Psychological Functioning of Brain • Mind body and brain • Sensation, Perception, Memory, Information Processing • Decision Making, Thought Process • Cognitive training in sport. Sensation, Perception, Memory, Information Processing • Sensation and perception are two separate processes that are very closely related. • Sensation is input about the physical world obtained by our sensory receptors, and perception is the process by which the brain selects, organizes, and interprets these sensations. • In other words, senses are the physiological basis of perception. • Perception of the same senses may vary from one person to another because each person’s brain interprets stimuli differently based on that individual’s learning, memory, emotions, and expectations. Sensation • Sensation is input about the physical world obtained by our sensory receptors. • Sensory receptors are specialized neurons that respond to specific types of stimuli. • When sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor, sensation has occurred. • For example, light that enters the eye causes chemical changes in cells that line the back of the eye. • These cells relay messages, in the form of action potentials (as you learned when studying biopsychology), to the central nervous system. Perception • While our sensory receptors are constantly collecting information from the environment, it is ultimately how we interpret that information that affects how we interact with the world. • Perception refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced. Perception involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. • Bottom-up processing refers to the fact that perceptions are built from sensory input. • On the other hand, how we interpret those sensations is influenced by our available knowledge, our experiences, and our thoughts. • This is called top-down processing. Memory Memory • Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve information. There are three major processes involved in memory: • encoding, • storage, and • retrieval. Types of Memory • While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model of memory is often used to explain the basic structure and function of memory. • Initially proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, this theory outlines three separate stages of memory: • Sensory Memory • Short-Term Memory • Long-Term memory Sensory Memory • Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. • During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. • Examples of sensory memory is the use of a sparkler, which is a handheld firework. • When you hold the firework in your hand and move it in different patterns, your eyes perceive a line or trail of light. Short Term Memory • Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. • Paying attention to sensory memories generates information in short-term memory. • While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue to the next stage: long-term memory. • Most of the information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds. • Any new information that enters short-term memory will quickly displace old information. Long-Term Memory • Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. • This information is largely outside of our awareness but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. • Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other memories are much more difficult to access. Long-term memory is usually divided into two types—explicit and implicit. • Explicit memories, also known as declarative memories, include all of the memories that are available in consciousness. • Explicit memory can be further divided into episodic memory (specific events) and semantic memory (knowledge about the world). • EPISODIC MEMORY • SEMANTIC MEMORY • Implicit memories are those that are mostly unconscious. • This type of memory includes procedural memory, which involves memories of body movement and how to use objects in the environment. • How to drive a car or use a computer are examples of procedural memories. Information Processing • Information processing is the change (processing) of information in any manner detectable by an observer. • As such, it is a process that describes everything that happens (changes) in the universe, from the falling of a rock (a change in position) to the printing of a text file from a digital computer system. • Information processing has been described as "the sciences concerned with gathering, manipulating, storing, retrieving, and classifying recorded information" • Information processing models consist of a series of stages, or boxes, representing stages of processing. Arrows indicate the flow of information from one stage to the next. • Input processes are concerned with the analysis of the stimuli. • Storage processes cover everything that happens to stimuli internally in the brain and can include coding and manipulation of the stimuli. • Output processes are responsible for preparing an appropriate response to a stimulus. Decision Making • Decision making is the cognitive process leading to the selection of a course of action among alternatives. • Every decision making process produces a final choice. • It can be an action or an opinion. • It begins when we need to do something but we do not know what. • Therefore, decision making is a reasoning process which can be rational or irrational, and can be based on explicit assumptions or tacit assumptions. Thought Process • Thought processes are a type of cognitive activity that uses mental capacity to complete and understand certain functions of the human experience. • These operations may allow you to solve problems, make decisions or create and evaluate new ideas. • Why are thought processes important? • Thought processes help us navigate throughout the world. • They help us understand interactions with other humans, and why people do what they do. • Thought processes can also help us better understand ourselves and why we have certain feelings or preferences. • Defining and practicing using these operations may help people better connect and communicate with one another by understanding the overreaching situations and constructs in which we all engage. Cognitive training in sport.
