Current Perspective of Mechanization Level and Its Supporting Policies in Asia
Rashad Hegazy and Mahmoud Okasha
Summary
Agricultural mechanization has been playing a significant role in enhancing agricultural production
and improvement of farmer’s livelihood in Asia in last decades, both agricultural mechanization and its
policies have been evolving and they are not entirely independent issues. Out of many exist issues
related to mechanization; current study is focusing on the status and policies in each country. 14
countries were chosen for case studies, namely Philippine, Cambodia, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, China, India, Nepal and Pakistan and they are
representing most of south and Southeast Asian countries. Each country has different level of
agricultural mechanization and has different policies too, the huge diversities between and within
countries is clear, the dissimilarities in country profiles and the level of development ensure that
making comparison among them is difficult. The study has been divided into two major parts; first is to
present the current updated status of mechanization in each country and its supporting policies, second
part is comparison between countries as a result and analysis depending on available mechanization
levels and number of machines involved in rice production. It was clear that there were different
mechanization levels in different years for most countries in South and Southeast Asia; some of these
levels have been existed long time now and the other recently cited, beside the mechanization level for
Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia and Myanmar are not available yet. For the number of machines related to
rice production system, data are available with better situation than the mechanization index, but still
some numbers are missing and other number estimated without accurate data collection process. In the
comparison between countries according to the mechanization index, there were two options to use it,
first option was according to the maximum value we got and second option according to the average
value obtained in different years, in both options India and China ranked as first two countries with
highest mechanisation level 3.88 and 2.55 hp/ha and Indonesia ranked last with lowest machination
level 0.47 hp/ha. The total number of equipment available per 1000 hectare of rice cultivated area was
other country comparison factor and gave us new order according to the availability of machines. For
the different policies in South and Southeast Asia, each country has its own policies and supporting
institutions which can push these policies to achieve favorable level of mechanization, some countries
were able to do and reached a good level in mechanization by dint of these policies.
1. Introduction
Some of South Asia countries like China and India have significant development in adopting farm
mechanization. Southeast Asian countries like Bangladesh, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam are
adopting limited advanced machinery in farm and post-harvest operations. In the other countries,
agricultural mechanization is still in the developing stage. In these countries farmers still use
inefficient manual tools which resulted in low production. For instance, in Nepal, the land size is small,
which has prevented farmers to adopt large machinery. Lack of appropriate machineries to conduct
various farming operations has left farmers with no choice but to continue with traditional farming
techniques (Soni and Ou, 2012).
Countries under study have different demographics and land use trends as clear from data provided by
the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) and The World Bank (Table 1)
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Table 1 Demographics and land use trends in South and Southeast Asia countries
Country
Population
(millions), 2011
(ESCAP, 2012)
Population growth
(annual average,
%), 2005−10
(ESCAP, 2012)
Agricultural land (%
of land area), 2011
(world Bank)●
Philippines
94.9
1.7
40.6
Cambodia
14.3
1.1
32.0
Indonesia
242.3
1.1
30.1
Bangladesh
150.5
1.1
70.1
Laos
6.3
1.5
10.3
Malaysia
28.9
1.7
24.0
Myanmar
48.3
0.7
19.2
Thailand
69.5
0.7
41.2
Vietnam
88.8
1.1
35.0
Sri Lanka
21.0
1.0
41.8
China
1347.6
0.5
55.7
India
1241.5
1.4
60.5
Nepal
30.5
1.9
29.7
Pakistan
176.7
1.8
34.4
* World Bank data from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS/countries.
 FAOSTAT data from www.fao.org as of May 2013.
Rice area
harvested (2011),
ha
FAO*
4,354,160
2,776,510
13,244,200
11,800,000
870,000
673,745
8,051,700
10,990,100
7,513,700
1,060,360
30,116,900
36,950,000
1,481,290
2,365,000
The mechanization level/degree is used as one of the quantitative indices by which the mechanization
degree of different operations within a limit can be assessed. Generally, there are three specific indices
for the study and evaluation of mechanization in different regions. These indices include degree, level,
and capacity of mechanization. Level of mechanization is total percentage of mechanized field
operations and the power of machines employed in unit of field operation ( hp /ha) (Soni and Ou,
2012). As calculated by Almasi et al. (2000) , Mechanization level is, hp ha-1 = Total power /
cultivated area, The Total power of existing tractors (hp) = Average nominal power of one tractor x
Number of working tractors, Total real power of tractors = Total power of existing tractors x
Conversion coefficient, According to the recommendations given by Almasi et al. (2000) the
conversion coefficient is 0.75 (The amount of this coefficient is variable according to the ASABE
(2006) Standards from 0.45 in soft soils to 0.8 in hard soil which the coefficient 0.75 is recommended.
the term mechanization degree is used to show and measure the percentage of using mechanization in
specific operation.
Also helpful are indices of energy inputs per ha and the value of power utilized per working hour. But,
the level is appropriate choice and subsequent proper use of mechanized inputs into agriculture as long
as it contain various field performance parameters of the farm machineries and implements and has
also a direct and significant effect on achievable levels of land productivity, labour productivity, the
profitability of farming, the sustainability, the environmental and, on the quality of life of people
engaged in agriculture (Khambalkar et al., 2012; Olaoye and Rotimi 2010). Advanced models also are
available to estimate mechanization indicators e.g. Mechanization Index (MI) and Machinery Energy
Ratio (MER), to develop such models, data from different farming system to be obtained from farmers,
agricultural machinery suppliers, researchers and government officials (Ramírez et al., 2007) .
Gyanendra Singh (2007) has been suggested a mechanisation index based on the ratio of cost of use of
machinery to the total cost of use of human labour, draught animals and machinery for estimation. For
the assessment of this mechanisation index, and to study its impact on yield, cost of cultivation and
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deployment of human and animal power, crop-wise secondary data have to be adopted from the cost of
cultivation of principal crops.
As the mechanization related data coming from south and Southeast Asian countries still not have a
sufficient information regarding to the actual cultivation systems, trend in use of farm-power, the
matrix of energy sources and time dimension etc., even the simplified mechanization level (farm power
intensity (hp/ha)) is not available for certain number of countries, we have to use the limited available
data which mainly reflect the number of different machines being used in these countries beside the
demographics and land use trends as comparison keys between the countries.
2. Methodology
Data available and related to mechanization status and its supporting polices in different South and
Southeast Asian countries has to be collected from different reliable sources. These sources may
include and not limited to governments, international organizations, projects and scientific journals.
This data has to reconstructed in tables and figure and up to date to be in easy and in suitable way to
represent the actual situation of the mechanization and its policies in the countries. Within these data
both number of farm machinery which being used in rice production and the farm power intensity
(mechanization level) for each country, are to be comparison keys among countries. According to the
availability of mechanization levels, the comparison will include all of them and excluding the
countries which don have current or past available number regarding to the mechanization level. Both
maximum value of mechanization level and the average will be considered in comparison. The data
which represent number of different pre/post-harvest machines in each country will be used to generate
some other indicator of mechanization level, e.g number of tractors/100 ha, equipment/ 1000 ha,
equipment / 10000 people involved in agriculture etc.., in this study we will have one indicator which
express the total number of available machines for 1000 hectare (No. equipment/1000 ha) as an
example.
3. Status of mechanization and its supporting policies in South and Southeast Asian countries
3.1 Philippines
3.1.1 Mechanization status:
In general, the transfer of agricultural mechanization technology has been a very slow process. The
level of mechanization in the Philippines, in terms of available mechanical power in the farm was
around 0.52 hp/ha in 1990 (RNAM, 1994), This level of agricultural mechanization is relatively low
and such low level of mechanization was one of the primary reasons which prevented rice production
from achieving maximum yield (Committee Affairs Department, 2009). However, different authors
cited that level of agricultural mechanization in 1994 was 1.69 hp/ha (Rodulfo and Amongo, 1994).
Recently, the latest survey by the Philippine Center for Postharvest Development and Mechanization
(PhilMech) showed that the mechanization level of farms in the Philippines is from 1 to 1.23 hp/ha,
rice had the highest level of available farm power at 1.6 to 2.31 hp/ha ( PhilMech, 2011).
The production of rice is relatively more mechanized than other crops. The level of mechanization for
land preparation and threshing operations are intermediate to high while milling is highly mechanized
(Suministrado, 2003). Other operations like planting, harvesting and drying are in the low level of
mechanization. Land preparation is mechanized mostly through the use of power tiller and may be due
to 4WT little usage. Mariano et al., (2012) cited that 13 % of farmers use machines in land preparation
and harvesting and 65 % of them thresh rice right after harvest as postharvest management. Pumps are
widely used to facilitate irrigation. About 47 percent of rice produced is threshed with the power
threshers while 98 percent of the rice farmers bring their crop to rice mills. Fig. 1 presents the level of
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mechanization in selected rice production operations and the percentage of mechanization in each
operation in 2005 as mentioned in Philippines’ Country Report (Elepaño et al. (2009). In addition to
figure 1, data collected from different sources also showed that planting, weeding, fertilizers
application, spraying and field drying don’t have any visible mechanization levels. For harvesting and
drying, the availability of dryers is some places makes level of mechanization around 0.15 hp/ha for
both harvesting and drying, Suministrado (2008) mentioned that using flatbed dryer with capacity from
1 to 6 ton/batch used to dry 14% of total rice produced in the country and the other 86 % have been
sundried. Fig. 2 shows the number of different machines used in rice production within the Philippines
from different available sources.
Fig. 1 Level and % of mechanization in rice production system in Philippines
Fig. 2 Number of available machines for rice production
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3.1.2 Supporting policies:
There are many government agencies and institutions involved in research and development of
agricultural mechanization in the Philippines, e.g. PHilMech and the Philippine Rice Research Institute
(PhilRice), and they co-operate for implementation the rice mechanization programs. Also, the
Institute of Agricultural Engineering (IAE) in College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
(CEAT) under University of the Philippines (UPLB) which established The Agricultural
Mechanization Development Program (AMDP) in 1979 to implement the research, development and
extension activities in agricultural mechanization. AMDP has tackled various activities that contribute
to government efforts of increasing agricultural productivity and improving farmers’ income. AMDP
had developed, designed, tested and promoted affordable farm machinery for farmers; conducted
technology and information dissemination through, pilot testing, demonstration of machines, exhibits,
publication; and conducted training for different target beneficiaries. Most of government agencies
involved with international and regional institutes and organizations e.g. International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI), The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
(ESCAP) etc. At present, most of these programs continue to perform they role to improve the status of
the Philippine agricultural mechanization sector (AMDP, 2002).
Recently the Philippines approved the Republic Act No. 10601 otherwise known as the Agricultural
and Fisheries Mechanization (AFMech) Law on January 2013. The law mandates the state to promote
the development and adoption of modern, appropriate and cost-effective and environmentally-safe
agricultural and fisheries machinery and equipment to enhance farm productivity and efficiency in
order to achieve food security and safety and increase farmers’ income. Under the Act, the Department
of Agriculture (DA) will craft a five-year National Agri-Fishery Program to promote a conduciveenvironment for the local assembling and manufacturing of equipment for agricultural and fisheries
production, processing and marketing. also the use of renewable and nonconventional energy such as
wind, solar, hydro, biomass and other farm-based energy sources shall be promoted as power sources
for the operation and maintenance of agricultural and fisheries machinery. The law in his different
articles focused on strengthening the agricultural engineering groups and institutions, enhancing local
assembling and manufacturing system, standardization and accreditation and many other issues which
improve the mechanization situation in the country (The Official Gazette, official journal of the
Republic of the Philippines, 2013)
3.2 Cambodia
3.2.1 Mechanization status
In Cambodia rice is standing as the major and main crop with the yield of slightly over 3 ton/ha, almost
70% of the total population is involved in agriculture; however, the productivity is still low due to the
late adoption of proper mechanization solutions in some of rice production operations, even though the
four-wheel tractors have been used in Cambodia since the late 1950s, irrigation Pumps, two wheel
tractors and more than 250 engine-powered threshers also have been used in some places before 1995
(Rickman et al, 1997). Fig 3 shows data related to number of 4-wheel tractors, hand tractors, threshers
& milling machines, water pumping engines and harvesting machines (MAFF, 2013, Chan Saruth,
2011 and vichet, 2013). There is fast increment in the use of combine harvesters, 2WT and water
pumping engines, the number of these machines increased by 68, 30 and 23 % respectively within 2
years from 2010 to 2012 (Fig 4). Also, Plowing done by tractors and mechanical tiller reached 64% of
the total cultivated area and in dry season, mechanical plowing reached 91%. (MAFF, 2013).
5
Fig 3 Number of 4-wheel tractors, and 2-wheel (hand) tractors, threshers & milling machines, pump engines and
harvesting machines.
Fig 4 Increase in selected rice production machines within two years (2010 to 2012).
Post-harvest technology and activities in Cambodia reached a good level, Well founded rice milling
technology has been established within the country, There are 27,407 rice millers registered by the
6
Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy of Cambodia (MIME) (MIME, 2011), and the annual range in
milled rice capacity varies widely from 1 to 48,000 ton, this level arose from the different post-harvest
products and efforts which have been introduced by projects, government and private sector, in some
project sites; 25% of farmers used improved postharvest technologies in 2012 and postharvest losses
reduced by 5% in 2011(Gummert, 2013).
3.2.2 Supporting policies
No clear or separate policies to boost the mechanization level in Cambodia, mechanization comes
under the general agricultural strategic development plans, The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries (MAFF) has formulated an Agricultural Sector Strategic Development Plan 2006-2010
outlining seven priority goals, and they constraints and actions to be taken to reach these goals. These
include: 1) food security, productivity and diversification; 2) improving and strengthening agricultural
research and extension systems; 3) market access for agricultural products; 4) institutional and
legislative development framework; 5) land reform, land tenure and pro-poor land access; 6) fisheries
reform; and 7) forestry reform. (Vuthy and Ra, 2010).
Within Priority areas for action to promote the development of the agricultural sector, Chao Lay,
(2009) mentioned the research on agricultural technology as long term development objective and also
mechanism for making sustainable agricultural progress. New technology activities would focus on the
establishment of sample agricultural mechanization center, training in agricultural machinery, import
of new agricultural machinery/equipment; and agriculture land rehabilitation in some provinces
bordering with Viet Nam and Thailand. MAFF with FAO has restructured its organization based on
government reform policies. The restructured organization has a vertical management system. The
important feature of the newly reformed organization is that some entities would become public
enterprises, with autonomous management. Provincial Agricultural Departments and District
Agricultural Offices would have to manage and strengthen their basic units to carry out effective and
timely technology transfer as well as other tasks, however, still Cambodia Agricultural Research and
Development Institute (CARDI) and the Department of Agricultural Engineering/Machinery is
undertaking several activities including agricultural machinery management and production with
contribution of education and extension of agricultural mechanization which made the using of
mechanization of rice production is increasing from 16% to 63% of the total rice cultivation area
(Pech, 2013, Chao Lay, 2009 and DAE, 2008). In addition, advanced rice production and post-harvest
technology e.g. laser leveling, direct seeding, drum seeder, Chinese cultivator drill model, Indian limit
plot drill, hermetic storage, dryers and rice mills have been introduced to the farmer through ADPIRRI project, CAVAC project, CARDI, Department of Agriculture Engineering and the private sector.
3.3 Indonesia
3.3.1 Mechanization status
Agricultural mechanization had been used by farmers intensively to speed up land preparation, pest
control, harvesting and processing of rice product. However, in some areas, manual labor is still being
used in rice production. The number of agricultural machinery is still relatively small compared to
agricultural land area. This is mainly because of the low affordability of farmer to buy agricultural
machinery and lack of knowledge to operate agricultural machinery. Currently, the level of
mechanization in the country varies from low to high primarily in rice cultivation, ranging from 10%
to 90% depends on the intensity of the farming system, common figure indicates its average level of
30% (Handaka, 2005), in addition, The total power available per hectare of rice cultivated area was
0.41 hp/ha (RNAM, 1994), and it increased from 0.37 hp in 1997 to 0.47 hp in 2006 with an average
7
growth of 4.97% per annum. During the same period, the stage of rice mechanization process has also
been relatively low of about 4.7 hand tractors/1000 ha of cultivated area and still below the take-off
stage in critical point of the mechanization process (Paman et al., 2012). Table 2 provide number of
machinery in three different years for different authors, as the number of two hand tractors and rice
mills increased, we found number of some other machines decreased like water pumps and dryers.
Table 2 Changing in number of agricultural machinery in Indonesia from 2001 to 2010.
Machinery
2001 (BPS, 2002)
2002 (BPS, 2003)
Hand tractor
4WT
Pesticide applicator
Irrigation pump
Thresher (pedal and power)
Dryer
Rice mills
86,644
NA
1,562,217
215,774
340,654
7,117
39,996
103,446
NA
NA
216,643
347,658
5,045
46,123
2010 (Unadi, 2011)
126,453
2,969
NA
187801
201,241 (power only)
2,857
58,512
3.3.2 Supporting policies
Various levels of policies and strategies have been established in promoting agricultural mechanization
development to farmers, this development of agricultural mechanization have been done partially by
involving government, agribusiness society, international organizations, consumers, farmers,
agricultural machinery industry & producers and banking institutions, the government used to promote
to foreign or domestic investors such “less technology but using as many as manpower instead”. This
symbolic word is mainly to reduce unemployment and it is part of the government program, but now,
Policy for agricultural mechanization development in Indonesia have been concentrated on increasing
quality and added value of the agricultural products and its by products, promoting the opportunity of
local agricultural machinery industry to produce better quality of the machines which are suitable to
local conditions and to strengthen the collaboration among small, medium and large scale of
agricultural machinery industry (Hendriadi and Alihamsyah, 2007; Unadi, 2011).
Production of agricultural machine and equipment in Indonesia consists of units mainly engaged in
assembling machinery for preparing and processing agricultural land for example, tractors and plough
machines and machines for the first processing of agricultural crops (ICE, 2010). Most Efforts have
been and still to be carried out to increase the number of machinery such as capital subsides for farmer
group, revitalization of farmer group for leasing the machinery through Farm Machinery Service Unit,
increasing the capacity of infrastructure and improving human resource capability on mechanization.
3.4 Bangladesh
3.4.1 Mechanization status
Bangladesh is a proper mechanized country within South and Southeast Asia, and the history of
Mechanisation in Bangladesh is in many ways a remarkable one, in which the government,
international institutes and the private sector played important roles. (Justice & Biggs, 2010 ; Biggs et
al., 2011). Early mechanization level was 0.40 hp/ha as mentioned by RNAM, (1994). Alam et al., (2005)
cleared that the mechanization level reached 0.373 hp/ha only in 2005 but in 2008 it was 1.57 hp/ha
(Islam, 2008). Table 3 presents current and past figure of some of farm machinery used in rice
production system from different sources, in addition to that the projection numbers of 2 and 4 wheel
tractors supposed to be 500,000 and 41,500 respectively by 2015 (iDE, 2012)
Table 3 Farm machinery used in Bangladesh
8
4-wheel tractor
2006 +
12,500
2-wheel tractor
300,000
2008†
25000
350,000
NA
About 30
NA
100●
175.000
185,000
NA
155,000 +
About 40
NA
NA
NA
50 ●
Deep tube well
NA
NA
33,670 □
Shallow tube well
NA
NA
NA
1,549,149 □
Low lift pump
NA
NA
NA
173,669 □
Sprayers
NA
1,250,000
NA
NA
Item
Combine Harvester
Threshers (open and close drum)
Reaper
* iDE (International Development Enterprises), 2012
□
Hossain, 2011
+
2010
21,638 *
400,030 *
2011
26,369 *
420,027 *
Roy and Singh, 2008
† Ahmed and Matin , 2008
●
Abdul-Wohab, 2011
In addition to above mentioned available numbers, there are 40,000 small and medium sized metal
workshops producing different non precision machines (weeder, threshers etc.), also at present, the
initial 2-WT based developments with zero tillage, single-pass shallow, full tillage, strip tillage and
bed planting in Bangladesh were established (Haque et al., 2010) which maybe it is the reason that
80% of primary tillage operations are mechanized, performed mainly by 300,000 small 2WTs and a
few 4WTs. But, it is anticipated that, in near future, a significant portion of 2-wheeled tractor use will
be replaced by 4-wheeled tractor. In that case research and field work will be shifted to 4-wheeled
tractor (Rashid et al 2007). As for part of post-harvest technology, rice milling is almost fully
mechanized now. More than 30,000 small scale parboiling and milling establishments in addition to a
few dozen larger automated mills are in operation. A large number of itinerant vendors are also taking
rice-hulling services to the farmers’ homesteads. Also, there are around 500 dryers have been used
including mills dryer in Bangladesh in 2008 (Ahmed and Matin , 2008)
3.4.2 Supporting policies
Agricultural mechanization is a major section in Bangladesh National Agriculture Policy; the
government has devoted special importance to agricultural mechanization since they released the
National Agricultural Mechanization Policy 1999 to encourage the use of machines in agriculture.
Testing and standardization restrictions have already been withdrawn in the free market distribution
system, as a result, the use of agricultural machinery has increased significantly and immense potential
is created for further increase. In order to accelerate the current trend of agricultural mechanization,
various facilities including exemption of import duties on agricultural machinery have been provided
and the same will continue, serious steps have been taken to promote and speed up the process of
agricultural mechanization (SDNP, 2013). Many Priority research areas identified by the Bangladesh
Rice Research Institute (BRRI) for 2009-2015 and Agricultural Engineering Division of Bangladesh
Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA) for 2000-2010, these priority research areas included; direct
seeding technology; development, modification and adoption of rice transplanter and combine
harvester; research on postharvest loss assessment; development of small scale dryer and many other
areas (Ziauddin and Ahmmed, 2010).
3.5 Laos
3.5.1 Mechanization status
9
Farm mechanization in general is low, there was almost no mechanization of production until late
1995, and mechanization of any aspect of production or postharvest processing was exceptional. By
1996 mechanization increased of both land preparation and threshing in the main lowland rice-growing
area of the Mekong River Valley (MRV) (Schiller et al., 2006). In 1996 the number of tractor was just
over 1000 unit and the rate of tractor use has increased slowly with 0.28 % annually between 1996 and
2006 (MAF, 2010) (Fig 5). Even with the low number of tractors, 90% of non–tractor–owning farmers
acquired the use of tractor for tillage operation by custom hire, and about 70% of them paid by paddy
due to lack of cash (Latmany, et al., 2008). For postharvest mechanization Laos has an estimated
18,000 rice mills. Survey of rice-mill owners in the six central and southern provinces showed that
there are averages of three-to-four rice mills per village. Daily milling capacity ranges from a few
hundred kilograms for smaller mills to more than 6 tons for larger ones, and most mills continue to rely
on single- and two-stage milling processes (Tuntivate, 2011).
Fig 5 increase in tractor use with 0.28 % annually between 1996 and 2006 in Laos
3.5.2 Supporting policies
Mechanization activities in Laos are running now under the Agricultural Master Plan 2011-2015 which
is being implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF). This plan is based on the
Agricultural Development Strategy (ADS) 2011 to 2020. This strategy provides the framework, the
vision and the long term development goals of the Government for the sustainable development of the
sector aiming at food and income security (MAF, 2010), as intermediate and short term priorities
(2011-2013) MAF aimed to reduce the production cost and improve competitiveness of export
commodities throw the expanded mechanization of on-farm production and enhancing the agriculture
infrastructure related to post harvest handling, also to develop agricultural mechanization action plan
with fiscal policy incentives for smallholder mechanization.
3.6 Malaysia
3.6.1 Mechanization status
Rice production is considering highly mechanized operations that have reached good level in Malaysia,
as Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) cited. MARDI also
introduced the precision farming technology in the major growing regions in the north, making use of
10
sensors to optimize inputs. The adoption of these technologies depends on the local condition and the
skill of the farmer or the contractor/operator. The selection and adoption of machine size and weight in
particular the prime movers and self-propel machines depend on farm and lot size as well as soil
bearing capacity while the sophistication of the technology depend on the skill of the farmers or the
service providers or operators (Ismail and Daud, 2012). Mechanized activities are including; land
preparation, repair and bund construction, disc ridger, rotary bund former, primary and rotary tiller
(rotovator), land leveling & smoothing, direct seeding, spreader, row seeder, and combine harvester.
3.6.2 Supporting policies
The long term agricultural development in Malaysia is guided, among others by the National
Agricultural Policy (NAP). The current policy, the NAP III, laid the foundation and strategies for a
sustainable development of Malaysian agricultural and agro-based industries to meet global
competition. It was in this document that specific reference to mechanization technology as an enabler
to modernize the local agriculture and agro-based industry to overcome the critical labor shortage and
low productivity on a sustainable basis was highlighted. The policy also identifies the areas of focus
and underlined major technological gaps for the industry to be bridged through domestic R&D
undertakings, technology prospecting and acquisition, adoption and adaptation (Rukunudin, I. H.
2009).
3.7 Myanmar
3.7.1 Mechanization status
Farmers realized the huge benefit of using farm machinery since 1988; they began to use the
agricultural machines like tractors, power tillers and power threshers for they own use and hiring to get
extra income. They also used those tractors and power tillers with trailers as a means of transportation
of farm products to other villages or to towns. That is the driving force to other farmers to buy and
utilize those machines for multiple purposes as well. Later the private sector has started to be involved
in the agricultural machinery by modifying and producing the machines for the cultivators . Fig. 6
Provide Current numbers of farm machinery in Myanmar during 2010/2011 (Maung, 2011).
Fig. 6 Numbers of selected farm machinery in Myanmar
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In addition to provided number of machines, Small-scale mechanical workshops and small industries
producing the spare parts, Workshops also started to produce paddy threshers and spare parts
themselves and water pumps but with limited quantity only. In addition, during 2011 about 20000 units
of power tillers and 200 units of farm tractors, and its implements have been imported and distributed
to farmers.
3.7.2 Supporting policies
In Myanmar, there are three Ministries which are monitoring agricultural machinery industry in
government sector, they are; Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI), Ministry of Industry (MI)
and Ministry of Cooperative, Agricultural Mechanization Department (AMD) under the Ministry of
Agriculture and Irrigation has started the production of agricultural machinery since 1993, AMD
distributes the agricultural machines to farmers and provides tractor hire service to farmers through its
99 Tractor Stations and farm mechanization units which are located around the whole country. Three
farm machinery factories were further established to produce power tillers and farm implements.
Nowadays, these farm machinery factories manufacture various types of machines such as power
tillers, mono wheel tractors, cultivating roller boats, threshers, paddy reapers, gasifiers etc. The most
productive volume is that of power tillers and is annually about 4000 units (Maung, 2011).
3.8 Thailand
3.8.1 Mechanization status
Mechanization consider an important input for Thailand’s agricultural production system, it is rapidly
expanding with both increases in number and size of machinery in use. Mechanization has been
moving from power intensive to control intensive machines. The population of power tillers, irrigation
pumps and power threshers has become almost stable, but the number of rice combine harvesters has
been increasing rapidly (Thepent, 2012). The mighty matter in Thailand is the most equipment used by
the farmers is produced locally such as, tractor, power tiller, disc ploughs, disk harrow, water pump,
sprayer, threshing machine, reaper, combine harvester, cleaning equipment, dryer, rice milling
machine and processing equipment etc. also, the diversity in using such machine has been established
e.g. for dry land soil preparation mainly large four-wheel tractors with disc tillers are used while
locally made power tillers (8-12 hp) are popularly used for the wetland cultivation. The only available
mechanization level was 0.40 hp/ha as mentioned by RNAM, (1994) and no official level released after that.
NSO (National Statistical Office) published the 2008 Agriculture Intercensal Survey results including
the following numbers of farm machines being used in rice production and number of produced
machines every year (Table 4), in addition to 93,000 of small and large tillage implements have been
produced also locally.
Table 4 number of machines being used in Thailand and the yearly local production (NSO, 2010)
Machine
Number in use
Locally manufactured per year
Tractors
a- 4WT
287,225
NA
b- 2WT
2,644,982
80,000
Threshers
32,239
2000
Planters/seeders
a- Manual
332471
b- Engine
58,176
NA
c- Attached to 2WT
111,384
d- Attached to 4WT
77,825
Combine harvesters
41,143
600
Rice mills
56,536
NA
12
Water pump
a- Engine
b- Electric motors
c- Natural energy
Sprayers (total)
NA: not available
1,615,692
406,666
13,158
3,087,035
55, 000 (Total)
60,000 (Sprayer with hand operated)
In rice fields; disk plow, two-wheel tractor, four-wheel tractor, rotary tiller, moldboard plow, disk
plow, disc harrow, spring-loaded cultivator, rotary tiller, combine harvesters are used widely.
Transplanting, broadcasting and direct seeding are common practices in Thailand also. In post-harvest,
Thailand has large modern technology for drying and highly competitive capacity mills, new
technologies exist that might address some problems in the postharvest chain, hermetic storage for
example could help improving seed quality leading to better milling outputs and reduced losses. Laser
leveling of land would lead to better paddy quality and again to higher milling outputs (IRRI, 2010).
3.8.2 Supporting policies
The general objective of developing the agricultural sector is to improve capacity to compete in
agricultural production by promoting the replacement of human labour by agricultural machinery. The
Government policies and strategies relate to agricultural engineering are focusing more on Promote
agricultural development based on the “New Theory” as an important alternative for small farmers; at
the same time, expand opportunities for product development and improve product quality through the
use of technology, management and access to markets;
That’s why Thailand keep promoting research and development in industry by better Joint Corporation
with researchers in universities and National Science and Technology Development Agency which
reflected into better mechanization situation in the country, Thai Government always give attention to
the mechanization development plans; starting from eighth plane to currently running eleventh plane
which mainly concentrate on improving the capacity to compete in agricultural production by
promoting the replacement of human labour by agricultural machineries (Soni and Ou, 2010).
3.9 Vietnam
3.9.1 Mechanization status
Since 2001, there was continuous increasing in mechanization and the number of machines used by the
farmers, By 2009, there were nearly 500,000 tractors of all kinds with a total capacity of about 5
million horsepower (hp), an increase three times higher than in 2001, including two-wheeled tractors
under 12 hp accounted for 65%, tractors over 12 to 35 hp 27%, a large tractors (over 35 hp) accounted
for 8%, the number of combine harvester and threshers was 256, 422 as calculated by FAO in year
2000. National average of power equipped level is 1.2 hp/ha of cultivated land (another mechanization
level was 1.56 hp/ha as cited by PhilMech, (2011)), table 5 presents average rate of mechanization in
rice and agricultural production activities are as (Viet, 2012):
Table 5 average rate of mechanization in Vietnam rice and agricultural production activities
Rice production activities
Mechanization Rate (%)
Soil preparation for rice cultivation
72
Soil preparation upland crops
65
Active irrigation for rice
85
Transport in agriculture and rural
66
Rice drying in summer-autumn season in Mekong River Delta (MRD)
38.7
Rice harvester in MRD
15
Rice thresher
84
Rice milling
95
13
For post-harvest, the development and dissemination of flatbed dryer sin Vietnam recorded as
successful story within the country, where it started in Long Nam University based on IRRI design and
continued in the Mekong Delta from 1990 to 2011 (Nguyen, 2012). Recently, Hermetic Seed Storage
(HSS) also known as the IRRI Super Bag, laser leveling and rice quality tool and other post-production
technologies have been introduced to Vietnam by IRRI Scientists and achieved good economic impact
(Gummert et al. 2006 ; Gummert 2012a ; and Gummert 2012b).
3.9.2 Supporting policies
Since 2004, Vietnam government has issued policies to support farmers to buy machines for
agricultural production using budget’s provinces. 30 provinces and cities implemented the supporting
policy. Another financial policies like tax has many changes; For ASEAN countries: tax rate since
2010 for imported agricultural machines is 0%, or 5% in some cases: the government also gave
priorities to investment under the Key Program of Mechanization to manufacture more tractors and
agricultural machines (Viet, 2012)
3.10 Sri Lanka
3.10.1 Mechanization status
A lot of the farmers still practice traditional/hand broadcasting, application of chemical herbicides and
harvesting in some parts of Sri Lanka but in other parts specially lowland and highland in the country,
Power tiller with rotovator is the commonly used as land preparation machine also four wheel tractors
with disc plough or tine tiller are used. The population of four wheel tractor is considerably lower than
the power tiller population. The riding type 12 hp tractor versions is the most popular power tiller
because of its riding facility and comparatively high field capacity. For harvesting and threshing, In the
Eastern province where the rice cultivation is done extensively in large size plots, the majority of the
farmers use large scale combine harvesters imported mainly from India, number of threshers and
harvesters recorded from 2001 to 2007 varied from 112 to 153 and the different number of other
machines involved in rice production are presented in Fig. 7 as estimated by FAO. In some places
within the country; reaper, windrower and backpack type modified brush cutter is used in paddy
reaping followed by combine thresher for threshing. Though, the use of dryers is necessary after use of
combine harvesters but appropriate dryers are not available yet. The Institute of post-harvest
technology has introduced new dryers and effective storage systems for rice but there are no indicators
about usage or efficiency of such dryers (Bandara, 2012). The national mechanization level was 0.58
hp/ha (RNAM, 1994).
14
Fig. 7 Number of two wheel tractor, Plough and seeder available in Sri Lanka in different years according to FAO
3.10.2 Supporting policies
There are many acts in effect in the field of agriculture like seed certification act, plant protection act,
and land use act etc. A draft of farm machinery act has been prepared and submitted to the Ministry of
Agriculture in order to get approved by the government. The purpose of The Farm Machinery Act is to
regulate the sale and distribution of Farm Machinery or parts. The Act is applicable to leases as well as
sales. The Act provides legal guidelines for warranties, sales contracts, emergency parts service and
compensation claims. It will protect farmer, distributor, dealer and environment (Bandara, 2012).
The National Testing & Evaluation centre, Farm Mechanization Research Centre of the Department of
Agriculture is entrusted to conduct tests and certify the appropriate farm machinery. At present, the
certificate issued by FMRC is not a compulsory requirement for import and distribute farm machinery.
However most of the machinery suppliers are volunteered to get tested their products in order to verify
the performance. Combination of the test codes and procedures formulated by RNAM, Indian Test
codes and Japanese test codes are being used in testing of the machines.
There is agro machinery/ equipment providing project as one of many projects were being
implemented in Sri Lanka recently. These projects are funded by international Donor Agencies (IFAD,
FAO, AUSAID, JICA, EU, and WFP) and Government of India, Australia, Korea and Japan. Such
projects are implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture itself or by the Ministry of Agriculture and
various PCs under the Ministry of Agriculture. In 2011, distribution program of Agro-machinery and
equipment being received as Japanese Grant to ensure the food security of less privileged farmers
(Ministry of Agriculture, 2012)
3.11 China
3.11.1 Mechanization status
China is one of well mechanized countries in south and Southeast Asia, the earlier mechanization level
by RNAM, (1994) was 3.88 hp/ha, China has Continuous optimization of agricultural equipment
structure; large and medium tractors; transplanters and combine harvesters. Combine harvesters
increased respectively each year. Now tillage planters reached beyond 0.6 million, the acreage of
15
conservation tillage has reached more than 4.3 million ha. Rice production mechanization got a large
development where planting machines and harvesting level reached 16.7% and 56.7% respectively in
2010, which represented 2.4 percent and 5.8 percent improvement each year separately (Hongwen,
2012), now planting machines and harvesting level reached about 20.86 % and 64.49 % as for last
mechanization survey in Agricultural year book 2012, table 6 provides the available number of some
of rice production machines and also the produced number in year 2011 (Agricultural Year Book, 2012
and China Statistical Yearbook, 2011) beside the estimated numbers by FAO in 2001. Also, China has
the supporting technology related to drying technique and equipment by combining mechanical drying
and in-store drying, energy-saving dryers such as heat pump dryer are actively promoted to be applied
in the rice drying process. In general, Lingyun (2011) cleared that in 2009 China’s rice processing
capacity was 190 million tonnes, there were 2661 rice processing enterprises with a daily processing
capacity of more than 100 tonnes of which 153 had more than 400 tonnes capacity.
Table 6 available number of selected rice production machines in 2001 and available with produced number in year
2011
Number in 2001, million Available number in 2011,
Produced units in 2011
Farm machine
by FAO
million
Power tiller
NA
NA
50,495
Tractor (all sizes)
13,689
21,7796
18,233
rice transplanter
NA
0.333
23,361
Power cultivated for paddy
NA
NA
29,485
Power sprayers
Water pump
Combine harvesters
Rice drier
NA
NA
0.2321
NA
NA
NA
0.9921
NA
110,504
98,167
9,768
31,942
3.11.2 Supporting policies
Agricultural mechanization is part of national economic development strategy in china, according to
the study of Shen ad Wang (2008), in order to achieve modernization, the following targets must be
achieved by 2020; agricultural mechanization level to be 70 per cent, farming scale per agricultural
labor force to be 1.6 ha, total farm power should be <1 billion kW and extend areas of technology
innovation to new machinery development for post-harvest processing. Now series of policy incentives
to support the agricultural machinery sector and subsidies for the purchase of farm machinery (From
2006 to 2010, 9.6 billion RMB of subsidy investments from central government promote 70.0 billion
RMB investments from local governments and businesses), the agricultural machinery industry in
China witnessed one of rapidest development. Currently, more than 20 provinces in China have
established research institutes of agricultural machinery, which have become the backbone of
technology innovation and research and product development. In universities, there are research
institutes specialized in technology research, agricultural machinery design and training (Soni and Ou,
2012).
3.12 India
3.12.1 Mechanization level:
India has a long history in the development and promotion of tractors and a tractor industry. India is
now the number one producer of 4WT in the world, (Radjou, 2009) and also number one in sales of
tractors and power tiller with 607,000 and 60,000 unit respectively during year 2011/2012 (DCA,
2013). Today, there are over 20 factories producing nearly 300,000 tractors per year with an estimated
total population of 4WT of 2.8 million (More than 50 per cent of tractors in < 60 hp category is
16
produced in India (Singh and Mani 2009). During 1981, the average farm power available was about
0.63 hp/ha which increased up to 1 hp/ha in 1990 (RNAM, 1994) and up to 1.96 hp/ha in 2005
comprising of about 84 per cent from mechanical and electrical sources and 16 per cent from animal
power and human labour. Now it is estimated that average farm power available India will increase up
to 1.9 kW/ha (2.55 hp/ha) by 2011-12 (Sidhu, 2011). Interestingly, India's agriculture is far less
mechanized than its neighbors Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, where Chinese engines and equipment are
used. While India has 22% of its area under mechanized tillage Bangladesh and Sri Lanka both have
about 80% (Kulkarni 2009). While India's agricultural conditions are far more diverse than Bangladesh
and Sri Lanka, some of this lower level of mechanisation can be explained by the small numbers of
2WTs in India. There are only 110,000, which is a third of the number in Bangladesh. Fig. 8 show
variations in number of 4WT, 2WT and combine harvester & threshers in India from year 2001 to
2003 according to FAO. The development and utilization of laser leveling is most advanced in India
where IRRI supported development and training, research, and on-farm trials in four states in
2001/2002 (Gummert et al. 2012b). Laser leveling has been adopted on approximately 200,000 ha (Jat
et al. 2009) and the benefits of laser-assisted leveling for farmers in India are well documented.
Fig 8 Number of two and four wheel tractors and combine harvester & threshers in India in different years
according to FAO
3.12.2 Supporting policies
No doubt that level in mechanization in India would be not able to reach that limit without the
adequate and proper policies, The Government has laid emphasis to provide financial assistance to the
farmers and other target groups for purchase of different kinds of farm equipment, demonstration of
new equipment among farmers for spread of new technology, human resource development in
operation, maintenance/ repairs and management of agricultural machinery, one of the latest important
policies exist and in effect is the Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012–2017), it came with title; Faster, More
Inclusive and Sustainable Growth and has new strategy for promoting farm Mechanisation. A
dedicated Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization has been proposed for the XIIth Plan which
includes custom-hiring facilities for agricultural machinery as one of its major components. The SubMission aims at catalyzing an accelerated but inclusive growth of agricultural mechanization in India.
Its focus is on increasing the reach of farm mechanization to small and marginal farmers and to the
17
regions where availability of farm power is low. Custom hiring of farm machinery envisages
promoting establishment of farm machinery banks for custom hiring by way of providing financial
assistance to individual self-help groups or farmers’ co-operatives since the prohibitive cost of hi-tech
and high productive equipment renders it difficult for individual ownership. The other major
components included in the Sub-Mission, apart from custom hiring facilities for agricultural machinery
are promotion and strengthening of agricultural mechanisation through training, testing and
demonstration; post-harvest technology and management (PHTM); financial assistance or procurement
subsidy for agriculture machinery and equipments; establishment of farm machinery banks for custom
hiring; enhancing hi-tech, high productive equipment hub for custom hiring; enhancing farm
productivity at village level by introducing appropriate farm mechanisation in selected villages; and
creating ownership of appropriate farm equipments among small/marginal farmers in eastern/north
eastern region. And now many agricultural equipments being used in rice production are available on
subsidy under Central Sector Plan Schemes (NIC, 2013).
3.13 Nepal
3.13.1 Mechanization status
The available mechanical power in Nepal up to 2006 was only 23 % and Most of the mechanization
activities are concentrated in Terai region where 92.28% operation is mechanized out of total available
mechanical power of Nepal (FBC, 2006). Mechanization level increased from 0.3 hp/ha in 1990
(RNAM, 1994) to 0.84 hp/ha (Salokhe and Ramalingam, 1998), but it was 0.52 hp/ha as mentioned by
Iqbal Hossain (2009). Number of 2 wheel tractors, 4 wheel tractors, threshers, pump-sets and biomass
stoves in Nepal in 2001, 2008 and 2009 are presented in table 7 (Source Pariyar et al. 2001; Biggs and
Justice, 2011; FAO).
Table 7 Number of 2-wheel tractors, 4-wheel tractors, threshers, pump-sets and biomass stoves in Nepal.
Item
Number of each item in 2001
FAO, 2008
Number of each item in 2009
(Pariyar et al. 2001)
(estimates by Biggs and Justice, 2011)
Four Wheel tractor
17,500
28,971
34,000
Two-wheel tractor
1,000
8,901
11,000 (NAEF, 2009)
Pump-set
50,000
NA
100.000
Rice Husk Stoves
NA
NA
50,000
Threshing machines
NA
58,057
NA
Since nineteenth Number of tractors being registered with the Department of Transport Management is
increasing every year. Total number of four & two wheel tractors registered had reached 64164 in
2010/2011. Later, 2WT, reapers, diesel pump sets, combine harvester and thresher have been used but
in specific places within country. (Shrestha, 2012). The rice sheller, polisher and mechanical grinding
mills are found to be adopted in majority of villages of terai and hills. However in the mountains, still
the milling is found to be performed in local devices such as mortar & pestle, quern and traditional
water mills. Attempts have made to improve more than 2000 local water mills by changing the wooden
runner in to metallic one to increase the grinding capacity and to derive power for multiple processing
operations (viz. hulling, oil expelling etc.).
3.13.2 Supporting policies
Government of Nepal didn’t support separate policies towards the mechanization; mostly with help of
donors they have been promoting engines and pump sets from India. The long open boarder with India
poses a particular agricultural engineering policy. The lack of policy analysis in this area, going back
to the exclusion of agricultural mechanization from the Agricultural Perspective Plan of the late 1990s,
has meant, in effect, a policy of facilitating an Indian agricultural mechanization policy in Nepal. As
18
we have seen commercial and engineering interests of India have been promoting their technology in
Nepal for years. Whether, 4WTs, combined harvesters, large heavy pump sets are the best choices,
from a national development perspective needs investigating (Biggs and Justice, 2011). The recent
experiences of the spread of Chinese engines and equipment, and the spread of other technologies from
other countries, almost by chance, rather than as a result of government and donor policies to
investigate and promote a wide range of relevant engineering options suitable for Nepal, leads us to
conclude that agricultural engineering and rural engineering more broadly, needs to come into the
centre of Nepal's energy and development policy debates. Policies and regulations to promote
decentralized hydroelectric generation and other alternative energy sources will be important for rural
development. (NCVST, 2009).
3.14 Pakistan
3.14.1 Mechanization status
Total power available in the country is estimated to be 1.2 hp/ha in 1990 (RNAM, 1994) and same level
has been cited again by PhilMech (2011), Tractor contribute about 70.4 % of the farm power available,
No. of working tractors reached 439,741 unit in 2006 as FAO estimated number. Most of harvesting
activates are not mechanized, Harvesting 50% area of paddy by head-feeding track tube combine
harvesters, Table 8 present the number of machinery have been used in Pakistan in 1994 and 2004
including combine harvesters (Amjad, 2006). And according to the same author, there were 228 rice
mills in the year of 2000/2001, however, most of post-harvest operations are not mechanized; therefore
the losses are high and in a significant level.
Table 8 Number of machinery have been used in Pakistan in 1994 and 2004
Item
Number of each item in 1994
Tractor°
Combine Harvester
Reaper
Grain Drill/Planter
Number of each item in 2004
252,861
401,663
859
6,000
7,972
NA
64,126
70,810
° It was not clear from the report that the number represents four or two wheel tractors.
3.14.2 Supporting policies
Mechanization policies mainly are covered by Pakistan's environmental policy and management
framework which is based on the Pakistan environment protection act 1997 (PEPA), also government
ten years perspective development plan 2001-2011/ 2012-2022 and the three years development
program presents the strategies to be undertaken to develop post-harvest technologies. National Board
for Agricultural Mechanization (NBAM) headed by the minister of food, agricultural and livestock was
set up in 1981 with the mandate of advice the government in the formulation of agricultural
mechanization policies and strategies. NBAM has established two committees namely, farm
mechanization promotion and farm machinery standardization committee; these are responsible for
introduction of suitable farm machines and development of machinery standards (Amjad and Anwar,
2003).
4.
Analysis, conclusion and results
a. Multi-country, cross-national comparison of mechanization level
19
It is clear that there are different mechanization levels in different years for most countries in South
and Southeast Asia; some of these levels have been cited long time now and the other cited in recent
years, beside the mechanization level for Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia and Myanmar are not available
yet. The cumulative available mechanization levels for countries are presented in Fig. 9 with their cited
year. To make a compression between them, both maximum available value of mechanization level
and the average of different levels which linked to different cited years for each country have been
calculated and presented in Fig. 10 The presented values showed two different country orders; first one
is according to the maximum value we got and second order according to the average value obtained in
different years.
Fig. 9 Values of available mechanization levels for South and Southeast Asian countries
Fig. 10 two different country orders according to mechanization index
20
In both orders and according to the mechanization level, China and India ranked first and second
respectively, Indonesia ranked as last country with lowest mechanization index. To categorize South
and Southeast countries according to mechanization level, and from the literature, three levels: low,
fair, and high are common and used to present the mechanization degree. Also, we can consider them
as mechanization levels categories if each category has certain range of mechanization level value i.e.
first category will include countries with more than 2 hp/ha, second category for countries have from 1
to 2 hp/ha and last gadgetry (third one) will be for countries have less than 1 hp/ha as farm power
intensity or mechanization level. According to this classification, countries in South and Southeast
Asian will be in one of three categories as shown in table 8 and as the available mechanization level
values.
Table 8 south and South East Asian countries in categories according to the value of mechanization level
Country category
High (> 2hp/ha)
Fair (1-2 hp/ha)
Low (<1 hp/ha)
With maximum available
mechanization level
China - India
Philippines-Bangladesh
Nepal -Thailand
Vietnam-Pakistan
Sri Lanka-Indonesia
India-Vietnam
Thailand Bangladesh- Sri
Lanka-Nepal-Indonesia
China
With average of available
mechanization levels
Philippines-Pakistan
And for sure, these categories are fixable with changing the value of mechanization level in each
country or availability of these levels.
b. Multi-country, cross-national comparison of rice production related machines
The situation of available number of machines in each country is slightly better than the mechanization
level, rice production related machines are partially available and cited in different years as shown in
table 9. This table preset only available and latest number of selected machine exist in each country
which may be related more to rice production system.
Table 9 number of available different machines in South and Southeast Asia, rice harvested area and
agricultural population
Country
Rice area
harvested,
ha (2011)
Laos
Malaysia
Myanmar
Thailand
2WT
Threshers
Combine
harvesters
Dryers
Rice
mills
100,955
(2011)
-
51,287
(2011)
25,371
(2011)
31.24
14,390
(2010)
2,935
(2012)
-
27,407
(2011)
9.42
-
88.24
9,306
(2012)
2,776,510
7491
(2012)
>
1,000,000
(2001)
95,722
(2012)
13,244,200
2969
(2010)
126,453
(2010)
201,241
(2010)
-
2857
(2010)
26,369
(2001)
9,222
(2006)
420,027
(2001)
155,000
(2001)
100
(2001)
500
(2008)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3.24
-
-
-
32.35
41,143
-
-
27.67
Indonesia
Bangladesh
4WT
Agricultural
population,
Millions in
2012
4,354,160
Philippines
Cambodia
Number of rice production related machines
11,800,000
870,000
673,745.00
8,051,700
10,990,100
-
-
-
11479
(2010)
287,225
199,668
(2010)
2,644,982
37,678
(2010)
32,239
21
30,000
(2008)
18,000
(2001)
66.24
4.75
(2008)
(2008)
7,513,700
175,000
(2009)
325,000
(2009)
1,060,360
-
47,717
(2007)
Vietnam
Sri Lanka
China
30,116,900
India
36,950,000
Nepal
Pakistan
1,481,290
2,365,000
2,177,960
(2001)
2,532,900
279,300
(2003)
(2008)
256, 422
(2001)
-
130
(2007)
-
-
992,100
(2001)
-
-
55.90
9.05
-
2,661
(2011)
825.33
-
-
596.69
-
-
28.80
228
(2001)
75.15
423,700
(2003)
34,000
11,000
(2009)
(2009)
439,741
(2006)
(2008)
(2003)
58,057
(2008)
-
-
859
(2001)
The comparison based on above table also difficult because of the missing data in some countries
regarding specific type of machines and also the different years when the machines have been cited.
But in general, some indication values can be generated from the table and may express the situation in
those countries e.g. available equipment/1000 ha of rice harvested land, and equipment /1000 capita of
Agricultural population etc….. The missing data of machines in a country doesn’t mean that the
machines not exist, but maybe because they haven’t been included in data collection processes yet. To
see the trend of having rice production related machines and to arrange the countries in an order
according to number of available machine being used, equipment/1000 ha of rice harvested land could
be indicator. We assume that using machine is continues operation for many year and not even limited
to the machine serviceable time in south and southeast countries. So, the total number of machine
according to latest surveys and data will be related to the rice harvest area. After excluding Malaysia
due to non-availability of machine numbers and also, avoiding not exact numbers e.g. 2WT in the
Philippines, Fig 11 shows the court order as for number of available rice production machines.
Fig. 11 Country order according to available number of equipment per 1000 hectare of rice harvested area
It was clear that from fig that the country order according the number of equipment per hectare differed
from the order related to the mechanisation level, that maybe because of the large number of 2WT
22
which is exist in some countries, while some other country depends more on 4 well tractors. Also, the
big harvested area in both India and china may reduce the number of equipment assigned to this area
compared to smaller areas in other countries. Many other indicators can be run from table, and every
time, different order will come for south and Southeast Asian countries due to the huge variations we
discussed.
c. Number of tractor per 1000 ha of rice harvested land
Country
Tractor per 1000 ha of rice harvested land
(Different sources)
Tractor per 1000 ha of arable
land (World Bank, 2009)
4WT
2WT
Thailand
28.05
26.13489
240.6695
Vietnam
26.25
23.29079
43.25432
Pakistan
15.34
India
12.85
68.54939
7.558863
Philippines
11.68
2.137266
229.6654
Nepal
11.17
22.95297
7.42596
China
8.18
Myanmar
1.07
1.425662
24.79824
Cambodia
0.59
2.697991
34.47565
Indonesia
0.2
0.224174
9.547802
Bangladesh
0.12
2.234661
35.59551
Laos
Not available
10.6
Not available
Sri Lanka
Not available
Not available
45.00075

185.937*
72.31687*
Numbers include both two wheel tractor and four wheel tractor
Any comments?
23
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