Module 1: Discourse Analysis Essay
The module 1 essay question generally includes the following:
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State the writer’s main point or main purpose (in no more than ~35 words)
o This means to identify the main point or main purpose in the extract (usually
either from clues or a thesis statement) and express it concisely.
Discuss THREE organizational strategies and/or THREE language techniques used by
the writer to achieve his purpose.
o This means to identify these strategies/techniques in the extract, give examples,
then evaluate how it achieves the writer’s purpose, or communicates the main
point.
Evaluate the validity/reliability/credibility/tone
o You are being asked to identify and evaluate factors such as the author, the
content and the context of the extract and how they affect
validity/reliability/credibility
o Or, if tone is to be evaluated, you are being asked to identify/describe the tone,
give supporting evidence for this, and perhaps relate it to the main point/purpose
Note that all of this should be done with as much brevity as possible, as the question will also
always state “in no more than 500 words.” For that much content within that word count, it truly
makes you contemplate the effectiveness, or main purpose of Communication Studies itself.
Question Part 1: Main Point and Purpose
The main point is the central message of the passage. It can usually be determined using the
thesis statement of the extract or using context clues.
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The main point is that…
The main purpose is an action, the end to which the writer aims. This has to be picked up based
on context clues and how the writer communicates.
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The main purpose is to…
Question Part 2: Organizational Strategies and Language Techniques
Organizational Strategies are ways in which the writer arranges and organizes content to help
the audience to understand/accept the message being communicated and achieve the writer’s
purpose.
Language Techniques are figurative devices (literary devices, metaphorical devices) used to
emphasize meaning and achieve the writer’s purpose.
Different organizational strategies are generally used based on the type of discourse
(argumentative, persuasive, expository, narrative, descriptive)
Organizational Strategies
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Flashback
o An episode or event that took place at an earlier time than the current action.
o The narrative is briefly moved to a previous point in time
o Increases tension, gives background, gives insight into character motives…
Flashforward
o The narrative is briefly moved to a point ahead of the current time in the sequence
of events.
o It can create momentum in the narrative, show significance of character actions…
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Foreshadowing
o Author gives a hint in advance of a future narrative event
o Increases tension
Definitions
o Clarifies meaning of a subject and key terms
o Facilitates ease of comprehension and orients the reader to understand the writer’s
meaning
Cause and Effect
o Describing the causes or factors or a certain event then describing the effects
o Clarifies relationships, helps the reader understand connections
Comparison and Contrast
o Highlights similarities and differences between concepts, ideas or things
o Often to persuade reader of the differences and perhaps hierarchy between things
Classification
o Organizing things into systematic categories based on shared characteristics for
ease of understanding
Problem Solution
o Introducing a problem then presenting solutions to said problem
o Reinforces severity of a situation, but also instils hope in the reader
Process Analysis
o Describing how something is done step by step
Deductive Ordering
o Presents information starting with a generalization, then moves to more specific
details to corroborate the general statement
Inductive Ordering
o Presents information starting with specifics, then moves on to come to a
generalization about these details
Evidence (Facts, Statistical Data)
o Evidence may be in the form of facts, statistical or historical data, testimony,
quotes from reputable sources…
o Adds credibility to an argument, appeals to reason and logic
Anecdote
o Brief story or scenario used to communicate a point more effectively
o Engages reader, prompts the reader to reflect
Authoritative Sources
o Citing sources of general repute or presumed authority on the topic
o Appeals to logos, gives impression of research and reliability
Sequencing
o Chronological sequencing orders events or points based on time or date of
occurrence.
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o Numerical sequencing orders events or concepts based on a number.
o Allows for easier processing of information
Repetition, Restatement or Reiteration
o Author repeats an earlier idea or phrase several times
o Creates emphasis and exaggerates, makes concept more memorable
Titles and Subtitles
o Classify the information logically, divides it into manageable sections with
relevant titles
Refutation
o The writer argues against a particular position, introduces counterarguments to
show flaws in the opposing view
o Shows a balanced grasp of the subject
Dialogue
o Conversation between two or more people
o Moves the narrative along, introduces information about characters, and builds
interest
Concession and Rebuttal
o The writer acknowledges a point that opposes the position he is presenting
(concession) and then refutes it by presenting counterarguments (rebuttal)
Order of importance
o Writer introduces points by order of importance
o Gains interest of the reader, logical arrangement of convincing arguments
Counterarguments
o This is different from concession and rebuttal in that the writer introduces
rebuttals to his own points, then offers counterarguments for those rebuttals.
There is an objection and an objection to the objection.
o Convinces reader and shows a balanced view of the situation and a wellconsidered argument
Indirect Involvement
o A particular keyword involves the reader and asks them to do something actively,
such as ‘imagine’
o Includes the reader and forces them to internalize the writer’s points
Direct address
o Use of the second person pronoun ‘you’ to include the reader and perhaps make
certain statements more powerful, or resounding
Language Techniques
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Alliteration
Allusion
Analogy
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Assonance
Euphemism
Hyperbole
Irony
Litotes
Metaphor
Onomatopoeia
Oxymoron
Paradox
Pathetic fallacy
Personification
Pun
Sarcasm
Simile
Synecdoche
Tautology
Cliché
Triples (Listing in threes)
Imagery
The way in which language is used can also include:
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Assertive Language
o Powerful wording with certain diction to encourage agreement
Formal Language
o Establishes distance between the reader and writer through the use of serious,
well-structured language
o Adds a sense of authority
Informal Language
o Establishes closeness between reader and writer, makes the subject and writer
seem more approachable and relatable
Emotive Language
o Elicits strong emotion in the reader to create feelings in line with the writer’s
purpose
Inclusive Language
o Use of first person pronouns to persuade the reader to accept the writer’s point of
view
o Creates sense of relatability
Prescriptive Language
o Prescribes solution, encourages change and makes recommendations
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Dispassionate Language
o Non-emotional, severe, neutral language used to emphasize importance and
urgency of a situation
o Establishes importance of the subject matter
Passive Voice
o Use of reported speech
o Achieves a sense of objectivity and distance
Active Voice
o Expresses action and active involvement in a situation
Connotative Language
o Speaks to the emotions through a metaphorical/figurative meaning
Denotative Language
o Provides clarity through factual, clear content with words having their literal
meanings.
Organizational Strategies and Language Techniques can even include features of the text itself:
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Punctuation marks
o Deliberate use of marks such as ellipsis, full stops, inverted commas for emphasis
and question marks can serve purposes such as emphasis and tension
Typographical features
o Font sizes, boldface, italics, capitals and indentation
Question Part 3: Validity, Reliability and Tone
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Tone represents the author’s attitude to the subject or the audience. It can also relate the
mood of the author in artistic discourse.
Essentially any adjective associated with mood can be used to describe tone, for example:
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Validity is related to the nature of the information itself and whether it is accurate,
relevant, and can be trusted.
Validity can be checked by asking the following questions about an extract:
o Is the extract current (i.e. published within 7-10 years of today’s date)?
o Does the information in the extract match with general knowledge on the subject?
o Is the information presented relevant to the writer’s purpose?
o Can the information be generalized or is it specific to a small group?
▪ Information that cannot be generalized may not be valid.
o Does the writer use language that appeals to logos/reason?
o Does the technical detail, jargon or specialized language indicate the writer’s
knowledge base?
Reliability is concerned with the dependability of the source providing the information,
and whether they can be trusted.
o Is the writer qualified to give information on this topic?
▪ That is, what are their qualifications? Do they have experience? The
absence of these things reduce reliability.
o Does the reason for the writing of this article make the writer likely to be biased?
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o Where has this text been published? A reputable newspaper or scientific journal
will be more reliable than an unknown blog based on their history.
Credibility is simply a mixture of validity and reliability (can the writer and the source
be trusted)
o The same criteria can be checked, but only credibility should be mentioned.
Module 2: Language and Community Essay
The module 2 essay question generally asks you to discuss at least three of the following:
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Reasons for the dialectal varieties found in the extract.
o Or, reasons for the writer’s language choices in the extract
Grammatical features of the language used in the dialogue.
The effectiveness of the non-verbal communication in the extract
How a video presentation would enhance the extract
The link between language choice and social identification
Communicative behaviours in the extract
Difficulties that non-West Indians may experience in understanding the passage
What is revealed about a character’s attitude to language
The elements of language discussed by the syllabus are as follows:
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Language Registers
Dialectal Variations
Communicative Behaviours
Attitudes to Language
Language Registers
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Language register is the range of language choices available for use in different
circumstances
The different language registers:
o Frozen- stylized, formulaic language, highly impersonal and usually technical
o Formal- using the highest level of language and adhering to the traditional
grammatical standards
o Casual- does not adhere to strict rules of the standard, and includes contractions,
slang, a conversational tone and code switching
o Intimate- minimal sentence structure, nicknames and terms of endearment used,
many codified meanings and unexplained references
o Consultative-used in situations where the receiver is expected to give
constant/intermittent feedback based on the speaker’s information
o Private- Used in the intrapersonal context to express internal musings, reflections,
etc
Language register is affected by the audience, subject, medium, nature of the
relationship between those involved, level of education, speaker’s attitude towards
language…
Dialectal Variations
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A dialect is any version of a language, including a Creole language, spoken by a
particular geographic, social or cultural subgroup, that shows regular variation from other
speakers of the same language
Dialectal Variation is the spoken and written differences in the use of language within a
speech community
o Affected by history, geography, level of education, financial status, age…
A creole is one of a set of varieties which have their beginnings in situations of contact
where groups of people who do not share a common language are forced to communicate
with each other.
Dialects of the English language (at least those we’ll be concerned with) include:
o Caribbean Standard English
o Caribbean Creole English
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Creole and Standard English, though this is a more general reference)
Dialectal variation can also be along the Creole Language Continuum, a link between
the standard variety of a language and the Creole which develops die to decreolization
o Acrolect- Considered the standard variety as it is the closes to the standard
European variety of English
o Mesolect- Close in features to the acrolect but has several notable elements of the
creole
o Basilect- The dialect that is the farthest in features from the standard European
language with mostly Creole linguistic elements
Communicative Behaviours
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This refers to communication or giving impressions unconsciously and unavoidably.
Communicative behaviours include:
o Chronemics
• A person’s attitude to time or its management communicates something
o Artefacts
• The personal effects or possessions of a person which communicate
something about the individual
o Vocalics
• Aspects of speech such as pitch, tone, volume, inflection, accent which
communicate something in addition to the words themselves
• Can also include sounds (or the lack thereof) not related to speech
o Kinesics/Facial Expressions
• Meaning is conveyed by a person’s movements, mannerisms, posture, body
position, gestures, facial expressions
o Proxemics
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Space and attitudes to space conveys things about relationships and
intentions
The functions of non-verbal communication like communicative behaviours includes:
o Substituting for words
o Reinforcing words
o Regulating how the verbal message is received
o Contradicting the verbal message
o Managing impressions (how you are perceived by others)
o Establishing relationships
Attitudes to Language
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This describes how people feel about the language used by themselves and by others
It can include their thoughts about a language’s appropriateness for a certain context,
audience or subject matter
Attitudes are shown by the variety a speaker chooses to use and how they respond to the
varieties used by others
Attitudes to language can be described as:
o Proud/Nationalistic
o Confident
o Derisive
o Ashamed
o Celebratory
Grammatical Features of Jamaican/Caribbean English Creole
If you are asked about the grammatical features of ‘the language’ used in the extract, it will
always be about Caribbean/English Creole. Regardless of your opinions, Creole has grammatical
features, so get learning.
The following grammatical features are most notable:
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Unmarked nouns
o For example, ‘mango sweet’
o Noun unchanged to match number, ‘nine man’
Unmarked verbs
o For example, ‘she pinch me and run outside’
o Verbs not conjugated to match tense or subject
Preverbal particle markers
o For example, ‘ben/bin/wen/did’ (past marker), ‘go’ (future marker), ‘a’ (marker of
continuous and habitual), ‘does’ (marker of habitual)
o Certain words added before the unmarked verb to indicate tense
Zero Copula
o The verb ‘to be’ and all its derivatives and conjugations are absent
o For example, ‘mi gone’
Subject-adjective structures
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o For example, ‘mi sick’, ‘di mango sweet’
o Adjective compounded onto noun without connecting verb (copula absent)
Pluralization with suffixes like ‘-dem’ without modification of the noun
Subject-verb word order in question formation, together with rising intonation, for
example, you done cook di food?
No voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end of words or syllables; a ‘t’ or ‘f’ sound instead, as, for
example, in fif, wit/wif
Remember that grammar is only one linguistic feature of a language. There are also
phonology, lexicon and syntax in addition to grammar.
But Why?
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The essay question will always ask you to justify or give reasons for the use of the
language in the extract.
Also, note that whenever asked to discuss the language, context, tone, etc, you should
always identify the language, context… in question before discussing it.
The reasons for the writer’s use of the language can be:
o Creole is his first language/native/mother tongue
o The topic is best understood/delivered in Creole
o The topic is a close and an emotional one
o The author knows another language but uses Creole to show that he is proud of
his heritage, in this case Creole is used as his identity marker
o By using Creole he is making a very strong case in support of Creole being a
language as any other language
The reason for a character’s use of a particular language can be:
o Sometimes a character uses a specific language to be accepted as a citizen of that
country
o Wants to reach that specific audience
o Or to show that this language is a language as in the case of Creole
What affects a writer’s use of language?
o The target audience’s ability to understand the Standard or the Creole.
o The writer is familiar with the target audience.
o The context in which the language is used is conventionally appropriate.
o The language is appropriate for the content that is being shared. Conventionally,
Creole is used for less serious matters, for telling stories and entertaining.
Standard on the other hand, is usually used for official business, academic writing
etc
What are the implications for the wider acceptability of Creole arising from the writer’s
use of this language variety?
o The use of Creole as a literary tool contributes further to the acceptability
o When Creole is accepted it’s because of the audience’s positive beliefs about
Creole
o Implications for acceptability speaks of accessing the material, even
understanding the material, taking ownership of the language that is used (in this
case Creole)
o The use of Creole reflects societal use of Creole also
o By publishing that use in a work of art she is celebrating the societal usage and, in
particular, lifting the credibility of Creole.
o Is the reader proud of the language? Pride leads to acceptability.
o Having a positive attitude or perception of the language invariably leads to wider
acceptability.
o Her usage of several language varieties gives the impression that one language is
not better suited than the other for the expression of her message; that, indeed, one
can code switch.
o May lead to more writers using it as a credible literary tool in published literary
works
o Will lead to the development of an orthography for this Creole language
o Will lead to more formal application in education
o Higher probability of research into different genres in Creole
o May lead to the inclusion of Creole in a national language policy
Difficulties that Non-West Indian Readers Could Experience
Non-West Indian readers may have difficulties interpreting a West Indian text- you can
essentially speak about the grammatical and morphological features of creole present in the
passage:
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Lack of understanding of some Creole syntax, for example: Tenseless descriptions of
events (non–West Indians will not have an idea of when the event took place)
Non West Indians will not understand Creole lexical terms, for example, “screwing up
her face” and “stopped braps”
Non–West Indians will experience difficulties in understanding the lack of pluralisation
of nouns
Non–West Indians will experience difficulties in understanding the Creole habit of using
onomatopoeic words as adverbs, for example, “braps”
How Could a Video Presentation Enhance the Extract?
These questions will usually specify the type of effect that is to be enhanced, for example,
comedy. If it is not specified, then you must determine what effects the extract is intended to
have and identify ways in which these effects (comedy, severity, tension) would be enhanced in
a visual rendition.
Also, always remember to include examples from the passage.
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To answer, you simply have to speak about how communicative behaviours (explicitly
stated in the passage or not) would be evident in a video presentation, and how they
would add to the effect in question.
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o Seeing and hearing the words and actions of a person makes it easier to
understand attitudes
o Facial expression, gestures, body movements, clothes, objects are visual aspects
added by the video media that can enhance the audience’s understanding of what
is being portrayed.
o Auditory aspects, such as paralanguage/vocalics and the contrasting tones of
characters’ voices will add another dimension of meaning
o Aspects of the setting and objects/props would be clearly seen
o Small details like spacing between characters will also visually communicate
more
Really, by relating any communicative behaviour to an effect and stating why a
visual/auditory aspect in the audio-visual medium of video would enhance it (along with
an example), you will be able to answer this question.
Module 3: Speaking and Writing
The Module 3 Essay question has, perhaps, the most variation between papers. You will be
presented with an uninteresting scenario, then be asked to:
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Present a proposal
Write a speech/address/formal letter/presentation
Identify a suitable medium/channel for promotion
Discuss appeals to the target group(s)
Discuss the effectiveness of/identify (usually three) strategies for reaching the target
group and/or how to achieve them
Explain how your knowledge of communication would help you conduct a successful
promotion
Identify appropriate language varieties, registers and/or tones
Provide an evaluation of the campaign
Speech/Feature Address
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Introduce yourself then give a brief reason for being there. State your topic of address.
You may require definitions
Essay
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Introduction with a summary of the scenario and statements
Body containing answers to the statements, with justifications
Conclusion with summary.
Presentation
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Write as though speaking directly to the audience
Never justify or give reasons here, just compose a presentation as though you were to
give it
Use a greeting to the audience and personal pronouns/direct address (I, me, you, we…)
Proposal
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Introduction similar to the essay
Make suggestions using ‘propose,’ ‘intend,’ ‘going to’ or ‘would do’
o Justify all your suggestions
Advertisement
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Use persuasive language and techniques
Utilize the three appeals:
o Logos appeal- appeal to reason using facts and logic
o Pathos appeal- appeal to emotions using emotive language and evoking sympathy
o Ethos appeal- appeal to a sense of credibility
Selecting an Appropriate Medium
When selecting a medium, you must consider:
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The audience
The language you are going to use
The register to be created
The strategies that will be used to reach the target audience
The evaluation strategies you will use
Sometimes, the question may ask for you to select appropriate media for different types of
audiences in the campaign. In whichever broad group you are targeting, you categorize
individuals into types of audiences based on age, gender, occupation, ethnicity…
The different media which can be used in campaign include:
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Online media
Print media (Newspapers, handouts, brochures)
Social/Digital Media
Direct mail (postal)
Email
Radio Broadcast
Television Broadcast
Telemarketing
Events and trade shows
Search engines
Outdoor media (billboards, signage)
Public Address system
Discussing a Medium
When discussing an appropriate medium, you can mention:
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The audience and its demographics (age, occupation, education level, geographical
location)
Cost of using a medium
The speed of using a certain medium
The scope of the medium, i.e. how far-reaching it is depending on the context
Whether the context/audience requires the use of technology
For example:
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Direct mail has the very high impact. Your message reaches each recipient in a
personalized way and at a moment they have chosen to consider your message. The cost
of reaching an individual through direct mail can be even greater than television, making
it the most expensive advertising medium per person reached.
Television also offers the advertiser an opportunity to speak to a captive audience. In fact,
television viewers are even more apt to fully “tune into” an advertisement. The cost,
though, of purchasing a television spot is even greater than that of radio.
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Radio offers a dramatic improvement over “print” advertisements. The “listener” is
captive to the message unless they switch stations or turn the radio off. The cost to reach
the same amount of people that a print ad would reach, however, is significantly higher.
Outdoor and transit advertisements such as billboards, transit signs, murals, and signage
are hard to avoid viewing. But, despite the high visibility factor, no one spends any great
amount of time reading them. They are appropriate for very simple messages.
Magazines offer a slightly better opportunity to catch the reader’s attention. Readers tend
to peruse magazines more carefully than they do newspapers, and because magazine ads
are placed fewer per page, the competition for the reader’s eye is reduced. But magazine
ads cost more than newspaper ads.
Yellow Pages can be a wonderful venue, and even the best choice, for a few business-tobusiness companies in the service sector, but is totally inappropriate for most others
especially product-based businesses.
Newspapers are generally the cheapest way to reach a mass audience. However,
newspapers carry many ads. It is easy for all but the largest display ads to get lost in the
visual clutter. In any case, remember that newspapers are typically browsed by the reader.
If an ad is seen at all, the headline will be glimpsed and the content largely ignored.
Vocabulary and Register
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The vocabulary and chosen language are influenced by the audience and all its
demographics.
The register is created by the language that you have chosen and the context where the
situation is taking place.
o For example if you chose Creole language it will be because the audience speaks
and understands this language or the audience is your friend or family or the
context is appropriate. Creole as the choice language creates a casual or informal
or intimate or consultative register.
Depending on the context, simple everyday structures should be used to increase
comprehension by the widest audience
Try as far as possible to make minimal use of jargons and technical words and phrases
Use a suitable tone (conversational, formal…)
Visual Aids/Strategies for Enhancing a Presentation
The question may also ask about visual aids and strategies to enhance the presentation:
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Posters/Charts
PowerPoint slides
Models
Pictures/photos
Dry erase boards
Overhead transparencies
Puppet show
Movie clips
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Audio clips
Maintaining the Theme of a Campaign
This essentially means how you maintain your theme as a part of the public consciousness
through constant effort
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You can maintain your theme through the use of a variety of media such as speeches,
discussion, dramatic presentations, songs, jingles, T-shirts
You can use different channels such as TV, radio, Facebook, theatre, newspapers,
bumper stickers
Evaluating the Campaign
This refers to determining the success of the campaign- what indicators will be used to verify the
effect of the campaign? And how will you go about measuring those?
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Attitudes to your theme may be the indicator of change.
o These may be measured using questionnaires, interviews, observation, focus
groups or other data collection methods
Appeals
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Logos appeal- appeal to reason using facts, statistics and logic
Pathos appeal- appeal to emotions using emotive language, jingles, visuals, audio clips
Ethos appeal- appeal to a sense of credibility
Strategies
It seems that you are permitted some level of creativity with the strategies you employ, for
example:
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Use of catchy tune or jingle
Use of popular local personality as voice over
Placing ads in school newspapers or magazine pull-out
Sponsoring school-related or community based events
Use of promotional merchandise like cups, key rings with the name of company, pencils,
pencil cases, pens, knapsacks, tote bags, T-shirts, wrist band
Creation of a mascot that will appear at malls
Use of different varieties of language - to appeal to different kinds of audiences
Use of different registers – to appeal to different kinds of audiences