Approaches to School Curriculum
Three ways of approaching a curriculum
1. CURRICULUM AS A CONTENT OR BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum to a topic outline,
subject matter, or concepts to be included in the syllabus or a books.
2. For example, a primary school Mathematics curriculum consists of topics on
addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight and many more.
Another example is in secondary school Science that involves the study of
biological science, physical science, environmental science and earth science.
Ways of presenting the content of the curriculum
1. Topical Approach where much content is based on knowledge and experiences are
included;
2. Concept Approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub- concepts
and their interaction, with relatedness emphasized:
3. Thematic Approach as combination of concepts that develop conceptual structures,
and
4. Modular Approach that leads to complete units of instruction.
Criteria in the Selection of Content
SIGNIFICANCE
Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and generalization that
should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is significant if content becomes
the means of developing cognitive, affective or psychomotor skills of the learner. As
education is a way of preserving culture, content will be significant when this will
address the cultural context of the learners.
VALIDITY
The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity. Knowledge becomes
obsolete with the fast changing times. Thus there is a need for validity check and
verification at a regular interval, because content which may be valid in its original form
may not continue to be valid in the current times.
UTILITY
Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are
going to use these. Utility can be relative to time. It may have been useful in the past,
but may not be useful now or in the future.
Questions like: Will I use this in my future job? Will it add meaning to my life as a
lifelong learner? Or will the subject matter be useful in solving current concerns?
LEARNABILITY
The complexity of the content should be within the range of experiences of the
learners. This is based on the psychological principles of learning. Appropriate
organization of content standards and sequencing of contents are two basic principles
that would influence learnability.
FEASIBILITY
Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resources available,
expertise of the teachers and the nature of the learners? Are there contents of learning
which can be learned beyond the formal teaching-learning engagement? Are there
opportunities provided to learn these?
INTEREST
Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the contents meaningful?
What value will the contents have in the present and future life of the learners? Interest
is one of the driving forces for students to learn better.
*GUIDE IN THE SELECTION OF CONTENT IN THE CURRICULUM
1. Common used in the daily life
2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career
4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and integration
5. important in the transfer of learning to other discipline
B.A.S.I.C.S
Palma in 1952 proposed that the contents in the curriculum should be guided by
Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration and Continuity. However, in designing a
curriculum contents Hunkins and Ornstein (2018) added an important element which is
Scope, hence from BASIC to BASICS initials of Balance, Articulation, Sequence,
Integration, Continuity.
Balance
Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth. This will guarantee that
significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of the contents
needed with in the time allocation..
Articulation
As the content complexity with the educational levels, progresses vertically or
horizontally, across the same discipline smooth connections or bridging should be
provided. This will assure no gaps or overlaps in the content.
Integration
Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation. It has some ways
of relatedness or connectedness to other contents. Contents should be infused in other
disciplines whenever possible. This will provide a holistic or unified view of curriculum
instead of segmentation. Contents which can be integrated to other disciplines acquire a
higher premium than when isolated.
Continuity
Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it
was before, to where it is now, and where it will be in the future. It should be
perennial. It endures time. Content may not be in the same form and
substance as seen in the past since chan ges and developments in curriculum
occur. Constant repetition, reinforcement and enhancement of content are all
elements of continuity.
Scope
The breadth and depth of the curriculum content are vital in a curriculum. Scope
consists of all the contents, topics, learning experiences comprising the curriculum. In
layman's term scope refers to coverage. The scope shall consider the cognitive level,
affective domain and psychomotor skills in identifying the contents. Other factors will be
considered but caution is given to overloading of contents. "MO contents is not always
better."
Foundations of the Curriculum
PHILOSOPHY OF SCHOOL CURRICULUM
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What are schools for?
What subjects are important?
How should students learn?
What methods should be used?
What outcomes should be achieved? Why?
Perennialism
Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect
Role: Teacher assist students to think reason (critical thinking: HOTS)
Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis, curriculum is enduring
Trends: use of greater books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and Liberal Arts
1. Plato
2. Aristotle
3. Thomas Aquinas
Essentialism (William Bagley)
Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent
Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area
Focus: Essential skills of the 3rs; essential subjects
Trends: Back to basics, excellence in education, cultural literacy
Progressivism (John Dewey)
Aim: Promote democratic social living
Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners
Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-centered. Outcomes-based
Trends: Equal opportunities for all. Contextualized curriculum, Humanistic education
Reconstructionism
Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change
Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms
Focus: Present and future educational landscape
Trends: School and curricular reform, Global education, Collaboration and
Convergence, Standards and Competencies
Historical Foundations
Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)
 He started the curriculum development movement.
 Curriculum as a science that emphasizes students' needs.
 Curriculum prepares learners for adult life.
 Objectives and activities should group together when task are
classified
Werret Charters (1875-1952)
 Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is science and emphasizes
students need.
 Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content
relates to objectives
William Kilpartick (1876-1956)
 Curricula activities centered. are which purposeful are child The purpose of the child curriculum development and growth.
 He introduced this project method where teacher and student plan
the activities.
 Curriculum develops social relationships and small group
instruction.
Harold Rugg (1886-1960)
 Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered.
 He emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher
plans curriculum in advance.
 With the statement of objectives and related learning activities,
curriculum should produce outcomes.
Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
 Curriculum is organized around social functions of themes,
organized knowledge and learner's interest.
 Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated.
 Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed
around social functions and learners' interests.
Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)
 Curriculum is a science and an extension of school's philosophy.
It is based on students' needs and interest.
 Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is
organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values.
 The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum aims to
educate generalists and not specialists.
Hilda Taba (1902-1967)
 She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of
concepts development and critical thinking in social studies curriculum.
 She helped lay the foundation for diverse student population.
Peter Oliva (1992-2012)
 He described curriculum change as a cooperative endeavor.
 Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute professional core of
planners.
 Significant improvement achieved through group activity.
The Curricula in Philippine Schools
Types of Curricula Simultaneously Operating in Schools
 Basic Education (DepeD)
 Higher Education (CHED)
 Vocational Education (TESDA)
Written Curriculum
-They come in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional
guides among others.
TAUGHT CURRICULUM
-The teacher and the learners will put life to the written curriculum.
-This will depend largely on the teaching styles of the teacher and learning styles of the
learners.
SUPPORTED CURRICULUM
-Support materials that the teacher needs to make learning and teaching meaningful.
ASSESSED CURRICULUM
-In the process of teaching and at the end of every lesson or teaching episode, an
assessment is made.
LEARNED CURRICULUM
-How do we know if the student has learned?
The positive outcome of teaching is an indicator of learning.
HIDDEN/IMPLICIT CURRICULUM
-Peer influence, school environment, media, parental pressures, societal changes,
cultural practices, natural calamities are some factors that create the hidden curriculum.
The Teacher as the Knower of the Curriculum
Some definition of curriculum:
Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended
outcomes, formulated through systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences
under auspices of the school, for the learners' continuous and willful growth in personal
social competence. (Daniel Tanner, 1980)
CURRICULUM
It is a written document that systematically describes goals, planned, objectives,
content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980)
CURRICULUM
The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities,
the desired learning outcomes and experiences product of culture and an agenda to
reform society make-up a curriculum. (Schubert, 1987).
CURRICULUM
A curriculum includes all of the experiences that individual learners have in a
program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific
objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and
present professional practice." (Hass, 1987)
CURRICULUM
It is a program of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed So that pupils will
attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives.
(Grundy, 1987)
CURRICULUM DEFINED
It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and
place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of
planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with the
guidance of the school. (Goodland and Su, 1992)
CURRICULUM DEFINED
It provides answers to three questions: 1. What knowledge, skills and values are
most worthwhile? 2. Why are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire
them? (Cronbeth,1992)
Curriculum from Traditional Point of View
ROBERT M. HUTCHINS
He views curriculum as "permanent studies" where rules of
grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic
education are emphasized. The 3Rs(Reading, Writing,
Arithmetic) should be emphasized in basic education while
liberal education should be the emphasis in college.
ARTHUR BESTOR
An essentialist believes that the mission of the school should be
intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the
fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing.
It should include mathematics, science, history and foreign language.
JOSEPH SCHWAB
He thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline, thus the
subject areas such as Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, English
and many more. In college, academic disciplines are labelled as
humanities, sciences, languages, mathematics among others. He
coined the word discipline as a ruling doctrine for curriculum
development.
PHILIP PHENIX
He asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from
various disciplines.
Curriculum from Progressive Point of View
JOHN DEWEY
He believes that education is experiencing.
Reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements that are
tested by application.
HOLLIS CASWELL & KENN CAMPBELL
They viewed curriculum as all experiences children have under the guidance of
teachers.
OTHANIEL SMITH. WILLIAM STANLEY & HARLAN SHORE
They defined curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for
the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.
COLIN MARSH AND GEORGE WILLIS
They also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in the classroom which are planned
and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the students.
Psychological Foundations of Curriculum
Association and Behaviorism
IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936)
He is the father of the classical conditioning theory, the S-R theory.
• The key to learning is early years of life is to train them what you want
them to become.
• S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called indoctrination.
Behaviorism assumes that all learning occurs through interactions with
the environment and that environment shapes behavior.
EDWARD THORNDIKE (1874-1949)
He proposed the three laws of learning:
• Law of readiness
• Law of exercise
• Law of effect
Principles
Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise) • A series of S-R
connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (law of
readiness).
• Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
ROBERT GAGNE (1916-2002)
• He proposed the hierarchical learning theory. Learning follows a
hierarchy.
• Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.

He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives
COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980)
Theories of Jean Piaget
• Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity.
• Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-7), concrete
operations stage (7-111) and formal operations (11 - onwards).
Keys to Learning
• Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)
• Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation)
Equilibration (balance between previous and later learning)
LEV VYGOTSKY (1896-1934)
Theories:
• Cultural transmission and development stage. Children could, as a
result of their interaction with society, actually perform certain
cognitive actions prior to arriving at developmental stage.
Theories:
Learning precedes development.
Sociocultural development theory.
HOWARD GARNER
Humans have several different ways of processing information and these ways are
relatively independent of one another.
There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logico- mathematical, musical, visual-spatial,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.
HUMANISTICPSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
GESTALT THEORY
Learning is explained in terms of "wholeness" of the problem.
• Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but to an organization or pattern of
stimuli.
• Learning is complex and abstract.
Learners analyze the problem, discriminate between essential and nonessential data,
and perceive relationships.
Learners will perceive something in relation to the whole. What/how they perceive is
related to their previous experiences.
ABRAHAM MASLOW (1908-1970)
He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory.
Classic theory of human needs
• A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested in
acquiring knowledge of the world.
• He put importance to human emotions, based on love and
trust.
Key to learning
• Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow and actualize his or
her human self.
CARL ROGERS (1902-1987)
Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning
Children's perceptions, which are highly individualistic, influence
their learning and behavior in class.
Nondirective and therapeutic learning
He established counselling procedures and methods for facilitating learning.
Curriculum is concerned with process, not product; personal needs, not subject matter,
psychological meaning, not cognitive scores.
SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
SCHOOL AND SOCIETY
• Society as a source of change
• Schools as agents of change. Knowledge as an agent of change.
EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
• Influence of society and social context in education
Things that surround individuals can change, develop their
behavior.
• Considered two fundamental elements which are schools
and civil society
• Influence of society and social context in education
Things that surround individuals can change, develop their behavior.
• Considered two fundamental elements which are schools and civil society
ALVIN TOFFLER



Wrote the book Future Shock
Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the future
Suggested that in the future, parents might have the resources to
teach prescribed curriculum from home as a result of technology,
not in spite of it. (Home Schooling)
• Foresaw schools and students worked creatively, collaboratively, and
independent of their age.
Peter Oliva’s Axioms for Curriculum Designers
FUNDAMENTALS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
BUILDING ON PETER OLIVA'S 10 AXIOMS FOR CURRICULUM DESIGNERS
INTRODUCTION
Axioms are principles that practitioners as curriculum designers can be use as
guidelines or a frame of reference.
CURRICULUM CHANGE IS INEVITABLE, NECESSARY AND DESIRABLE
One of the characteristics of a curriculum is its being dynamic(static). Because of this,
teachers should respond to the changes that occur in schools and in their context.
Societal development and knowledge revolution come so fast that the need to address
the changing condition requires new curriculum designs.
CURRICULUM IS A PRODUCT OF ITS TIME.
A relevant curriculum should respond to changes brought about by current social
forces, philosophical positions, psychological principles, new knowledge, and
educational reforms. This is also called timeliness.
CURRICULUM CHANGES MADE EARLIER CAN EXIST CONCURRENTLY WITH
NEWER CURRICULUM CHANGES.
A revision in a curriculum starts and ends slowly(very fast). More often, curriculum is
gradually phased in and phased out, thus the changes that occur can coexist and often
times overlap for long periods of time.
CURRICULUM CHANGE DEPENDS ON PEOPLE WHO WILL IMPLEMENT THE
CHANGE.
Teachers who will implement the curriculum should be involved in its development,
hence should know how to design a curriculum. Because the teachers are the
implementers of the curriculum, it is best that they should design and own the
changes. This will ensure an effective and long lasting change.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IS A COOPERATIVE GROUP ACTIVITY.
Group decisions in some aspects of curriculum development are suggested.
Consultations with stakeholders when possible will add to a sense of ownership. Even
learners should participate in some aspect of curriculum designing. Any significant
change in the curriculum should involve a broad range of stakeholders to gain their
understanding, support, and input.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IS A DECISION-MAKING PROCESS MADE FROM
CHOICES OF ALTERNATIVES.
A curriculum developer or designer must decide what contents to teach, philosophy or
point of view to support, how to provide for multicultural groups, what methods or
strategies, and what type of evaluation to use.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IS AN ONGOING PROCESS.
Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation, and improvement of curricula are to be
considered in the design of the curriculum. As the needs of learners change, as society
changes, and as new knowledge and technology appear, the curriculum must change.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IS MORE EFFECTIVE IF IT IS A COMPREHENSIVE
PROCESS, RATHER THAN A "PIECEMEAL”.
A curriculum design should be based on a careful plan, should clearly establish
intended outcomes, support resources and needed time available and should equip
teaching staff pedagogically.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IS MORE EFFECTIVE WHEN IT FOLLOWS A
SYSTEMATIC PROCESS.
A curriculum design is composed of desired outcomes, subject matter content
complemented with references, set of procedures, needed materials and resources and
evaluation procedure which can be placed in a matrix.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT STARTS FROM WHERE THE CURRICULUM IS.
Curriculum planners and designers should begin with existing curriculum. An existing
design is a good starting point for any teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a
curriculum.
POINTS TO PONDER
Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let us continue learning how to design a curriculum by
identifying its components. For most curricula the major components or elements are
answers to the following questions:
1. What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intended Learning Outcomes)
2. What content should be included to achieve the learning outcomes? (Subject Matter)
3. What learning experiences and resources should be employed? (Teaching-Learning
Methods)
4. How will the achieved learning outcomes be measured? (Assessment of Achieved
Learning Outcomes)