INDUSTRIAL INTERNSHIP REPORT
(SEVEN WEEKS)
U-SAFE ZONE CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF
DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
CHEMICAL
SEMESTER-06
26 JUNE-14-AUGUST 2022
SUBMITTED BY
ABRARUL HAQ
CH19103
Dr.S.S.BHATNAGAR UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY,PANJAB UNIVERSITY,SECTOR-14,CHANDIGARH
i
DECLARATION
I, Abrarul Haq hereby declare that the presented report of internship is a record of an original work
done by me under the guidance of Mr. Muzamil Jeelani, Production Manager at U-Safe Zone
Chemical Industries.This internship report is only meant for submission to the Dr. S.S Bhatnagar
UICET, Panjab University, Chandigarh for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award
of degree of Bachelor of Engineering (chemical).All the data mentioned is correct to the best of my
knowledge.
ABRARUL HAQ
CH19103
i
ii
ABSTRACT
Soaps and detergents are frequently used in our daily life.The production of soaps and detergents is
aimed at producing a cleansing agent capable of removing stains and dirt.The manufacturing of
soaps and detergents consists of a comprehensive range of processing and packaging activities.The
complex activities involved in soap and detergent manufacturing may vary from small scale plants
to large scale plants.This report extensively describes the production of bathing/toilet soap in the
small scale industries where the soap noodles are used as raw material.The manufacturing of the
liquid detergents is also discussed.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to Almighty Allah for enabling me to complete this
internship report with His blessings.
My special thanks to Mr.Muzamil Jeelani for giving me the opportunity to do an internship within
the organization and to learn new skills.I would like to acknowledge the guidance of all of my
teachers and thank them for their supervision and encouragement.
I would also like to thank all the people who worked along with me for creating an enjoyable
working environment during the internship.
iv
ABBREVIATONS AND ACRONYMS :
EDTA- Ethylenediamine Tetra-acetic Acid
LABSA- Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulphonic Acid
TFM- Total Fatty Matter
SLS - Sodium Lauryl Sulphate
TSP - Trisodium Phosphate
PKO - Palm Kernel Oil
CAGR - Compound Annual Growth Rate
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Candidate’s declaration ----------------------------------------------------------------i
Certificate ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii
Abstract -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------iii
Acknowledgement------------------------------------------------------------------------iv
Abbreviations and Acronyms ----------------------------------------------------------v
1. Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------------1-2
1.1 Company Background----------------------------------------1
1.2 Training Objective -------------------------------------------1
1.3 Work Assignments -------------------------------------------1-2
2. Introduction of Soaps ---------------------------------------------------------------3-5
2.1 History of Soaps ---------------------------------------------3
2.2 Definition ---------------------------------------------------- 3-4
2.3 Raw Materials used in Soap Manufacturing ------------4-5
3. Soap Noodles -------------------------------------------------------------------------------6-9
3.1 Brief Description --------------------------------------------6-8
3.2 Toilet/Bathing Soap Manufacturing ---------------------8-9
4. Equipment’s used in the Plant -----------------------------------------------------10-19
4.1 Soap Mixers --------------------------------------------------10-11
vi
4.2 Soap Roll Mill -----------------------------------------------11-12
4.3 Soap Plodders ------------------------------------------------12-13
4.4 Soap Cutters --------------------------------------------------14
4.5 Embossing System --------------------------------------------15
4.6 Chillers ---------------------------------------------------------15-16
4.7 Accessories ----------------------------------------------------15-17
4.8 Soap Packing Machines --------------------------------------18-19
5. Soap Quality Analysis -----------------------------------------------------------------------20-21
6. Introduction to Liquid Detergents ---------------------------------------------------------22-23
7. Safety Analysis ------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
8. Effects of Soaps and Detergents on Environment ---------------------------------------25-27
9. Global Soap Market -------------------------------------------------------------------------28-29
10. Conclusion-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
11. References-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------31
vii
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION:
1.1 Company Background:
U-Safe Zone Chemical Industries started its journey in 2003 with the vision to excel in the field of
soap manufacturing.The company started the small scale manufacturing with the basic equipment to
fulfill the requirements of the local consumer base.Since then the company has rapidly evolved and
transformed itself with the latest technologies,methods and products to meet the growing customer
demands.The company is now one of the leading industries in Jammu and Kashmir’s soap
market.The company is now also involved in the production of liquid detergents.
1.2 Training Objectives:

Integrate theory and practice.

Utilize lab scale skills at industrial scale.

Teamwork,Professionalism and Collaboration.

Gain new skills(creative,communication,interpersonal)
1.3 Work Assignments:
The soap-making process involves technical processes form the mixing of the raw materials to the
packaging of finished products.As a chemical engineer, I worked with technical operators to
monitor day-to-day operations to troubleshoot and solve technical problems.The various measures
were taken for the production of cost efficient quality products.The safe handling of the chemicals
was also discussed.
As an intern,I also studied the soap industry from environmental perspective.The impact of the
chemicals used in the soap and detergent industry and the alternative measures that may be taken
for the production of environmental friendly is briefly discussed in the report.The work assignments
are summarized as follows:

To work with the production team and study the various stages involved in the production of
toilet/bathing soaps.
１

To work with the quality and analysis team to study various specific quality parameters.

To solve the problems that may arise from the equipment’s during the production.
２
CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION OF SOAPS:
2.1 Brief History:
Soap is perhaps one of the most used skincare products all over the world, and it has actually
been around much longer than we would have thought. In fact, the very first evidence of soaplike material has been dated to have existed at around 2800 B.C. in the outskirts of Ancient
Babylon. The Babylonians were the first people to have mastered soap making, and they crafted
their soaps from boiled fats and ashes. For at least 5 millennia, soap was utilized for cleaning
cotton, wool, and cooking materials as well as for medicinal purposes. It didn't actually start out
as something that was used for bathing or personal hygiene.
The Arabs were the first to make soap from vegetable oils, aromatic oils, and lye. In the 7th
century A.D., soap was manufactured in places such as Basra, Nablus, and Kufa. Perfumed and
colored soaps were made, and these came in both solid and liquid forms. Special soaps for
shaving were also produced.
Industrially manufactured soaps became readily available in the late 18th century. This big leap
in wide-scale soap making can be attributed to the discoveries of two French chemists, namely
Nicholas Leblanc and Michael Chevreul. Leblanc patented a technique for creating soda ash
(sodium carbonate) from commonly available salts in 1791, while Chevreul learned the chemical
nature and the relationships of glycerine, fatty acids, and fats.
The commercial soaps that we know today came into being during the First World War. After
the war and until the 1930's, the batch kettle boiling method was used to manufacture soap.
Eventually, Procter & Gamble came up with a continuous process that reduced the time for soap
production to less than a day. This method is still being used by the big soap companies today.
2.2 Definition of Soaps:
A soap is a sodium or a potassium salt of a fatty acid. Soap is mainly made by two processes:
Saponification: The reaction of Neutral Oil with Alkali (i.e. Caustic Soda)
Vegetable Oils / Animal Fats + Caustic Soda = Soap + Glycerin.
Neutralization: The reaction of a Fatty Acid with Alkali (i.e. Caustic Soda)
Fatty Acids + Caustic Soda = Soap + Water.
Neutral Oils are composed by triglycerides: Fatty Acids and Glycerin. The fatty acids used in
３
soap
manufacturing have carbon chains composed from 8 to 20 carbons.
Soap produced using Neutral Oils (Vegetable Oils / Animal Fats) as raw materials contains some
points of glycerine; soap produced using Fatty Acids as raw materials does not contains
glycerine.
2.3 Raw Materials Used In Soap:
The raw materials for the making of soap cover a wide range of substances which may be
classified under the following headings:
1. Fat and oils
2. Alkalis ( Sodium Hydroxide and Potassium Hydroxide)
3. Filling agents (used to add weight to soap)
4. Water
5. Salt
6. Perfumes
7. Colours or dyes
However, fats and oils constitute approximately 90% of the soapmaker's raw materials, and a
detailed treatment of fats and oils is made in this chapter.
Fats and Oils
The cost of production and properties of any particular soap are largely dependent on the nature
and properties of the various oils and fats used in its manufacture. Thus it is very important for
the soapmaker to be fully conversant with the physical, chemical and soapmaking properties of
the oils and fats being used. Since no two oils have identical soapmaking properties, the art of
soapmaking lies not only in the boiling operation but in the judicious selection of the oils and
fats to produce the qualities needed.
Classification of Fats and Oils:
Fats and oils are esters of fatty acids and glycerol. The distinction between fats and oils is purely
an arbitrary one, based on their physical state at ordinary temperatures - the oils being liquid and
the fats solid or pasty.
４
Fats and oils are divided into three classes, namely, fixed oils, mineral oils and essential oils.
However, fixed oils form the main raw materials for soapmaking as they decompose into fatty
acids and glycerol when strongly heated, and are easily saponified by alkali. Fixed oils and fats,
which include both animal and vegetable fats and oils, are further classified according to their
physical properties as follows:
a) Nut oils: These oils are characterized by a large proportion of fatty acids with low molecular
weight, especialy lauric acid. Examples of these oils are coconut oil and palm kernel oil. These
oils (especially coconut oil),when used in toilet soaps are the chief suds-producing ingredients.
They saponify easily with strong alkali solution. Once these oils begin to saponify the process
proceeds rapidly with the evolution of heat. They also require large quantities of strong brine to
grain their soaps, and the grained soaps tend to carry more salt than other soaps. These oils are
more suitable for the making of cold process soaps.
b) Hard Fats: The hard fats contain appreciable quantities of palmatic and stearic acids.
Examples of these fats are palm oil, animal tallow and hydrogenated oils. These oils or fats
produce slow-lathering soaps but the lather produced is more stable over long periods of time
than the nut oils. In soapmaking, they are first saponified with weak alkali, and in the final stages
with stronger alkali solutions.
c) Soft Oils: These oils have substantial amounts of unsaturated acids, namely oleic, linoleic and
linoleneic acids. The soapmaking properties of these oils vary with their fatty acid composition,
and the physical and chemical properties of the acids. Examples of these oils are groundnut,
castor, cotton seed, fish oil and olive oil. These oils cannot produce hard soap when used alone
for soapmaking. They are usually blended with nut oils. Their soaps, however, lather freely and
have very good detergent properties.
CHAPTER-3
Soap Noodles:
3.1 Brief Description:
５
Soap noodles are sodium salt of fatty acids.Soap noodles are small noodle-like oil-based
products.with a variable diameter from 8 to 10 mm and a length of about 20 mm or little bit more.
It is primarily used as a base material in the production of household and toilet soaps along with
the additives like pigments, distinctive fragrance, and others. They are generally made from a
sodium hydroxide reaction with vegetable oil-based fatty acids or tallow-based fatty acids.Lots
of manufacturers buy soap noodles and then add fragrance, pigments and many other
components in the soap noodles to create their own brand of soap. With the help of soap noodles,
a manufacturer can make a variety of soaps in different fragrances and features. Once the process
has been completed then the soap is moulded and gets its final shape and then stamped with the
brand and packaged for delivery.
Different kinds of specifications of soap noodles are used usually depend on the type of soap that
is manufactured by the manufacturers such as laundry soap, toilet soap, high lather, translucent
soaps and many more.
Toilet soap noodles are extra-white, snow-white or off-white and have a TFM of 78%, while
laundry soap noodles have a TFM of 72%.
Some preservatives, like ETDA are necessary for the preservation of the soap noodles.
Toilet Soap Noodles 80:20 -> 80% Palm Oil + 20% Coconut Oil or PKO
Toilet Soap Noodles 90:10 -> 90% Palm Oil + 10% Coconut Oil or PKO
Toilet Soap Noodles 70:30 -> 70% Palm Oil + 30% Coconut Oil or PKO
Coconut Oil or PKO are very important in soap noodles manufacturing, because they generate
foam and bubbles in the final soap bars.
Laundry Soap Noodles are manufactured using cheaper grade palm oils with lower oil content
than Toilet Soap Noodles. Fillers, like kaolin and sodium silicate, are added into Laundry Soap
Noodles to give hardness the Laundry Soap Noodles. This is useful as when the Laundry Soap
Noodles are used to produce Laundry Soap Bars that will be hardened and suitable for washing
clothes and other purposes.
６
Fig. 3.1 :Soap Noodles
Process:
Saponification is the process of making soap from alkali and fat (or oil). Vegetable oils and
animal fats are fatty esters in the form of triglycerides. The alkali breaks the ester bond and
releases the fatty acid salt and glycerol. If necessary, soaps may be precipitated by salting out
with saturated sodium chloride. Usually, sodium hydroxide is used in formation of hard soap
while potassium hydroxide is used in case of soft soap.
Soap Noodles are mainly produced using full boiled sponification plant in case of oils and fats or
neutralization plant if the raw materials are the fatty acids. In the last few years it is easy to find
on the market SWING soap noodles that are cheaper then semi boiled soap noodles
７
Fig. 3.2 : Various stages in Soap Noodle Manufacturing
3.2 Toilet/Bathing Soap Manufacturing:
The bathing soap is manufactured as per the set formulation.Following is the formulation of a
batch:
Total quantity of batch = 120 kg approximately
Soap noodles = 100 kg
Talcum Powder ( cost effective filler to provide creamier lather ) = 10-12 kg
Ethylene-diamine Tetra-acetic Acid = 20-50 g
(prevent soaps from becoming mouldy and producing scum)
Sodium Lauryl Sulphate (surfactant) = 500 g
Starch = 1-1.5 kg
Glycerine = 500 ml
８
Colour = 20 g
Perfume = 1 litre
Water = As per requirement
Composition of a 25 kg soap noodles bag:
Total Fatty Matter - 78 % min.
Moisture - 14 % max.
Free Fatty Acid as Palmitic- 1.5 % max.
NaCl - 0.3 to 0.7 %
Glycerine - 1 % max.
Titre - 47 ℃ max.
Chelating agent - present
９
CHAPTER-4
EQUIPMENT’S USED IN THE PLANT:
4.1 Soap Mixers:
The Mixer is usually the first machine of a soap finishing line. The main purpose of a soap mixer,
is to amalgamate the soap noodles with colorant, fragrance, solid / liquid additives and fillers
(this last for laundry soap). The soap mixers can be divided mainly in 2 types:
Open Sigma "Z" Mixer:
This soap mixer is characterized by the presence of 1 shaft that assembles 2 mixing blade. It is
used in Toilet soap manufacturing, where fillers are not required. The discharge of mixed soap is
on the bottom part of the mixing tank and usually is a door that is open and closed by means a
pneumatic cylinder.
Double Arm Sigma Mixer - DSM:
This soap mixer is characterized by the presence of 2 mixing shafts for a vigorous mixing. It is
mainly used in Laundry soap manufacturing, where fillers are required. Intensive or micro
mixing is achieved when the soap noodles are broken up to expose more surface and to allow the
ingredients to penetrate inside the soap noodles.
The double arm sigma mixers are equipped with two massive, tangential counter rotating “Sigma”
type blades that can handle all the power required in the process. The blades are supported by a
set of heavy-duty roller bearings and are driven by two separate gearboxes.
The discharge of mixed soap is on the bottom part of the mixing tank and usually is composed by
2 doors that are open and closed by means a pneumatic cylinder. The double arm sigma mixer
can also have a special tilting discharge system. The mixing tank can be jacketed for heating and
cooling application and machined to guarantee minimum gap between the blade and the tank.
This mixer is also used in Translucent soap manufacturing.
１０
Fig. 4.1 : Soap Mixers
4.2 SOAP ROLL MILL:
The three roll mill is used in soap manufacturing to refine the soap. A roll mill is composed with
three rolls that rotates with different speed. The rolls are cooled by means of a water chiller to
avoid a production rate reduction. The most important parameter of a soap roll mill is the gap of
the two last rolls; usually a gap of 0.15 or 0.20 mm is advisable for standard soap. The increasing
or decreasing of the gap is linked to the production rate of the soap roll mill.
The mainly strength of a roll mill is the ability to destroy the dry specks inside the vegetables
soap noodles. This work is difficult to be obtained with a refining plodder. Depending from the
formula, many times a roll mill is used. instead of a refining plodder, in the manufacturing of
synthetic soap.
In the past a roll mill with 4 and 5 rolls was used, but in the last decades these machines
disappeared. The final soap coming out from a roll mill is called soap flakes.
１１
Fig. 4.2 : Triple Roll Mill
4.3 SOAP PLODDERS:
Simplex Refiner Plodder:
Also the simplex refiner plodder is used in soap manufacturing to refine the soap: a combination
of intimate homogenization and filtering of the soap. Simplex refiner plodder is a soap extruder
composed by a screw made in aluminum alloy or in stainless steel, a barrel that is jacketed for
cooling by means of a water chiller to avoid a production rate reduction, a hopper to feed the
soap coming from the mixer, a strong gearbox and a basement. At the end of a refining plodder a
drilled plate with rotary blades is assembled to extrude refined soap noodles.
Duplex Vacuum Plodder:
A duplex vacuum plodder is composed by 2 single simplex plodders connected by means of a
vacuum chamber. The first plodder is called refining stage thanks to the drilled plate with blade,
while the second plodder is called extrusion stage, for the presence of an extrusion cone
assembled at the end of the machine. The two stages are connected with a chamber that work
under vacuum to remove small bubbles of air that could be find in the extruded soap bar.
In the past the screws speeds was fixed but in the last 20 years, thanks to the frequency inverters,
all the screws have an adjustable speed in r.p.m.
The extrusion cone is heated by means of an electrical heater to give a smooth surface to the
extruded soap bar.
１２
Fig. 4.3 : Plodders
4.4 SOAP CUTTERS:
Soap cutter is installed after a Plodder to cut the continuously extruded soap bars in billets with
the required length. In the past the widely diffused soap cutters are called "chain cutters" because
they assembled a long rotating chain with many blades. The limitation of the chain cutters was
the limited variation of the soap cutting length, so almost 30 years ago pneumatic and
mechanical soap cutters replaced the chain cutters.
Automatic Soap Cutter
The last generation of soap cutters are characterized by two movements: the blade moves up and
down to cut the soap bar and, in the same time, the blade moves horizontally with the same speed
of the soap bar, to grant 90° cutting. The principle of these two movements is used to build
different models of soap cutters, with a maximum speed up to 300 cuts per minute and with a
variable cutting range from 10 to 900 mm
About 10 years ago, the advent of brushless motors at reasonable cost allowed to build a fully
electronically soap cutter called "Easycut" with a rotating blade directly coupled to the servo１３
driven motor shaft that assures very accurate cuts for high-speed operations. Thanks to the
extremely small cutting interval there is no need of a horizontal movement of the blade that starts
and stops each cycle; so it is possible to produce High-Precision cut soap bars/billets. This type
of soap cutter is able to cut up to 450 soap bars per minute.
Fig. 4.4 : Soap Bars
4.5 EMBOSSING SYSTEM :
The embossing system is composed by 2 rolls (vertical and side rolls) or both 4 rolls able to print
the soap bars. This device is assembled at the beginning of the soap cutter; thanks to an encoder
the cut is done in the correct position, so the printing is centered on the soap bars.
This system is an optional available on many models of soap cutting machines. The engraving
rolls can be produced in brass or in cheaper materials like Teflon.The embossing system is
widely used to produce Laundry soap bars, "cut & printed" on 1 or 2 or 4 faces.During the last
decade the application of engraving system is increasing also for the natural soap with a sough
look and like a cheaper alternative to soap stamping.
１４
Fig.4.5 : Stamping Machines
4.6 CHILLERS:
Two types of cooling chillers are used in soap industry. Both type are close cycle chillers
because the cooling liquid is always the same:
Water Chiller:
This type of Chiller work with a temperature in a variable range of +10 / +15°C. This chiller is
used to cool the Roll Mill and the Soap Plodders. The heating generated by the friction between
the soap and the rolls / screws is usually to decrease the production rate. The Chiller is used to
grant a constant cooling that means a constant production rate for soap roll mill and soap
plodders.Usually the cooling liquid is a mixture of 90% of water and 10% of Glycol.
Die-Set Chiller:
This type of Chiller work with a temperature in a variable range of -15 / -25°C. This chiller is
used to cool the die-set (moulds) of the soap presses. A soap press gives the required
performances when the die-set are frozen. Without the chiller, the stamped soap bars stick on the
die-sets and it is very difficult to remove them from the dies. The scope of the chiller is to
facilitate the soap bars extraction from the die-set without to damage the surfaces of the stamped
soap bars.
4.7 ACCESSORIES:
Some accessories can be used in a soap finishing line:
Conveyors:
１５
The conveyors are used to transport the soap from one machine to another; usually one conveyor
is installed between the Mixer and the simplex plodder / roll mill. From here another conveyor
transports the soap to the duplex vacuum plodder.
Usually a connecting conveyor is installed between the soap cutter and the soap press.A soap
finishing line that includes a flash-stamping soap press, usually also includes a recycle conveyors
system, composed by two or three conveyors that transport back the flashing,produced by the
soap press, to the duplex vacuum plodder for the recycle.
Fig.4.6: Conveyors
Metal Detector:
A metal detector can be installed in a soap finishing line, between the soap cutter and the soap
press. If the cut soap bars contains a small metallic parts, the metal detector expel this soap bar
from the line. This is useful to avoid metallic parts in the final soap and also to avoid to damage
the die-set during the soap stamping.
１６
Fig.4.7:General Diagram
4.8 SOAP PACKAGING MACHINES:
In the soap industry are used many types of soap packaging styles. The packaging is one of the
most important factors to attract the customers and to entice them to buy a soap instead of
another.
Marketing strategies are studied countless times with the aim to find the best look of a packed
soap bar. During the last few years is coming back the use of antiqued paper, to give a look of
craftsmanship to the wrapped soap bars.
The main soap packaging machines can be divided in the following models:
Soap Wrappers
Soap Cartoners
Soap Flow Pack
Soap Bundlers
Pleat & Stretch Wrappers
Soap Wrappers:
A soap wrapper offers the possibility to wrap both rectangular and oval bars with or without side
band, using outlet paper and inner stiffener; this last is useful for a stability to oval and bandless
soap bars. This wrapping style is called double-point end fold.The paper feeding is from heat
１７
sealing reel, but some models of soap wrappers are studied to work also with pre-cut sheets. To
save money in the last years was invented some kits,assembled on the soap wrappers, to use
BOPP (Biaxially oriented polypropylene film) instead of heat sealing paper. BOPP can be
transparent or also printed.
All the soap wrappers assembles an automatic infeed system able to feed the stamped soap bars
coming from the Soap Press. Toilet soap bars are fed by means of suctions cups while laundry
rectangular soap bars usually are fed by pushers.The production rate of a soap wrapper is in the
range from 100 up to 500 wrapped soaps per minute.
Soap Cartoners:
A soap cartoner, also called soap cartoning machine, is studied to put a soap bars inside a small
carton box. The soaps bars arriving from the infeed chain is inserted by a set of pushers. A set of
shafts with suction cups transfers the squared carton from the magazine into the toothed chain.
CHAPTER-5
SOAP QUALITY ANALYSIS:
１８
In order to maintain the best quality of the product soap it is very much necessary to follow the
specific standards during manufacturing.To achieve the desirable products following
characteristics are to be considered:
Total Fatty Matter:
This is the most important characteristic to understand the soap quality. This value is the
percentage of Total Fatty Matter inside the Soap.Higher the TFM quantity in soap,better is its
quality.The standard TFM for Toilet soap bars is about 76% as per BIS.
Analysis Done:

Accurately weighed 5 gm of soap and transferred into 250 ml beaker.

To completely dissolve the soap 100 ml hot water was added.40 ml of 0.5 N HNO3 was
added to the mixture until contents were slightly acidic.

The mixture was heated over water bath until the fatty acids were floating as a layer
above the solution.

Then the mixture is cooled suddenly in ice water in order to solidify the fatty acids and
separate them.

50 ml of chloroform was added to the remaining solution and transferred into a separating
funnel.

The solution is shaken and allowed theto separate into 2 layers and the bottom layer was
drained out.

50 ml of chloroform was added to the remaining solution in the separating funnel.

The fatty acid dissolved chloroform is again separated as in the previous case and it is
transferred to the collected fatty matter.

The fatty matter was weighed in a previously weighed porcelain dish.

From the difference in weight, the % of fatty matter was calculated in the given soap
sample.
１９
Moisture:
This value in percentage represents the quantity of water inside the soap. The standard value for
Toilet soap bars is 12%, while laundry soap includes more water inside.
Glycerin:
This value in percentage represents the quantity of glycerin inside the soap. An amount of 6-8%
is presents in semi boiled soap, while full boiled soap usually has an amount of 0.1-1%. If
required the Glycerin can be added to the soap, a typical application is the translucent soap.
Free Chloride as NaCl:
This value in percentage represents the quantity of NaCl inside the soap. A very low value like
0.4% can be consider acceptable in toilet soap, while for laundry soap the percentage usually
increase up to 0.8% or also little bit more.
Lather:
Lather is the foam or the froth created by soap when stirred in water or while bathing or washing
hands.It is an important parameter for acceptability of soaps.Standard requirement is about 240280 ml.Five grams of scrubbed and grated piece of soap was thoroughly mixed in water and the
lather generated was measured with the measuring cylinder.The result was within the specified
standards.
Mushiness(Loss in Mass due to Mushiness) ; Gram/ cm2 :
Mushiness is the property o soap to absorb water an get dissolved in it.The least mushiness
indicates the minimal loss of soap in wet conditions.
CHAPTER-6
LIQUID DETERGENTS:
Detergents are sodium salts of long chain benzene sulphonic acid or sodium salts of long chain
alkyl hydrogen sulphate.A detergent molecule consists of a large hydrocarbon that is non-ionic
and a sulphonate or a sulphate group that is ionic.Detergents may be produced either in
powdered form or in liquid form but here we focus on liquid detergents.
２０
While powdered detergents still hold a significant portion of the market, liquid detergents feature
a set of advantages worth considering.The term “Liquid detergent” is vague and refers to various
types of cleaning products in liquid forms.Apart from liquid laundry detergent, it also includes
dishwashing liquid, hand soap liquid, a range of different household cleaners, and more.All kinds
of liquid detergents and related formulas (such as fabric softeners, e.g.) can be produced in the
same plant.
Liquid detergent can be used for any kind of washing.However, it delivers its best when used to
clean oily stains, and/or in areas with hard water. It’s all about the formula – liquid detergents
possess a higher ability to release and break down fat, and their ingredients are resilient to
minerals typically found in hard water.Moreover, liquid detergents are more suitable for washing
colored fabrics, since many formulas preserve the hue better than powder detergents.
What it takes to make liquid detergent?
The simplest explanation of the liquid detergent manufacturing process is that all ingredients are
blended and then if dry, liquidized. The latter requires a solubilizer, a solution composed of
water and various chemicals.
How do we make high-quality liquid detergent?
The production can be manual, semi-, or fully automated.Each process comprises similar
essential steps:
1. Dosing and mixing major components – raw materials, creating a base.
Liquid detergent ingredients come in dry or liquid forms. Following the desired formulation,
they are measured and dosed into the homogeneous mixer and exposed to physical mixing and
chemical reaction.Typically, it means a neutralization reaction between LABSA and predissolved Caustic soda.
2. Adding balancing components – pH adjusting, buffering, stabilizing the formula
After physical mixing, it’s time for thickeners, pH adjusters, and other balancing ingredients.
Their addition is necessary in order to achieve desired viscosity, stability, and pH value.
3. Filtration – final perfecting of the liquid detergent product
The fully-mixed final detergent sits 5-12 hours in intermediate storage tankers. In this phase, the
air bubbles and foam are removed and the product is ready for bottling.
4. Packaging and labelingThe bottling and capping process can be manual, semi-automated, and automated. A bottled
liquid detergent is then labeled, branded, and finished.
２１
Finally, to make a liquid detergent, the blended mass of dry ingredients needs to be mixed with a
solution consisting of water and solubilizers. The result is a viscous, transparent liquid ready for
packaging
Ingredients Used to prepare High Quality Liquid Detergent(5 Litres):
1.
Acid Slurry(LABSA) = 500 g
2.
Caustic Soda = 100 g
3.
TSP = 80 g
4.
Urea = 100 g
5.
Global Salt = 10 g
6.
Demineralised Water = 4 to 5 Litres
7.
Fragrance and Color
Process:

Acid slurry is poured into demineralised water and mixed.

Caustic Soda is added to water separately and mixed.

Now Caustic Soda is added to acid slurry and the solution is mixed thoroughly.

Now TSP is added followed by urea with continuous mixing.

At last fragrances and color are added.The liquid detergent is ready now.
CHAPTER-7
SAFETY ANALYSIS:
A workplace safety analysis is the process of critically examining the workplace for the
identification and mitigation of workplace hazards and to ensure that all standards are met and
the workplace is in fact safe and free from any risks. Safety or occupational safety is an attempt
to ensure the health of workers in a company. Health and safety at work can be interpreted as a
promotion, protection and improvement of health status that as the height of cover the physical,
mental, and social welfare of all workers in all workplaces. To reduce the chances of an accident
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or as a precaution against potential hazards must be identified hazards. By doing so the source of
danger hazard identification can be so that potential accidentscan be controlled. One way that
can be used to identify hazards is to use a job safety analysis. Job safety analysis is an accident
prevention technique that were used to identify potential risks and dangers associated with a
worker and give risk control to reduce the risk and the harm. Soap and detergent industries have
boilers, crushers, mixers, extruders, cage mils, filter pans, storage tanks and packing machines
for their production work. Labour working on these machines directly or indirectly are more
prone to safety related issues.
Possible Risks:
Power Source: We need to be curious during switching on and off the power supply.
Equipment’s : Inhalation of raw materials through air may effect our health so personal
protective equipment are important.Protective hand gloves are necessary during working. Also
we need to follow safety measures during oiling and greasing of equipment’s.Workers need to be
conscious also of soap cutters.Working area should be well ventilated.
CHAPTER-8
ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVE:
The soaps and detergents contain the chemicals that directly contaminate the
environment.Effective and alternative measures are to be taken in then soap manufacturing for
the optimal use of soaps.
Some of the effects are discussed below:

Biodegradability: Only soaps with the surfactant(substance of the soaps that causes damage
to aquatic life) that lose 90% of its property of decreasing the surface tension of the water
after 28 days of being discharged can be labeled as biodegradable.
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
Eutrophication: Many conventional detergents use phosphates, phosphonates or
percarboxylates as enhancers. These substances act as algae fertilizers, causing them to
reproduce very quickly. The large amount of algae depletes the oxygen in the water, which
is no longer available for aquatic fauna (microbes and fish), and generates bad odors. In
addition to causing very serious imbalances in lakes and rivers.

Bleachers: Although bleaching agents are rarely used in these types of products, they could
sometimes contain chlorine or oxygen. One of the main problems of the chlorine industry is
that it generates organochlorine substances, such as dioxins and furans, which cause many
health problems such as: hormonal dysfunctions, malformations in the fetus and cancer,
among others, and because they cannot be metabolized , accumulate in the tissues of living
beings.

Antibacterial: Lately, many conventional detergents contain antibacterial agents. They have
no practical utility, and instead can cause problems to aquatic bacterial life.

Packing: Although there are detergents that are presented in cardboard boxes, the tendency
is to present conventional detergents and soaps in plastic containers. The most common is to
use several types of plastic that can not be separated later, and therefore can not be recycled,
and this is a serious problem for our planet.
Possible Future Solutions:
Natural Soaps:
Natural soaps start with natural ingredients. Organic soaps use organic natural ingredients.
Organic soaps normally consist of blended butter and oils derived from various plants. This
substance is rich in vitamins, nutrients, and antioxidants. Human skin, hair and other parts of the
body need these substances to grow, live and/or remain healthy. Many natural soaps have other
beneficial ingredients added as well, such as clays, salts, essential oils and botanical extracts.
Organic soaps do not produce harmful environmental poisons or toxins. The soap breaks down
more easily after use and does not harm the water cycle or the wildlife that shares the water in
our rivers, lakes, and the oceans. This eco-friendliness would be a strong argument for using
organic soaps, even if all else was equal. Add to it the great quality and efficacy of the soaps, and
the pleasure you get from a more unique product, and they are a clear winner.
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benefit of natural, organic soaps is that you can rest assured they are not hurting any animals in
the testing or production phases. Ingredients are almost always exclusively plant-based (some
soaps use animal fat as an ingredient, thought this is rare), are organic, and do not require largescale factories and other facilities that cause widespread environmental damage.
Organic manufacturers, by comparison, tend to be smaller facilities and rely on botanical herbs
and extracts to achieve their final product. Coconut and palm oils form the base of the
ingredients, and to this is added essential oils from different plants, flowers, spices, and fruits. In
some cases, natural soaps will use tallow or lard, which are animal products, but they will be
clearly labelled in those cases. Very importantly, animal testing is not necessary for these
products, as they do not contain pesticides and they are free of synthetically derived chemicals.
Research Study:
A green prospective based on the reuse of waste materials such as almond shells, orange peel and
used cooking oil to manufacture soap is presented. Thousands of tons of waste are generated
from used cooking oil and production of nut shells' residues is growing every year. In addition,
the high consumption of citrus fruits, oranges in particular, generates large amounts of citrus peel.
Therefore, it is necessary to diversify reuse mechanisms of these wastes, in order to make them
back into raw materials. The processing and grinding of almond shells, treating used oil,
processing orange peels and extracting limonene, formulating and producing soap, and
performing an acceptance study of the final product. Results have validated a high potential of
the idea in the field of environmental education, so it can be replicated in practical.
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CHAPTER-9
GLOBAL SOAP MARKET:
The global soap market size was USD 34.09 billion in 2019 and is projected to reach USD 55.29
billion by 2027, exhibiting a CAGR of 5.0% during the forecast period.
Bathing bars with attractive colors & fragrances and which are claimed to have moisturizing,
skin whitening, and anti-aging effects are gaining more popularity from end-users. On the other
hand, dishwashing and laundry soaps, which have ingredients such as lemon, have a greater
utility in cleaning utensils and garments and are therefore more in demand. Pandemics and
epidemics such as the ongoing COVID-19 outbreak and the emergence of lethal flu types such as
H1N1 are creating a huge demand for such disinfecting products to maintain hygiene and prevent
the spread of infections, which is a major factor fueling the market growth.
２６
Fig.9.1:Soap Market Growth
Increasing Inclination towards Use of Liquid Soaps is Positively Impacting Market Growth:
The innovation of liquid washing and bathing surfactant products has helped in fostering the
product demand globally as most of the solid bars become slimy in water, which is not the case
with liquids. Moreover, consumers feel that liquids are more hygienic when used by multiple
users and also easier to store. Additionally, a small amount of liquid is enough to generate foam,
and therefore, they can last longer. Furthermore, an increasing number of tours & travels have
increased the demand for travel size bottles of liquid washing and bathing surfactant products
and easy to carry soap paper strips, which are more convenient compared to solid bars. Therefore,
the increasing utility of liquid category products is shifting the consumer preference and is,
therefore, expected to boost the soap market growth.
２７
Fig.9.2:Market Share %
CONCLUSION:
In conclusion,this internship has been a very useful experience for me.I have gained new
knowledge,skills and learned several techniques.We have realized the importance of having
awareness of the industrial aspect of topics we study.This internship programme was not one
sided but it was a way of sharing knowledge,ideas and opinions.The internship also provided an
opportunity to know how we could play our role as chemical engineers in small scale industries.
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REFERENCES:
Donkor, Peter. Small Scale Soap making, TCC and Intermediate Technology Publications,
1986
Gunstone, F.D. (2005). Vegetable Oils (ed) in Bailey’s IndustrialOil and Fat Products. 6th
Edition, Vol. 1. Edited by FereidoonShahidi. John Wiley &Sons, Inc. pp. 224-225
Garzena, Patrizia, and Marina Tadiello (2004). Soap Naturally:Ingredients, methods and
recipes for natural handmade soap.John Wiley & sons, Inc
Selinger, Ben;Chemistry in the Marketplace (3rd ed.); Harcourt Brace Jovanovich;1986
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https://rusticwise.com/what-are-soap-noodles/
https://greenvita.com/en/2019/09/09/environmental-impact-soaps-detergents/
K.U. Mistry, “Safety inspection,” in Fundamentals of Industrial Safety
and Health, 2nd ed. Ahmedabad, India, 2008, ch. 2, sec. 1, pp. 2-29.
https://www.indianmirr or.com/indian-industries/soap.html
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