Geography Case Studies
IGCSE
1.1 – Population Dynamics
 High natural growth – Kenya
Due to: high birth rates per woman (3.9), falling death rates, and an increase in life
expectancy.
Although fertility rate is falling, natural increase is still occurring.
- Rural-to-Urban migration  Youth unemployment is a problem.
- Large percentage of population is living in poor conditions (poor water
supply, sanitation, and energy)
 Population decline – Russia
Due to: low birth rates, high death rates (esp. men), emigration
Population density of 8km2
People do not wish to extend families because it is expensive and unemployment
rates are high. Plus, there are high education standards and use of contraception is
high.
Depopulation is an issue, and people concerned are likely to become emigrants.
Esp. Rural depopulation; causes loss of wealth, and local food is also no longer
produced and the countryside is deserted.
 Overpopulation in Bangladesh
Population density of 1128 people per km2
Decreasing carrying capacity due to: Lack of resources, poor infrastructure and
under-developed technology and high population.
Problems of overpopulation:
- Overcrowded streets in Dhaka
Overpopulation in Bangladesh resulted in overcrowded areas with traffic
congestion, esp. in Dhaka.
Vehicle emissions, industrial discharge and burning of fossil fuels have resulted in
air pollution, while the ground water has been polluted due to arsenic.
Shortage of food lead to overcultivation on the flood plains of the Ganges River,
causing lower yields and soil exhaustion.
Widespread deforestation for firewood on the slopes of the Himalayas.
Dhaka also suffers from severe housing shortages due to mass urbanization.
 Canada: Underpopulation
Canada is regarded as an underpopulated country as the carrying capacity is much
higher than the current population. The 35 million people in Canada cannot fully
exploit the available resources and technology.
Problems of underpopulation in Canada:
-
Labor shortage
Services close down as there are not enough customers.
Less innovation and development (less brain power)
Difficulties in defending the country
Solutions:
- relaxing immigrant policies and visa requirements to encourage migration
- Pro-natal government support to increase the birth rate e.g. subsidies and
parental leave programs.
 China: One Family One Child Policy
Anti-natal population policy
Population: More than 1.3 billion people in 2014. Extreme overpopulation.
China became overpopulated since 1960 because of: social/cultural desire to have a
son, economical bonus: men could work in the field, children considered to be
social security
Encouragements to limit to one child and penalties
-
5-10% salary bonus
fines: US$ 400-US$ 1400
10% salary reduction
free contraception
no free education
forced abortion
Positive consequences of the policy:
- better education and skilled workforce
- average fertility reduced to 1.7
- low urban poverty
Negative consequences of the policy:
-
female foeticide
forced abortion
abnormal sex ratio/ imbalanced
more divorce: desire to have a boy
lack of working population to support old dependents
girls abandoned, killed, in orphanage
 Germany: Pro-natal population policy
1.38 births per woman in 2012
Birth rates have been falling for many years, and the youth plus the immigrants
will be unable to support Germany’s ageing population.
Encouragements to bear children:
-
paid maternity leave and parental leave
tax breaks to taxpayers that have children
eliminating fees for kindergarten
free schooling
encouraging immigration
1.2 – Migration
 Migration from Mexico to the USA
Due to: higher average incomes in the USA, lower unemployment, better quality of
life.
Distribution in southern states is due to: proximity to the border, location of
demand for immigrant farm workers.
However, migration has recently reduced due to more difficulty committing illegal
immigration and tougher economic conditions in the USA.
Impacts on Mexico:
-
The high value of remittances which is a national large source of income
Reduced unemployment
Lower pressure on housing and resources and services
Loss of skilled people!
Returning migrant have new values!
1.3 – Population Structure
 High dependent population - The Gambia
Small country with a young population, which puts pressure on resources.
Religious and cultural reasons prevented people from using contraception, and
women have traditionally little influence. Children are viewed as economic assets.
Dependency ratio of 92.
Economically active people struggle to provide basic housing for their families.
There is also huge overcrowding and lack of sanitation.
Rates of unemployment and underemployment are high. The government has
insufficient financial resources for education and health (not enough schools …)
There is a large number of trees being cut down for firewood.
1.4 – Population Density and Distribution
 Sparsely and Densely Populated Areas – North America
Population is highly concentrated in some areas. Reasons:
- Very few people live in the cold, dry, or mountainous regions.
- Density is highest in the major clusters of manufacturing and service
industries.
Canadian Northlands (Sparse):
Density of less than 1 person per km2
Very low temperatures, -20C in winter. Economic, engineering, and maintenance
difficulties for transportation and development.
Road system is very sparse (snow and ice make transport difficult). High latitude
in northern areas so land is too cold for agriculture. Mountainous landscape makes
infrastructure different.
Northeast of USA (dense):
Average density of 100 per km2
The first area of European settlement. Became the greatest manufacturing region in
the world.
Area between Washington and Boston has become a megalopolis.
Intense concentration of job opportunities. People living in rural areas (agriculture
in areas with fertile soils) commute to work in towns and cities. Region has most
developed transport networks.
1.5 – Settlements and Service Provision
 Population size and number of services – Lozere
Lozere is in the Southeast of France. Mountainous. Main economic activity:
farming and tourism. Low unemployment because young people out-migrate.
Population has recently increased slightly due to improved communication and
easier travel. Population is ageing!
 Rural Settlement (LEDC): Korodegaga village (Ethiopia)
Korodegaga village consists of nine small hamlets with 1400 people in total.
The area was first settled in the 20th century because of: water supply from two
rivers flat, fertile soil for cultivation extensive forests for building and firewood.
Services provided include: a grain mill, mosques, and schools. Villagers walk to
the neighboring towns of Dera and Bofa to access a local market and shops.
1.6 – Urban Settlements
 Gentrification – Cape town, South Africa
Location of Woodstock: Inner–city suburb. About 1km East of the Centre of Cape
Town.
The ease of access to the harbor and good transport and increased interest and
industrialization attracted wealthier people.
Urban renewal: Young, skilled workers took advantage of affordable homes and
renovated them.
Positive views on gentrification in Woodstock:
Woodstock property prices increased, attracting wealthier population, improved
Urban housing and economic opportunities. Property prices rise, allowing people
to become wealthier. Emergence of new shops, restaurants, and upmarket
residential properties. Reduced crime.
Negative views of gentrification in Woodstock:
Displacement of many people who were forced to move out (to Blikkiesdorp,
where they live in tin-can houses). Discrimination by higher-class citizens.
Blikkiesdorp now regarded as unsafe with substandard living standards.
 Land use – New York
Commercial land use in Manhattan. Midtown – main shops, hotels. Lower –
finance and banking. Most of the jobs are in these areas.
Industrial land use in the South Bronx.
Low-density residences in Staten Island, eastern Queens, southern Brooklynn.
Highest density residences in Manhattan.
 Urban settlement: New York
Currently, New York is the largest city in the US, with a population of around 8
million people.
Site and situation: at a sheltered, natural harbor formed by Hudson River, which
provided safe, deep anchorage and an extensive waterfront for the development
of docks
Hudson river allowed for transport and communication. Rocky ridge on Island
of Manhattan allowed for easy defense
CBD’s: Downtown Manhatten, Midtown Manhatten
Urban problems:
- Poverty and unemployment: around 1 million citizens receive welfare
support due to unemployment and poor education caused by a decline in the
clothing and harbor industries in the 1980’s
- Urban decay and housing problems
- Racial conflicts due to a large number of immigrants that become trapped in
poverty
- Traffic congestion and air pollution as there are too many vehicles on the
road and due to bottlenecks linking various New York Islands
Solution schemes:
- Reduction in air pollution by fitting catalytic
- Using renewable energy sources (wind, underwater turbines) to power
homes and public buildings
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1.7 – Urbanization
 Squatter settlement in Rio de Janiero
Rio de Janiero is the second largest city in Brazil and has a population of 6 million
people -17% favela-dwellers (living in the slums called favelas) due to the
extremely uneven distribution of wealth.
There are many problems for the shanty town inhabitants:
- Landslides: As the flat land in Rio de Janeiro is inhabited by wealthier
communities, most favelas are constructed on the mountainous slopes, where
landslides are a common occurrence (due to excessive deforestation)
- Housing is made from scrap material which is vulnerable to flooding
- No clean water supply can lead to diseases such as typhoid, cholera or TB
- Sanitation is undeveloped or non-existent (sewage flows down a large
channel in the middle of houses. This allows disease to spread and may
attract mosquitoes which are responsible for sicknesses such as malaria)
- No proper electricity supply leads to dangerous tapping of electricity from
the city’s power net
- Illegal activities and high crime rates
Slum upgrading strategies include:
- Increasing property rights (providing favela residents with titles to their
home)
- Improving access to electricity and clean drinking water
- Local trash collection scheme
- To reduce likelihood of crime and improve education
 Change in land use and resulting conflict: Stuttgart
In the German city of Stuttgart, the rail network is being redesigned as part of the
urban development project Stuttgart 21.
The construction of new rail tracks means that some of the surrounding land which
was previously used for housing and agriculture is now being used for
transportation purposes.
This has caused significant conflict; those in favor of the project argue that it aids
urban development, as the new transport network with a high-speed railway track
improves economic and social mobility.
Meanwhile, those opposing the project argue that it damages the environment by
contaminating groundwater, destroys historical monuments and devalues private
property in the vicinity of the new railway line.
Because of these different perspectives, Stuttgart 21 is so controversial that it has
sparked regular, sometimes even violent, protests in the city.
 Urban Change – Shanghai
Site: Flat, low-lying plain. At confluence of river, so good location for shipping
and trade.
Economic Change: in 1984, Shanghai became open to foreign development and
economic growth rate increased rapidly. Banks and insurance companies moved in.
It became a major center for export manufacturing based on automobiles…
Housing issues: Half the population lives in less than 5% of the total land area.
Population pressure is caused by in-migration.
Water and air quality: Construction industry produces a lot of building waste and
garbage produced has also increased. Shaghai is one of the most polluted cities in
the world.
2.1 – Earthquakes and Volcanoes
 Volcano – Montserrat Soufriere Hills
Located in the Caribbean. It is a small island.
The causes of volcanoes in Montserrat are: the plunging of the South American
and the North American plates under the Caribbean plate (subduction)
Destructive/convergent plate.
July 1995: The Soufriere Hills volcano became active after being dormant for
nearly 400 years. Signs of eruption included clouds of ash and steam.
1996: The volcano erupted. It caused mudflows then emitted lava flows. Part of the
“dome” collapsed. Boiling rocks and ash were thrown out; a new dome was
created. As a result of the ash, steam, and rocks, inhabitants were forced out of the
south. Pyroclastic flows.
-
Mud flows.
-
Ash fall.
-
Building collapse
After Plymouth was abandoned, Montserrat suffered from extreme impacts due to
the fact that Plymouth was the center for all government offices, as well as most of
the stores.
Describe some of the secondary impacts of the hazard on people:
Sewage tanks in the temporary shelters were often not emptied for weeks. The risk
of contaminated water and the spread of disease such as cholera increased greatly
as a result of people living in overcrowded, unhygienic conditions.
 Earthquake – Christchurch
The largest city in the South Island of New Zealand. 4:35 am (people asleep), 4th
September 2010. 40km west of Christchurch. Insurance claims: 2.3-2.9 billion
dollars.
Building standards are high + 40 search and rescue personnel were brought from
North Island.
Magnitude of Earthquakes:
7.1 magnitude.
Impacts of the 2010 Earthquake:
Sewers damaged, water lines broken, water supply in some regions contaminated,
75% of the city’s power was disrupted, airport was closed, and flights were
cancelled.
2011 earthquake: It was an aftershock of the 2010 earthquake. 12:51 pm on
Tuesday 22 February. Centered 2km west of the port town of Lyttleton, 10km
southeast of the center of Christchurch.
Number of deaths: 185
Magnitude: 6.3
Social impacts (impacts on people):
185 victims, 115 died in Canterbury Television building. 18 died in collapse of
PGC house, 8 died when masonry fell on a bus. 6600-6800 people were treated for
minor to severe injuries.
Economic impacts (money):
Total cost to insurers of rebuilding: 33 billion dollars. It was estimated that it
would take 50 to 100 years for New Zealand’s economy to recover. Severe damage
to infrastructure (sewage, roads and bridges, houses, landscape)
Why was the 2011 earthquake deadlier then the previous year?
•
Epicenter closer to Christchurch.
•
The earthquake was shallower.
•
The earthquake occurred during lunchtime on a weekday.
•
Many buildings were already weakened from previous earthquakes.
Emergency Management:
Full emergency management program immediately after. Rescue efforts for a
week, then recovery mode.
 Earthquake in LEDC – Nepal
Magnitude: 7.8
Result of Indian plate colliding with the Eurasian plate (convergent collision).
April 2015.
Epicenter: 80 km north of the capital, Kathmandu.
Primary impacts:
9000 people killed in main earthquake. 450,000 were displaced. 180 buildings
were destroyed in Kathmandu.
Secondary Impacts:
Triggering of avalanches throughout the Himalaya’s. 200 people killed in
aftershock of May 2015. Economic cost estimated to be 7 billion dollars.
Response: Nepal is a developing country with a low GDP per capita; it wasn’t able
to spend money on earthquake proof buildings that could survive the earthquake
which meant many buildings collapsed.
Response to the Earthquake was limited; the emergency services were not well
funded and struggled to cope with the number of people who needed help. Because
the country is poor there wasn’t much money to rebuild houses and many people
didn’t have insurance for their homes.
Primary: Ground shaking, surface faulting, fatalities (flooding, wave
impacts, erosion, strong currents, and floating debris).
Secondary: extreme damage to infrastructure, major damage to the economy
for rebuilding and emergency relief costs. Unemployment due to destruction of
local stores.
2.2 – Rivers
 Niagara Falls
50km long, falls 108m. Starts at 2km wide then narrows down to 75m.
Over the last 12,000 years, the Falls have retreated 11km. Hydraulic action and
abrasion have caused development of plunge pool at the base. As the softer
rocks are removed, the dolomite weakens and collapses. Thus the waterfall
retreats, forming a gorge of recession. Rates of recession have been recently
slowed down due to construction of hydroelectric power stations.
 Hard-engineering – China: Three Gorges Dam
Located near Yichang on the Yangtse River in China. It is approximately 180 m
high and 2.3 km wide and has taken almost 17 years to construct.
The dam has protected 10 million people from flooding and its 32 generators
provide energy for 60 million people, enabling China to reduce its dependency
on coal. It also allows shipping above the Three Gorges and has 6-folded the
water traffic capacity. Also, the dam has created many jobs.
However, the dam meant that 1 million people had to be moved to
accommodate the reservoir and power stations. The Three Gorges Dam also
interferes with aquatic life.
The large masses of silt transported by the Yangtse deposit behind the dam,
which reduces the storage capacity of the reservoir.
 Soft-engineering – Kissimmee River Restoration Project
165km meandering river in Florida was channelized; transformed into a 90km
drainage canal (done to provide an outlet canal for drainage floodwaters from the
upper Kissimmee lakes, and to provide flood protection)
Impacts: loss of about 13,000 hectares of woodlands, reduction in waterfowl usage,
long-term decline in game fish populations.
Resulting concerns lead to project: dechannelization and re-establishing flow of
water; restore over 100km2 of river. This will benefit over 300 fish and wildlife
species. Will cost 980 million dollars.
Benefits: higher water levels can support ecosystems, decreased nutrient loads to
Lake Okeechobee by re-establishment of floodplain.
 Opportunities and Constraints of living near a delta – The Nile
Fertile soils for agriculture (60% of nation’s food supply). Source of water. Import
and export of goods. Easy building due to flat land. Fresh water at delta.
Problems:
Droughts and floods, destruction of infrastructure. The water is very contaminated
and dangerous due to untreated sewage and industrial wastewater; however, people
continue to use it which could cause diseases. More people living in one area
causes more pollution. Sediment trapped behind high Aswan dam, decreasing
amount of fertile silt. Increased evaporation. Heavy demand upstream.
Managing flooding:
-
-
Construction of artificial levees along the banks of the river.
Building of barrages across the river to raise water levels.
Built storage projects (High Aswan Dam)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Aswan Dam?
Advantages:
Flooding downstream has been controlled.
Water is stored in Lake Nasser – can be made available during drought
years.
Disadvantages:
Build-up of sediment behind the dam, less silt deposited in valley
downstream.
Downstream river discharges have been reduced.
Large evaporation losses from Lake Nasser.
 Erosion – USA Eastern Seaboard
- Many beaches along the east coast of America have eroded and disappeared
since 1900, e.g., Massachusetts.
- Beaches and barrier islands in the Atlantic Ocean are in retreat.
- However, many industries and properties worth billions have been built on
these beaches.
- Many important cities, such as Miami, Texas etc., are sited on barrier
islands, thus sea walls have been built to protect these regions from
destructive waves.
- Coastal development has increased erosion.
- Miami beach and Atlantic city (major resorts) have had to replenish the
beaches. Erosion still threatens areas in the north and south of Cape
Canaveral.
- Louisiana and Massachusetts lose many hectares a day to rising seas
2.7 – Climate and Natural Vegetation
India: Thar Desert, Rajastan
Climate:
 The Thar Desert
Dry, as hot air rises at the equator and cools. The moisture holding capacity
decreases; it rains. As the air moves away from the equator by advection, it cools
and sinks at the tropics (where the desert is located). The sinking air warms up and
its moisture-holding capacity increases, so the area is very dry. With the low
humidity, there are few clouds to reflect the sunlight and as there is no evaporative
cooling, most of the sunlight warms the ground surface, creating hot temperatures.
Vegetation: Low precipitation and temperatures of up to 53°C result in scattered
vegetation that has adapted to the extreme conditions.
E.g., Ber tree has a rapidly developing taproot system to survive in drought
conditions. Bushes have spiky leaves to reduce rates of evapotranspiration.
Xerophilous grass has a small surface area to reduce water loss. Some species ales
remain dormant during long dry spells.
Threats: excessive irrigation which leads to salinization (plants cannot take water
from soil). Soil quality is also decreasing as manure is used as an alternative fuel
for firewood rather than to sustain nutrient-rich, fertile soils. Furthermore,
population pressure results in overcultivation and overgrazing, especially around
cities like Jodhpur and Jaisalmer, damaging the natural vegetation.
3.1 – Development
 Global links - Tata Group
Tata group is an Indian transnational conglomerate company with its headquarters
located in Mumbai, India.
India emerged as a newly industrialized country when it opened to foreign
investments in the 1990s. This made Indian companies able to forge international
links.
It is well known as a high-quality brand.
It encompasses many business sectors including engineering and materials. More
than 60% of the company's revenue comes from outside India.
Impacts of Tata Group:
Creation of new jobs, where it employs over 660,000 people around the world.
This contributes to reducing unemployment rates and improving living standards in
both the headquarters and outsourcing countries. Tata Group has also improved
infrastructure in India due to investments. Additionally, the production of highquality and higher-value products has allowed the company to exploit natural
resources.
Exploitation of cheap labor.
3.4 – Tourism
 Ecotourism
With 245 000 tourists annually, in 2007, over 25% of all jobs were in tourism,
which made up over 18% of Belize’s GDP.
Primary and secondary attractions: Mangrove swamps, Wetlands, Savannah
How tourist demands are managed:
- Belize Tourist board, Ministry of Tourism, and private sector
- Community Baboon Sanctuary to preserve forest habitat and howler
monkeys: sustainable farming to increase yield and services for tourists
Problems/Threats:
- Waste dumping and financial leakage due to cruise tourism
- Overfishing
- Coral damage and eutrophication of freshwater from fertilizer runoff
Aims:
- conserve world heritage site of barrier reef
- increase knowledge of country’s ecosystems through training programs
- reduce concentration of tourists in specific areas (tourist hub)
 Maldives: Tourism as a development strategy
The Maldives are located south-west of India in the Indian ocean and consist of
more than 1000 islands.
Tourism accounts for 28% of the Maldives’ GDP and more than 60% of its foreign
exchange receipts.
Natural attractions: sea-sun-sand combination, climate, coral
Man-made attractions: luxury resorts and suites, Grand Friday Mosque in Male
attracts religious tourists
How tourist demands are managed:
- Water provided by desalination of sea water
- Energy produced by generators
- Waste dumped in landfill sites or sea
Problems/Threats:
- Import leakage due to poor agricultural potential and no economic minerals
- External shocks: sea-level rise, tsunamis, terrorism
- Depletion of natural resources and climate change
How tourism in damaging the natural environment:
- tropical coconut palms are destroyed for building hotels.
- the ecosystem is threatened as food chains are destroyed or disrupted.
- a ferry from Male every 10 minutes pollutes the seas, threatening the corals.
Aims:
- Encourage linkage between tourism and other sectors as construction,
manufacturing, and transport (multiplier effect)
- Increase employment, and encourage solar and wind power