I do not claim credit for these notes. I did some notes. (so no one gets salty :)
Includes:
TEXTBOOK NOTES
VIDEO NOTES
(doesn’t include all the videos from the textbook, i’ll add it later...maybe)
CALCULATIONS
TEXTBOOK NOTES
BELOW
Chapter 1: What is Graphic Communications?
TEXTBOOK NOTES
Overview:
● The term “Graphic Communication” means the art, science, and business of print
● The practice of applying color, it's more complex than it used to be,
rapidly-changing business
● Visual expression and modern business
● Shifted to a more complex technology-driven model
● Print is part of visual communications as a whole, however far too many graphic
designers lack understanding of print.
● Graphic design and print work hand and hand
● Print graphic communication has three main parts
○ Prepress
○ Press
○ Post Press
Digital Tools and Changing Roles:
● As with most fields, print has been transformed by computer technology
● This is no aspect that is unaffected by digital tools and infrastructure
● With new tools, comes a radical change in job responsibilities, roles, and job
descriptions. Specialists are versed in the growing array of equipment and
peripherals used in creating print media.
● Often, individuals are not directly employed by print companies, but by:
○ Publishers
○ Advertising Agencies
○ Design Firms
● Example: Electronic Publishing and Imaging Specialist, typically this person has a
degree in graphic communications, graphic design, or in a related field involving
computer science. Experience in traditional print processes is as valuable as the
ability to keep up with rapidly changing technology.
The Implications of Multi-Channel Publishing
● Images and text can be repurposed for multiple channels each having its own
technical and output requirements
● Print is ultimately rendered as CMYK or process colour, however, online digital
publication images are always RGB
● Required resolution for images are significantly different for print than for
on-screen
● Images must be useable in more than one environment this is known as
repurposing
● It is often the design review production technologist’s rule to provide a
transparent means of visual mapping the typography design from one
environment to another
● Production technologists must be cognizant of design principles and expectations
○ They might be involved with the client directly or online interactions etc.
Printing and Management Trends:
● Once Focused on the production of a single class of products, printers have had
to diversify
○ it includes expansion of the types of a printed products they create
○ also an array of digital output and ancillary services
● ​A printing company must compete with digital-only producers, agencies, and
marketing firms.
● deal with increased competition for basic printing services, thanks to online
ordering and a tendency to view print as a price-based commodity.
● Effective printing and imaging management involves knowledge of multiple
technical aspects of print and non-print media,
○ as well as the traditional requirements of strategic planning, financial
acumen, marketing, sales strategy, supply, and team leadership
● Companies have to find key players, these qualities can never be in one person.
A Shifting Model For Print Production:
● The print and distribute model was the only possible option for putting printed
pieces in the hands of the consumers
● Printing equipment became specialized and costly.
● It was needed to be located in an urban central location/area, which had more
access to flavor and sources
● As more books were printed, they required a detailed distribution network to
supply retailers and end-users.
● To reach an individual reader, a printed piece had to be shipped, stored, and
handled multiple times
● Improvement in supply chain made distribution easier, the cost of distribution
made them more innovative (lighter weight, better quality)
● The real changes were made in the 1960s, in radically new telecommunications
technology
● Dow Jones began transmitting the entire wall street journal electronically via
satellite from New York to local distribution centers (early example to distribute &
print approach)
● Distribute and print isn’t an entirely new approach
● 19th-century telegraphy and “telefax” had already made text and image
transmission a reality
● However, the same model applies to information that requires (more)
sophisticated printing and binding.
● Print-ready files are sent to local printing facilities to shorten delivery timelines,
reduce inventory and shipping costs
● They become more complex cause on non-print media
○ However, the internet has not reduced print volume
○ the trend has fostered into more efficient decentralized production
● This change in distribution models will continue with more graphic
communications, more complex requiring new skill sets and specializations.
Chapter 2: The History Of Print
TEXTBOOK NOTES
Overview:
● Graphic means of communication has been around since prehistoric times
○ Pre-4000 BCE could only make one piece at a time & could only be shared
with one group or person at a time
○ Beginnings of a civilization coincide with discovering ways of making
copies easier and sharing with a larger audience
● As manufacturing industry, started in 1456 with Johann Gutenberg’s invention of
casting movable metal type
○ Made it possible for mass production of print
○ Before this, books were made by hand
○ he automated the process of designing and reproducing printed pages in
large quantities
● The goal of the printing industry then and today:
○ Mass-produce and distribute documents as quickly and efficiently as
possible
● Gutenberg set precinct that for printing, rapid change is the rule and not the
exception
● The printing press along with the moveable type has been ranked as the world’s
most influential invention (even topping gunpowder and the compass).
Graphic Communication, Printing and Human History:
● The story of civilization is the story of communicated ideas
● Man has long been able to express ideas visually—on stone or animal skin—but
only on a single artifact
● Communication with a larger audience is essential for every civilized institution
● This requires that our graphic expressions be replicated, which is the story of
printing
● Institutions like education, law, religion, or medicine would simply not exist in their
present state had it not been for the dissemination made possible by printing
● The first reproduction of graphic images is believed to have happened between
4500 and 3500 BCE, with the use of carved stone or metal "stamp" seals
○ These were used to indent ownership marks into moist clay
○ This could be considered the first attempt at visual branding or, literally,
trademarking
● About 3500 BCE, cylinder seals containing duplicate relief, or raised, symbols
● Graphic communication, or the reproduction of images and text on a practical
medium, spans six millennia of human history, from ownership marks stamped in
clay to mass production of visual elements on physical or digital surfaces
● Other early image reproduction was largely done using clay as a medium
● Movable relief images for "inkless printing" are believed to have been used in Asia
Minor around 1700 BCE
● Type-like relief symbols were impressed into soft clay, such as the circular pattern
of syllables found on the Phaistos disc on Crete
● This suggested an alphabetic structure, and the first known use of reusable
images, comparable to Gutenberg's relief type over 3,000 years later
The Substrate Revolution:
● Due to limitations of imprinting on clay, a cheaper, lighter, more versatile medium
or substrate was developed-- the first substrate of this is papyrus
● 1085 and 950 BCE: papyrus was manufactured and the use of photography
(picture words) began, papyrus was the primary means of portraying pictographs
and written words
● How papyrus was created:
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○ Grew along the Nile river
○ Stems were cut into strips
○ Strips were pounded, pressed, then dried
○ The sheet was burnished with stone to smoothen
○ Reed pen was used to draw on it
Papyrus was not the ideal substrate to write on
105 CE: China’s Cai Lun discovered how to make paper:
○ using mulberry, hemp, linen rags, and water
○ A mix of ingredients spread a screen or mat
○ water pressed out
○ Sheets were then dried in the sun
Muslims carried this practice to Europe in 751 but there needed to be innovation in
papermaking as the demand for paper increased
Cai Lun’s pulping process is still used today but now have various chemicals, dyes,
brighteners, and strengthening agents
Around 1700: Holland Beater was invented which beat rags to a pulp, improving
the manufacturing process of paper
■ The Fourdrinier: the concept was designed in 1797 and commercially
developed 1803-1812
■ Fourdrinier still remains essentially the same but are much larger (can be
several hundreds of yards) and can make paper at high speeds
Paper is a durable, versatile, and disposable commodity that is synonymous with
the growth of printing
Today there is the development of synthetic paper (no pulp required), or even a
“paperless” society
Term substrate should not be limited to paper as printing can be done on any
material
The development of “digital paper” by PARC is seen as an invention as significant
as Cai Lun’s discovery
The First Printing Revolution:
● Printing was invented over 1,000 years before Johann Gutenberg revolutionized it.
○ Hand-carved woodblock printing on paper was first used in Asia, which
historians believe the Chinese were using this method as early as 400CE.
○ The first “mass market” publication, of woodblock-printed sheets, was
commissioned by the Japanese Empress Shotoku, between 764 and 777.
■ This publication was called the Million Buddhist Charms, it is the
oldest surviving example of woodblock printing in Japan and the
earliest representation of printing.
○ China produced the first block-printed book, The Diamond Sutra, in 868.
○ Asia was also where movable type, made from baked clay, was invented
(around 1043) by Pi Sheng, a Chinese alchemist.
○ In 1313, a font of 60,000 wooden types was produced for the Korean ruler
Wang Chen, however, there was limited success to this method.
○ By the 14th century, there is evidence that metal type was being used in
Asia.
○ The Korean king Ta-jong (1401-1419) was the first to start making movable
type out of copper and by 1403 (47 years before Gutenberg’s first printing)
Korean type was being made out of bronze.
○ In 1596, Japan published its first book printed with movable type.
● Gutenberg’s invention that revolutionized printing was cast metal movable type.
○ His invention survived for 500 years before it was replaced.
○ Not only did Gutenberg recycle the movable type idea, but he also
invented a model that could create metal type characters of the exact same
height which made the results of printing much cleaner, uniform, and easier
to read.
○ Gutenberg’s method made printing easier and faster
○ His press was made from a 15th Century wine press which was a necessary
accessory to his invention.
○ After his invention, it was the first time hundreds of readers were able to
own the exact same copy of a book. This also lead to the first case of
information overload.
● Cai Lun’s and Gutenberg’s inventions changed the structure of institutions and
influenced how learning took place.
○ In the 16th Century, French Humanist Peter Ramus introduced classrooms
where books were available to all students.
○ The book was the first “teaching machine” and also the first
mass-produced commodity.
The Importance of Type:
● There was a need for a text to be printed that wasn’t an image
● Thus from handwriting, the art of typography was created.
● Typography refers to the aesthetics of type making sure the words and letters
were neat and inline.
● Even with technology evolving, typography basics have remained similar.
● Nicholas Janson created the first roman typeface, then with time people created
more and more different fonts and styles.
● In the 20th typographer named Frederick W. Goudy made over 100 different
typefaces
● “The rise of digital publishing has given new significance to the art and science of
type”
Printing During the Renaissance:
● During the dark ages, rulers kept the knowledge to themselves,
● Gradually as more people became involved in art, history, and science
○ It became known as the rebirth of learning which was also recognized as
the renaissance
● Professional manuscript writing had become an industry during the time,
● It was shortly doomed after due to the rise of printing
● Printing became an important aid for the dissemination of knowledge
● It advanced persuasion over unquestioned belief and became an essential tool for
informing everyone
● It spread beyond Gutenberg
● William Caxton brought printing to England in 1476
○ A year after he printed the first book in English and in the Netherlands
● Aldus Manutius was one of the greatest figures in publishing history,
○ he established a printing company in Venice in 1946
○ His works are distinguished by typographical beauty
○ He wished to make it more possible for common people to get English
books
○ He published philosophers such as Aesop, Aristotle, Euripides, Homer,
Plato, and Plutarch
○ In 1501, he printed the first book containing italic type
● Dutch theologian and philosopher, Erasmus, was responsible for printing the New
Testament in 1516
○ He used emerging printing technology as a way of creating ideas through
words
○ His interest was a republication of works by Manutius
● The initial influence of printing was through humanities
○ The technology of printing eventually shaped sciences as well
● Modern sciences depend on information conveyed
○ During and immediately after the renaissance, the printing of books relied
on raised surface technique (letterpress) which was used by Gutenberg
● Single sheet works called broadsides were also common
● The newspaper was also produced via letterpress beginning 17th century
Printing Comes to North America:
● Juan Pablos, the first printer in North America arrived in 1539
● He set up his press in Mexico City, other printers then followed and Mexico
became the center of printing in North America
● One-page Freeman’s Oath produced about 1638 by Stephen Daye in Cambridge,
Massachusetts was the first known printing in British Colonies
● The book first printed in Colonial America was a book of psalms, printed by
Matthew Day (1640)
● Later came prayer books, school/lesson books, bibles, newspaper, etc., all
produced on wooden presses using Gutenberg’s now-traditional process
● With the growth of printing in England, the supply of paper grow as well
● William Rittenhouse started the first paper mill in 1690 near a small river outside
Philadelphia
● Printing in America had an impact on its religious and political life like Europe.
● By the American Revolution, Literacy was at its all-time high
● British military officials complained that Colonists’ love for books made their
willingness to fight over principles even stronger
Early Newspapers in America:
● The Boston News-Letter is considered the first American newspaper published in
1704
● Benjamin Franklin was a skilled scientist, author, editor, publisher, and printer; his
newspaper Pennsylvania Gazette started in Philadelphia in 1732 was well
respected
● In 1814, after centuries of using history’s oldest printing machine, the hand press
was finally replaced with Friederich Koenig power-driven press
● Koenig’s invention lowered printing and composing costs by 25%
● In 1822 Peter Smith an American associated with the R. Hoe & Co came up with a
machine that was superior to any concept at that time it was made of cast iron
● In 1827, Samuel Rust’s invention improved the Smith press the cast iron was
replaced with hollowed-out frames that were upright at the sides
● This new invention was known as the Washington Hand Press
● The Washington Press was manufactured in great numbers more than 6 thousand
were made and sold around the world
● It was then superseded by the cylinder press
Harper’s Publications:
● From the mid-1800s to the mid-1900s, a series of concurrent developments
widened public access to print
○ Steam-powered cylindrical presses, stereotype plates, and paper
mass-produced from wood pulp increased the output and decreased the
price of printed material
● By the late 1900s, several hundred pages were printed per capita
● The invention of the telegraph and the laying of the Atlantic cable enormously
enhanced the speed and efficiency with which the press could convey news.
● Completion of a rail network made the practical nationwide distribution of books
and magazines
● Elementary education and literacy opened a broad public market for print
● Print became a mass medium with the “penny newspaper” and inexpensive
magazines and books
● The first power-driven cylinder press sold to The London Times in 1814
● In 1846, R. Hoe & Co. produced a type-revolving press, the first to use a rotary,
cylinder-to-cylinder, principle.
○ This design was replaced in 1871 with a rotary press that used single-piece
stereotype plates.
● George P. Gordon devised a treadle-operated version of a platen press in 1850.
● In 1856 William bullock produced the first web-fed, perfecting press, capable of
printing on both sides of a continuous roll of paper
● Charles Mahon re-establish stereotype printing in England by perfecting it with
plastic molds
○ Printed Bibles, prayer books, and school books
● Stereotype plate would not break into pieces a form of type often did
● The first line of Gordon job press was put on the American Market by George
Phineas Gordon in 1851 and was used for efficient printing production well into the
twentieth century.
The Linotype Machine:
● The linotype machine was made on July 3, 1886, by Ottmar Mergenthaler. It is
regarded as one of the ten greatest inventions of all time.
● When keys on the linotype machine are struck, pieces of brass punched with
characters are brought into a line, which is automatically spaced and moved into a
mold where molten metal is injected into the indented characters to produce slugs
of metal type incomplete lines.
● The Harris intertype operated the same way, whereas the Monotype machine
created type from individually cast characters which automatically formed into
lines.
● The Monotype also had the added distinction of being drive by punched tape
produced on a keyboard that was separated from the setter or caster
● Punched paper tape was used this way for decades before a similar concept was
adopted by computers.
● The linotype machine was made completely obsolete by the mid 1960s
● The first typesetter that did not require molten hot metal to produce images was
the Fotosetter which was tested by the Harris intertype corporation in 1946
○ However, it was displaced by more advanced and faster photo-optic
systems that had a similar design
● A synergy of typesetting and photography became the mainstay of typesetting
technology until the mid-1980s when desktop publishers took over.
The rises of Lithography:
● In 1789, Alois Senefelder invented lithography which means ‘stone printing’ (litho =
print & graphic = stone)
● Uses flat pieces of limestone to draw or engrave images for printing. You could
also transfer images through a chemical process that separated the image and
non-image areas. Soon the printing aspect of lithography moved to other imaging
surfaces. Stone lithography is still used today.
● He invented special greasy ink to use for writing or drawing on the stone which
would appear reversed like a mirror image.
● He also found a way to transfer the images the right way by transferring the image
to a special paper called transfer sheet than from there transfer it to the stone.
● To make prints from the image he sponged the stone with an Arabic gun and
rolled on greasy ink that would only appear on the greasy image lines but not on
dampened non-image areas. Then pressed a paper over it.
● Lithography is more efficient on the smooth stone than raised metal surfaces of
Gutenberg’s process. (called letterpress printing)
● Lithography made multicolor reproduction easier and put images and types on
one plate. It also made it easier to print complex alphabets like the ones used in
Asia.
● Lithography is used very often today for many printing applications.
● 1930-1940 thin printing plates made of aluminum and other materials replaced
stone
● Printer Ira Rubel replaced the transfer sheet with rubber “offset blankets” in the
early 1900. Lithographic became known as “offset lithographic”
● It was used very much until digital presses came out, but it is still widely used
especially for longer press runs
Printing in the Electronic Era:
● Innovations have improved the printing industry in 2 significant stages
● Nearly every piece of printing equipment that has been developed since
the mid-1980s is driven by a microprocessor
● Miniaturization of and cost reductions in microprocessor-driven tech has
given almost everyone access to printing tech
● This allows the author of print to also be the producer of print
● In 1983, Chester Carlson invented a process that helped make the office copier
possible
○ Known as xerography, “dry writing”
○ Reflecting the image of an original document from a mirror onto an
electrically charged selenium drum
○ A copy was created as the special dry ink or toner attracted to the dark
image on the drum, then was transferred and fused to the paper
○ Also referred to as “electrophotography”
○ His invention is the basis for electrophotography
○ Other 20th century inventions include thermal and “piezoelectric” inkjet
printing
● In the first half of the 20th century, electronics brought printing capabilities that
enhanced quality and speeds printing could be produced
● Desktop publishing made printing affordable and available to more people
○ It broadened the possibilities from traditional printing establishments to
anyone producing prints on their own
○ Allowed author and originator to become the producer
On Beyond Paper:
● In parallel with new ways to put colour on paper (other materials) new
technologies for manipulating and transmitting data, separating colour images,
and composing pages presaged radical changes not only in the way they think of
traditional printing but also in how they publish information without the use of
paper.
● Digital, multimedia publishing resembles the disruption that followed Cai Lun,
Gutenberg, and Senefekder but at an extremely accelerated rate.
○ Mass reproduction of text and image on a sheet of paper closely mirrors
that of doing so on a screen.
○ The difference is the fact that the content is instantly changeable.
○ They have only begun to cope with the implications of managing such
volatile content.
Chapter 3: Technological Transitions
COLLINS EBOOK, TEXTBOOK NOTES
Introduction:
● Communication design = making a message meant for a specific section of the
public
○ Written message is combined w/ meaningful & relevant visual components
○ Components should amplify, clarify and enhance the message
○ Designers apply principles of composition & organisation for project to
make design choices
● Definition on what makes a design element = consistent across sources for the
most part
○ But defining principles are not and varies from one to the next
Colour:
RGB - Red, Blue, Green
CMYK - Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black
● Digital media works in the additive colour system
○ Primary colours are: Red, Green, Blue (RGB)
○ The absence of colour = black
○ Combining all colours = white
○ This light system is called additive because the three primaries together
create all the hues in the spectrum.
● Print media works in the subtractive colour system
○ Primary colours are: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow (CMYK)
○ The absence of colour = white
○ Combining all colours = black
○ If your print materials cannot be replicated on-screen, you will have a major
design problem that will have to be corrected.
● ALWAYS CHOOSE COLOURS THAT WORK IN BOTH SYSTEMS *
● Colours are affected by the amount of light available to them as well as the
colours around them (texture also changes the brightness or darkness of a
colour)
● Create a palette that is focused enough to create the right atmosphere and
energy level (do not rely heavily on a specific colour)
○ Keep in mind the mood and message certain colours create
Negative Space:
● Negative Space, also known as white space, has a very important role in
composition as it shapes the visual perception of the subject.
● Without this white(negative) space there is no positive space, creating a design
that has no dimension or is unappealing
○ Something with no negative space and no positive space is like a polar
bear in a snowstorm
● The composition of negative space changes the active elements in a flat of the
dynamic way
○ If the surrounding area is busy with multiple elements then the focal point
of the piece loses its focus, power, and visual value
○ If the work is balanced and the negative space is active, it brings energy to
the piece
● The focal point or figure increased its visual power depending on the contrast for
the eye.
○ The range of the visual activity is increased then the experience is more
satisfying to the eye
● Designers play around with reducing positive and negative space to create
ambiguity
○ Ambiguity creates tension, which increases the viewers’ interest and visual
energy of the design
○
Three types of figure/ground relationships:
● Stable figure/ground: this type is the most common type. The positive element is
clearly separated and defined against negative space
○ Example: Text blocks in magazines or books
● Reversible figure/ground: this type is often found in the work of M.C Escher. Both
the positive and negative space delivers active information that feels equal to the
eye which creates a toggling effect. While one shape is comprehended the other
acts as its negative space, then the opposite happens and the negative space
becomes meaningful, and its opposite becomes neutral “holding” space
● Ambiguous figure/ground: this type creates a confusing lack of focal point. The
eye will search for a dominant visual “starting point” but can’t find one. Often this
creates energy and if the effect is compelling, this invites the viewer to stay to
absorb all the visual information of the piece.
Texture:
● The texture is a visual and a tactile quality that designers work with
● The texture is used both in composition and also on the printed substrate or
media space
● Designers create textures for their projects with anything at hand
● A texture can be made with typography, generated in raster or vector software like
Photoshop or Adobe Illustrator, or by using a camera and capturing elements in
the material world
● Using texture thoughtfully will enhance a visual experience and amplify the
context for the content
● Often adding texture adds visual complexity and a bit of visceral depth to a
two-dimensional design project
● It can also tie one piece of design to another, or become a defining element of a
brand or a series of communications
● The tactile aspect of a design work comes into play with the choices we make for
the substrate we print on
● The surface can be smooth or rough, glossy or matte, thick or thin, translucent or
opaque, paper, plastic, concrete, metal, wood, or cloth
○ Paper can even have two or more of these qualities if we augment the
original look of the paper with layers of varnish that reverse the tactile
effect of the substrate
● Often the choice of substrate is most effective if it is sympathetic to or contrasts
with the concept and content of the piece
● The choice of substrate texture affects how the viewer perceives the content —
both physically and optically
● Glossy substrates often feel sophisticated, hard, and cold
○ They are imbued with a sense of precision because the ink sits on top of
the surface of the paper and retains almost all of its original integrity
● A textured matte paper feels organic, accessible, and warm because the ink is
partially absorbed by the paper, and is therefore influenced by and fused to its
softer characteristics
● The pattern is part of the element of texture, but because of its special ability to
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hold content that is meaningful and its long and significant cultural history, it
deserves a special mention
All patterns can be reduced to dot and line and are organized by a grid system of
some kind
Their ‘flavor’ is a reflection of the culture and time they come from and of the
materials that created them
Patterns can be a subtle addition to the content of any design work
○ A pattern can be created using a relevant graphic (like a logo) or repeated
multiple times, or it can support the organizational principles developed by
the designer in a decorative way; for example, if a grid is based on the
square and the texture of the pattern is also based on the square
When the pattern is seen as a whole, its individual components melt away and
lose their identity to the larger field of the pattern
This ability to focus on a pattern in multiple ways creates a second purpose for the
graphic element (such as a circle, a square, a logo, or symbol) the designer has
used
In modern design practice, the pattern is an opportunity to augment the clean and
simple material surfaces we work with and ornament a page or a website with a
relevant texture
Typography:
● Typography is the medium of designers and the most important element we work
with.
● It carries a message and imbues a message with visual meaning based on the
character of a font, its style, and its composition.
● The style and composition of words tell a reader your emotions; serious, playful,
exciting, or calm.
○ It's the tonal equivalent of a voice and can be as personal or as a general in
flavour.
● Traditionally typography has two functions:
● Call attention to or ‘display the intent of a communication
○ This is called titling or display typography
● Present the in-depth details of communication within a text block
○ Requires a different approach- it’s quiet and doesn’t cause attention
to itself.
○ Its intent is to make the content accessible and easy to read
● There are many ways to categorize and subcategorize type.
● seven major historical categories that build on one another:
○ Serif fonts comprise 4 of these categories:
■ Humanist
■ Old style
■ Transitional
■ Modern
● Italic (first designed in the 1500s) has evolved to become part of a font ‘family’ and
were at one time a separate category.
○ They were initially designed independently fonts to be used in small
pocketbooks where space was limited.
○ They were not embraced as text fonts but were considered valuable for
adding emphasis within a roman text and so became part of the set of
options and extensions a font possessed.
○ Sans serif fonts have historically been used for display only, but in the 20th
century, they became associated with the modern aesthetic of clean and
simple presentation and have now become very popular for text-block
design.
○ Egyptian or slab serif fonts can be used as either display or text depending
on the characteristic of the font design.
● Blackletter
○ Was the medieval model for the first movable types
○ Also known as Block, Gothic, Fraktur, or Old English.
○ The look of this font is heavy and dark.
○ The letterforms are often condensed and put
together tightly in a text block creating a dark
color (tone) for a page — between 70% and
80% grey. (the usual tone of a modern text
page is between 55% and 70% grey.)
○ Letterforms make it hard to read the page.
○ The beauty of the font and the form was the
primary goal for early publications
○ Books were considered to be objects of
wealth and beauty, not solely as a means to
convey information.
● Humanist
○ Also referred to as Venetian, because they were developed in and around
Venice in the mid-15th century.
○ The design was modeled on the lighter, open serif letterforms and
calligraphy of the Italian humanist writers.
○ Humanist types were the first roman types.
○ They were much easier to read and lighter on the page than blackletter, but
they still created a visually dark and heavy text block in contrast to the
fonts we have become accustomed to.
○ The height of a humanist font is small compared to contemporary fonts, and
this impedes quick comprehension and
legibility.
○ Remember that these fonts were a perfect
match to the earliest printing technologies
and those presses could not have printed
our light and delicate fonts.
○ Examples of humanist fonts include
Jenson, Centaur, Verona, Lutetia, Jersey,
and Lynton.
● Old style
○ Old style fonts, also known as Guaraldi
fonts, are the next leap in font design, and
their stylistic developments were driven by
the technological advancement of presses
and the improved skills of punch cutters.
○ The aim of these new fonts ceased to be about replicating the look of
handwriting and more about refining the letterforms to create a lighter
overall tone.
○ The letterforms became more precise, their serifs more distinct. The
contrast of the stroke weights was also increased, and the presses held
true to the design and didn’t distort them.
○ Examples of old-style fonts include Goudy Old Style, Granjon, Janson,
Palatino, Perpetua, Plantin, and Sabon.
● Transitional
○ Centuries later font design was again
refined, and this time the impetus came
from France and the Enlightenment
movement.
○ They were created along with the rationalist principles of the time
○ The strokes were contrasted further with very thick main strokes and very
thin sub-strokes, and the serif, which capped the stroke, did not use
bracketing (the rounding underneath the intersection of the two strokes).
○ These new fonts broke with humanist and old-style tradition and ceased to
reference calligraphy
○ Examples of transitional fonts include Baskerville, Bookman, Fournier, and
Joanna.
● Rhythm:
○ Rhythm is essential to the pacing of design composition and is also
necessary for creating a pattern
○ The pacing of a repeating motif or element at regular or irregular intervals
within a design determines the energetic quality of a composition; it also
creates a consistent and unifying backdrop for the introduction of new
elements
○ Rhythm is the effect produced by varying the placement of elements within
the grid structure
○ The changes in the density of elements and visual tones of the spreads
translate into rhythmic visual energy as the energy of each page grows or
shrinks.
○ Rhythm is the glue that connects one page to the next; it reveals recurrent
themes and creates movement, tension, and emotional value in the content
○ When viewers understand the rhythm they will also appreciate the
variations that break with or punctuate the rhythm and create interest,
change, or tension.
● Repetition:
○ Repetition creates visual consistency, such as using the same
style of headline, the same style of initial capitals, and the
same set of elements, or repeating the same basic layout from
one page to another
○ Excessive repetition creates monotony, which leads to viewer
boredom and dull, uninteresting compositions for the designer
○ To avoid this create a design system that allows the repetitions
within it to be lively and interesting
○ The example uses a simple set of rules, but because the rules
allow for colour and compositional changes, each discrete
component is as interesting on its own as it is within the whole
○ If you cannot avoid excessive repetitions, try to add some visual breaks and
white spaces where the eyes can rest for a while.
● Alignment:
○ Lining up text and elements on the page
○ Typographically:
■ horizontal alignment: is flush left (left-justified or ragged right)
■ Flush right: right justified or ragged left
■ Center
■ Fully justified
○ Vertical alignment usually linked to baseline alignment
○ A baseline grid is used in digital software for the layout of type,
○ It is the invisible line where font characters sit.
● Contrast:
○ Is a visual device that increases the special character of both elements that
have been paired
○ Creating contrast between colours, sizes, and shapes
○ No design makes use of only one type of contrast, but usually one
dominates the others
● Colour Contrast:
○ 1. Contrast of hue occurs when a hue or colour is separated by being
outlined in black or white lines. White lines weaken the ‘strength’ and
appearance of the colour and the colours around the white lines seem
darker. In contrast, a black line around a colour strengthens the
appearance of the colour, while the colours around the black lines appear
to be lighter.
○ 2. Light-dark contrast is the contrast between light values and dark values.
○ 3. Cold-warm contrast refers to the contrast between cool and warm
colours. Warm colours are the red, orange, and yellow colours of the colour
wheel, while cool colours are blue, green, and purple.
○ 4. Complementary contrast is the contrast between colours directly
opposite each other on the colour wheel.
○ 5. Simultaneous contrast occurs between two colours that are almost
complementary. One colour is one section to the left or right of the
complementary colour of the other.
○ 6. Contrast of saturation refers to the contrast between intense colours
and tertiary or muted colors. Muted colours appear duller when placed next
to intense colours, and intense colours appear more vivid when next to a
muted colour.
○ 7. Contrast of extension refers to the contrast between the area of one
colour and another. Different areas of one colour are needed to balance
another.
● Emphasis:
○ “A focal point in a composition draws the eye to it before the eye engages
with the rest of the visual information” (Quote from pdf)
○ Making a specific element stand out or catch your eye
○ This is used in design to draw the focal point to something
important
○ Creates order of what the viewers should be viewing (what
should they look at first, second, etc)
○ Elements change from size, colour, etc to achieve this effect
● Movement:
○ “Movement is made by creating visual instability — like motion
in a photograph that blurs the image, as shown in the
example in Figure 3.18.” (Quote from pdf)
○ Having areas blurred helps this effect also overlapping of objects
○ Can make the eye move (like follow a path, arrows, lines, pointing to right
corner, etc)
○ David Carson is a designer who often uses this technique to create
movement in his work.
● Scale
○ Changing scale is important for two reasons,
○ First is Composition: Lets the design be dynamic and effective, without this
it would make the design look flat
○ Second is Conceptual: Help engage views into asking why
○ An example of this is the Think Small Ad
○ “Subtle scale differences do not make much visual impact, but large ones
are very dramatic.” (Quote from pdf)
● Balance
○ Balance & symmetry are essential to design qualities
because they are embedded into human DNA (the human
body is symmetrical thus we have satisfaction with centered
designs).
○ Balancing visual elements calms our tensions and conveys a
sense of stability to the viewer.
○ When a centered/stable composition is not desirable (content that
demands attention), the best strategy is to develop an asymmetrical design.
○ Asymmetry has no rules but Contrast and Counterpoint are the main tools
of composition in asymmetry - large shapes balance small ones and intense
colours balance neutrals.
● Hierarchy: Dominance and Emphasis:
○ Applying an order of importance to a group of elements
○ Take an instruction manual as an example (layout,
order and organization, and flow of content)
○ Hierarchy is conveyed visually using a variation of
Size, Color, Placement, Tonal value, etc. (see
example to the right)
○ Graphic design does not always embrace
hierarchy
○ Depending on the intent, some designs can
disrupt the hierarchy and use visual anarchy and
chaos to their advantage (ie. punk designs)
○ Can connect to an audience by experimenting and
breaking free from universal rules and visual
structure
○ It is important to match the structure of the
composition to the needs of the project.
● Typographic Hierarchy
○ Body of text is made more comprehensible by imposing an order
○ Titles, subtitles, sections, and subsections
○ Must be clear and distinguishable from one another
○ Cannot be subtle or else you lose significance and distinguishability
○ Typography acts as a tonal voice to the viewer must create clear variation
in tone, pitch, and melody
○ Hierarchy is created by using similarity and contrast:
○ Similarity:
■ Similar elements have equality in typographic hierarchy
○ Contrast:
■ Bigger and darker elements hold more importance
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
■ The opposite is also true
If you subdivide the text with too many levels, the contrast between them
will blur the hierarchical order
A good strategy to follow with text design, apply three levels of the type
hierarchy.
1. Title:
■ Attract the reader to the context
■ “flavorful “ and has a strong visual appeal and dynamic
■ Most important points, general and seen by most people
2. Subtitle:
■ Gives the reader ability to distinguish between types of info within
the text block
●
3. Text block:
■ The meat of the text
■ Opposite of the “display” function of the title and subtitle, the
function of this order is to make the content legible and easy to
digest visually.
■ Readers should be able to decide to read this based on the title and
the subtitle
The typographic hierarchy will convey info from general to specific as it
progresses down the hierarchy
Newspapers are a great example of this, when you read the title it grabs
your attention whether you want to continue reading or not
● Organizational Principles:
○ Typography is a harder medium to work with since it contains two levels of
info (display and content)
○ Elements need to be organized to allow the reader to seamlessly follow the
content
○ Organizational systems are “big picture” constraints
○ Allows the designer to focus on the aspects of a project
○ Grid:
■ Divides design space as vertical and horizontal parameters
■ Usually works as an invisible element the designer uses to compose
and arrange elements, however, can become an active, visible
element as well (borders)
■ Often used in a publication and web design
■ Using margins and columns makes the layout process more efficient
■ The Golden Section aka The Golden
Ratio
● The ratio between two
numbers
● Applied as an organizational
system in art, design, and
architecture for centuries
● 1:1.618
● Formula: a:b=b:(a+b)
● “Side a is to side b is to the
sum of both sides”
Chapter 4: Print Industry Segment
TEXTBOOK NOTES
Overview:
● Graphic Communication composed of many different types of business
● Of the 36 print-related business types, some are on the brink of obsolescence,
while others define the future of the industry
● Four categories make up the 36
○ Service Providers
○ Developers, Dealers, and Distributors
○ Content Creators
○ Education and Professional Development
A Complex Service Industry:
● Many different types of companies/businesses in the printing & GCM industry
○ Ex. U.S gov’ identifies business types w/ NAICS (North American Industry
Classification System)
■ Due to rapid tech change & companies diversifying, gov’
classification doesn’t always apply
● 36 industry segments related to printing
○ Span into 4 categories
■ Content creators
■ Service providers
■ Developers, dealers, & distributors
■ Those involved in education & professional development
Commercial Printing:
● Commercial printing establishment dropping due to mergers, consolidations, &
business terminating operations
● Performs general printing
○ Ie. simple flyers, complex 4-colour/spot colour printing
● Runs relatively short & generally gets shorter as digital printing displaces
conventional offset lithography
● Highly competitive
○ Relies on high total volume, w/low-profit markup, to sustain self
● Provide a range of design & prepress services
○ Offer selection of paper, ink, finishing, & fulfillment options
● Tend to focus on local business, put emphasis on customer service
○ Larger commercial printers can offer cost savings to regional/national
companies
● Growing in colour reproduction & digital printing
● Usually, rely on a network of printing and fulfillment partners, use online ordering
to streamline the process
● Print establishment slowing but still required for many products, esp. Packaging,
that can’t be subbed w/ electronic methods
On-Demand (Quick) Printing:
● Known as copy shops, usually walk-in, storefront service companies
● Offer quick simple and low-volume print jobs
● Once used only one or two colour offset presses(duplicator presses)
● Now use digital printers/photocopiers
● Often work closely with individual designers, provide access to desktop design
computers and scanners for fee
● Mailing services, basic web-to-print online storefront are offered for submitting
print jobs
● 2017, approx. 4,900 on-demand/quick print locations in the US.
● Many individually owned businesses but many parts of franchises such as
AlphaGraphics, FedEx Office(formerly Kinkos) or co-located in stores like Office
Max, The UPS Store
● Four levels: (1) do it yourself on a home printer (2) go to large commercial printer
(3) go to local quick print (4) order online
● Either option depends on the size and complexity of the job/schedule
Specialty Printing:
● Often, a particular printing application with its own, unique substrate, ink, and
equipment requirements, is beyond the capabilities of a general commercial
printer
● Specialty printing businesses can be of any size and can be independent or part
of a larger printing enterprise
● Specialty printing, also called functional or industrial printing, involves the use of
substrates beyond paper
● New flatbed inkjet printers can print on plastic, metal, textile, ceramic, wood, glass,
carpeting, and other materials
○ This opens new markets in home decorating, building trades, apparel,
engineering, fine art, and other emerging markets
○ Specialty printing is emerging as one of the fastest-growing areas of the
graphic communication industry
■ This is due to the growth of variable data digital inkjet printing, and
the ability to print directly onto preformed products profitably in
short runs
■ The Screen Printing Association changed its name to the Specialty
Graphic Imaging Association (SGIA) to address the versatility that
specialty printing now provides
■ Sign Printing:
● Traditionally printed via offset lithography or screen-printing,
signs are increasingly the domain of wide-format digital inkjet
printing
● The finished product must be viewable and effective at
longer distances—as opposed to publications and collateral,
which are meant to be held and viewed closely
● They must also be durable under a variety of indoor and
outdoor conditions
● For signs that cannot be printed as a single sheet, there must
be an effective way to combine or tile individual sheets into a
single piece, as in the case of billboards, vehicle wraps, and
signage covering entire buildings
● Some kinds of signs are not printed at all, such as those
made with neon lights, channel lettering, or laser-cut wood
and other surfaces
● When printing is employed, however, customers can choose
from a vast array of substrates, particularly vinyl, transfer film,
and specially-coated paper
○ Each of these requires specialized inks and equipment
● Sign printing is a complex and growing market segment, with about 3,100
companies in the U.S. in 2017
○ These companies typically work closely with designers and brand owners,
not only to handle the many printing and finishing variables but also to help
manage color consistency under different printing and environmental
conditions
○ Sign printing companies also frequently offer related products, such as
indoor display systems
● Promotional item printing
○ A very specialized branch of this segment involves printing on non-paper
substrates such as textiles and various plastic and metal objects used for
promotional purposes
○ This can include a very wide range of items, from t-shirts to coffee cups and
branded USB drives
○ Traditionally, this involved screen-printing, but increasingly involves digital
printing
○ This segment overlaps many others, including packaging (where printing
on non-paper substrates is common) to textile printing in general
● Business forms and bank stationery printing
○ Business forms printers are rapidly disappearing due to software that
allows such products to be produced on a desktop or laptop computer
■ However, such companies typically produced three main products:
snap-out or unit set forms, computer or continuous forms, and
specialty forms
● Snap-outs, used for utility invoicing, include a mailing
envelope, an invoice, and a return envelope all gathered in
one unit
● Computer and specialty forms, once an essential part of
office infrastructure, are being supplanted by their digital
counterparts, and thus comprise a declining portion of printed
business forms products
● With the proliferation of electronic funds transfer systems and
ATMs, bank stationery printing as a separate industry is being
eliminated
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
○ Bank stationery products are still in use, however,
checks and deposit/withdrawal forms are usually made
by this particular segment
For many years the business forms segment was highly profitable because it
manufactured specialized products on standardized equipment with a relatively
small variety of supplies
Its small format and narrow web presses were relatively simple and required low
operator skill levels
Business forms products are typically produced on uncoated paper
Color printing for business forms has now become a standard
While the use of printed business forms is on the decline, an interesting growth
area is in printing personalized forms with information directed to the individual
recipient
Many utility bills now typically carry personalized messages and advertising
directed to the addressee
These mailed forms utilize variable-data-printing equipment and sophisticated
databases, as described in Chapter 8
Other specialty printing segments:
○ The highly-specialized greeting card printing segment is growing, despite
the advent of Internet-based electronic greeting cards
■ It is also dominated by a small number of companies, with about 80
percent of all greeting cards in the U.S. produced by a few
companies, led by Hallmark
■ Greeting card printing involves an extremely wide variety of
substrates, custom color inks, metallic pigments, laminations, and
coatings
■ It also requires specialty processes such as embossing, die-cutting,
and holography
■ The dominance of this market by Hallmark and others has resulted
in one of the most demanding print color quality control and
monitoring programs in the industry
■ A current trend is to manufacture regional or "demographic" cards
that are identified with a particular community, city, or state, and
personalized cards on which the consumer can add a personal
message or a picture
● Another specialty printing segment, school yearbooks, resembles that of a
traditional book or magazine publishing (see below) but with an emphasis
on emotional appeal over sophistication
○ Because of its seasonal nature, predictable demand, limited format
and color options, and reliance on relatively unskilled or temporary
labor, yearbook printing remains profitable
Publication Printing:
● Printing is connected to publication; works with partial or any advertising
(newspapers and magazines) as well as works with no advertising (books and
journals)
● Pub. printing is impacted by digital media
■ Publishing of books, magazines, newspapers for mass audiences
have shortened due to media and online sources
■ Publishers have begun to adapt by changing to digital versions of
their printed works
● Books; slow growth area for printing and publishing
○ Small school budgets and learning tech. Limits textbook purchases
○ Digital media and broadcast has limited people's enjoyment of reasoning
fiction and non-fiction
○ Technical books and manuals were the growth area for book printing at
one point but also slowly converted to digital versions
○ Trade books are now only published by the big five companies; Hachette,
harper collins, Macmillan, penguin random house, and Simon and Schuster.
As big publishers grow, small, self-publishing companies multiply
○ Book distribution is also overpowered by a few large companies
○ How to print for books;
○ Black and white printing on uncoated paper, sheetfed, perfecting presses
○ Colour printing on coated stock is majorly for categories outside trade
fiction and nonfiction
○ High-speed inkjet printing is increasing for many book operations
○ Recent acid-free and alternative paper has better manufacturing and
printability
○ Technology made book production and distribution move much quicker to
supply chains
○ Desktop printing and on-demand printing have also allowed small
publishers to succeed. Short runs are cost-effective which reduce the need
for a large inventory of the books- depleting book distribution
○ Data printing on inkjet presses makes it more likely for custom textbooks to
be economic.
○ The printing industry is said to grow as technology for transmitting, editing,
assembling, and printing books becomes more accessible. Digital
publishing makes books more accessible
● Newspaper
○ How to print;
○ On newsprint- lower grade of wood pulp-based paper, usually on printed
on roll-fed presses
○ For newspapers, advertising inserts, and special publications
○ From 7800 newspapers to about 3000 in 2017
○ Newspapers (community, special interest, weekly) serve local or
self-interests
○ Merges allow newspapers to regrow from interactions with media groups
broadcast and digital
○ Newspaper is produced using web offset or flexographic printing tech
○ Gravure printing, (used for colour advertising insets and comics) is declining
as colour quality for offset and flexographic printing improves and as
distributions decline
○ The use of colour in non-advertising sections was discovered by Gannett’s
USA TODAY in the 1980s
○ Since many major metropolitan and community newspapers have added
colour in publication
○ Advanced colour reproductions have developed non-rub inks, water-based
flexographic inks resistant to flaking or scuffing
○ Newspapers are rapidly moving digitally adding diversity through online
sources, adding to printed versions in editorial content and classified
advertisements, and recently supporting mobile apps and online services
● Magazines and periodicals
○ General news mags. Gave way to focus more on individual interests.
Delivered more via mail than newsstands. Collective distribution of this
printing remains high even though housings are increasing
○ A major characteristic of magazines is the use of colour and higher-quality,
typically coated paper
○ Magazines keep their reputation of relaxed, “lean-back” media experience
○ Digitals and mobile editions are used by man magazine publishers
○ How its made
○ More digitally; layouts, pagination, and image assembly
■ The industry grows as the availability of low cost and desktop
publishing increases
■ Publishers use technology that allows demographic printing and
distribution
■ Allows mags. To provide advertising and editorial content of interest
■ Publishers offer split runs or zip code specific deliveries
● Catalogs and directories
○ Sometimes catalogs and directories are not considered publications say
the economic and editorial standpoint
○ Magazines have blurred lines of editorial and advertising to resemble
catalogs
○ From a production and distribution standpoint, catalogs are similar to
magazines and are printed with the same equipment; high-resolution
colour printed on coated stock and use digital printing for web offset
production for mainly print customized mailing information and other
variable data elements.
○ Delivered through postal system and newsstands
○ Printed directories decrease as technology takes over with similar offerings
and apps. (quicker with a phone than a telephone book)
○ Printed books are growing, magazines and newspapers offer electronic
versions but still publish smaller prints.
○ Printed versions offer the ability to save and share that digital copies need
licensing for.
Financial and Legal Printing:
● Produces materials related to monetary and constructional situations
● Emphasis for printed products on security and fraud prevention and include stock
certificates, lottery tickets, traveler’s checks, bonds, leases, SEC filings, currency, &
related certificates and documents.
● Typically national depending on the country (some serve local and regional needs)
● Has experienced consolidations and liquidation, with only a few companies
controlling approximately 90% of the volume.
● Electronic data transfers have streamlined the process of producing and
distributing financial and legal documents.
● Tightly regulated by the SEC and other agencies on matters affecting security and
confidentiality,
● One of the most important things is the accuracy of the information contained in
documents
● Security of the financial documents include heat-sensitive inks, holograms,
watermarks, special papers, and security threads running through currency
Direct Mail Printing:
● Companies that specialize in direct mail printing often compete with publication
and commercial printers that have added this segment as logical extensions of
their original capabilities
● Direct mail pieces are printed on a variety of paper substances
● Where Direct Mail has changed the most involves digital, variable data printing or
VDP
● Each printed piece is personalized to a specific recipient
● Response rate is greater with properly executed VDP than with non-personalized
correspondence
● Digital VDP is the fastest-growing segment of the printing industry
● The most important facet of variable data printing is setting up Databases of
information that allow meaningful personalization
● A printer must invest significant time and money in front-end technology and
personalization systems
● Printers in this sector must be able to tune their workflow to the requirements of
the Postal Service.
● Weight and size requirements have significant cost implications as do the sorting
of batches by postal code, and a working knowledge of Postal Distribution
Centers.
Packaging:
● A major part of the graphic design industry
● Packaging sales revenue is almost equal to commercial printing sales revenue
● Globally packaging revenue is over $750 billion in 2017 expected to be $997
billion by 2020.
● The only traditional printing industry segment not impacted by digital media
● It includes folding carton printing, flexible packaging, label printing, corrugated
board printing, and metal decoration.
● Digital package printing has modernized this industry segment and has made it
into a focus of most digital manufactures
In-Plant Printing:
● Focuses on “captive” plans servicing one client (parent company or
industry)
● IP (in-plant) printing establishments range from thousands of employees to
1
● Very few employ more than a 100 people
● IP printing operations include manufacturing companies with needs for
print collateral, financial institutions, government agencies, universities, and
insurance companies
● Products range from business cards, collateral, and direct mail advertising
pieces to complex 4 colour annual reports.
● Larger IP facilities are equipped with better equipment
● Smaller IP facilities are equipped with simple equipment, enough to do
routine tasks
● Several decades ago - IP printing had significantly grown through the
development of small offset duplicators and presses and simplified
plate-making processes.
● More rapid growth because of increased availability of desktop publishing
and simple print-on-demand digital presses.
● Because of Miniaturization and cost reduction, companies find it easier to
buy digital equipment and produce their own printing
Prepress Service Providers & Print Brokers:
● Prepress Service Providers
○ These companies, traditionally referred to as trade shops, provide prepress
services to printers not equipped to do that specialized work
○ Historically, these services included typesetting, mechanical art
composition, scanning, photoengraving, color separation (negatives and
positives), composition or stripping, and plate making
○ While some printing plants elected to have their own prepress department
in-house, others found it more economical to outsource
○ This industry segment was changed drastically in the early 1980s with the
availability of sophisticated color electronic prepress systems (CEPS) that
provided efficiencies in productivity and quality that conventional prepress
technology was unable to provide
○ One CEPS replaced the need for separate departments for each prepress
step
○ Unfortunately, these systems were expensive
○ Therefore, to enjoy the benefits that CEPS offered, printers returned to
purchasing services from prepress vendors that had invested in integrated
systems
○ The service provider justified the investment by providing prepress
services simultaneously to numerous printers locally or nationally
○ In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the CEPS approach was supplanted by
relatively low-cost desktop publishing systems
○ However, because many printers were reluctant to adopt the newer
technology, a new type of trade shop, the service bureau, filled the gap
○ Sometimes, service bureaus were former typesetting or CEPS operations
that transitioned their old business to the new technology
○ Sometimes, they were entirely new businesses. Most invested in
high-resolution scanners, film imagesetters or platesetters, and imposition
software
○ Frequently, they worked with designers to make their files ready for printing
○ Some offered design services for routine print projects
○ Eventually, this business model changed, as printers adopted digital
prepress and designers and their software became more adept in creating
print-ready files
○ However, for tasks that still lie beyond a designer's capability, or are not
cost-effective for a printer to bring in-house, there is still a rich opportunity
for an entrepreneurial service business
● Print Brokers
○ Print brokers connect printing companies and customers
○ They are independent and not directly employed by the companies they
represent; they serve as sales representatives to printing service providers
and they bring in work without costing the service provider a commission
○ Print brokers are compensated by marking up the cost of the printing job
○ Print brokers are particularly valuable to those who need printing but know
little about how to specify and buy it
○ Print brokers coordinate all aspects of a printing job beginning with art and
copy preparation and extending through prepress, press, and finishing
operations
○ While some have basic copy preparation departments within the
brokerage, brokers primarily outsource most facets of a printing job
■ Some brokers specialize in planning specific printed items while
others are generalists and handle many types of jobs
○ They are typically knowledgeable in most facets of printing and know how
to provide specifications
○ Print brokers integrate the print manufacturing process by coordinating all
manufacturing services needed for the job.
Chapter 5: Design and Prepress Workflow
TEXTBOOK NOTES
Overview:
● In Gutenberg's time, designers shaped letterforms and manually
illustrated/illuminated printed pages
○ Eventually, designers’ images, use of colour, sizing & positioning of text was
incorporated in final page by handing it off to craftsman
○ Craftsmen developed skills to bring designers vision to life-- their work is
called prepress or premedia, and are still important today but are
transformed with technological advances
● What can and can’t be printed by both designers and prepress professionals were
generally understood
○ This stability of understanding was disrupted with desktop publishing or
DTP, which allowed the author to become the publisher-- anyone could
become a graphic designer
○ Due to DTP, there is a disconnect between designers and print
professionals, but automated workflows and sophisticated applications are
bridging the gap
● This chapter will explain underlying principles and outline practices for a smooth
path from idea to result
The Pre-digital workflow:
● It is important to understand how the artwork was prepared before digital design
○ Typesetting:
■ 1970s phototypesetting systems used light beams to image letters
on resin-coated or RC photographic paper. Designers/ prepress
professionals applied a layer of wax to the back of the output and
affixed it to…
○ Mechanicals:
■ type and artwork without tonal variation and solid rectangles for
photo placement were afield to a rigid board and overlaid with
protective tissue
○ Line Film negatives:
■ made from mechanicals, typically contained clear windows as
placeholders for…
○ Halftone negatives:
○
○
○
○
○
■ The pattern of dots that are small enough to trick the eye to see a
smooth continuous tone image. Monochrome halftones made with
process camera by placing a screen over unexposed film before
shooting continuous-tone original, Color halftones required a drum
scanner to make…
Colour Separations:
■ colour halftones consisted of four pieces of film for cyan, magenta,
yellow, and black. When printed in the sequence they produce a
colour image
Image Assembly:
■ The laborious process of mounting line art and halftone film onto
opaque (typically orange or plastic masking) sheets punched to
ensure registration and alignment. Excess portions of the mask were
cut away and taped over flaws in the film.
Opaque paper & tape prevented light from transmitting on those areas
Imposition:
■ crucial to the image assembly process. Film for each page was
expertly positioned so the finished piece could be read after being
folded, trimmed, & bound
Platemaking:
■ The final step in the prepress workflow. High-intensity light exposed
a photosensitive offset plate underneath the flat, which was held in
place with a vacuum frame
The Desktop Publishing Disruption:
● Traditional workflow imposed burdens on designers and prepress alike
● This changed in the mid-1980s when the computing industry expanded from office
productivity to creative design.
● Macintosh Computer
○ popularized an intuitive, point and click user interface pioneered by Xerox
○ Introduced “a what you see is what you get” (WYSIWYG) approach to
designing pages for print
● PostScript (1985 by apple): this was a monochrome laser printer based on Adobe's
page description language.
● Around this time many developers introduced the first gen of the page layout of
desktop publishing software(DTP).
● Best-known was Aldus Pagemaker.
● In the beginning, DTP was disregarded due to its lack of typographic
sophistication
● DTP gave designers on-screen control of their work at a low cost
● DTP represented great cost-saving because now a press-ready design could be
created from the start.
● As time passed, prepress sophistication and design-specific features were added.
● “Although designers lacked the expertise to make prepress decisions, DTP
programs suddenly gave them the means to do so.”
● Designer unfamiliarity with prepress realities, coupled with ever more powerful
software lead to increased costs.
● Led to the rise of a new service bureau industry to cope with the problem.
Page layout:
● Pagemaker had rivals such as Ready, Set, GO!, Ragtime, Venture publisher, and
QuarkXPress.
● Page maker dominant in the 1990s
● In 1994 PageMaker was replaced with InDesign
● In the first decade of this century, InDesign became the dominant software
● Type formatting can be controlled using global styles created in programs and
subsequently position and format these elements.
● Type behavior changes in real-time as other objects are moved and altered
● Indesign can be used for magazine layout, advertising complex catalogs, etc.
● Adobe InDesign server is the basis for online editing systems and other
internet-enabled printing services.
● Indesign files can be exported in pdf-x files and can check errors
Illustration:
● Adobe Illustrator, part of the Creative Cloud = dominant application
● Followed by Corel Draw
● There are less costly options, however, these two are best suited for print
production whereas other applications may not be**
● Drawing applications typically involve vector graphics in comparison to raster
● Vector Graphics; primitive geometric shapes
● Raster Graphics; bitmap images
● Rather than simply altering pixels, the user is creating mathematical equations for
a shapes size, border, and fill color (and other characteristics)
○ All graphic images (even type characters) are rasterized at the final printing
stage*
● Vector programs allow the user to modify objects more easily before they are
used in a final page design
● Drawing systems (especially Adobe Illustrator) are used often in the packaging
industry
● The single-page approach and advanced control tools make it easier to create
label and packaging designs
● Packaging production typically relies on illustrator files
○ System developers often provide specialized, Illustrator “plug-in” modules
for packaging designers
■ Allows them to better manage color, and interface with 3D rendering
and or CAD programs
Image and Photo Editing:
● Pixel editing software = best known and widely used application in terms of design
■ **Adobe Photoshop**, particularly for print production, uses
○ Other design software often focus on the niche markets (web design,
professional photography, and hobby/home applications)
● Photoshop; vast and complex application (widespread use in print and digital
media)
● ...when Photoshop is used for print, typically the most recognized reasons are;
○ Scanner Input + Digital Camera Files
○ Make sure the images have correct resolution and are in the correct
print-friendly file format (also not overly compressed)
○ Color Adjustment
○ Optimizing the colors used in each file for printability
■ This includes contrast, tonal values, and any other aesthetic
decisions*
○ Photoshop does offer image-specific color management options such as
the conversion of RGB digital (red, green, blue) to CMYK print (cyan,
magenta, yellow-black)
■ However, not always accurate and the main reason that designers
should rely more on the high-end color management tools (ch. 6)
The PDF/X-Factor:
● “The single most significant digital technology affecting design-to-print workflows
is the Portable Document Format or PDF.” (Textbook 88)
● Originally created by Adobe in 1993 so that anyone can view a document without
certain software
○ Adobe controlled pdf until 2008 when it became an open ISO standard
○ PDF was widely embraced by the printing industry cause of it being
self-contained
○ PDF was a solution to issues that over file types had with printing
○ Early pdf didn’t work for print however, Ghent Workgroup (GWG)
standardized a format called PDF/X
■ The current version now is PDF/X-4
● PDF/X-6 is being developed as we speak.
Solving Old Problems:
Part 1:
● The finished print product still has to be cut, folded, and bound for optimum
consumer use.
● PDF/X files and workflow systems can sometimes have detect issues related to
ink, toner, and finishing.
● In behavior is one of the major sources of miscommunication and error.
● Total ink coverage or tic
○ Print color is often a combination of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black inks,
or CMYK.
○ For darker colors, such as a "rich black" background, designers may be
tempted to use 100 percent of all four colors.
○ This results in a TIC value of 400 percent.
○ Tic limits for photographs are usually set in colour management systems.
○ For manually created tints, tic should not exceed 300 percent.
● Overprinting
○ To avoid registration problems, designers may set one colored object to
overprint another, rather than "knock out" or remove the background color.
○ This is fine for black or other dark objects on a lighter background.
○ Bindery issues have an impact on print design.
● Trim and Bleed.
●
Print jobs are nearly always trimmed to their final size from a larger printed
sheet.
○ However, some sheets shift during the trimming process, so the results are
seldom 100 percent accurate.
○ To compensate, designers must always add a bleed area for background
elements.
○ It's always up designer
● Imposition
○ Digital prepress has trans-page imposition into a highly automated process.
○ If designers export press-ready files, typically PDF/X, then software
programs such as Impostrip or Preps literally do the math and position each
page according to the press sheet size and binding was chosen for the job.
○ For the imposition of books and multi-page publications, the designer's job
is relatively simple.
○ Bleed objects must be correctly placed, and single-page, PDF/X output, not
reader spreads, must be selected during file export.
○ Adobe Indesign and QuarkXPress both provide PDF/X-4 export
capabilities.
○ For brochures or greeting cards, imposition may create challenges for
designers
○ High-end imposition software is not typically used, so designers may need
to create a hand-numbered "folding dummy," see below and use it to plan
page order and rotation in their design application.
○ Digital technology has taken most of the manual labor out of the imposition
process
Part 2:
● Halftone Screening and Tints
○ Since the idea was patented in 1852, printers have been using patterns of
dots to simulate a continuous-tone image
○ Digital tech has not eliminated the half-tone but has made it more complex
○ A halftone is the breaking down of gray or process color values in a
continuous-tone image into solid dots of various sizes
○ Smaller dots represent the highlight or lighter areas, middle-sized dots
represent the shadow areas or dark tones
○ The frequency or number of dots per linear inch is the same - when viewed
an optical illusion occurs
Solving New Problems:
Part 1:
● Designers lack prepress knowledge resulting in unprintable files and
disappointing results
● Typesetting companies and colour separation vendors shifted to solving problems
created by early DTP workflows. However, this soon turned to software solutions “preflight” applications
● The cost of fixing file problems varies. During design, it takes only minutes, but if a
problem is discovered on the press after A job is printed the time and cost impact
can be catastrophic
● Re-running a rejected job (or losing a client): Fixing a problem on press →
re-plating → additional pre-press and new PDF creation→ layout revisions → design
● Create flight applications such as, FlightCheck, PitStop, and pdfToolbox, analyze
PDF files detecting conditions that would result in failure.
● The list of typical file problems is largely the same as what it was years ago here
are the most common issues:
○ Missing or improper fonts → If the printer does not have the same font as
the designer, it may be replaced with a generic font or may fail to output at
all. In this case, the designer must supply all fonts used, or convert text to
outlines or paths before sending the file
○ Wrong colour mode → Within a robust colour management ecosystem, RGB
images are allowed. However, without such an ecosystem, designers who
submit RGB content to a CMYK printing environment will often be
disappointed.
○ Low effective image resolution → The pixel dimensions of an image affect
how well or how poorly they will be reproduced. Below a certain threshold
(typically about 150 pixels per square inch) a printed image may appear
blurred or pixelated because the RIP simply did not have enough data to
create a sharp, clear image
○ Missing or unliked graphics → InDesign and QuarkXPress keep track of
placed or imported graphics. if the link to these external files becomes
invalid then the RIP will not be able to process the output of the page.
Finding and re-linking missing graphics is standard procedure for files
when sending the layout to a printer.
○ Overprint and knockout → Coloured elements on a page can be set to
either overprint or remove (knock out) The colour of the element behind it.
Overprinting can change the colour results. If this knockout registration is
not perfect there may be a white gap between colour elements.
Workflow Automation:
● DTP phenomenon broke down traditional work distinction between designers and
prepress technicians
● Software opened new possibilities for automation
● PDF/X became the common denominator for a unified, assembly line-style
approach to creating and producing printed materials
● Print designers and producers benefit from creating products that are
unique/stand out
○ Because of this rules for print automation are complex
○ In the late 1990s, the Adobe Prepress group proposed a workflow
automation system based on prepress applications’ ability to execute
routine tasks without user intervention
○ It was called Adobe OPEN. it lets users to drag files to network “hot
folders”, then pass the file into another program
○ But this was unsuccessful, though it did mark a trend towards workflow
systems that resemble transit systems
○ Examples of this today are; Apogee, Automation Engine, Prinergy,
Puzzleflow, Switch
● These workflow systems are often coupled with electronic jobs tickets, allowing
print buyers to specify details of a job in a way that humans and digital systems
can understand
● The rise of internet-enabled print is also an important facet to prepress automation
○ Business of design and print is increasingly conducted online
○ Tools for interconnecting the complex process of graphic communication
will continue to evolve - especially browser-based systems, and mobile
devices
● Automation will never eliminate the need for creative design or execution of print.
Chapter 6: Colour Management and Proofing
TEXTBOOK NOTES
Overview:
● All forms of graphic communication rely on the visible spectrum of light
○ I.e the narrow band of electromagnetic radiation seen by human
● Whether text, image, moving object, or color based → each category affects the
message being perceived
● Color is objective AND subjective
○ Can be measured with extreme accuracy (psychological and cultural
effects)
○ **For example..
■ Red = energy of courage
■ Green = growth and renewal
○ Thus speaking, there are many different meanings for different cultures…
○ The scientific principles will be further looked into regarding color
throughout this chapter
○ It will also include the practical aspects of color, the basics of proofing, and
the process of reaching an agreement on the color of a printed piece
Why Manage Color?
● Color is a matter of selecting a particular canvas/surface and choosing the
pigment desired (paints, pencils, pens, OR other substances) to express an idea
○ For one-to-one communication (ie. painting/drawing), color choice is
straightforward
○ Communication with an audience (ie. multiple print channels), there must
be a consistent and accurate way to reproduce color in an economical way
○
○ EG. an artist choosing a particular color or shade for a piece
○ ….Won't always turn out the same when creating online replicas
○ ….Would not be economical to create the exact shade of umber ink (or
invent a way to do so)
○ Instead of*
○ Solution = simulate number with a combination of primary colors
○ This means using three subtractive colors: CMY(K)
■ Cyan
■ Magenta
■ Yellow
■ (Black)
○ OR ONLINE… the use of three additive colors: RGB
■ Red
■ Green
■ Blue
■ *Color Management: making these combinations with predictable
and repeatable accuracy*
● Always honoring the artist/designers original intent (no matter the output device)
A Matter of Balance:
● Grey balance = important to understand (key concept)
○ In photography, neutral gray (not too warm or too cool) is when there is a
combining of a certain percentage (not always equal) of RGB colors
○ Once the color percentages are achieved to the desired color, the lighting
and the camera adjustments are important to capturing them accurately
(colors)
○
● For print, CMYK is the basic model halftone
○ Keeping the color consistent has become increasingly difficult and
important
■ Not all colors come out the way they may look online compared to
print**
○ The number of print options = expanding rapidly = harder to stay consistent
for every type of device/system of print
● If a measurable gray balance can be achieved then traditional color management
techniques & do not need as much “heavy lifting” to get the color just right
● **the measuring of a printed P2P target is part of the G7 process for consistent
grayscale appearance**
● The way to achieve gray balance = the G7 process (pgs 106-107)
○ A way to achieve a neutral gray (not too warm or too cool)
○ Allows other colors to be printed accurately with ANY type of printing
(offset, digital, screen, wide format, etc.) to maintain brand and design
consistency
Colour Basis:
● All of colour printing is based on the CMYK model with the addition of a key colour
which is black
● The use of CMYK aka process colour printing is required to reproduce colour
photographs, illustrations, and solids or tints of any colour
● Black ink is less expensive than any other colour ink, is typically used to improve
image quality and detail, as well as printing type and other black only elements
● The purpose of a halftone model is to economically reproduce colour in a way that
appears to be a continuous-tone background or photograph
Adding and Subtracting:
● When viewing colour on the monitor - the eye is receiving a combo of red, green,
and blue light wavelengths
○ Each emitted by very small crystals or diode that has been electronically
activated
● Older computers/televisions monitors - colour principle same
○ The difference is that colour source is from the ref, gree, and blue
phosphor dots on the surface of the glass tube
● The appearance of colour - created by adding specific levels of primary colours
● Printed colours - relies on subtracting colour frequencies
● Process colour inks - think to point where it’s transparent when applied on paper
or other substrates
○ Act as a filter that transmits reflected light - reducing certain frequencies
and letting others get through
● Overprinting yellow, magenta, and cyan transparent halftone dots at prescribed
angles - nearly all colours of image or background can be replicated
○ E.x yellow & magenta overlap = red
○ Magenta & cyan = blue
○ Yellow & cyan = green
● Another way to view subtractive colour - start with white paper, typically white (not
always or even purely)
○ A white surface reflects the most visible light spectrum it receives (equal
amounts of RGB)
● Process colours - absorb opposite light frequencies and reflects others
○ E.x solid yellow ink - absorbs blue - allows equal parts of red & green to be
reflected from the white paper surface
The Colour Challenge:
● Good Quality is always needed but the need for precision varies
● Color management must deal with many challenges, including the following…
○ Human Perception: Everyone sees colors differently, for example, men are
worst at seeing different shades than women are (like blues, yellows,
greens)
○ Lighting Conditions: Indoor vs Outdoor, Day or Night, etc can change how
we see colour. Graphic professionals usually use a D50 light booth as ideal
viewing
○ Substrate Differences: Papers with or without brighteners, if the paper is
white or a different colour. This can change the final colour
● Despite the challenges, Graphic Communicators can now design/produce printed
and online colour with better quality and consistency than in the past.
Advanced Color Models:
● The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) was established in 1913 as an
international, nongovernmental authority on the science of light, illumination, and
color.
● The CIE 1931 color space model defined color mathematically, based on the
wavelengths of visible colors and their perception by the human eye.
● The arch-like diagram arranges color by wavelength, from 380 to 780
nanometers.
● This color range or gamut can vary widely from device to device.
● Another colour model for describing colours is known as CIELAB.
● CIEL*A*B*
○ - it defines color on three axes: "L" for lightness, "a" for the red-to-green
color range, and "b" for the blue-to-yellow- color range. L*a*b*
measurements are typically those captured by a color spectrophotometer.
● An ICC profile is a set of data that defines a device's color attributes and makes it
possible to map colors between different devices.
● This works well for users of Adobe Creative Suite and other ICC profile-aware
applications. profile-aware applications.
● Correct profile use can minimize the color differences between software
applications, and on different GB displays.
● ICC profiles are also used for print workflows, but with important caveats. The
color gamut of process color printing is often smaller than even a basic color
monitor, and usually much smaller than that of a high-quality display.
● The color gamut of CMYK printing is often smaller than that of an RGB device,
making certain colors difficult to reproduce.
● An ICC workflow can map a particular color in RGB to its nearest CMY value.
● with colors that are outside the print color gamut, the results can be unsatisfactory.
● Using an ICC profile approach to mapping colors on multiple devices can also
create other problems.
● With multiple devices and profile connections or links, it poses a significant
workflow management problem, and risk of color conversion error.
Extended Gamut and Spot Color Inks:
● One common solution to the problem of printing out-of-gamut colors is simply to
use different inks.
○ Some print systems, notably wide-format inkjet devices and high-end digital
inkjet presses, add some special orange, green, or violet inks to the usual
CMYK. This approach widens the process color gamut of the device
● Extended-gamut color, sometimes known as expanded-gamut, is used for a variety
of print applications, especially product packaging, where color is a major factor in
catching a shopper’s attention.
● Offset, flexographic, and digital printing presses often employ additional color
units for just this reason
● Color like Coca-cola red is brand-specific so it’s hard to achieve using CMYK.
When that color is needed, the solution is to use a custom or spot color ink
● Special purpose inks are manufactured by companies such as Pantone, giving rise
to the common association of the phrase spot color, with Pantone color and PMS
color.
● Some companies have very specific ink formulations for their brand colors. These
colors can be trademarked, to discourage competitors from copying their brank
appearance, but not patented
● In 2000, GretagMacbeth (since acquired by X-rite) developed the Color Exchange
Format (CxF) specification, a way to define and communicate color scientifically,
using spectral measurements values. The ISO adopted CxF as standard in 2015
● The CxF workflow, as with other approaches to color management, relies on the
measurement of a color’s spectral, L*a*b* values
■ Once the values for the solid and tint percentages of a spot color
are measured, the CxF profile data can be included inside a PDF/X
file. (this is to control output behavior or used to formulate the ink
correctly.
■ In some cases, CxF based color palettes are used in Adobe
Illustrator to ensure design consistency.
Shades of Gray:
● Black ink serves a specific purpose, combining cyan magenta and yellow does not
produce a satisfactory black
● Cmyk-combination black is expensive and is often replaced with a calculated
amount of black
● The process of replacing with black is called gray component replacement, or
GCR
● The use of gray balance in colour management has been less common until
recently
● 2006, Idealliance updates ICC profiles for web offset printing of publications
(SWOP) and commercial sheetfed offset printing (GRACoL)
● G7, a new calibration method to ensure a common neutral appearance
● G7 is not a color management system, but a gray management system that allows
a consistent, neutral gray output
○ By using simple CMYK tone curves in RIP of a plate setter
○ Once the device is calibrated, has a foundation for keeping colour accurate
and consistent
● Idealliance’s G7 Master Qualification has three tiers:
○ G7 grayscale (fundamental)
○ G7 targeted (intermediate)
○ G7 colorspace (advanced)
Color Proofing and Prototyping:
● One of the important tasks is the process of proofing, reviewing, and approving a
print job before it goes on the press.
● Not all jobs require proofing, due to advancements in technology. However, if
matching colour is the main concern, then some form of proofing must be
employed.
● Before the rise of digital prepress, color proofing was done on dedicated proof
presses, scaled-down versions of actual printing presses, at a significant cost to
the publisher or advertiser.
● A press check is a process of sending a representative to the printing plant to
approve the job as it was being set up on press. The cost of press checks could
usually only be tolerated for high-end work.
● A color overlay was an early color-proof, positive CMYK film layer taped over a
white artboard. While they were less expensive, they could sometimes be
inaccurate, so they did not qualify as contract proof.
● A contract proof is a legally binding sheet indicating the designer’s or art director’s
approval to print the job.
● A major breakthrough in modern color proofing was the laminate proof, such as
3M’s Match Print and Dupont’s Cromalin systems. It was the first sheet that could
be used to represent the finished, printed product.
● Other advances in technology also spurred advancements in color proofing, such
as dye-sublimation printers and laser sublimation systems.
The Inkjet Revolution:
● Inkjet’s ability to produce an angle color page at the same cost per page was a
logical choice as a proofing technology but was problematic at first
● Early inkjet system, Scitex Iris printer, was capable of brilliant colour output but
was high cost and had many maintenance requirements
● Lower cost alternative, drop-on-demand inkjet, could produce vibrant colour for
posters and signage but could not be controlled by contract proofing
● Early 2000s several developers sold color-managed RIP and workflow software
that could make an inkjet device precisely emulate colour output
● Today making contract quality proofs on an inkjet is as easy as hitting “print” or
exporting a press-ready PDF/x file
● Vendors have created a variety of new substances for colour managed proof
output, bc inkjet devices must print on specially coated sheets
○ Stimulates a broad range of coated and uncoated printing stocks of
different weights and surface characteristics
● Final printed cannot be simulated though, such as metal or glass surfaces, must
be proofed by laminating a printed transfer onto film and then onto that surface
● Inkjet proofing developers also work with manufacturers to develop new inks for
prodding on other devices
● Extended gamut or white inks from inkjet device manufacturers may be used for
proofing, but in applications such as packaging, new ink formulations are required
Monitor Based or “Soft” Contract Proofing:
● Review process before printing takes place online and on-screen, allowing for
many to annotate, comment, and digitally approve a job for printing
● Computer displays of PDF’s or other digital files are adequate as colour quality is
not a critical factor
● Monitors have improved, LCD and OLED displays are capable of colour accuracy
○ But just having a good monitor is not enough for contract quality soft
proofing
● Difficulty in soft proofing is due to the use of different colour models and in a
device’s consistency and changes in ambient light
● Soft proofing requires a high-end monitor and a controlled physical environment
● Vendors have created soft proofing environments which use a spectrophotometer
to calibrate the device, keep consistency, and create reliable profiles for designers
● Soft proofing and design are converging in the packaging print industry segment
● In the past package, the design required a prototype, but now 3D modeling and
has made a cost-effective alternative
● Esko Graphics, Creative Edge Software re vendors of 3D packaging design
software]
● Both inkjet proofing and soft proofing will become normal for graphic
communicators, as it will simplify working with colour
Chapter 7: Paper, Ink, and Toner
TEXTBOOK NOTES
Overview:
● Paper is ideal for graphic communication on any scale.
○ Its characteristics include durability, thinness, strength, weight, longevity,
and the ability to receive an image from many different imaging and
printing processes.
● Other materials can serve as printing substrates, including plastics, foil, vinyl,
glass, and metal -- used in packaging and signage applications,
● There are also modern substitutes for fiber-based paper, such as synthetic and
electronic substrates.
The Essential Qualities of Paper:
● Graphic communication requires a physical medium with which visual storytellers
can express ideas to the largest possible audience and at the lowest possible
cost.
● Their communication medium must have a balance of several important
conditions:
○ Legibility includes a combination of visual qualities, such as reflectivity and
contrast. Secondary factors include its color and texture, insofar as they
affect how a placed image is perceived.
○ Durability and Permanence are important requirements. The medium must
be able to survive normal use for a reasonable period of time. No medium
can be expected to last forever.
○ Environmental Responsibility is a complex requirement. Manufacturing,
use, and disposal of the medium must be considered to enable future
generations' ability to safely and economically use the planet's resources.
○ Transportability involves the total weight and volume of the medium as
well as its ability to withstand various shipping and storing conditions such
as temperature and humidity.
○ Aesthetic Appeal is a significant consideration in determining a medium's
effectiveness beyond its purely utilitarian requirements. An exceptional
communication medium connects on multiple levels, not only visual but
also tactile, even audible and olfactory.
○ Affordability is the key to all the considerations previously listed. As a rule,
the paper represents a significant percentage of printing costs -- as high as
50% percent or more. While pricing details are outside the scope of this
book, graphic communicators must develop an understanding of cost
factors relative to the qualities of their preferred medium.
Paper Manufacturing:
● Paper typically starts as a slurry of fibrous material, separated from the
non-cellulose parts of the original source, beaten or ground into a pulp, and mixed
with water, additives, and colorants.
● The fiber is usually plant-based, typically from wood and other sources high in
cellulose. Other plant fibers may include cotton or hemp, as well as recycled fiber
from converting processes, or from post-consumer sources.
● Although fine printing papers often contain a certain amount of post-consumer
fiber, high ratios of recycled content are used mainly for lower grades of paper or
cardboard, because the cellulose fibers from recycled sources are shorter and
less durable than those derived from virgin wood.
● Using the Fourdrinier machine, papermaking consists of removing water from the
pulp slurry, through gravity-assisted drainage, along with pressure and heat
applied to a continuous stream or "web" of material. The process causes the fibers
to align in mostly the same direction, which gives the sheet its strength and, as a
consequence, makes folding in one direction easier than the other.
● During the water extraction process, the paper's texture is formed by synthetic
forming fabrics or "dandy" rollers. Watermarks -- as the name would suggest -- are
also created at this stage.
● Once formed, more water is removed in a pressing section using high-pressure
hydraulic loaded nips where the sheet is supported with synthetic felts. Finally, the
remaining water is evaporated as the web passes over a series of large,
steam-injected, drying cylinders.
● Depending on how the paper is to be used, different coatings or starches may be
applied to its surface. The paper is then smoothed by passing through
high-pressure rollers and heating elements -- a process called calendaring. Finally,
the finished paper is either wound onto large rolls or cut into individual sheets.
Paper rolls and "sheeted" paper are carefully packaged to preserve moisture
integrity and press-readiness during shipment.
● Paper manufacturing involves the use of large quantities of water. In fact, when the
paper is in its forming stages, it is made of up to ninety-nine percent water. This is
why paper mills are typically located near rivers and other freshwater sources.
Until relatively recently, wastewater from Fourdrinier machines -- often containing
pulp contaminants and chemical additives -- was dumped into the original water
source. Environmental regulations -- combined with increasing consumer pressure
towards environmental responsibility -- have greatly reduced this practice. Paper
mills today typically use less hazardous additives. They also treat and cool the
plant's wastewater before returning it to the source.
● Safety is another concern. Fourdrinier machines, often as long as a football field or
longer, process a continuous stream of material at 40-60 miles per hour (64-97
kilometers per hour). It passes through a complex series of rollers, heating/drying
units, coaters, and cutting blades. Anyone who flinches at the thought of a paper
cut will appreciate the dangers of this fast-moving web.
● As with environmental issues, mills and government agencies have begun to
address safety concerns. This has not been without difficulty. Papermaking
machines are huge, costing hundreds of millions of dollars, and often take years to
build. They are not easily replaced, although mills have taken significant steps to
retrofit them for safety, product quality improvements, and manufacturing
efficiencies.
● Although modern papermaking boasts a high degree of automation, it is not
unusual to have a sizable workforce standing by to deal with emergencies. A “web
break” in a miles-long, fast-moving stream of paper is a serious matter. However,
the coordinated response to such an event can reduce the potential downtime
from many hours to a matter of minutes.
Paper Characteristics:
● The characteristics of the paper include size, weight, bulk, stiffness, tensile
strength, and opacity. They also include surface characteristics such as color,
brightness, whiteness, smoothness, gloss, and printability.
● Names such as letter, ledger, tabloid, broadsheet, foolscap, and quarto, each had
a historic meaning and were associated with specific measurements.
● Outside the U.S. and Canada, paper size has been codified by the International
Standards Organization (ISO).
● ISO paper sizes typically have the same aspect ratio (1 to 1.41), from the largest (A0
or BO) to smaller sizes such as A4, used in office printing.
● Paper sizes in the U.S. and Canada do not follow the ISO system.
● Paper thickness or caliper is also measured differently in the U.S. than it is in the
rest of the world, which uses the metric system. The typical paper caliper can be
between 0.0025 and 0.012 inches in thickness (or 0.06 and 0.30 millimeters),
although cardboard and corrugate stock can be thicker.
● Outside the U.S., the measurement is expressed in grams per square meter—g/m2
or simply gsm.
● In the U.S., paper is defined by basis weight, namely the weight of 500 sheets of
a particular size. This is complicated by the fact that the sheets for a particular kind
of paper are of different sizes.
● Many properties of a sheet of paper are determined primarily by its blended fiber
content -- hardwood, softwood alternative source fibers, and recycled material.
The latter can be unprinted converting scrap or post-consumer sources, which are
de-inked and otherwise processed.
● Fiber characteristics vary. Softwoods such as pine and spruce produce long,
flexible fibers that give paper greater strength and durability. Hardwoods like
aspen, maple, and birch produce shorter, stiffer fibers. Because of its processing
requirements, recycled fiber is shorter still, which can limit the use of the resulting
paper or cardboard.
● The fiber component of paper is analogous to a skeleton. It gives paper its bulk,
stiffness, and opacity. So, a paper's coating is analogous to skin. It smooths the
paper surface, provides a base for printed detail, delivers color accuracy, and
impacts printed ink gloss.
● About 80 percent of coatings are pigments that enhance the paper's
characteristics, such as clay for smoothness, calcium carbonate for opacity and
brightness, and titanium dioxide for brightness. The remainder are binders such as
starch or latex and various additives or dyes.
● Optical brighteners are chemical additives designed to enhance image brightness
and contrast for high-end printing applications. One side effect of optical
brighteners in the paper is their tendency to create a blue cast, which may in turn
create undesirable color shifts in certain lighting conditions.
● The primary reason for coating paper is to enhance image clarity. The uncoated
paper reflects light unevenly and allows ink to spread into the fiber. This results in
a blurring or distortion of text and, more importantly, less sharpness, definition,
and color separation in halftone images and tints. Coating of different types and
surfaces (matte, satin, and gloss) correct these problems and provide sharper
image results.
● Coatings also allow for different types of use. Matte coating more easily allows
handwriting and provides some of the softer looks and feel generally associated
with the uncoated stock, while providing the print quality benefits of coating. Silk
or dull coating provides moderate reflectivity and is good for fine art, fabric, and
skin tone detail. The gloss coating provides the highest potential for accurate dot
reproduction and is best for reproducing images of hard or shiny objects.
Specifying Paper for Printing Applications
● The variables include several important factors:
○ The printing process itself is a major consideration. Many papers are
optimized for a particular print process such as offset or gravure, sheetfed,
or web, so both cost and printability considerations must go into the paper
selection process. Papers designed specifically for certain digital print
processes may run less effectively or not at all on conventional offset
presses, or even on other digital devices.
○ End-use is always determinative. Reading a book involves a different set of
conditions and assumptions than filling out a form, following a posted sign,
or browsing a store circular.
○ Color and surface properties are highly relevant when choosing a paper, as
are basis weight and caliper, as previously noted. The physical and
aesthetic attributes of a printed page-color, texture, reflectivity, "heft," and
even smell affect the overall perception of the printed message. Research
in the field of haptics has shown that the user experience with a printed
page is superior in several ways to that of an electronic screen
○ Brightness is often used to determine which paper is suitable for different
publishing purposes. Technically, paper brightness is the amount of
reflectance of a specific wavelength (457 nanometers) of blue light, with
100 percent being the theoretical highest level (according to North
American measurement standards). However, there is no
universally-accepted standard for paper brightness. North America follows
the GE/TAPPI (T 452) specification, while other parts of the world often use
the ISO (ISO 2470-1) and D65 (ISO 2470-2) brightness measurement
methodologies. Due to their optical brightener content, the brightness of
some papers will exceed 100 when measured by ISO and D65 standards.
Alternative Substrates:
● An early example of synthetic paper manufacturing was Dupont's invention of
Tyvek, a synthetic material resembling conventional paper but made with
high-density polyethylene fibers—in other words, plastic.
● The extrusion process allows the plastic material to flow through a screen-like
device made up of very small holes that convert the plastic into fibers resembling
those of wood pulp. The fiber structure can be left visible or coated.
● The alternative process, developed by Yupo Corporation, uses a blade to spread
the plastic into a continuous sheet of varying thickness. The coating blade process
does not have the fiber structure of the extrusion process.
● There is also a substrate made from stone (called ViaStone). This is a unique
material is made from natural stone, inorganic mineral powder, and non-toxic
resins. It is particularly suited for inkjet printing.
● Alternative substrates several special conditions and properties, which mirror the
discussion of the conventional paper:
● Printability:
○ While synthetic paper may have the look and feel of traditional paper, its
printing requirements differ. One important difference that impacts
printability is synthetic paper's lack of absorptivity, also known as "ink
holdout."
○ Ink printed on traditional paper dries to a certain extent by a combination of
absorption, oxidation, and heat. However, on a synthetic substrate, ink
requires a more sophisticated drying apparatus. These include ultraviolet
(UV), infrared (IR). or electron beam (EB) dryers, which dry/ cure the ink
instantaneously. Without these measures, there is insufficient time for an
oxidation drying process to take place, and the sheets will stick together.
● Longevity:
○ Librarians and archivists appreciate the promise of synthetic paper
because of the potential for deterioration with pulp-based paper. While
some books have survived for over 500 years, a typical publication made
of traditional paper deteriorates much sooner due to the acid content of
chemicals used in papermaking. Although significant efforts have been
made to reduce or eliminate the acidity of conventional paper, the appeal
of synthetic paper remains strong.
● Resistance to moisture and tearing:
○ is particularly appealing in some use cases, such as for children's books
and manuals, or documentation used in outdoor situations. Synthetic paper
is more durable and long-lasting, as it does not easily tear and can be
washed.
● Production Cost:
○ As previously noted, conventional papermaking equipment requires many
years and hundreds of millions of dollars to build. Synthetic
substrate-manufacturing equipment can cost less.
Paper and Sustainability
● Life cycle studies have shown that paper manufacturing is the biggest contributor
to the life cycle of printed materials. Because paper manufacturing uses very
visible natural resources (trees and water), there is an understandable demand
from consumers and the companies that serve them for a paper that is produced
and used in a sustainable manner.
● Countering Common Misconceptions
○ A commonly-heard argument holds that “going digital saves trees” or other
“green” messaging. This implication is that a shift from print to online media
will reduce the use of paper and energy and prevent trees from being cut
down for paper manufacturing. This is simplistic (at best), and ignores the
fact that digital media require the continual use of electricity. The
environmental cost of that energy is seldom calculated.
● Fiber sourcing
○ By using fiber from responsibly managed forests, a truly renewable
resource, paper mills can provide consistently high levels of paper quality
without depriving future generations.
○ Several organizations, including the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and
the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI), have developed forest management
standards to help guide practices related to forest health, including
protection of soil and water quality as well as biodiversity.
● Recycled fiber usage
○ is a consideration for some types of paper, mainly lower grades and
corrugates.
● Water usage
○ A majority of paper mills now responsibly manage water issues, including
temperature and additive use, with sustainability in mind.
● Recyclability
○ is an important aspect of the lifecycle of paper. Most paper mills are
proactive in working with government and non-governmental bodies in
determining how their diverse products can best be handled. Fortunately,
the major component of paper -- cellulose fiber -- is a known quantity in the
recycling equation.
Ink and Toner:
● Ink is the most expensive disposable commodity used in printing.
● The ink consists of pigments or dyes combined with an oil-based resin or aqueous
“carrier” medium and other chemicals to maintain quality and stability, or aid in the
drying process.
● Ink manufacturers often employ highly-specialized chemical processes on a vast,
industrial scale.
● Modern ink creation has evolved far beyond its craft origins. It is a combination of
manufacturing automation, digital color science, and creative research.
Ink Manufacturing:
● Offset lithography, gravure, flexography, and screen-printing each has different
requirements, including the formulation of ink. Digital presses also have their own
unique requirements.
● The printing ink-making process begins with the selection of pigment particles that
provide a particular color. Black ink uses carbon black, a substance made from the
partial combustion of petroleum products. White ink, or lighter shades of colored
inks, use titanium dioxide. Other inks, including process cyan, magenta, and
yellow, and custom colors and metallic inks, each uses chemical solids developed
by the manufacturer.
● The pigment particles are milled and separated to a uniform consistency and
mixed with a varnish resin. Additional chemicals are added, and the results are
routinely tested for their spectral color characteristics, as well as drying and other
press-critical requirements. After all, the processing is complete, the resulting
substance is packaged and stored in conditions designed to preserve its printing
qualities.
● This simplified process contains many variables, including the substitution of
non-petroleum-based carriers such as soy-based oils and chemicals with less
toxicity and a more sustainable environmental impact. Ink manufacturers are well
aware of environmental issues and have made great strides in developing more
eco-friendly formulations, in most cases without sacrificing quality or printability.
Ink Properties:
● Printing ink obviously has optical properties, involving its capacity for absorbing or
reflecting the light of specific wavelengths. The Color Exchange Format (CxF) has
enabled ink manufacturers to create more precise and consistent formulations.
● Ink's opacity
○ the degree to which it allows or prevents light transmission -- and its
permanence. Over time, ink may not retain its original color strength and
brightness when exposed to light. Depending on the application, a different
ink formulation may be needed to prevent or minimize this fading
● Ink’s wettability
○ its ability to resist bleeding when exposed to water.
● Ink drying occurs by oxidation, absorption, and heat-induced evaporation. The
optimum combination of ink and paper should be used to prevent ink chalking or
"rubbing", that unpleasant transfer of incompletely dried ink to one's fingers.
● Other problems associated with incomplete ink drying include show-through and
set-off.
● On press, a number of ink properties can affect how well the press performs,
including an ink's body or consistency and its viscosity.
● Another ink property is “tack” -- its stickiness, which affects how easily a printed
sheet can be separated from the actual printing surface, such as the rubber
blanket on an offset lithographic press.
Digital Inkjet Inks:
● Inkjet presses are well-positioned to replace conventional presses in a growing
number of print applications.
● However, the inks used in these devices are substantially different. They are
primarily aqueous in nature, which reduces their potential for adverse
environmental impact. They also use a fundamentally different path from the
device to the paper surface. Instead of being squeezed onto the paper from a
plate or cylinder, the inks are forced through a microscopic nozzle, at precisely
controlled intervals, in a non-impact environment.
● Inkjet inks are almost always formulated by device manufacturers, who intimately
understand the mechanics required to create a printed image. Although this
precludes users from “shopping” for third-party inks, it also provides simpler
solutions for common print reproduction issues.
● One such issue involves drying. At high speeds typical of high-end inkjet presses,
droplets of ink must adhere to the surface and dry almost instantaneously, to
avoid smearing and other undesirable outcomes. Another involves machine
efficiency. Digital inkjet presses typically use large cartridges that can be easily
replaced without disrupting production, although it is theoretically possible for a
third party to develop cartridges for different press manufacturers, it is generally
more efficient for the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) to do so.
● Inkjet press manufacturers very often work closely with paper manufacturers to
ensure efficient, high-speed color reproduction.
Digital Electrophotographic (EP) Toners:
● The other type of digital press is based on electrophotography, often referred to
as “xerography”.
● Instead of inks, these devices use electrically charged toner particles to produce
an image, which is eventually fused onto the paper.
● Toner manufacturing is also a complex chemical and mechanical process. The
source material is typically a polymer, formulated for specific color qualities and for
a specific melting point, namely the temperature generated by the printing
mechanism. The material begins as a solid slab, which is broken apart or
pelletized into fine particles, approximately 8-10 microns in diameter, Finer sizes
require a chemical process to "grow" the toner particles from molecular reagents.
● Pelletized toner particles can also be electromagnetically sorted, to achieve a
uniform size. Larger, separated particles are typically melted and reused to create
new source material. Uniformity is the key. The rule of thumb for toner is that
smaller, more uniform particles result in more accurate color reproduction.
● Similar to ink for inkjet devices, toner is manufactured primarily by the OEM, where
it is made according to the exact requirements of the EP device. Using third-party
toner in a device is almost always ill-advised. The money saved will invariably be
offset by repair or replacement costs, since variations in toner particles can
significantly affect the performance or the lifespan of the device.
● Toner-based device OEMs also work closely with paper manufacturers, to ensure
that their toner particles adhere properly—and permanently -- to the sheet. These
devices do not contend with drying issues, and so are compatible with a wider
variety of paper stocks. However, most EP presses are more limited in the size of
paper they can handle.
Chapter 8: Printing Processes
TEXTBOOK NOTES
Overview:
● Physical printing involves colored inks, toners, or other colorants repeatedly
applied to sheets of paper, plastic, metal, or other materials.
● Conventional print processes range from traditional letterpress (raised surface)
and gravure (engraved surface) to offset lithography, flexography, and
screen-printing.
● Digital printing includes both inkjet and electrophotographic (EP) processes.
The Printing Press:
● The press is the basic unit of the entire printing process.
○ Largest and heaviest piece of equipment used in printing, it is highly
controllable, to thousandths of a degree-on matters such as cylinder
pressure, color balance, and image positioning.
○ Often operating at high speeds, with computerized automation, and
working in concert with many other systems, a press is a formidable piece
of equipment.
● Presses are configured as either sheetfed or web.
○ They are configured with printing stations or units, each one printing a
different color or providing other applications such as special coatings or
varnishes, to enhance the look.
● Four-color press, with each of the units printing one of the four process colors.
○ One-color and two-color presses can suffice for simpler applications
○ Five- and six-color presses are common in commercial printing
environments.
○ HiFi printing requires at least six units typically adding orange and green
ink to the normal CMYK process inks.
●
●
●
●
○ Presses are also manufactured with more than six units for specialty
printing purposes, especially where custom or "spot" color inks or varnishes
are required.
Multiple units allow the press to print more than one color on a substrate in a
single pass through the press.
Combination press
○ Some presses use both flexographic and gravure printing processes to
create product packaging.
○ Another common combination press uses a combination of offset
lithography and inkjet printing to create color publications or direct mail
pieces with unique, customized information printed on each piece.
○ Combination presses are also used in security printing, where documents
must be produced that are difficult to copy or counterfeit.
○ Scratch-off gaming or lottery tickets are produced on combination presses
using many processes, including lithography, gravure, flexography, and
inkjet printing.
○ These presses sometimes have as many as sixteen units, because of the
number of colors printed as well as the various layers of coatings needed
to enhance security.
Every printing process is characterized by its image carrier or plate characteristics.
○ They are also characterized by the formulation of their inks and of the
substrate types they are capable of handling.
Each process can be identified under magnification, usually 12x or greater.
○ Offset lithography has a different look than letterpress.
○ Gravure has a different look than flexography.
○ Inkjet printing has a different look than EP.
Important Print Attributes:
● Registration
○ Positioning of the image on the substrate and the relative positioning of
each ink layer over another. If the positioning of ink colors over each other
is not accurate, the printed image will appear blurred.
● Dot Gain
○ Dot gain, or tonal value increase, is a phenomenon in offset lithography
and some other forms of printing which causes printed material to look
darker than intended. It is caused by halftone dots growing in the area.
between the original printing film and the final printed result.
○ It occurs because the ink is squeezed onto the substrate under pressure.
Because the ink is a liquid and has a thickness to it, there is a tendency for
the ink to spread under the pressure.
○ In inkjet printing, the ink is squirted onto the substrate and the force of the
ink spot on the substrate causes the dot or spot to grow.
○ Dot gain does not occur in electrostatic printing because dry toner particles
are used that do not grow.
○ Dot gain influences the look of a printed image. It is expected on the
printing press and can be controlled in platemaking or in building digital
files for printing.
● Density
○ Intensity or visual strength of the ink that influences the color quality of the
final printed image.
○ The density standard for yellow, magenta, cyan, and black are different in
full-color printing.
○ A densitometer is used to measure the density of ink on a printed sheet.
○ A spectrophotometer is used to measure the actual color wavelengths as
well as other attributes of color.
● Trapping
○ One film of ink sticks to another when printing one ink film over another.
○ In four-color printing, the dots must partially overprint each other to
produce the resulting red, green, and blue colors needed in full-color
printing.
○ 100 percent of an ink film will stick to the other. This often occurs when a
wet ink film is applied to a dry one. However, in reality, because the inks are
wet on a multicolor press, less than 100 percent of one ink film adheres to
the other.
○ If only 85 percent sticks or transfers, this is called 85 percent trapping. The
degree to which trapping occurs influences the look of the final print. The
percentage of trapping too is measured with a densitometer or a
spectrophotometer.
● Other components of a press that impact the appearance of the final printed piece
include plate-to-blanket squeeze pressures (on offset presses), ink film thickness,
the balance of fountain solution (water) and ink, the pH and conductivity of the
fountain solution, roller settings and roller hardness, the tension of the substrate
going through a web press, and more.
Traditional Printing Processes:
● Letterpress
○ Letterpress is printing from the surface of a raised image.
○ It is also called relief printing, where the plate image is uniformly higher
than the non printing areas.
○ It is the oldest of the conventional processes.
○ Ink is placed in an ink fountain and is then distributed onto mechanized ink
rollers. The ink rollers apply the ink onto the raised image of the plate, and
the plate transfers the image onto a substrate—usually paper. The image
on the plate must be "wrong-reading" so that the printed image on the
substrate will be "right-reading."
○ Letterpress printing exerts variable amounts of pressure on the substrate
depending on the size of the image elements being printed.
○ There are three types of letterpress printing presses: platen, flatbed, and
rotary.
■ The platen variety, often using a slow, handfed process.
■ Flatbed cylinder press, the plate is locked to a horizontal or vertical
bed. That passes over an inking roller and then against the
substrate. The substrate is passed around an impression cylinder on
its way from the feed stack to the delivery stack. A single revolution
of the cylinder moves over the bed, so that both the bed holding the
substrate and cylinder moves up and down in a reciprocating
motion. Ink is supplied to the plate cylinder by an inking roller and
an ink fountain.
■ Rotary letterpress required curved, image-carrying plates. Typically,
these were created from the original, flat-surface plates, using
molded plastic or rubber, and known as stereotype or electrotype
plates. When printing on coated papers, rotary presses used heatset
inks and were equipped with high-velocity, hot air dryers.
● Offset Lithography
○ Lithography is printing from a flat surface on which the image areas and
non-image areas are on the same plane.
○ The process is based on the principle that grease and water do not mix.
○ The image and non-image areas are separated chemically in such a way
that the image on the plate will accept greasy ink and the non-image areas
will accept water and afterward reject ink.
○ On a typical lithographic press
■ There’s an ink fountain and a water or damping fountain. Ink is
distributed from the ink fountain onto a set of ink rollers.
■ Simultaneously, the water fountain distributes a dampening solution,
primarily composed of water and a small percentage of chemicals
that help the water desensitize the non-image areas.
■ The combination is called a fountain solution that is then applied to
dampening rollers. The rollers dampen the plate before ink is
applied to it.
■ The water sticks to the non-image areas that were chemically
treated to accept the water. The ink rollers then apply ink to the
plate. Because the water on the non-image areas rejects the greasy
ink, the ink will only stick to the image areas.
■ The lithographic plate is typically made of aluminum, although other
metals as well as paper and plastic can be used.
■ The inked images are then transferred to a synthetic rubber blanket
that is wrapped around a cylinder that comes in contact with the
plate cylinder. From the imaged blanket, the image is transferred to
the substrate being printed.
■ The blanket performs three tasks. The first is to allow a right-reading
image on the plate to become right-reading on the substrate.
Without the blanket cylinder, the image would go from right-reading
on the plate to wrong-reading on the substrate. The blanket's
second function is to reduce the amount of fountain solution that
reaches the substrate. When printing on paper, moisture absorbed
by the paper causes paper distortion or dimensional instability. The
third role of the blanket is to allow printing on a large variety of
substrates -- regardless of texture in most cases. The blanket allows
for a certain degree of compressibility so, when printing on
rough-textured substrates, the ink can be forced into the "valleys” of
the paper.
○ Offset lithographic presses can be sheetfed or web.
○ Lithographic presses are classified as heatset or non-heatset.
○ Special drying mechanisms on the press such as heating ovens, ultraviolet,
infrared, or electron beam dryers.
○ Non-heatset inks are typically dried via oxidation and absorption, and are
used when the substrate is more porous, such as in newspaper printing.
● Gravure & Engraving
○ Makes use of the ability of ink to fill slight depressions on a polished metal
plate. The process consists of a printing cylinder, a rubber-covered
impression roll, an ink fountain, a doctor blade, and a means of drying the
ink.
○ In gravure printing, the image area is beneath the plate surface and the
non-image area is on the plate surface.
○ A typical gravure plate is a large copper-or chrome-surfaced cylinder.
Through chemical, electro-mechanical, or laser engraving processes, an
image is etched or engraved onto the cylinder in the form of microscopic
wells or cells.
○ Initially, ink in the gravure press is applied directly to the copper cylinder,
not only filling the wells but also adhering to the surface of the cylinder. It is
applied to both the image and non-image areas of the cylinder. However, a
doctor blade made of hard rubber or plastic then passes over the cylinder
and scrapes off ink from the non-image area on the surface. After this
occurs, the substrate being printed comes in contact with the cylinder at
high speed and under high pressure. As the paper is rapidly pulled off of
the cylinder, capillary action pulls the ink out of the cylinder inkwells, which
represent the image area, and the ink is transferred onto the substrate. This
all occurs at a high rate of speed.
○ Gravure printing involves high costs, including the time required to prepare
the plate cylinder. It is, therefore, economical for very long press runs
where the cylinder does not have to be changed often.
○ It is important to note that gravure is the only form of intaglio printing.
○ Today's engraving methods involve etching an image onto a copper plate,
which is then mounted on the press with a matching counter. The image is
transferred from plate to paper resulting in a finely detailed, raised image
on the paper's surface.
● Flexography
○ Involves printing from a raised image on the plate.
○ Flexographic plate is typically made of synthetic rubber or a photopolymer
material.
○ Some of the harder flexographic photopolymer plates print relatively sharp
and produce high-resolution images.
○ The softer, synthetic rubber plates are not as suitable for high-quality
printing and are typically used for long-run imaging requiring one or two flat
colors where image sharpness is not of critical concern.
○ Printing sequence
■ The substrate is fed into the press from a roll. The image is printed
as the substrate is pulled through a series of stations or print units.
■ Each print unit prints a single color. Various tones and shading are
achieved by overlaying the four process ink colors—magenta, cyan,
yellow, and black.
○ There are five types of printing presses used for flexographic printing.
■ Stack type
■ Central impression cylinder (CIC)
■ In-line
■ Newspaper unit
■ Dedicated four-, five-, or six-color unit commercial publication
presses.
○ All five types employ a plate cylinder, a metering cylinder known as an
anilox roll that applies ink to the plate, and an ink pan. Some presses use a
third roller as a fountain roller and, in some cases, a doctor blade for
improved ink distribution.
● Screen-Printing
○ Simplest of the traditional printing processes.
○ The image to be printed is formed on a screen made of synthetic fibers
over which a stencil is placed that represents the non-image areas. The
area of the screen not covered by the stencil represents the image area
because it is here where ink can pass through the screen and onto the
substrate.
○ Stencils can be formed in a number of ways.
■ One way is by photographically exposing-through negative or
positive film-a light-sensitive emulsion applied to the screen. When
developed, the image and non-image areas are defined.
■ Another way is by applying pressure-sensitive stencil material on the
screen or by "painting" a liquid stencil on the screen. Once the
stencil is formed, the screen is brought in contact with substrate, ink
is placed on the screen, and a squeegee drags the ink over the
stencil and the entire screen. The ink that is not blocked by the
stencil will go through the screen and onto the substrate to form the
printed image. The process uses a porous mesh stretched tightly
over a frame made of wood or metal.
○ A significant characteristic of screen printing is that a greater thickness of
the ink can be applied to the substrate than is possible with other printing
techniques.
■ This allows for some effects that are not possible using other
methods. Because of the simplicity of the process, a wider range of
inks, including solvent-based, water-based, plastisol, and UV-curable
is available for use in screen-printing.
○ There are three types of screen-printing presses
■ Flatbed
■ Cylinder
■ Rotary
● Combination Printing
○ Combination printing involves printing presses that use two or more
printing processes. Package printing often involves combination presses to
create different effects of solids, screens, or foil finishes.
○ Another popular form of combination printing involves adding inkjet
printing to four-color web offset printing.
■ This allows for the printing of high-quality publications, catalogs, and
direct mail, where each individual piece can be personalized, using
variable data printing or VDP.
Digital Printing:
● Benefits
○ Able to easily accept jobs directly from a computer system, and produce a
printing plate. They can produce jobs with shorter run lengths and greater
variability than conventional presses could cost-effectively handle.
○ Digital printing represents a growth area for many graphic communication
companies.
○ The majority of digital printing companies are small, typically employing
between five and ten people.
○ They serve a variety of industries, including business and financial services,
retailers, nonprofit organizations, and education and government
organizations.
○ Books and manuals make up the largest page volume.
● The VDP Process
○ Digital printing incorporates Variable Data Printing into a job.
■ VDP workflows are dependent on the system’s ability to handle high
data volumes, and rapidly respond to each change without unduly
slowing down the press.
■ There must also be reliable and secure data handling processes in
place, so one customer does not receive a printed piece clearly
intended for someone else.
○ Digital printing equipment vendors promoted VDP because, in certain
applications, variability justified the high cost of digital color pages.
● Digital Printing Engines
○ Digital systems consist of inkjet, electronic, electrophotographic (EP),
magnetograph, ion deposition, light-emitting diode (LED), liquid crystal
shutter (LCS), electron beam imaging (EBI), thermal, and electrostatic
printing.
■ These are all processes used for short runs and printing
personalized information in which data representing the images are
in digital form until the moment of actual imaging.
○ Inkjet printing
■ Used for simple printing such as barcoding, computer letters, etc..
They are increasing in speed, versatility, and cost-effectiveness
■ Printing process, microscopic droplets of ink are squirted onto a
substrate from a print head containing one or more nozzles. One
type of inkjet printing is the continuous drop process, where a
stream of ink droplets is forced through a nozzle under constant
pressure. The ink droplets are deflected to the image area via
electrostatic charges. Unneeded droplets are not charged and are
deflected into a gutter for recycling.
■ Disadvantage of inkjet printing is that the inks are often
water-soluble and can easily smudge when subjected to moisture.
■ Drop-on-demand process, ink drops are forced through the nozzle
only when needed. There are three types of this process. One is
piezoelectric, where an oscillating crystal produces an electric
charge that causes the ink drop to be expelled. Another, bubble
jet/thermal liquid ink, where an electric charge is applied to a small
resistor causing a minute quantity of ink to boil and form a bubble
that expands and forces the ink droplet out of the nozzle; The third,
solid ink, involves a wax-based ink that melts quickly and solidifies
on contact with a substrate.
○ Electrostatic and Electrophotographic (EP) printing
■ Toner particles are used to form an image.
■ In electrostatic printing, there is no print drum. Toner particles are
attracted directly to the paper through controlled conductivity. No
optical system is used. The copier glass is exposed at once and an
electrostatic charge is directly deposited onto the paper. The toner
is fused to the paper through hot air. The electrostatic process is
typically found in office printers.
■ Electrophotographic or EP printing uses a print drum and
photoconductor that is charged by a corona discharge and then
imaged by a moving laser light beam modulated by digital signals
from a PostScript-based or PDF-based digital imaging system. In this
process, a laser beam is focused on a rotating mirror that deflects
the beam through a focusing lens that forms a latent image on a
photoconductor. EP devices are faster than electrostatic printers and
used for both monochromatic and full-color, production printing.
○ Other Digital Print Processes
■ These include electron beam imaging (EBI), ion deposition,
light-emitting diode (LED), liquid crystal shutter (LCS), magneto
graphics, and thermal printing.
● Wide-Format Digital Printers
○ Provide individuals and companies with access to inexpensive large-sized
prints.
○ A growing number of companies manufacture systems that produce
full-color digital prints ranging in size from 36 in. to 54 in.
○ There are two components to these systems
■ Large-format printer and a RIP. Large-format digital printing systems
print on a variety of substrates including paper.
■ Mylar uses engines represented by inkjet, electrostatic, or thermal
wax transfer technology.
○ Large format devices typically use a drop-on-demand inkjet process.
Applications include contract color proofing and a variety of art
reproduction and signage uses, from poster-sized sheets to large "wraps"
for vehicles and even buildings. The inks can be aqueous or solvent-based.
Traditional wide-format inks require the use of specially-coated papers.
More recently, however, Ultraviolet- or UV-curable inks are used in order to
print on uncoated substrates (among other benefits). Water-based latex
inks -- introduced by HP -- are also used in wide format printing, as an
environmentally friendly way to produce outdoor media.
● Digital Printing Presses
○ The Xerox DocuTech represented the first wave of such technology in the
production of black-and-white printing.
○ Soon after DocuTech's introduction in the late 1980s, other manufacturers
saw the future of direct-to- press technology in color markets and nearly all
systems afterwards addressed this demand.
○ Heidelberg, the first to introduce a direct-to-press color system in its
GTO-DI, was quickly followed by Indigo, Xeikon, Agfa, and others.
○ Companies including Canon/Océ, EFI, Fujifilm, Hewlett Packard, KBA,
Kodak, Komori, Konica Minolta, Landa, Memjet, Pitney Bowes, Ricoh, RISO,
Scitex, Screen Americas, Xanté, Xeikon, Xerox, and are now manufacturers
of printing technology, but of the digital variety.
■ These companies provide not only hardware but also intangibles
such as software and digital front-end workflow systems. Digital
workflow strategy and production workflow processes are as
important as hardware in driving printer production and productivity.
■ On the hardware side, systems that handle a greater variety of
substrates, including very lightweight paper, have been developed.
● Digital Device Comparisons
○ Digital color printers and copiers
■ Color copiers represent the broadest range of manufacturers and
features.
■ They employ basic laser imaging technology to charge an image on
either drums or belts, from which the developed CMYK image is
ultimately transferred to paper.
■ Any project that demands process, full-bleed color in runs of up to
5,000 can be imaged on these high-resolution, toner-based devices.
○ Digital color production presses
■ The Kodak NexPress and Xerox DocuColor iGen series represented
a breakthrough for commercial printers when these technologies
were first introduced over a decade ago.
■ They brought short run/JIT, fast turnaround, web enablement, and
personalized printing into the press department.
■ These toner-based presses are fast and feature extremely high print
quality and the ability to deliver collated sheets at the end of the
press. They run smooth and textured papers in a range of sheet
sizes and basis weights, with the ability to mix stocks in a single run.
○ Xeikon-engined printers
■ A toner-based web press, the Xeikon-engined printer feeds its web
through a series of drums, each charged with the image and each
applying one process color. Process color toner is fused to the sheet
with adjustable heat and pressure; changing the heat and pressure
levels results in more or less gloss in the toner.
○
○
○
○
■ An on-line cutter trims pages to length. For optimum performance
paper must be scripted in order to establish set points on the
equipment for heat and pressure as well as other key
characteristics. This high-resolution duplexing printer has full
variable data capability -- meaning that some or all of the text or
images can be changed from one document to the next
HP Indigo presses
■ These presses use one imaging drum and patented liquid
Electrolnk. Both drum and ink are charged; Electrolnk adheres to
the image area on the drum and a blanket transfers the image to
paper.
■ No ink is left on the blanket. The plate charge is cleared and the
process is repeated for subsequent colors. This process supports
fully variable data and very high-resolution images. The HP Indigo
press can print on a wide range of substrates, but for optimum
performance pretreated paper often improves toner adhesion.
DI presses
■ These sheetfed presses were popular for a short time but were
replaced by presses with a more fully digital workflow. The Dl
presses worked like offset presses with an electronic twist: directed
by digital data, pre-mounted plates were imaged with a laser right
on the press, reducing makeready time to minutes. They were ideal
for process color jobs from 500 to 10,000, and produced
high-resolution offset images using
High-speed and high-volume digital presses
■ Used for documents requiring hundreds of thousands or even
millions of copies. They have variable-data capabilities and are very
popular for transactional documents such as telephone bills, cable
television bills, utility bills, and much more. They often have the
capabilities of producing full-color images along with personalized
messages directed specifically to the recipient.
Nanography
■ The process uses pigment particles under 100 nanometers in size.
(A nanometer one-billionth of a meter. This produces images with
ultra-sharp dots of high uniformity and high gloss. The process
begins with the jetting of billions of droplets, not ejected directly
onto the substrate-as in the typical inkjet process—but onto a
blanket from ink ejectors positioned one to two millimeters away.
● Printing Economics
○ Conventional presses often require the operator to print (and then discard)
multiple copies of a job before it is acceptable. This is the result of
adjusting ink levels and other variables, measuring the results on a press
sheet, and repeating the process until the desired results are achieved.
○ Digital presses, in theory, require far less makeready, and are, therefore,
more economical.
● The Future of Printing
○ Offset, gravure, and flexography are likely to endure for a long time, but the
incursions of digital printing will continue to dominate the graphic
communication industry. A sampling of Original Equipment Manufacturers
(OEMs) at major printing events illustrates this. At DRUPA 2000 and PRINT
01, exhibition halls were filled with conventional printing equipment, and
relatively few digital devices. Today, the situation is reversed. Most of the
traditional printing OEMs and many new players are promoting digital print
as the future of the industry.
○ The future of digital printing will undoubtedly include significant
improvements and new developments in web-to-print, print-to-web, printed
electronics, and even more exotic applications like 3D, inkless, and water
transfer printing.
The Making of a BMW M Print:
● They came up with a spray technique
○ They got pressure tanks and when you push a button, it opens up and lets
the ink spray through the tires.
How a Colour Laser Printer Works:
● The PCR rotates next to the OPC drum and applies a negative charge to the
surface of the OPC drum. This prepares it for the imaging process.
● The OPC drum is then exposed to a laser, which forms the image.
● This area is more positively charged than the areas not exposed to the laser.
● Toner is stirred in the hopper, the toner roller collects the toner moving it to the
surface of the developer roller.
● The doctor blade levels it to the precise height.
● As toner moves from component to component, it develops a negative charge
which is attracted to the more positively charged image on the OPC drum.
● The toner on the OPC drum is then transferred to the paper, this process occurs
within the four color cartridges in every laser printer, the paper with the toner then
passes through the fusing assembly where it is melted and fused to the paper.
● Any toner remaining on the OPC drum is cleaned and moved to the waste bin by
the wiper blade.
● The latent image on the OPC drum surface is erased by the PCR.
● Excess toner not transferred to the OPC drum is scrubbed from the developer
roller surface but the toner at a roller and returned to the toner hopper.
Chapter 9: Postpress and Finishing
TEXTBOOK NOTES
Overview:
● Postpress and finishing are often considered the most important part of the
printing process. If all else is done well, a postpress error will ruin the entire job.
Postpress Basics:
● Cutting
○ All paper used in printing is manufactured in large rolls, and sometimes cut
into press-ready sheets. This means that print output must be cut or
trimmed to its final size.
○ A machine used for cutting press sheets into individual pages -- typically
offline -- is called a guillotine cutter.
■ These machines consist of a flat bed or table that holds the stack of
paper to be cut.
■ At the rear of the cutter, the stack rests against an adjustable back
guide, allowing the operator to accurately position the paper. Side
guides or walls of the cutter are at exact right angles to the bed. A
clamp is lowered into contact with the top of the paper stack to hold
it in place while it is cut. An electrically-powered hydraulic pump
drives the cutting blade itself.
■ Guillotine cutters can be programmed to know the cutting
specifications of the next job coming from a printing press,
automatically presetting the cutter to expedite the process.
■ The cutter operator uses a cutting layout to guide the process.
Typically, the layout is one sheet from the printing job that has been
ruled to show the location and order of the cuts to be made.
○ An inline, three-knife trimmer, similar in principle to the guillotine cutter, is
often used after the binding process.
● Folding
○ Each press sheet is folded to create a signature.
○ The pages in a signature are arranged and numbered during the prepress
phase so that they will appear in the correct order after the folding process.
○ Signatures for books and publications always contain an even number of
pages, based on the size of the sheet and the number of folds.
○ The smallest folded signature contains four pages, two per side.
○ Signatures of 8, 16, and even 32 pages are also used, sometimes in
combination. These are gathered or collated -- often by high-speed
equipment -- before the binding process.
○ Publication signatures are only one style of paper folding used in
postpress. In fact, they are the simplest kind of folding.
○ There are three different types of folders used in modern printing
companies.
■ Bone folders have been used for centuries. These folders are
simple, shaped pieces of bone or plastic that are passed over the
fold to form a sharp crease. They are still used today, but only for
small, high-quality jobs.
■ Knife folders use a thin blade to force the paper between two
counter-rotating rollers. This folds the paper at the point where the
knife contacts it. A fold gauge and a moveable side bar are used to
position the paper in the machine before the knife forces the paper
between the rollers. The rollers have knurled surfaces that grip the
paper and crease it. The paper then passes out of the folder and
into a gathering station. Paper paths, knives, and roller sets are
stacked to create several folds on the same sheet as it passes from
one folding station to another.
■ Buckle folders differ from knife folders in that the sheet is made to
buckle and pass between the two rotating rollers of its own accord.
In a buckle folder, drive rollers cause the sheet to pass between a
set of closely spaced folding plates. When the sheet comes in
contact with the sheet gauge or "buckle stop," the drive rollers
continue to push the paper, causing it to buckle over and then pass
between the folding rollers. Adjusting the position of the stop
determines the distance between the fold and the lead edge of the
sheet.
○ Folding Styles include
■ Half-Fold
■ Quarter-Fold (or “French Fold”)
■ Z-Fold
■ Tri-Fold
■ Gate Fold
■ Roll Fold
■ Accordion Fold
■ Double Parallel Fold
○ Knife Folder
■ Buckle Stop
■ Buckle Plate
■ Sheet Infeed
■ Buckle
■ Folding Rollers
● Assembly
○ Assembly usually includes three steps
■ Gathering
■ Collating
■ Inserting
○ Gathering is the process of placing signatures next to one another.
Typically, gathering is used for assembling books that have page
thicknesses of at least three-eighths of an inch.
○ Collating is the process of gathering together individual sheets of paper
instead of signatures.
○ Inserting is the process of combining signatures by placing or inserting one
inside another. Inserting is normally used for pieces having a final thickness
of less than one-half inch.
○ Assembly processes can be manual, semi automatic, or fully automatic.
○ In manual assembly operations, workers hand-assemble pieces from stacks
of sheets or signatures laid out on tables.
○ Sheets or signatures are picked up from the stacks in the correct order and
either gathered, collated, or inserted to form bindery units. Some printers
use circular, revolving tables to assist in this process. However, due to the
high cost of labor, this is limited to small jobs.
○ With semi-automatic assembly, stacks of sheets or signatures must be
manually loaded into feeder units. Operators at each feeder station open
the signatures and place them at the "saddle bar" on a moving conveyor.
The number of signatures in the completed publication determines the
number of stations on the machine. Completed units are removed at the
end of the conveyor and passed on to the bindery.
○ With automatic assemblers, the sheets or signatures travel directly to the
bindery machines on conveyor belts, without human intervention. These
are typically part of an inline setup and are used in high-volume operations.
○ Binding family
■ Stitched: Saddle Stitched and Side Stitched
■ Glued: Perfect and Lay Flat
■ Sewn: Center Sewn, Side Sewn, Smyth Sewn and Stab
■ Case
■ Coils: Spiral and Wire-O
■ Other: Post & Screw, Eyelet and Ring
● Binding Methods
○ Binding is the process of attaching multiple units of printed material as a
piece, either with a protective and often decorative cover, or with the
sheets or signatures alone.
○ The latter is known as "self-cover," and is typical for brochures and
collateral, while the latter is common for books and periodicals.
○ The three most common types are
■ stitched (using wire staples) glued and sewn.
■ Case binding, a combination of gluing and sewing, is a specialized
process used mainly for hardcover books.
■ Other methods, using wire or plastic coils and other mechanisms,
are typically used for business documents and certain types of
publications.
○ Saddle stitching
■ Used extensively for magazines and booklets with comparatively
fewer pages. Most saddle stitching is performed inline, on
highly-automated finishing lines. Large, manually operated staplers
are used for small printing jobs.
○ Adhesive binding, also known as padding
■ Includes detachable sheet notepads and paperback books, using a
process called perfect binding. The latter must be strong enough to
prevent pages from pulling out during normal use and uses a
hotmelt glue with much greater adhesive strength than the
water-soluble latex used for notepads. In perfect binding, a piece of
gauze-like material is applied along with the glue to provide added
strength.
○ Side-sewn binding
■ Involves drilling an odd number of holes in the binding edge of the
unit and then clamping the unit to prevent it from moving. A needle
and thread are then passed through each hole proceeding from one
end of the book to the other and then back again to the beginning
point. The disadvantage of this type of binding is that the book will
not lie flat when opened.
○ An alternative saddle binding process, Smythe sewing
■ is considered to be the highest quality fastening method used today.
The center-sewing approach produces a book that will lie almost
flat. A common form of mechanical binding is the metal or plastic
spiral technique. In this method of binding, a series of holes are
punched or drilled through the pages and cover and then a wire is
run through the holes.
○ Mechanical binding is generally considered as permanent; however, plastic
spiral bindings are available that can be removed without either tearing the
pages or destroying the binding material. Mechanical binding typically
requires some manual labor, although automated, inline processes are
available.
○ Loose-leaf or ring bindings
■ Allow for the removal and addition of pages. The post, screw, and
eyelet styles provide similar capabilities, although not as
conveniently as the familiar three-ring binder.
○ Binding methods
■ Saddle Stitch
■ Side Stitch
■ Side Sewn
■ Burst Perfect
■ Lie-Flat Perfect
■ Case
■ Spiral
■ Wire-O
■ Comb
■ Plastic Grip
■ Post & Screw
■ Ring
● Covers
○ A heavier weight stock, intended to protect the contents from ordinary
wear and tear.
○ Soft covers for perfect-bound books are usually cut flush with the inside
pages and attached to the signatures with glue, although they can also be
sewn in place. Cover stock is typically coated on one side, to facilitate
high-quality printing.
○ Book cover art also serves a marketing purpose, to attract potential buyers
and help them feel good about the purchase. They can also be
embellished with special finishing effects, such as embossing and foil
stamping.
○ Self-covers are made from the same paper substrate as the body of the
printed product. This is common for saddle-stitched booklets, flyers, and
other business products. Newspapers, although unbound, are another
example of a self-cover product.
○ Case-bound covers are the rigid covers generally associated with
high-quality, hardcover books. This method of covering is considerably
more complicated and expensive than others. Although the process is
highly automated today, it is based on centuries-old techniques.
○ For case binding, signatures are trimmed to produce a single stack known
as the book block. This includes a rounded front (open) edge to give the
finished book an attractive appearance and a back-edge shape compatible
with the shape of the cover. A backing is applied by clamping the book
block in place and splaying or mushrooming out the fastened edges of the
signatures. This makes the rounding operation permanent and produces a
ridge for the case-bound cover.
○ Gauze and strips of paper are glued to the back edge of the book block.
These are eventually glued to the case for improved strength and stability.
Bands are applied to the head and tail of the book for decorative purposes.
The case is made of two pieces of thick, "binder's board" glued to the
covering cloth or leather. The covering material can be printed either
before or after gluing by hot-stamping or screen-printing. Finally, durable,
often decorated end sheets are applied, to attach the case to the body of
the book.
Finishing and Special Effects:
● Inline Finishing
○ Basic bindery, such as cutting, perforating, folding, trimming, and stitching
○ Inserting a single piece, or multiple pieces, into an envelope or other
pre-printed enclosure
○ Labeling, either by imprinting the original piece or applying an adhesive,
printed label
○ Poly-bagging each piece in a weatherproof, mail-ready enclosure
○ Boxing or palletizing the printed content for mailing or shipment
○ One of the most important results of computer-enabled inline finishing is
the introduction of demographic binding, the selective assembly of a
publication based on one or more of data-specific considerations, including
geographic location. income, or interests.
● Special effects
○ Embossing
■ Creates a raised printed image whereas debossing creates a
recessed image. Typically applied after printing, embossing is often
used on paperback book covers, to accentuate the title or other
visual element. Foil stamping can also provide a metallic look to the
embossed or debossed image. "Blind" embossing or debossing
creates a raised or recessed impression without a printed image.
○ Embossing and debossing effects
■ Used not only to accentuate visual design elements, but also to give
the paper surface an additional texture or dimensional effect. This
too must be done after printing, which requires a flat surface for
optimum reproduction quality. Metallic foils (foil stamping) and
laminates are also applied after printing, for many of the same
reasons.
○ Die-cutting
■ The process where a segment of the printed document is cut out of
the page or sheet-using fixed metal blades or lasers-into a circle,
triangle, or other shape. Book covers and greeting cards often
feature innovative die-cutting and special foils or laminates to
accentuate their appeal.
○ Die-cutting, embossing, debossing, and foil stamping are becoming
increasingly popular due to the availability of automated processes for
producing dies.
○ Packaging takes advantage of special finishing effects, particularly with
luxury products. Brand marketers and advertisers use these effects to
accentuate the consumer's visceral connection with the brand.
○ Special effects are also used to enhance security and thwart counterfeiting
of high-end products. Holographic images, lenticular effects, and other,
striking images not only make a package stand out, they also make it hard
to copy.
○ Special finishing effects are becoming highly automatable and integrated
with other inline systems. The magazine cover pictured on page 165, for
example, has all the appearance of hand crafting. However, the
combination of hot foil stamping and 3D spot coating were all digitally
produced.
● The Digital Bindery
○ Commercial printers, publishers, direct marketers, and service bureaus can
offer digital print services: shorter print runs; delivery on demand; variable,
customized, one-to-one content; as well as high-quality color.
○ Traditional binderies designed to work with offset presses may not have
the range of finishing capabilities suited for digital press output. Therefore,
printers that bring finishing processes into their plants may need to invest
in a newer generation of bindery equipment.
○ Digital postpress has typically lagged behind developments in press
technology. Increasingly, however, digital press manufacturers are
increasingly working in partnership with finishing equipment OEMs to
create new inline solutions for roll-fed and cut-sheet digital presses.
● The Modern Job Ticket
○ The latter holds the important documents and components of a job and
was printed with blank spaces for instructions and sign-offs needed at each
step.
○ JDF has been somewhat less so with respect to certain aspects of digital
printing, and especially to the inline complications of digital postpress
operations.
○ As part of a JDF workflow, job parameters are specified up front in the job
ticket but can shift rapidly for variable-data printing. Also, control must
extend to the equipment involved and to intelligence about the state of the
product in the binding process itself -- such as page order and number,
insertions, covers -- while handling errors that may occur. This can be done
through direct feedback within inline solutions, or by using barcodes or
related marks.
● Facing the Future
○ OEMs of digital presses and postpress equipment developed the Universal
Printer, Pre- and Post-Processing Interface or UP3i.
○ Compatible with JDF, it is an attempt to solve problems inherent with digital
devices. These include:
■ Shortening setup and prep times
■ Enabling remote setup
■ Maximizing the efficiency of any printing or finishing line
■ Facilitating implementation with job tickets (especially JDF)
■ Supporting both continuous form and cut-sheet printers
■ Enhancing job recovery in the case of common mechanical
occurrences, such as paper jams
○ Most sophisticated binderies work in tandem with other modules from the
same or different vendors, including feeders, rewinders, creasers, trimmers,
and collating towers.
○ For perfect binders, they work with cooling towers for hot glue solutions, as
well as laminating devices for cover finishing. Even stackers and packagers
may be part of the equipment mix.
○ Similar to offset binderies, digital bindery solutions are generally optimized
to work with roll-fed or cut-sheet presses, as with black-and-white or color
output, though bringing monochrome and color pages together is often a
key part of the bindery process. Electronic binderies also span a range of
types from loose bound (spiral, wire, plastic, and ring) to stitched (thread or
staple saddle stitching-centered on the spine, or alternately, side or corner
stitching), extending to perfect-bound and hardcover. Saddle-stitch and
perfect-bound binderies are the primary focus of digital finishing vendors
today, though "digital book factories" may also include solutions for
hardbound books.
○ Over time, UP3i compliance will allow print service providers to add inline
finishing capabilities to their growing digital footprint, without incurring the
costs of proprietary interface connections between systems. In an
environment with multiple system vendors and thin profit margins, this will
improve the odds of business success.
Sustainability
NOTES FROM LECTURE SLIDES
The three pillars of sustainability:
● People, planet and profits
OR
● Social, environmental and economic
Sustainable Packaging and Print:
● Is beneficial, safe & healthy for individuals and communities throughout its life
cycle
● Meets market criteria for both performance and cost
● Is sourced, manufactured, transported, and recycled using renewable energy
● Optimizes the use of renewable or recycled source materials
● Is manufactured using clean production technologies and best practices
● Is made from materials healthy in all probable end of life scenarios
● Is physically designed to optimize materials and energy
● Is effectively recovered and utilized in biological and/or industrial closed loop
cycles.
Why is there a global focus on packaging?:
● Packaging waste is considered a major environmental concern due to its high
visibility.
● Consumer research surveys reveal that the recyclability of packaging is a top of
mind sustainability attitude.
Some environmental costs of printing and packaging:
● Use of materials – substrates and inks – and their recycling and disposal
● Some inks are made from petrochemicals / petroleum products
● Some plastics are better than others; so are some papers
● Imported paper and ink vs. domestically-produced materials
● VOCs / emissions as inks dry
● Energy used to produce materials and operate machines
● Transportation of printed media and packages
VIDEO NOTES
BELOW
CHAPTER 1
Trip Print Press:
● Letterpress was originally a type of graphic printing process, printing from
movable type.
● Nowadays, less and less movable-type is used. Instead, film and plates are used.
They trick the letterpress machine to print from plates.
● On screens, images are usually CMYK. This makes them act as an illusion.
● Letterpress printing mixes colours and creates an honest replica of an image.
● The tactile environment creates a positive experience.
Globe and Mail:
● The last Page file arrives electronically from the newsroom by 11 pm.
● Plates are made from page files.
○ They are made of aluminum
○ A coating allows the image to burn onto the plate.
○ Ink adheres to the image, and that image offsets back onto the paper
○ For colour pages, four plates are made
● Coldset: Ink absorbed by the paper
● Heatset: Ink baked onto paper
○ Oven operates at 125°C
○ The ink sits on the surface
○ Paper is required to be heavier
● Quiet Room
○ Relatively quiet compared to the room where the product is made
○ Where press operators run the press
○ When they are outside, what they are doing is webbing up press and
hanging plates
○ Once that is done, they run it from inside the quiet room.
● Post-press
○ Assembles the complete paper and adds inserts
● Takes 45 minutes from the last file to the first paper out
Ikea - Augmented Reality:
● This video is a silent video showcasing how a 3D model can be overlaid over
camera input to create an illusion that the 3D model exists in reality.
How the Medium Shapes the Message:
● Touch is used for communication and feedback from the outside world
● Spontaneous communication is very different from a deliberate communication
● People tend to prefer reading on paper over a screen
● In a study in Norway, highschoolers read text on paper or online
○ They measured comprehension
○ Results were much better when reading on paper
● In Sweden they tested people reading online
○ They found their stress was higher
○ They were also more tired afterward
● Memory
○ On screens, we are usually scanning and skimming through the text
○ On paper, we navigate it through a different way, so our memory is better
● Experiment: Does the quality of paper affect impressions on brands?
○ Used 3 fictional brands
○ Used high-quality paper, low-quality paper, and website
○ The company on high-quality paper usually led to a more positive first
impression
○ A week later, people were better able to recall names of companies on
high-quality paper
The Experience of Print:
● When introducing a project to the design team, they need to imagine themselves
at the press check and ask questions like
○ What does the press form look like?
○ Are we imposing our images in a proper way?
○ How does it come together as a final product?
● When you ask those questions, you began to determine what weight of paper,
what substrate you’re gonna use.
● We love to receive information with all of our senses and print does it
exceptionally well.
● Print offers dimensions and characters to a message that is still incredibly unique.
How to Use This Book:
● A parallel online experience with curated video
● Each chapter includes interactive media via the Clickable Paper app
● Readers are able to access this information at any time on their mobile device
● The video content is created on virtual learning platforms including the Viddler
Training Suite, which minimizes distractions
● In addition, there is also a short URL for each chapter, in order for readers to
access it on their own desktop
Paper or silicon?:
● The rise in digital media always leads to fall in print
● People prefer a wide range of media types
● TV changed the way we use radios and how often we use them, but it didn't
eliminate it. Similarly, digital media has changed print but hasn't eliminated it.
● Print provides a multi-sensory experience- both visual and tactile. Touch helps us
learn and experience.
● Research shows that print helps comprehension and long-term memory more than
online media
● The study also found that paper quality affects the way a message is received
-true for all demographics
● This book explores the notion that the multi-sensory efficiency of ink on paper can
effectively be combined with the versatility and flexibility of online media.
Searching for a New Augmented Reality:
● The book is considered to be a “multi-book”, a type of augmented reality
● There are four types of interactions
● 1. Interactive Video: Most prominent digital medium connected to the book
● 2. Group Discussions: Available via LinkedIn Groups
● 3. Live Chat: Also available on a public online forum
● 4. External Websites: Online references, calculators, and demos
CHAPTER 2
How Stone Lithography Works:
● Stone printing is one of the oldest forms of printing images.
● Stone printing was invented by Alois Senefelder.
○ He experimented with an etching technique using a greasy acid-resistant
ink as a resist on a smooth-grained limestone.
● In 1796, he made his first planner graphic print.
○ Planner printing is printing from a flat surface.
○ He perfected it and printed sheet music.
● He also invented the first stone print machine.
● When offset printing was invented, stone became a novelty.
● How stone lithography works
○ You draw on a grinded limestone with a very smooth surface.
○ You can sketch with a graphite pencil under the stone to set up your
drawing.
○ You have to protect the stone from your hands and fingers because they
can be greasy and you will end up with fingerprints on your artwork and
you don't want that.
○ When you're finished with your drawing the stone is prepared with French
chalk powder this helps to protect it for the further process
○ The stone is then processed with a mixture of gum arabic and nitric acid.
○ The gum separates the image area from the non-image areas this is the
etching of the stone.
○ The drawing will receive the ink and will repel water usually you have to
leave this down for one day, so the etching can take place on the surface of
the stone then the stone is placed on the printing press with turpentine oil.
○ The image will be washed off the stone after that the stone is prepared with
a thin layer of oily ink by doing this you remove the water-soluble gum
edge now the stone is ready for print
○ Now the stone is ready for print the drawn image receives ink and the rest
of the image receives water.
○ Before printing, you have to keep the stone with water so that the ink will
not print the empty areas.
○ On a piece of glass, you mix the ink and roll it with an ink roller.
○ Before applying the ink onto the stone, the stone needs to be wet you roll
several times on the stone with the ink then you need to fan it down so that
the water dries then you can apply the paper onto the stone.
○ On top of the paper, a plate of leather is placed with a bit of ox gar, This
helps the stone glide under the printing press.
○ You move the stone under to press and then turn the lever to press down
the paper onto the stone.
○ With the turning wheel, you move the stone and the paper under the Press
then you release the press with the lever then you remove the leather plate
and carefully remove the paper from the stone.
○ For each print, you have to repeat the same steps, wetting the stone,
applying ink, finding the stone paper on the stone, and printing the stone
onto the paper.
“Linotype: The Film” Official Trailer:
● You’re able to sit at a keyboard, type as fast as you can, and can pull this type that
can be printed from.
● Linotype doesn’t fit in with new technology.
A Brief History of Communication:
● What did this video tell us about the history of communication?
○ Shows how the world evolved.
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Evolution in methods of communication.
Word of mouth.
We share what we know with those around us to help improve our world.
Physical symbols were used to communicate as well.
CHAPTER 3
Firefox: Evolution of a Brand:
● Firefox is more than a browser, it's a family of products and services all focused on
privacy, all connected together.
● The current logo will continue to evolve, bringing in new colours and making it a
bit more abstract so it fits visually with everything else.
The History of Typography - Animated Short:
● Type is the power to express words and ideas visually.
● Always changing.
● Gutenberg created “Blackletter”, the first-ever typeface.
● The Roman typeface was created in the 15th century by Nicholas Jenson.
● Italics were created in the late 15th century by Aldus Manutius from Italy.
● William Caslon created a typeface that set a new standard for legibility.
● During the second industrial revolution, advertising created a need for new
typefaces.
● In the 20th century, Paul Renner from Germany created a typeface called Futura
and it was based on simple geometric shapes.
● Sans serifs happened in Switzerland in 1957 with the introduction of Helvetica. It
has simple curves and is available in many different weights, and some would call
it the world’s favorite typeface.
CHAPTER 5
Who do we benefit when we make Ontario accessible?
● Individuals with disabilities.
● We benefit communities.
CHAPTER 6
Why APG? Color Consistency & Quality Control:
● Digital printing, flexo printing, offset printing.
● Print on films, pressure-sensitive material, cartons.
● Everything is flowing through the same QC process.
● Look in colour with a spectral density meter and test for tensile strengths, testing
glue strengths.
X-Rite eXact Spectrophotometer Video:
● With X-rite, you can deliver the exact colour every time while improving your
bottom line.
● New touch screen tech allows you to measure and communicate colour
accurately.
● The new intuitive interface allows it to be customized to meet the needs of your
specific business.
● X-Rite eXact is the only device that holds Pantone tables and connects to Pantone
live.
Communicating Colour Effectively:
● You need to understand three attributes associated with colour images
○ Contrast
○ Colour balance
○ Colour saturation
CHAPTER 7
Bursting Strength Tester:
● The burst factor BM relates bursting strength and grammage. It’s the most
common indicator of the strength of paper and corrugated board.
● The UB bursting strength tester is for reliability.
● It’s suitable for testing paper, paperboard, filter cloth, textile fabric, etc.
● UB bursting strength tester is available in three types
○ Paper tester, fitted with thin rubber to test materials having lower burst
values like paper.
○ Board tester, fitted with moulded rubber to test higher burst values like
paperboard, fabric cloth, etc.
○ 2-in-1 paper and paperboard tester, fitted with thin and moulded rubber to
test lower and higher burst values.
● There's 5 models of bursting strength testers
○ Regular.
○ Deluxe.
○ Digital economy.
○ Fully automatic digital.
○ Fully automatic microprocessor based digital.
Grain Direction in Paper:
● Knowing which direction the paper grain is going in will affect the outcome of the
book.
● Commercially made papers have grain direction.
● When they shake the water out of paper, the fibers naturally line up with each
other and create a direction. This is paper grain.
● Grain direction should run parallel to the spine.
Paper Grades and Types (website we looked at in class):
Paper types:
● Machine Finished Paper
○ Uncoated mechanical printing paper, often referred to as Improved
Newsprint.
○ Its main characteristic is its high bulk combined with a low weight.
○ Most are 'tailormade' grades, which are characteristically light and have
surfaces meeting particular requirements.
○ Their information capacity is limited due to the ink-absorption of this grade.
○ Due to the almost entirely mechanical fibre content, the MF will discolour
when subject to sunlight.
○ MF is intended for use in web-offset presses which do not have external
ink-drying (coldset) equipment. There is, however, a growing demand for
printing by heatset web-offset.
● Machine Finished Coated Paper
○ Machine-finished coated is a mechanical paper featuring very high bulk.
This makes it ideal for printed products which require good rigidity.
○ Its matt surface and high brightness factor make for very readable printed
text.
○ The relative smoothness of this paper and its low ink absorption facilitate a
glossy image; this is an important advantage in colour printing, because it
ensures excellent intensity and gloss contrasts, especially in pictures.
○ Speciality magazines and advertising products are among the main uses
for MFC.
○ Heatset is the most suitable printing method with this grade.
● Medium-Weight Coated Paper
○ Sometimes called Double Coated Mechanical, MWC is a medium-weight
coated paper grade with a medium-thickness coat and a basis weight in the
over-80gsm range.
○ Its double coat gives this paper a consistent surface texture and excellent
smoothness, ensuring high gloss colour printing.
○ This good surface ensures low dot-gain in offset printing and explains why
MWC is so popular for demanding full-colour applications.
○ MWC boasts the highest information capacity of all the
mechanical-pulp-based grades.
○ It is most suitable for perfect-bound speciality magazines and advertising
articles in which quality demands are exceptionally high.
● Supercalendered Magazine Paper
○ Uncoated grade containing mechanical pulp and fillers. It is probably the
most economical magazine paper.
○ This grade is made for HSWO and Gravure Presses.
○ It’s suitable for mass-circulation and full colour magazines.
○ SC offset is used for TV programme magazines, direct advertising products,
newspaper supplements and other printed articles in which high
information capacity is an essential requirement.
○ Another of SC's outstanding features is its good brightness. Powerful super
calender rolls give this paper a dense, smooth and glossy finish.
● Light-Weight Coated Paper
○ This combines low-freeness mechanical pulp with long fibre cellulose fibres
to achieve superior strength. Often called 'Blade Coated Mechanical'.
○ Excellent printability is then added by coating both sides of the paper to
give it a high degree of smoothness and gloss.
○ LWC is intended for printing applications in which high information capacity
is needed. Its main uses are for catalogues and magazines with a high
advertising content.
○ The higher the basis weight, the higher the brightness level.
○ LWC comes in different versions suiting heatset web offset printing. A
matt-surfaced version is very popular for offset printing of textbooks. A
hybrid grade is available in the 60-75gsm range commonly called LWC
Hi-Brite. These offer a higher brightness level than conventional LWC,
whilst retaining opacity which MWC (Double Coated Mechanicals) cannot
match.
● Woodfree Art Paper
○ Woodfree Art
■ The best features of this paper are its strength, brightness and
suitability for long-term archive storage. In the lighter weights
opacity falls short of the MWC.
■ It is available in matt, silk and gloss versions.
■ Often called 'Standard Art', this grade is a chemical-pulp-based
variant of MWC.
○ Premium and Speciality Art
■ Commonly called 'Real Art'. These heavy-weight coated (HWC)
papers are triple coated.
■ Their main use is for printing art books, high quality brochures and
annual reports.
■ Because of the high gloss level achieved through the triple-coating
this grade can be used as an alternative for covers which would
normally be UV varnished (the printed gloss would be slightly down
from a UV coating and it would not be sealed, but the saving can be
substantial)
Paper grades:
● Bond paper
○ Commonly used for letters, copying, and business forms. 8.5" X 11" is the
most common size.
● Coated paper
○ Used when high printing quality is desired because of its greater surface
smoothness and uniform ink receptivity. There are many kinds: cast coated,
gloss coated, dull coated, machine coated, coated one (C1S) and two (C2S)
sides, etc.
● Text papers
○ Noted for their interesting textures and attractive colors. They are
frequently used for announcements, booklets, and brochures. Most text
papers are treated with a sizing to make them more resistant to water
penetration and easier to print by offset lithography.
● Book papers
○ Used for trade and textbooks as well as general printing. They are less
expensive than text papers, and are made in antique or smooth finishes.
Books paper have a wider range of weights and bulk than text papers so it
is possible to secure almost any desired bulking.
● Offset papers
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●
●
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○ Similar to the coated and uncoated book paper used for letterpress printing
except that sizing is added to resist the slight moisture present in offset
printing, and the surface is treated to resist picking.
Cover papers
○ Complement coated and text papers in heavier weights and matching
colors for use as covers on booklets. Business cards are another very
common use for cover papers. Many special surface textures are available,
with finishes ranging from antique to smooth. Special characteristics of
cover papers include dimensional stability, durability, uniform printing
surface, good scoring, folding, embossing, and die-cutting qualities.
Index papers
Two outstanding characteristics - stiffness and receptivity to printing ink.
commonly used whenever an inexpensive stiff paper is required. It is available in
both smooth and vellum finish.
Tag
○ Utility sheet ranging from 100 to 250 pounds for manufacturing tags. Tag
stock has good bending or folding qualities, suitable bursting and tensile
strength, good tearing and water resistance and a surface adaptable to
printing, stamping, or writing.
Bristol
○ is one of the board grades, with a softer surface than index or tag, making it
ideal for high-speed folding, embossing or stamping. It is an economical
substitute for cotton fiber stocks. It is very receptive to ink and has good
snap and resilience.
Newsprint
○ Used in printing newspapers. It is most commonly made with groundwood
pulp combined with some chemical pulp.
Lightweight papers
○ Such as manifold, onion skin and Bible paper are specialty grades that
have been produced for years. Recently, increasing mailing costs have
fostered the development and use of lighter weight newsprint and
magazine papers.
Writing paper
○ Usually refers to higher grade bond commonly used for letterhead paper. It
will most often be made with a percent of cotton fiber and a watermark will
be visible when it is held up to the light.
How Ink Is Made:
● Process Ink
○ Yellow, magenta, cyan, black.
● Printing Ink is composed of two primary things
○ A pigment, the colour
○ A vehicle, the carrier of the colour
● When making ink in production
○ It’s weighed into a pot and then put onto a mixer.
○ They’re heated by mixing until it’s much thinner.
○ Then the pigment is incorporated, it needs to be a liquid to run through.
● Grinding
○ Pigment particles come as a dry powder, to break the lumps apart there’s
two types of machines.
○ Bead mill
■ Has steel balls in it and they impact on the pigment particles.
■ It gives a rough grind.
○ Three roller mill
■ This machine is three large steel rollers that run in opposite
directions.
■ Best for developing gloss and colour strength.
■ It smears the particles apart.
● Quality control (QC)
○ Ensures that the ink is the same, batch to batch.
○ Grind test
■ Ensures that every particle is a small size.
■ Ensures smooth, even print.
○ Bleach test
■ Small amount of ink into opaque white, this allows to check the
colour strength.
○ Once it is approved by QC technicians, it’s taken to the mixer.
○ Mixer
■ Extra ingredients are added, such as
■ Waxes, which imparts rub resistance.
■ Dryers, which allows the ink to turn into a solid film.
○ Attack test
■ Measures how sticky the ink is.
■ They can control the tack in an ink to ensure that the printer gets the
same result.
○ They also intermix pantone colours
■ They do this because the colour gamut is not enough to satisfy the
colour variation the designers want.
■ By mixing the base colours of the pantone, they can give the array
of colour to satisfy any colour demands.
■ If that's not enough, there’s a full colour matching lab.
● The ink is ready to be packaged
○ They can everything over a three roller mill, this takes out the air and
imparts more gloss and polishing to the ink.
○ Once the ink is in the can, it’s been through three grinding mills, two mixers
and 5 QC tests.
● It is then shipped to the customer.
CHAPTER 8
The Making of a BMW M Print:
● They came up with a spray technique
○ They got pressure tanks and when you push a button, it opens up and lets
the ink spray through the tires.
How a Colour Laser Printer Works:
● The PCR rotates next to the OPC drum and applies a negative charge to the
surface of the OPC drum. This prepares it for the imaging process.
● The OPC drum is then exposed to a laser, which forms the image.
● This area is more positively charged than the areas not exposed to the laser.
● Toner is stirred in the hopper, the toner roller collects the toner moving it to the
surface of the developer roller.
● The doctor blade levels it to the precise height.
● As toner moves from component to component, it develops a negative charge
which is attracted to the more positively charged image on the OPC drum.
● The toner on the OPC drum is then transferred to the paper, this process occurs
within the four color cartridges in every laser printer, the paper with the toner then
passes through the fusing assembly where it is melted and fused to the paper.
● Any toner remaining on the OPC drum is cleaned and moved to the waste bin by
the wiper blade.
● The latent image on the OPC drum surface is erased by the PCR.
● Excess toner not transferred to the OPC drum is scrubbed from the developer
roller surface but the toner at a roller and returned to the toner hopper.
CHAPTER 9
Tree of Codes by Jonathan Safran Foer:
● To make this book, he printed out numerous manuscripts of Bruno Schultz’s street
of crocodiles and tried to find a story within his stories.
● The goal was always to carve away a great number of the words in order to have
with the remaining words a different story.
● The experience of reading the book probably changes as you move through it. I
know a lot of people when they open the front cover not knowing what to expect
are quite surprised.
● It's certainly not a book that looks like any other books in a bookstore.
How a paper folder works:
● First of all, you can see the number 1, 2 & 3 into 0 which is the main role.
● Paper will come off a paper feeder register pile. it will come down until it engages
their rolls.
● The rolls will take it in and it will come up in between the full plate or buccal plate
until it hits the paper stop.
● Once it hits the paper stop it will buckle or fold in between the bottom two rolls, it
will come down into the bottom full plate until it hits the paper stop then it would
actually fold the paper again and as you see get the paper here is still coming
down from register so it's actually been forwarded going down to the other full
plate.
● So there's multiple things happening at once in the form then it will exit the form
and so it can go in. You have a folded piece of paper so now you can open it up
and you can see the different folds.
How it’s done: Embossing with QLP:
● It's basically the opposite of debossing, where the design is indented.
● Embossing just raises the design instead.
● The embossing process requires two custom dyes. One that's raised, and one
that's recessed.
● The dyes are inserted into a press where they get heated up
● The press closes with your item sandwiched in between.
● As the material of your item is pressed, the raised dye on the bottom forces the
material into the recessed dye on the top, creating the embossed impression.
● This works on a lotta different materials. Like paper, or plastic, fabric, leather,
silicone, meta.
CALCULATIONS
BELOW
ALWAYS REFER TO THIS!
Basis weight & M weight
EXAMPLES:
Grammage
EXAMPLES: