sequence of utterances;
2. the use of terms specific to each given
branch of science;
3. so-called sentence-patterns. They are
of 3 types: postulatory, argumentative
and formulative.
4. the use of quotations and references;
5. the frequent use of foot-note, of the
reference kind, but digressive in
character.
The impersonality of scientific writings
can also be considered a typical feature of
this style.
13. The style of official documents
In standard literary English this is the
style of official documents. It is not
homogeneous and is represented by the
following substyles or variants: 1. the
language of business documents; 2. the
language of legal documents; 3. that of
diplomacy; 4. that of military documents.
The main aim of this type of
communication is to state the conditions
binding two parties in an undertaking.
The most general function of the style of
official documents predetermines the
peculiarities of the style. The most
noticeable of all syntactical features are
the compositional patterns of the variants
of this style.
The over-all code of the official style falls
into a system of subcodes, each
characterized by its own terminological
nomenclature, its own compositional
form, its own variety of syntactical
arrangements. But the integrating
features of all these subcodes emanating
from the general aim of agreement
between parties, remain the following: 1.
conventionality of expression; 2. absence
of any emotiveness; 3. the encoded
character of language; symbols and 4. a
general syntactical mode of combining
several pronouncements into one
sentence.
14. The belles-lettres style (poetry)
The first substyle is verse. Its first
differentiating property is its orderly
form, which is based mainly on the
rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of
the utterances. The rhythmic aspect calls
forth
syntactical
and
semantic
peculiarities which also fall into a more or
less strict orderly arrangement. Both the
syntactical and semantic aspects of the
poetic substyle may be defined as
compact, for they are held in check by
rhythmic patterns. Syntactically this
brevity is shown in elliptical and
fragmentary sentences, in detached
constructions, in inversion, asyndeton
and other syntactical peculiarities.
Rhythm and rhyme are immediately
distinguishable properties of the poetic
substyle provided they are wrought into
compositional patterns. The various
compositional forms of rhyme and
rhythm are generally studied under the
terms versification or prosody.
The poetical language remains and will
always remain a specific mode of
communication differing from prose. The
poetic words and phrases, peculiar
syntactical arrangement, orderly phonetic
and rhythmical patterns have long been
the signals of poetic language. But the
most important of all is the power of the
words used in poetry to express more
than they usually signify in ordinary
language.
15.
Compositional
patterns
of
syntactical
arrangement
(climax,
parallel construction, chiasmus)
Climax
Climax presents a structure in which
every successive sentence or phrase is
emotionally stronger or logically more
important than the preceding one. Such
an organization of the utterance creates a
gradual intensification of its significance,
both logical and emotive, and absorbs the
reader’s attention more completely.
Climax may be of three main types:
1) quantitative, when it is quality or size
that increases with the unfolding of the
utterance.
2) qualitative, when intensification is
achieved through the introduction of
emphatic words into the utterance, which
fact increases its emotive force.
3) logical, the most frequent type, in
which every new concept is stronger,
more important and valid.
Parallel Constructions
Constructions formed by the same
syntactical pattern, closely following one
another present the stylistic device of
parallelism. Parallelism strongly affects
the rhythmical organization of the
paragraph, so it is imminent in oratoric
speech, in pathetic and emphatic extracts.
Parallelism can be complete when the
construction of the second sentence fully
copies that of the first one. Or parallelism
can be partial, when only the beginning or
the end of several sentences are
structurally similar.
Reversed parallelism is called chiasmus.
In chiasmus the central part of the
sentence – the predicate remains the
hinge around which occur syntactical
changes – the subject of the first sentence
becomes the object of the second and vice
versa.
Chiasmus is a kind of parallelism where
the word order of the sentence or clause
that follows becomes inverted.
16. Repetition devices
Repetition as a stylistic device is a direct
successor of repetition as an expressive
language means, which serves to
emphasize certain statements of the
speaker, and so possesses considerable
emotive force.
It is not only a single word that can be
repeated but a word combination and a
whole sentence too.
As to the position occupied by the
repeated unit in the sentence or
utterance, we shall mention four main
types, most frequently occurring in
English literature:
1) anaphora – the repetition of the first
word of several succeeding sentences or
clauses (a …, a …, a …);
2) epiphora – the repetition of the final
word (… a, … a, … a);
3) anadiplosis or catch repetition – the
repetition of the same unit (word or
phrase) at the end of the preceding and at
the beginning of the sentence (…a, a …);
The combination of several catch
repetitions produces a chain repetition.
4) framing or ring repetition – the
repetition of the same unit at the
beginning and at the end of the same
sentence (a …, … a).
Stylistic functions of repetition are
various
and
many-sided.
Besides
emphasizing the most important part of
the utterance, rendering the emotions of
the speaker or showing his emotive
attitude towards the object described, it
may play a minor stylistic role, showing
the durability of action, and to a lesser
degree the emotions following it.
Repetition, deliberately used by the
author to better emphasize his
sentiments, should not be mixed with
pleonasm – an excessive, uneconomic
usage of unnecessary, extra words, which
shows the inability of the writer to
express his ideas in a precise and clear
manner.
Morphological repetition, that is the
repetition of a morpheme, is to be
included into the stylistic means.
19. Special colloquial vocabulary
(slang, professionalisms)
Slang
The term slang is ambiguous and
obscure. The “New Oxford English
Dictionary” defines slang as follows: 1)
the special vocabulary used by any set of
persons of low or disreputable character;
language of a low and vulgar type…; 2)
the cant or jargon of a certain class or
period; 3) language of highly colloquial
type considered as below the level of
standard educated speech, and consisting
either of new words or current words
employed in some special sense.
In England and USA slang is regarded as
the quintessence of colloquial speech and
therefore stands above all the laws of
grammar.
Jargonisms
Jargon is a recognized term for a group of
words that exist in almost every language
and whose aim is to preserve secrecy
within one or another social group.
Jargonisms are generally old words with
entirely new meanings imposed on them.
Most of the jargonisms of any language
are absolutely incomprehensible to those
outside the social group which has
invented them. They may be defined as a
code within a code. Jargonisms are social
in character. In England and in the USA
almost any social group of people has its
own jargon. There is a common jargon
and
special
professional
jargons.
Jargonisms do not always remain on the
outskirts of the literary language. Many
words entered the standard vocabulary.
Professionalisms
Professionalisms are the words used in a
definite trade, profession or calling by
people connected by common interests
both at work or at home. Professional
words name anew already existing
concepts, tools or instruments, and have
the typical properties of a special code.
Their main feature is technicality. They
are monosemantic.
Professionalisms do not aim at secrecy.
They fulfill a socially useful function in
communication, facilitating a quick and
adequate grasp of the message.
Professionalisms are used in emotive
prose to depict the natural speech of a
character. The skilful use of a professional
word will show not only the vocation of a
character, but also his education,
breeding, environment and sometimes
even his psychology.
17. Compositional patterns of the
English classical verse
Free Verse and Accented Verse
Verse remains classical if it retains its
metrical scheme.
Free verse departs considerably from the
strict requirements of classical verse, but
its departures are legalized. Free verse is
recognized by lack of strictness in its
rhythmical design. The term 'free verse' is
used rather loosely by different writers;
so much so that what is known as
accented or stressed verse is also
sometimes included.
Here we shall use the term 'free verse' to
refer only to those varieties of verse
which are characterized by: 1) a
combination of various metrical feet in
the line; 2) absence of equilinearity and
3) stanzas of varying length. Rhyme,
however, is generally retained. Classic
modifications of the rhythm are accidental, not regular.
Free verse is not, of course, confined to
the pattern just described. There may not
be any two poems written in free verse
which will have the same structural
pattern. This underlying freedom makes
verse less rigid and more colloquial-like.
The departure from metrical rules is
sometimes considered a sign of
progressiveness in verse, which is
doubtful.
Classical English verse, free verse and the
accented verse which we are about to
discuss, all enjoy equal rights from the
aesthetic point of view and none of these
types of verse has any ascendancy over
the others. Accented v e r se is a type of
verse in which only the number of
stresses in the line is taken into
consideration. The number of "syllables is
not a constituent; it is irrelevant and
therefore disregarded. Accented verse is
not syllabotonic but only tonic. In its
extreme form the lines have no pattern of
regular metrical feet nor fixed length,
there is no notion of stanza, and there are
no rhymes. Like free verse, accented
verse has very many variants, some
approaching free verse and some departing so far from any recognized
rhythmical pattern that we can hardly
observe the essential features of this
mode of communication.
Accented verse is nothing but an orderly
singling-out of certain words and
syntagms in the utterance by means of
intonation. This singling-out becomes a
constituent of this type of verse, provided
that the distance between.each of the
component parts presents a more or less
constant unit. Violation of this principle
would lead to the complete destruction of
the verse as such.
Accented verse (tonic verse) has a long
folklore tradition. Old English verse was
tonic but not syllabo-tonic. The latter
appeared in English poetry as a
borrowing from Greek and Latin poetry,
where the alternation was not between
stressed and unstressed but between long
and short syllables. In the process of
being adapted to the peculiarities of the
phonetic and morphological system of the
English language, syllabo-tonic verse has
undergone considerable changes, and
accented
verse
may
therefore
conventionally be regarded as a stage in
the transformational process of adapting
the syllabo-tonic system to the organic
norms of modern colloquial English. This
is justified by the fact that present-day
accented verse is not a mere revival of the
Old English poetical system but a newly
arranged form and type of English verse.
Naturally, however, folklore traditions
have influenced modern accented verse
in a number of ways.
18. Particular ways of combining parts
of
the
utterance
(asyndeton,
polysyndeton )
Asyndeton
The connection of sentences, phrases or
words without any conjunctions is called
asyndentic.
Asyndeton helps the author to make each
phrase or word sound independent and
significant.
Asyndeton generally creates an effect that
the enumeration is not completed.
Asyndeton also creates a certain
rhythmical arrangement, usually making
the narrative measured and energetic.
Polysyndeton
Polysyndeton is the connection of
sentences, phrases or words based on the
repetition
of
conjunctions
or
prepositions.
The repetition of the conjunction “and”
before each word or phrase stresses these
enumerated words or phrases.
Polysyndeton is sometimes used to retard
the action and to create the stylistic effect
of suspense.
Besides, polysyndeton is one of the means
used to create a certain rhythmical effect.
20.
compositional
patterns
of
syntactical arrangements (antithesis,
enumeration, gradation)
Antithesis is a stylistic device which
presents
a
compressed
contrast.
Antithesis is based on relative opposition
which arises out of the context through
the expansion of objectively contrasting
pairs. Syntactically antithesis is just
another case of parallel constructions. But
unlike parallelism, which is indifferent to
the semantics of its components, the two
parts of an antithesis must be
semantically opposite to each other.
Enumeration is a stylistic device by
which
separate
things,
objects,
phenomena, properties, actions are
named one by one so that they produce a
chain, the links of
which, being syntactically in the same
position (homogeneous parts of speech),
are forced to display some kind of
semantic homogeneity, remote though it
may seem.
Most of our notions are associated with
other notions due to some kind of relation
between them: dependence, cause and
result, likeness, dissimilarity, sequence,
experience (personal and/or social),
proximity, etc. In fact, it is the
associations plus social experience that
have resulted in the formation of what is
known as "semantic fields." Enumeration,
as an SD, may be conventionally called a
sporadic semantic field, inasmuch as
many cases of enumeration have no
continuous
existence
in
"their
manifestation as semantic fields do. The
grouping of
sometimes absolutely
heterogeneous notions occurs only in
isolated instances to meet some peculiar
purport of the writer.
Gradation is a series of similar words or
expressions (images, similes, metaphors,
and so on) that gradually emphasize and
increase or, on the other hand, decrease
the sense or emotional significance. The
principle of gradation may be the device
in a verse composition or plot
composition.
22. phonetic expressive means and
stylistic
devices
(alliteration,
onomatopoeia, paronymic attraction)
Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device
which aims at imparting a melodic effect
to the utterance. The essence of this
device lies in the repetition of similar
sounds, in particular consonant sounds,
in close succession, particularly at the
beginning
of
successive
words.
Alliteration,
like
most
phonetic
expressive means, does not bear any
lexical or other meaning unless we agree
that a sound meaning exists as such. But
even so we may not be able to specify
clearly the character of this meaning, and
the term will merely suggest that a
certain amount of information is
contained in the repetition of sounds, as
is the case with the repetition of lexical
units. However, certain sounds, if
repeated, may produce an effect that can
be specified.
Onomatopoeia is a combination of
speech-sounds which aims at imitating
sounds produced in nature, by things, by
people and by animals. Combinations of
speech sounds of this type will inevitably
be associated with whatever produces the
natural
sound. Therefore the relation between
onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is
supposed to represent is one of
metonymy.
There are two varieties of onomatopoeia:
direct and indirect. Direсt onomatopoeia
is contained in words that imitate natural
sounds, as ding-dong, buzz, bang, cuckoo,
tintinabulation, mew, ping-pong, roar and
the like. Indirect onomatopoeia is a
combination of sounds the aim of which is
to make the sound of the utterance an
echo of its sense. It is sometimes called
"echo-writing".
Paronymic attraction is a specific
linguistic phenomenon. Paronyms and
paronymic
attraction
are
differentiated.Whereas words of similar
sounding but of differing meaning (the
so-called omophones) are considered to
be paronyms, paronymic attraction
originates when sound coincidence or
similarity links parts of morphemes
forming words.
24. Figures of contrast: oxymoron,
antithesis
Oxymoron
Oxymoron is based on the interaction of
logical and emotive meanings. It presents
a combination of two contrasting ideas.
The oxymoron reveals the contradictory
sides of one and the same phenomenon.
One of its components discloses some
objectively existing feature or quality,
while the other one serves to convey the
author’s personal attitude towards the
same.
The structure of oxymoron is extremely
varied. By most critics it is regarded as an
attributive syntagma.
As soon as an oxymoron gets into
circulation it loses its most characteristic
feature of bringing two opposite ideas
together and becomes a phraseological
unit.
Antithesis
Antithesis is a stylistic device presenting
two contrasting ideas in a close
neighbourhood.
The phenomena opposed to one another
can be pictured in an extended way. Or
else the contradictory ideas may
intermingle, thus creating the effect of not
only the contrast, but also of the close
unity of the contrasting features. E.g. The
smell of life and richness, of death and
digestion, of decay and birth, burden the
air.
23. Peculiar use of set expressions.
Decomposition of set phrases.
In language studies there are two very
clearly-marked tendencies that the
student should never lose sight of,
particularly when dealing with the
problem of word-combination. They are
1) the analytical tendency, which seeks to
dissever one component from another
and 2) the synthetic tendency which
seeks to integrate the parts of the
combination into a stable unit. These two
tendencies are treated in different ways
in lexicology and stylistics. In lexicology
the parts of a stable lexical unit may be
separated in order to make a scientific
investigation of the character of the
combination and to analyse the
components. In stylistics we analyse the
component parts in order to get at some
communicative effect sought by the
writer. It is this communicative effect and
the means employed to achieve it that lie
within the domain of stylistics. The
integrating tendency also is closely
studied in the realm of lexicology,
especially when linguistic scholars seek
to fix what seems to be a stable wordcombination and ascertain the degree of
its stability, its variants and so on. The
integrating tendency is also within the
domain of stylistics, particularly when the
word-combination has not yet formed
itself as a lexical unit but is in the process
of being so formed. Here we are faced
with the problem of what is called the
cliché.
The Cliche is generally defined as an
expression that has become hackneyed
and trite. It has lost its precise meaning
by constant reiteration: in other words it
has become stereotyped. Cliche is a kind
of stable word combination which has
become familiar and which has been
accepted as a unit of a language.
Proverbs
are
short,
well-known,
supposedly wise sayings, usually in
simple language.
Proverbs are expressions of culture that
are passed from generation to generation.
They are words of wisdom of culturelessons that people of that culture want
their children to learn and to live by They
are served as some symbols, abstract
ideas. Proverbs are usually dedicated and
involve imagery.
Epigram is a short clever amusing saying
or poem.
Quotation is a phrase or sentence taken
from a work of literature or other piece of
writing and repeated in order to prove a
point or support an idea. They are
marked graphically: by inverted commas:
dashes, italics.
Allusion is an indirect reference, by word
or phrase, to a historical. literary,
mythological fact or to a fact of everyday
life made in the course of speaking or
writing. The use of allusion presupposes
knowledge of the fact, thing oк person
alluded to on the part of the reader or
listener.
Decomposition of Set Phrases
Linguistic fusions are set phrases, the
meaning of which is understood only
from the combination as a whole, as to
pull a person's leg or to have something
at one's finger tips. The meaning of the
whole cannot be derived from the
meanings of the component parts. The
stylistic device of decomposition of fused
set phrases consists in reviving the
independent meanings which make up
the component parts of the fusion. In
other words, it makes each word of the
combination acquire its literal meaning
which, of course, in many cases leads to
the realization of an absurdity.
25. The notion of represented speech
Represented, or reported speech, is a
stylistic device peculiarly combining
characteristic features of direct and
indirect speech. It is a comparatively
“young” stylistic device dating its
increasing popularity from the end of the
last century. Introducing represented
speech into his narration the author
creates the effect of the hero’s immediate
presence and participation.
The morphological structure is that of
indirect speech: the hero is referred to in
the third person singular the verbs and
pronouns are, too, of the same form. But
though the quotation marks are absent
and though the structure of the passage
does not indicate the hero’s interference
into the writer’s narration, still there are
certain features which enable us to
distinguish it from the author’s indirect
speech
proper.
The
exclamatory
sentences help to reflect the emotional
state of the hero. Parallel constructions,
repetitions – all take part in bringing in
the character himself with his ideas,
dreams and sentiments. The writer does
not eliminate himself completely from the
narration as it happens with the
introduction of direct speech but coexist
with the personage.
“So” at the beginning of the sentence has
the function of summing up certain
preceding meditations and arguments.
Turning from the structure of affirmative
sentences to that of interrogative and
exclamatory the writer marks off the
introduction of an emotive passage,
which more often than not represents
reported speech.
Represented speech can be divided into 2
uneven groups: represented inner speech
and represented uttered speech.
The first group is incomparably larger, it
enables the writer to give a fuller and
more complete picture of the hero’s state
of mind as if from within.
Represented uttered speech is a mental
reproduction of a once uttered remark or
even a whole dialogue.
“You know” serves the same purpose of
intermixing elements of direct and
indirect
speech,
which
creates
represented speech, so narrowing the
distance between the character and the
reader.
Close to represented speech stands the
effect of immediate presence. Its function
is similar to that of represented speech:
to show a certain picture through the
eyes of immediate direct participant, and
in this way to involve the reader into
proceedings.
26. Figures of inequality: climax,
anticlimax
Climax presents a structure in which
every successive sentence or phrase is
emotionally stronger or logically more
important than the preceding one. Such
an organization of the utterance creates a
gradual intensification of its significance,
both logical and emotive, and absorbs the
reader’s attention more completely.
Climax may be of three main types:
1) quantitative, when it is quality or size
that increases with the unfolding of the
utterance.
2) qualitative, when intensification is
achieved through the introduction of
emphatic words into the utterance, which
fact increases its emotive force.
3) logical, the most frequent type, in
which every new concept is stronger,
more important and valid.
A peculiar variety is presented in those
cases when a negative structure
undergoes intensification.
As counterpart to climax stands
Anticlimax, where emotion or logical
importance is accumulated only to be
unexpectedly broken and brought to a
sudden cadence.
27. The belles-lettres style (emotive
prose)
The substyle of emotive prose has the
same common features as has for the
belles-lettres style in general; but all
these features are correlated differently
in emotive prose. The imagery is not so
rich as it is in poetry; the percentage of
words with contextual meanings is not so
high as in poetry; the idiosyncrasy of the
author is not so clearly discernible. It is a
combination of the literary variant of the
language, both in words and syntax, with
the colloquial variant. It is more exact to
define it as a combination of the spoken
an written varieties of the language,
inasmuch as there are always 2 forms of
communication present – monologue (the
writer’s speech) and dialogue (the speech
of the characters).
The language of the writer conforms or is
expected to conform to the literary norms
of the given period in the development of
the English literary language.
Emotive prose allows the use of elements
from other styles as well. Thus we find
elements of the newspaper style, the
official style, the style of scientific prose.
Present-day emotive prose is to a large
extent characterized by the breaking-up
of traditional syntactical designs of the
preceding periods.
28. The style of official documents
(diplomatic and legal documents)
Legal document is a legal term of art that
is used for any formally executed written
document that can be formally attributed
to its author, records and formally
expresses a legally enforceable act,
process, or contractual duty, obligation,
or right, and therefore evidences that act,
process, or agreement. Examples include
a certificate, deed, bond, contract, will,
legislative act, notarial act, court writ or
process, or any law passed by a
competent legislative body in municipal
(domestic) or international law. Many
legal instruments were written under seal
by affixing a wax or paper seal to the
document in evidence of its legal
execution and authenticity (which often
removes the need for consideration in
contract law); however, today many
jurisdictions have done away with the
requirement of documents being under
seal in order to give them legal effect.
Others, such as Australia, have reinterpreted sealing as a formally attested
signature.
29. The notion of trope. Figures of
quantity: hyperbole, litotes
Hyperbole is a stylistic device based on
the interaction between the logical and
emotive meanings of a word. It is a
deliberate over statement. Both the
writer and the reader (or the speaker and
the listener) are fully aware of the
deliberateness of the exaggeration. The
use of hyperbole shows the overflow of
emotions in the speaker, and the listener
is carried away by the flood.
Very often the hyperbole is used to
create humorous or satirical effect and so
to express the author’s attitude towards
the described.
Through continuous usage hyperbole
may lose its originality and become trite.
A kind of hyperbole with the same inner
mechanism of the device is presented by
understatement which is, too, based on
the interaction between the logical and
emotive meaning and shows the overflow
of the speaker’s sentiments.
The specific feature of this kind of
hyperbole is the direction of the
exaggeration: hyperbole enlarges, while
understatement deliberately diminishes
the described object, phenomenon, etc.
Litotes presents a statement in the form
of a negation.
The stylistic device of litotes is used to
weaken the positive characteristics of a
thing or phenomenon. It is based upon
discrepancy between the syntactical
form, which is negative and the meaning
which is positive. E.g. “She said it, but not
impatiently” We have here an assertion of
a certain positive fact but its form is
negative. The obligatory presence of the
particle “not” makes the statement less
categorical and conveys certain doubts of
the speaker as to the quality he mentions.
The structure of litotes is rather rigid: its
first element is always the negative
particle “not” and its second element is,
too, always negative in meaning, if not in
form.
If the second element of litotes is
expressed by an adjective or adverb, it
has as a rule a negative affix.
If the form of a noun or a wordcombination, presenting the second
component of litotes is not negative, its
negative meaning is implied.
The final result of litotes is always the
assertion of a positive, though weakened
quality or characteristics.
30. Special literary vocabulary (terms,
archaic words)
Terms are generally associated with a
definite branch of science and therefore
with a series of other terms belonging to
that particular branch of science. They
know no isolation; they always come in
clusters, either in a text on the subject to
which they belong, or in special
dictionaries which, unlike general
dictionaries, make a careful selection of
terms. All these clusters of terms form the
nomenclature, or system of names, for the
objects of study of any particular branch
of science.
Terms are characterized by a tendency to
be monosemantic and therefore easily
call forth the required concept. Terms
may appear in scientific style, newspaper
style, publicistic style, the belles-lettres
style, etc. Terms no longer fulfill their
basic function, that of bearing an exact
reference to a given notion or concept.
The their function is either to indicate the
technical peculiarities of the subject dealt
with, or to make some references to the
occupation of a character whose language
would naturally contain special words
and expressions. A term has a stylistic
function when it is used to create an
atmosphere or to characterize a person.
Archaic words
The word stock of a language is in an
increasing state of change. In every
period in the development of a literary
language one can find words which will
show more or less apparent changes in
their meaning or usage, from full vigour,
through a moribund state, to death, i.e.
complete disappearance of the unit from
the language. We’ll distinguish 3 stages in
the aging process of words: 1) the
beginning of the aging process when the
word becomes rarely used. Such words
are called obsolescent, i.e. they are in the
stage of gradually passing out of general
use; 2) The second group of archaic
words are those that have already gone
completely out of use but are still
recognized by the English speaking
community. These words are called
obsolete. 3) The third group, which may
be called archaic proper, are words which
are no longer recognized in modern
English, words that were in use in Old
English and which have either dropped
out of the language entirely or have
changed in their appearance so much that
they have become unrecognizable.
There is another class of words which is
erroneously classed as archaic, historic
words. Words of this type never
disappear from the language.
Archaic words are used in historical
novels, in official and diplomatic
documents, in business letters, legal
language, etc. Archaic words, word-forms
and word combinations are also used to
create an elevated effect.
31. The style of official documents
(business letters)
In standard literary English this is the
style of official documents. It is not
homogeneous and is represented by the
following substyles or variants: 1. the
language of business documents; 2. the
language of legal documents; 3. that of
diplomacy; 4. that of military documents.
The main aim of this type of
communication is to state the conditions
binding two parties in an undertaking.
The most general function of the style of
official documents predetermines the
peculiarities of the style. The most
noticeable of all syntactical features are
the compositional patterns of the variants
of this style.
The over-all code of the official style falls
into a system of subcodes, each
characterized by its own terminological
nomenclature, its own compositional
form, its own variety of syntactical
arrangements. But the integrating
features of all these subcodes emanating
from the general aim of agreement
between parties, remain the following: 1.
conventionality of expression; 2. absence
of any emotiveness; 3. the encoded
character of language; symbols and 4. a
general syntactical mode of combining
several pronouncements into one
sentence.
Business letters contain: heading,
addressing, salutation, the opening, the
body, the closing, complimentary clause,
the signature. Syntactical features of
business letters are - the predominance of
extended simple and complex sentences,
wide use of participial constructions,
homogeneous
members.
Morphological peculiarities are passive
constructions, they make the letters
impersonal. There is a tendency to avoid
pronoun reference. Its typical feature is to
frame equally important factors and to
divide them by members in order to
avoid
ambiguity
of
the
wrong
interpretation.
32. Special literary vocabulary (poetic
words, barbarisms and foreign words)
First of all poetic words belong to a
definite style of language and perform in
it their direct function. If encountered in
another style of speech, they assume a
new function, mainly satirical, for the two
notions, poetry and prose, have been
opposed to each other from time
immemorial.
Poetic language has special means of
communication, i.e. rhythmical
arrangement, some syntactical
peculiarities and certain number of
special words. The specific poetic
vocabulary has a marked tendency to
detach itself from the common literary
word stock and assume a special
significance. Poetic words claim to be, as
it were, of higher rank.
Poetic words and ser expressions make
the utterance understandable only to a
limited number of readers. It is mainly
due to poeticisms that poetical language
is sometimes called poetical jargon.
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin
which have not entirely been assimilated
into the English language. They bear the
appearance of a borrowing and are felt as
something alien to the native tongue. The
great majority of the borrowed words
now form part of the rank and file of the
English vocabulary. There are some
words which retain their foreign
appearance to greater or lesser degree.
These words, which are called
barbarisms, are also considered to be on
the outskirts of the literary language.
Most of them have corresponding English
synonyms. Barbarisms are not made
conspicuous in the text unless they bear a
special load of stylistic information.
Foreign words do not belong to the
English vocabulary. In printed works
foreign words and phrases are generally
italicized to indicate their alien nature or
their stylistic value. There are foreign
words which fulfill a terminological
function. Many foreign words and
phrases have little by little entered the
class of words named barbarisms and
many of these barbarisms have gradually
lost their foreign peculiarities, become
more or less naturalized and have merged
with the native English stock of words.
Both foreign words and barbarisms are
widely used in various styles of language
with various aims, aims which
predetermine their typical functions. One
of these functions is to supply local color.
Barbarisms and foreign words are used in
various styles of writing, but are most
often to be found in the style of belleslettres and the publicistic style.
33. Stylistic devices based on the
interaction of logical and emotive
meanings (epithet, oxymoron)
Epithet is a stylistic device based on the
interaction of the logical and emotive
meanings. It shows the purely individual
emotional attitude of the writer or the
speaker towards the object mentioned.
Epithet is expressed by:
1) adjectives;
2) adverbs;
Adjectives and adverbs constitute the
greatest majority of epithets.
3) participles, both present and past;
4) nouns, especially often in of-phrases;
5) word-combinations;
6) whole phrases.
The last two groups of epithets help the
writer in a rather concise form to express
the emotional attitude of a personage
towards an object or phenomenon. In
most cases it is a direct quotation of the
character’s remark. Such a usage of a
quotation for an epithet stresses the
subjectivity,
individuality
of
the
character’s perception. It renders the
emotional attitude of the personage.
Phrase-epithet helps not only to reveal
the individual view of the author and his
characters but at the same time to do it in
a rather economical manner.
One more structural type of epithet is
“monopolized” by the English language. It
is based on the illogical syntactical
relations between the modifier and the
modified. Such constructions enable the
writer to use nouns of high emotional
coloring, supplying them with additional
characteristics without overcrowding the
description.
Epithets vary not only in structure but in
the manner of application too. So, most
often we meet one-word, or simple
epithet. Rather often epithets are used in
pairs. Not seldom three, four, five and
even more epithets are joined in chains.
From the viewpoint of their expressive
power epithets can be regarded as those
stressing qualities of the object or
phenomenon and as those transferring
the quality of one object to its closest
neighbour. When the same definition is
given to a smile it becomes an individual
evaluation of the same, and is classified as
a transferred epithet. A metaphoric
epithet presents a metaphor within an
epithet.
In most cases metaphoric epithet is
expressed by adjectives and adverbs. Into
the same group of metaphoric epithets
must be included compound epithets, the
second element of which is “-like”.
As all the other stylistic devices, epithets
become hackneyed through long usage.
Epithets should not be mixed up with
logical attributes which have the same
syntactical function but which do not
convey the subjective attitude of the
author towards the described object,
pointing out only the objectively existing
feature of the same.
e.g. “Can you tell me what time that game
starts today?” The girl gave him a
lipsticky smile.
Oxymoron is based on the interaction of
logical and emotive meanings. It presents
a combination of two contrasting ideas.
The oxymoron reveals the contradictory
sides of one and the same phenomenon.
One of its components discloses some
objectively existing feature or quality,
while the other one serves to convey the
author’s personal attitude towards the
same.
The structure of oxymoron is extremely
varied. By most critics it is regarded as an
attributive syntagma.
As soon as an oxymoron gets into
circulation it loses its most characteristic
feature of bringing two opposite ideas
together and becomes a phraseological
unit.
34. Stylistic devices based on the
interaction of primary and derivative
logical meanings (polysemy, zeugma,
pun)
Simultaneous realization within the same
short context of two meanings of a
polysemantic word is called zeugma. E.g.
“All girls were in tears and white muslin”.
Here the independent meaning of the
verb “were” (to be in white muslin – to be
dressed in white muslin) and its
phraseological meaning (to be in tears –
to cry), which slightly faded in the
phraseological
unit,
are
realized
simultaneously.
The same effect is achieved when the
word upon which the effect is based, is
repeated, which creates the stylistic
device of pun. Such simultaneous
realization of two meanings sometimes
leads to a misunderstanding, deliberately
organized by the author. The same
happens with the ambiguous use of
prepositions, which leads to mixing up
the attribute with the prepositional
object.
The further away are the meanings of a
polysemantic word, the stronger is the
stylistic effect achieved by their
simultaneous realization. Humoristic
effect is achieved here due to the
ridiculousness of bringing together two
such different meanings.
Two homonyms have still less in
common than two meanings of a
polysemantic word, and their realization
within the same context always brings
forth a pun.
Another device based on the interaction
between the primary and secondary
meanings is violation of a phraseological
unit. The inner mechanism of this device
lies in the literal interpretation of the
elements of a phraseological unit, though
the ways to achieve it are different: it can
be the author’s intrusion into the unit. E.g.
“… it took a desperate, ungovernable,
frantic hold of him.”
Another way of violation of a
phraseological unit is its prolongation.
Very often violation of a phraseological
unit takes place in proverbs and sayings,
most of which are set phrases and
fusions.
A false phraseological coinage occurs
mainly in direct speech of personages to
characterize them through their speech.
The final result achieved is always
humorous.
As we have seen the interaction between
the primary and secondary meanings of a
word is realized in many ways and for its
main
stylistic
function
has
the
achievement of humorous effect.
35. Stylistic devices based on
interrogative
and
negative
constructions (rhetorical question,
litotes)
Rhetorical Question
Rhetorical question presents a statement
in the form of a question. A question
appealing to the reader for an answer, is
emphatic and mobilizes the attention of
the reader even when the latter is not
supposed to answer anything, when the
only possible answer is implied within
the boundaries of the question.
The form of a rhetorical question is often
negative.
Rhetorical question preserves the
intonation of a question, though
sometimes the assertive sentiment is so
strong that both the intonation and the
punctuation are changed to those of the
exclamatory sentence.
Rhetorical question is an indispensable
element of oratorical style, but is not
confined to it only, more and more
penetrating into other style. So it is
widely employed in modern fiction for
depicting the inner state of a personage,
his meditations and reflections.
Through frequent usage some rhetorical
questions became traditional (for
example, What business is it of yours?
What have I to do with him? etc.)
Such questions usually imply a negative
answer and reflect a strongly antagonistic
attitude of the speaker towards his
interlocutor or the subject discussed.
e.g. Can anybody answer for all the
grievances of the poor in this wicked
world?
Litotes
Litotes presents a statement in the form
of a negation.
The stylistic device of litotes is used to
weaken the positive characteristics of a
thing or phenomenon. It is based upon
discrepancy between the syntactical
form, which is negative and the meaning
which is positive. E.g. “She said it, but not
impatiently” We have here an assertion of
a certain positive fact but its form is
negative. The obligatory presence of the
particle “not” makes the statement less
categorical and conveys certain doubts of
the speaker as to the quality he mentions.
The structure of litotes is rather rigid: its
first element is always the negative
particle “not” and its second element is,
too, always negative in meaning, if not in
form.
If the second element of litotes is
expressed by an adjective or adverb, it
has as a rule a negative affix.
If the form of a noun or a wordcombination, presenting the second
component of litotes is not negative, its
negative meaning is implied.
The final result of litotes is always the
assertion of a positive, though weakened
quality or characteristics.
21. The notion of trope. Three types of
renaming: metonymy, metaphor, irony
Trope is the figurative use of a word or a
phrase that creates imagery. Tropes are
used in verbal art to create general or
individual images and to attain a higher
artistic expressiveness. A trope is based
on establishing connections between two
notions, two things, being different on the
whole, but understood to have some
connection, some similarity in the given
context. From the viewpoint of a linguist,
all tropes are based on the interplay of
lexical meaning.
Metonymy is a trope in which the name
of a thing is replaced by the name of an
associated thing. One name is used
instead of another. Unlike metaphor
where the interaction b/w the meanings
of different words is based on
resemblance, metonymy reflects the
actually existing relations. The following
types of metonymy ore differentiated: 1)
the abstract stands for the concrete. 2)
the container is mentioned instead of the
contents. 3) the material instead of the
thing made of it. 4) the maker for the
thing made. 5) the instrument it put for
the agent. 6) a part is put for the whole
(synecdoche). Metonymy reflects the
actually existing relations between two
objects. Since the types of such relations
are limited, they are observed again and
again, and metonymy in many cases is
trite.
Metaphor
A metaphor is the interaction between
the logical and contextual logical
meanings of a word which is based on a
likeness between objects and implies
analogy and comparison between them.
Similar to all lexical stylistic devices
metaphor may be genuine, that is original,
invented by the writer, or trite, that is
hackneyed, often used in the language.
The metaphor suggests an analogy. An
implied analogy and likeness to concrete
objects makes abstract ideas more
concrete, complex ideas more simple and
the thoughts more comprehensible.
The metaphor may be expressed through
nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
The noun metaphor may consist of one
word or may have an attribute in the
form of an “of-phrase”. The verbmetaphor is very emphatic as it throws
the metaphorical light on the subject of
the sentence too. Metaphors expressed by
adjectives and adverbs are called
metaphorical epithets and will be dealt
with in the chapter on the epithet.
Sometimes a metaphor is not confined to
one image. The writer finds it necessary
to prolong the image by adding a number
of other images, but all these additional
images are linked with the main, central
image. Such metaphors are called
sustained or prolonged metaphors.
Irony is a stylistic device based on the
simultaneous
realisation
of
two
meanings: the literal meaning is the
opposite of the intended meaning; used in
ridicule, contempt, or humour. Emphasis
is placed on the opposition between the
dictionary and the intended meaning of a
statement: one thing is said and the
opposite is implied. Nice weather isn't it.
(On a rainy day) Intonation plays an
important role in expressing irony. Irony
is generally used to convey a negative
meaning, but only positive concepts may
be used in it (as above: great, nice).