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In memory of Habacuc
For Tatiana and all my family and
friends in Brazil with love and
affection.
Em memória de Habacuc
Para Tatiana e toda a minha família e
amigos no Brasil com amor e carinho.
Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have
been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to make the
necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are
correct at time of going to press, Hodder Education cannot be held
responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book. It is
sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing the address of the
home page for a website in the URL window of your browser.
Hachette UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and
recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The
logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the
environmental regulations of the country of origin.
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ISBN: 978 1 5104 1839 4
eISBN: 978 1 5104 1823 3
© David Clarke 2017
First published in 2017 by
Hodder Education,
An Hachette UK Company
Carmelite House
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Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Park Drive, Milton Park,
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A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
Get the most from this book
Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy, but it is essential to
review your work, learn it and test your understanding. This Revision Guide
will help you to do that in a planned way, topic by topic. Use this book as the
cornerstone of your revision and don’t hesitate to write in it — personalise
your notes and check your progress by ticking off each section as you revise.
Track your progress
Use the revision planner on pages 4–6 to plan your revision, topic by topic.
Make a note when you have:
• revised and understood a topic
• tested yourself
• practised the exam-style questions
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You can also keep track of your revision by noting each topic heading in the
book. You may find it helpful to add your own notes as you work through
each topic.
Features to help you succeed
Expert tip
Throughout the book there are tips from the experts on how to
maximise your chances.
Common misconception
Advice is given on how to avoid the common misconceptions
students often have.
Evaluation
The strengths and weaknesses of the core studies and specialist
options are assessed throughout the book.
Now test yourself
These short, knowledge-based questions provide the first step in
testing your learning. Answers are at the back of the book.
Definitions and key words
Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are provided on the
page where they appear.
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Exam-style questions
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Key words from the syllabus are highlighted in bold for you
throughout the book.
Exam-style questions are provided for each topic. Use them to
consolidate your revision and practise your exam skills.
Cross check
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These quick cross-references to other parts of the book will help your
revision.
My revision planner
1 The core studies
11 key components of core studies
1.1 The biological approach
Canli et al. (2000) Brain scans and emotions
Dement and Kleitman (1957) Sleep and dreams
Schachter and Singer (1962) Two factors in emotion
1.2 The cognitive approach
Andrade (2009) Doodling
Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) Eyes test
Laney et al. (2008) False memory
1.3 The learning approach
Bandura et al. (1961) Aggression
Saavedra and Silverman (2002) Button phobia
Pepperberg (1987) Parrot learning
1.4 The social approach
Milgram (1963) Obedience
Piliavin et al. (1969) Subway Samaritans
Yamamoto et al. (2012) Chimpanzee helping
2 Research methods
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Experiments
Self-reports
Case studies
Observations
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2.1 The five main research methods
Correlations
2.2 Methodological aspects of the research process
Hypotheses and aims
Samples and sampling techniques
Ethics (human and animal)
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative)
Data analysis (measures of central tendency and spread)
Reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test)
Validity (ecological, generalisability, subjective and objective)
3 Approaches and issues and debates
3.1 Approaches
The biological approach
The cognitive approach
The learning approach
The social approach
3.2 Issues and debates
The application of psychology to everyday life
Individual and situational explanations
Nature versus nurture
The use of children in psychological research
The use of animals in psychological research
4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers
5 Specialist options
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Cultural bias
Reductionism
Psychometrics
Determinism (and free will)
Longitudinal studies
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5.1 Methods, issues and debates
5.2 Psychology and abnormality
Schizophrenic and psychotic disorders
Bipolar and related disorders
Impulse control and non-addictive substance disorders
Anxiety disorders
Obsessive–compulsive and related disorders
5.3 Psychology and consumer behaviour
The physical environment
The psychological environment
Consumer decision-making
The product
Advertising
5.4 Psychology and health
The patient–practitioner relationship
Adherence to medical advice
Pain
Stress
Health promotion
5.5 Psychology and organisations
Motivation to work
Leadership and management
Group behaviour in organisations
Organisational work conditions
Satisfaction at work
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
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Glossary
Countdown to my exams
6–8 weeks to go
• Start by looking at the syllabus – make sure you know exactly what
material you need to revise and the style of the examination. Use
the revision planner on pages 4–6 to familiarise yourself with the
topics.
• Organise your notes, making sure you have covered everything on
the syllabus. The revision planner will help you to group your notes
into topics.
• Work out a realistic revision plan that will allow you time for
relaxation. Set aside days and times for all the subjects that you
need to study, and stick to your timetable.
• Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision down into
focused sessions of around 40 minutes, divided by breaks. This
Revision Guide organises the basic facts into short, memorable
sections to make revising easier.
4–6 weeks to go
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• Read through the relevant sections of this book and refer to the
expert tips, common misconceptions and key terms. Tick off the
topics as you feel confident about them. Highlight those topics you
find difficult and look at them again in detail.
• Test your understanding of each topic by working through the ‘Now
test yourself’ questions in the book. Look up the answers at the
back of the book.
• Make a note of any problem areas as you revise, and ask your
teacher to go over these in class.
• Look at past papers. They are one of the best ways to revise and
practise your exam skills. Write or prepare planned answers to the
exam-style questions provided in this book. Check your answers
with your teacher.
• Try different revision methods. For example, you can make notes
using mind maps, spider diagrams or flash cards.
• Track your progress using the revision planner and give yourself a
reward when you have achieved your target.
1 week to go
• Try to fit in at least one more timed practice of an entire past paper
and seek feedback from your teacher, comparing your work closely
with the mark scheme.
• Check the revision planner to make sure you haven’t missed out
any topics. Brush up on any areas of difficulty by talking them over
with a friend or getting help from your teacher.
• Attend any revision classes put on by your teacher. Remember, he
or she is an expert at preparing people for examinations.
The day before the examination
• Flick through this Revision Guide for useful reminders, for example
the expert tips, common misconceptions and key terms.
• Check the time and place of your examination.
• Make sure you have everything you need – extra pens and pencils,
tissues, a watch, bottled water.
• Allow some time to relax and have an early night to ensure you are
fresh and alert for the examinations.
My exams
Paper 1
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Time:…………………
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Date:…………………
Location:…………………
Paper 2
Date:…………………
Time:…………………
Location:…………………
Paper 3
Date:…………………
Time:…………………
Location:…………………
Paper 4
Date:…………………
Time:…………………
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Location:…………………
1 The core studies
11 key components of core studies
(1) Background to the studies (the context)
The background or context to a study explains the reasons why a particular
piece of research was conducted. The research may be a response to an earlier
study. It could have been done to support a theory proposed by the author or
someone else, or to investigate further or explain a real-life event.
Expert tip
A little knowledge goes a long way. Knowing a little of the
background to a study, such as why it was done, is always useful
and shows understanding.
(2) The theory or theories on which studies are
based
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Studies are often based on a particular theory or theories. For example, in
1960, Stanley Schachter proposed the two-factor theory of emotion. In 1962,
along with Jerome Singer, he conducted a piece of research designed to
support the theory. Sometimes, the reverse of this occurs, where research is
conducted and a theory is then proposed to explain the findings. The subway
Samaritans study by Piliavin et al. illustrates this point. In this study, the
researchers found no diffusion of responsibility, which was contrary to their
expectations. To explain bystander behaviour, they proposed a ‘model of
response to emergency situations’, where each witness considers the costs
and benefits involved in helping or not helping a person in need.
(3) What are the key words (the jargon)?
Wherever you can, write like a psychologist. Use the jargon! Examination
questions will never write out the full names of the authors. A common
convention where there are three or more authors is to write the first name
and then ‘et al.’ meaning ‘and all’. ‘Canli et al.’ is much shorter then writing
out the names of all five authors. Similarly, the full title of a core study will
never be written. Instead questions will use key words that make it obvious
what the core study is.
Expert tip
Learn the shortened words for the authors of each core study and
learn the shortened key words for the title of each study.
It may take a while, but an excellent revision exercise is to list 10 key
terms for all 12 studies.
(4) What methods are used in the studies?
What method was used by the researchers conducting the core study? There
are different types of experiments, observations, self-report questionnaires
and interviews and case studies. See Chapter 2 on research methods.
Sometimes more than one method is used.
Expert tip
Know the method or methods used in each of the core studies.
(5) Who were the participants, and how were
they recruited?
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Who the participants are (the sample) and how they are recruited (the
sampling technique) can affect the outcome of a study and the conclusions
that can be drawn – not least of which is the issue of generalisation.
Expert tip
Know the difference between the sample and the sampling
technique.
Many studies use participants who are restricted in some way. For example,
participants may be all students or they may be all female. They may have
been paid for participating. How they were recruited is also important. If
participants respond to a newspaper advertisement then they are ‘volunteers’,
and they might behave in ways that are different from those who do not or
would never volunteer. In some studies, the participants do not even know
that they are taking part.
So, for each study, you should be able to identify the sampling technique,
know how the participants were recruited and other relevant details such as
how many took part, and be aware of at least one limitation of the sampling
method.
(6) Does the study contravene any ethical
guidelines?
The answer in relation to some studies is almost certainly ‘yes’. Many studies
contravene the ethical guidelines laid down by the British Psychological
Society (BPS) and the American Psychological Association (APS). And,
there are some ethical studies that bend the guidelines a little.
Expert tip
For each study know which ethical guidelines were broken and which
ethical guidelines were upheld.
(7) How were the data collected?
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The method may be an experiment, but data can be gathered in many
different ways. Data can appear as response categories (e.g. a tally chart), but
they can also be in the form of numbers, or what people say.
Expert tip
When an ethical guideline is broken it becomes an ethical issue.
Data in the form of numbers are known as quantitative data. These are data
that are based on numbers and frequencies rather than on meaning or
experience. Qualitative data describe meaning and experience rather than
providing numerical values for behaviour. So which is better? Each has its
advantages and disadvantages, and you could be asked an examination
question about them. You should know whether a study gathers qualitative or
quantitative data, or both.
(8) How were the data presented?
Data can be presented in a number of ways, most typically in the form of a
results table. Descriptive statistics, which describe (or summarise) data,
include measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode) and
dispersion (range), and these can show the findings ‘at a glance’. Data can
also be presented visually in the form of a bar chart, histogram or
scattergraph.
Expert tip
Don’t get stressed about statistics. Knowing what was found is all
you need to know. You will never be asked to calculate any statistics
in an examination.
(9) What are the results of the study? What
conclusions can be drawn?
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Once the data have been gathered, we need to know what they mean. If we
accept the data as valid, how can we summarise what has been found? If we
go back to the original aims of the study, what do the results tell us?
Sometimes it is possible to explain the same data in more than one way. The
crucial aspect of statistics is to know about significance and probability (p).
You will see p < 0.05 and similar expressions, but what do they mean? You
do not need to know all the names of the statistical tests, or calculated values;
knowing a ‘p’ or two is useful but, crucially, just knowing that a result is
significant is sufficient.
Expert tip
Know the difference between the results (the members), the findings
(comments about the numbers) and the conclusion (a single overall
statement).
(10) Methodological issues (reliability and
validity)
There are always methodological issues involved in any study. For example,
in experiments, in order to make sure that the manipulation of the
independent variable is causing the change in the dependent variable, it is
important for the researcher to control any confounding variables. It is also
important that a study is valid and reliable. We will look at these terms and
many others in detail in Chapter 2.
Expert tip
Know the difference between reliability and validity. Never write ‘…
this improves the reliability and validity’ without saying why. Show
you understand the terms and can apply them.
(11) Strengths and limitations of the studies
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The syllabus requires you to provide some evaluative comment about the
studies. You should remember that evaluation can be positive (a strength) or
negative (a weakness, limitation or criticism). For more on evaluation, see
pages 180–1.
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A good starting point is to consider the method. What are the strengths and
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limitations of the method used? Was the study ethical? Was it low in
ecological validity? Was the sample representative? Were the findings of the
study useful? Can the findings be generalised? You can apply these questions
to every study, as well as the other evaluative points that apply specifically to
each study.
1.1 The biological approach
Brain scans and emotions
Authors: Canli et al. (2000)
Key terms: Brain scans and emotion
Approach: Biological approach
Cross check
The biological approach, page 70
Background/context: people are more likely to recall emotional experiences
than non-emotional ones, and the amygdala appears to play a crucial role in
emotional memory. Studies using PET and MRI scans have shown
correlations between amygdala activation and the presentation and recall of
emotional stimuli. The correlations could be for three reasons:
• some people are more responsive to emotional experiences than others
• some people had an enhanced emotional state during the scanning
• the amygdala is sensitive to the emotional intensity of a stimulus
Expert tip
A positron emission tomography (PET) scan is invasive: the scanner
detects a radioactive substance injected into the body. A magnetic
resonance image (MRI) scan is non-invasive (no injection and no
radioactivity) and uses magnets to record changes in blood flow in
the brain.
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Method: laboratory experiment.
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Aims/hypotheses: emotionally intense stimuli will cause greater activation of
the amygdala and lead to better recall than less emotionally intense stimuli.
Cross check
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Variables:
IV – intensity ratings of each stimulus (picture) on the 4-point scale from 0 =
not emotionally intense to 3 = extremely emotionally intense.
DV – the self-report percentages of forgotten, familiar and remembered with
certainty; functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a ‘pixel count’.
Design: all ten participants saw all 96 pictures, so the design is repeated
measures.
Cross check
Repeated measures design, page 45
Participants and sampling technique: the participants were ten righthanded healthy female volunteers, so the sampling technique is self-selecting
(although how they came to volunteer is not stated by Canli et al.) Females
were chosen because they are more likely to respond physiologically and are
more likely to report intense emotional experiences.
Now test yourself
1 Describe what is meant by a repeated measures design.
Answers on p.192
Apparatus:
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• A functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI) scanner which, unlike a
PET scan is non-invasive (no injections and no radioactivity). The scanner
works by measuring the contrast in blood-oxygen levels between areas of
activation and non-activation in the brain.
• 96 pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS), each of
which has a normative rating of emotion (valence and arousal). Normative
valence ratings ranged from 1.17 (highly negative) to 5.44 (neutral).
Arousal ratings ranged from 1.97 (tranquil) to 7.63 (highly arousing).
Now test yourself
2 Suggest one advantage of using scientific equipment in
psychological experiments such as this.
Answers on p.192
Controls: all participants were female, healthy and right-handed. The order
of the pictures was randomised. Each picture was presented for 2.88 seconds
with 12.96 seconds in between when the participants would focus on a
fixation cross (to keep them looking at the same spot).
Cross check
Experimental controls, page 47
Procedure:
1 Scanning: participants were settled in the scanner, told to fixate on the
cross, and when they saw a picture, press one of four buttons with their
right hand. The buttons ranged from 0 = not emotionally intense to 3 =
extremely emotionally intense. The same procedure was repeated until all
96 pictures had been viewed.
2 Testing: 3 weeks later the participants completed a recognition test in the
laboratory. They viewed all 96 previously seen pictures and an additional
48 new scenes (called foils) that were matched to the original 96 for
valence and arousal. Responses were coded as follows: ‘1’ for not
remembered/forgotten; ‘2’ for familiar; and ‘3’ for remembered with
certainty.
Cross check
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Types of data, page 60
Now test yourself
3 Describe two types of quantitative data that were gathered.
Answers on p.192
Data: the data were quantitative:
• the self-report percentages of forgotten, familiar and remembered with
certainty
• functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a ‘pixel count’
Findings:
1 Participants’ self-report ratings of emotional intensity (scale 0–3) were
spread across the rating scale with 29% scoring ‘0’, 22% ‘1’, 24% ‘2’, and
25% ‘3’ (see Figure 1).
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2 Amygdala activation was significantly bilaterally (both sides) correlated
with ratings of emotional arousal. In Figure 1, rating ‘3’ shows much more
activation that ratings ‘2’, ‘1’ or ‘0’.
3 Memory recall was much better for pictures rated ‘3’ (more emotionally
intense) than pictures rated ‘0’, ‘1’ or ‘2’.
3 Left amygdala activation (but not right) predicted whether an individual
picture would be forgotten, appear familiar or be remembered.
4 Left amygdala activation was also found to correlate with the emotional
intensity of the memory.
5 Other brain locations in the frontal and temporal regions also correlated
with emotional experience and subsequent memory.
Cross check
The biological approach, page 70
Correlations, page 53
Samples and sampling techniques, page 56
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of this core study.
Now test yourself
4 Give an assumption of the biological approach using an example
from this study.
Answers on p.192
Conclusions: amygdala activation is significantly correlated with higher
ratings of individually experienced emotional intensity.
Evaluation
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• Scientific equipment – the use of scientific equipment in
psychological experiments such as an MRI scanner has many
advantages, such as reliability (strength).
• Biological approach – this study provides evidence of specific
brain function (the role of the amygdala) and this is likely to be
generalisable to all people (strength).
• Correlations – correlation studies can provide evidence of cause
and effect (strength), however in this case, there might be some
other variable that has not been considered by the researchers
(weakness). Be cautious when drawing conclusions from
correlations.
• Sample – can the findings of this study be generalised to males
and people who are left-handed? (weakness)
Sleep and dreams
Authors: Dement and Kleitman (1957)
Key terms: sleep and dreams
Approach: biological approach
Cross check
The biological approach, page 70
Background/context: in 1953, Aserinsky identified REM (rapid eye
movement) and NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep. Various studies
have confirmed that sleep follows a cycle consisting of alternating periods of
NREM (with four stages) and REM, and that REM sleep is strongly
associated with dreaming. The reason for this study was to investigate further
the features of REM sleep.
Aims/hypotheses: there were three main aims:
1 Does dreaming occur during REM or NREM sleep?
2 Can participants accurately estimate the length of time they have been
dreaming?
3 Do eye movement patterns match dream content?
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And one additional aim:
4 Does the duration of REM sleep correlate with the number of words (the
narrative) in a reported dream?
Cross check
The natural experiment, page 44
Self-reports, page 48
Observations, page 52
Method: natural experiment (REM and NREM occur naturally) conducted in
a laboratory; use of self-reports and use of observation.
Variables:
Aim 1 – IV was REM and NREM sleep; DV was number of dreams recalled
from each.
Aim 2 – IV was ‘woken after 5 minutes’ and ‘woken after 15 minutes’; DV
was number of correct dream length estimations.
Aim 3 – IV was direction of eye movement (vertical, horizontal, mixture and
little or no movement); DV was the subjective report of dreaming (or not)
when woken.
Aim 4 – The total number of words used to describe a dream was correlated
with the duration of a dream.
Design: all participants slept and were woken at various points (e.g. in
REM/NREM or after 5 or 15 minutes), so the design is repeated measures.
Cross check
Repeated measures design, page 45
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Participants and sampling technique: initially there were nine participants,
but two only slept for 1 night and two for 2 nights before exercising their
right to withdraw. Five participants completed between 6 and 17 nights. The
participants slept in the laboratory at the University of Chicago (USA). The
sampling technique is not stated by Dement and Kleitman; there are no
details about how the participants knew about the study or whether they were
students.
Now test yourself
5 If the participants slept in their own bed rather than in a laboratory,
what effect might this have on the results?
Answers on p.192
Apparatus: sleep laboratory with equipment: bed, electrodes on scalp (EEG)
and electrodes around eyes (EOG) connected to recording device, bell, taperecorder. Note that no muscle movements (EMG) were recorded in this study.
Controls: all participants were asked not to drink alcohol (a depressant) or
caffeine (a stimulant). All participants were asked to report to the laboratory
at their normal bedtime. The way in which participants were woken (by a
bell) and the way in which their dreams were recorded (tape-recorder) were
standardised.
Expert tip
‘Suggestion’ questions like Q5 ask you to think for yourself. There is
no right or wrong answer.
Procedure:
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1 Participants arrived at the sleep laboratory at their normal bedtime. They
went to bed in an individual room with electrodes attached to the eye and
scalp areas. The electrodes were connected to the recording device in the
room next door.
2 As sleep began, the experimenter observed the EEG record and noted
when a participant entered REM sleep. During REM sleep, the
experimenter pressed the button to ring the bell situated next to the
participant to wake them. If a dream was recalled, the details were spoken
into the tape-recorder. The same procedure was followed when a
participant was in NREM sleep.
3 The same procedure was adopted when the experimenter wanted to test the
duration of REM sleep – participants were woken after 5 minutes’ or 15
minutes’ sleep.
Common misconception
Because sleep can be measured using EEG, EOG and EMG, it does
not mean that every study uses all three. There is also an
assumption that EEG, EOG and EMG are three different recording
devices. They are not. For example, an EOG simply involves
electrodes near the eyes attached to a device that prints the
movements.
Data: the data were quantitative (e.g. instances of dream recall, dream
length estimations and number of words in each dream narrative) and
qualitative (e.g. descriptions of dreams).
Now test yourself
6 Suggest one advantage of using scientific equipment in
psychological experiments such as this.
Answers on p.192
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Results:
Cross check
Experimental controls, page 47
Now test yourself
7 Give two variables that were controlled in this study.
Answers on p.192
Cross check
Types of data, page 60
Expert tip
This study gathered both quantitative data and qualitative data. Make
sure you know the difference between these two and can give an
example of each.
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Findings:
1 Aim 1 supported: 152 dreams were recalled during awakening from REM
sleep, with only 11 dreams recalled from awakening during NREM sleep.
There were 149 instances of no recall when awakened from NREM. (See
Table 1.2.)
2 Aim 2 supported: When woken after 5 minutes, 45 out of 51 estimations
were correct. When woken after 15 minutes, 47 estimations out of 60
estimations were correct. (See Table 1.2.)
3 Aim 3 supported: When woken from a specific eye movement pattern,
participants reported a dream that corresponded to that pattern.
a Vertical movement: participants reported standing at the bottom of a cliff
and hoisting things up and down; climbing a ladder and looking up and
down; bouncing and throwing a basketball into the basket.
b Horizontal movement: a participant reported a dream of two people
throwing tomatoes at each other.
c Little or no movement corresponded to dreams about looking into the
distance, such as when driving a car.
d Mixed movements: dreams were about people talking or watching
objects close to them.
4 Aim 4 supported: the number of words used to describe a dream (dream
narrative) revealed significant positive correlations (for the five
participants who were tested) with the length of the REM period.
Correlations were +0.6, +0.68, +0.4, +0.71 and +0.53.
Now test yourself
8 a How was the self-report method used in this study?
b How was observation used in this study?
Answers on p.192
Conclusions: dreams are more likely to be reported in REM sleep. Dreams
appear to happen in ‘real time’. Dream content appears to correspond to the
direction in which the eyes move.
Evaluation
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• Scientific equipment – the use of scientific equipment in
psychological experiments has many advantages, such as
reliability (strength). It also provides qualitative data which are
objective (strength), for example the equipment revealed that a
participant was in REM sleep, but it cannot know whether a
•
•
•
•
participant is having a dream or not (weakness).
Controls – controlling variables in studies is highly desirable, and
cause and effect are more likely (strength). Controlling caffeine and
alcohol may disrupt the sleep pattern of a participant who normally
drinks alcohol or caffeine before sleeping. (weakness)
Generalisations – can the findings of this study be generalised to
everyone? If every person in the world sleeps then these findings
can be generalised (strength).
Self-reports – how accurate is the reporting of a dream/no dream?
(weakness) The experimenters excluded fragmented reports, but a
tired participant may report ‘no dream’ to get back to sleep.
Quantitative and qualitative data – one type of quantitative data
was gathered in the number of words used to describe a dream
(strength). Qualitative data was gathered in the form of descriptions
of dreams, such as throwing tomatoes.
Cross check
The biological approach, page 70
Experimental controls, page 47
Generalisations, page 68
Self-reports, page 48
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of this core study.
Two factors in emotion
Authors: Schachter and Singer (1962)
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Approach: biological approach
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Key term: emotion
Cross check
The biological approach, page 70
The cognitive approach, page 71
Background/context: early theories of emotion were based on physiological
factors only and suggested that the physiological response happened at the
same time as we experienced the emotion. Schachter (1959) proposed the
two-factor theory of emotion, that emotion is the result of both
physiological and psychological (cognitive) components. This was
Schachter’s theory and what was needed was supporting experimental
evidence.
Now test yourself
9 What are the two factors in Schachter’s two-factor theory of
emotion?
Answers on p.192
Propositions:
1 If a person is physiologically aroused and there is no immediate
explanation, the arousal will be labelled as a particular emotion based on
the information (or cognitions) available.
2 If a person is physiologically aroused and there is an appropriate
explanation, there is no need to seek further information (or cognitions) to
label that emotion.
3 If there is no physiological arousal then any cognition we have we dismiss
and there is no emotional experience.
Cross check
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Laboratory experiments, page 43
Method: laboratory experiment with observation and self-report
questionnaires.
Variables: there were three experimental conditions of the IV and one
control condition:
• EPI INF (epinephrine informed) – injected with epinephrine and told true
effects of epinephrine.
• EPI MIS (epinephrine misinformed) – injected with epinephrine and told
false effects of epinephrine.
• EPI IGN (epinephrine ignorant) – injected with epinephrine and told
nothing more.
• Placebo (or control condition) – injected with saline solution and told
nothing more.
These conditions manipulate the physiological component. The psychological
(cognitive) component is manipulated by two further conditions: using a
stooge in the creation of euphoria (happiness/joy) and anger.
Cross check
Use of a stooge, page 59
Thus there are seven sub-groups: placebo anger, placebo euphoria, EPI INF
anger, EPI INF euphoria, EPI IGN anger, EPI IGN euphoria, EPI MIS
euphoria. There was no EPI MIS anger condition.
Data were gathered via observation through a one-way mirror and self-report
on various measures.
Now test yourself
10 Give one advantage of using a one-way mirror.
Answers on p.192
Explanation:
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EPI INF – told effects of epinephrine so should not copy behaviour of stooge.
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Placebo – no epinephrine and told nothing, so should not copy behaviour of
stooge.
EPI MIS – misinformed about epinephrine, so seek an explanation, so should
copy behaviour of stooge.
EPI IGN: told nothing about epinephrine, so seek an explanation, so should
copy behaviour of stooge.
Expert tip
You can use abbreviations like EPI, INF and MIS, but make sure you
know which group is which. If you use full words like ‘misinformed’,
then there is no ambiguity as to what they were told.
Design: the design was independent measures because if a participant were
to repeat any of the conditions, they would immediately understand what was
going on and respond falsely.
Cross check
Independent measures design, page 46
Participants and sampling technique: the participants were all male college
students taking introductory psychology. They were given two extra points
on their final examination for participating. The sampling technique is selfselecting. The participants volunteered to be part of a ‘pool’ of participants
who could be invited to take part in this, or any other study.
Apparatus: a private room for administering injections, for giving various
instructions and for observing through a one-way mirror. Suproxin (i.e.
epinephrine (adrenaline) which causes an increase in breathing, heart rate,
possible palpitations, and an empty sensation in the stomach), or a placebo (a
saline solution). Items for the euphoria condition: paper, wastebasket, manila
folders, a hula-hoop. ‘Ambiguous’ questionnaires for the anger condition.
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Cross check
Controls:
• All participants were given an injection.
• All participants in each condition received the same instructions.
• The stooges repeated the same behaviour, saying and doing the same thing
each time.
• The same items of equipment were in the same place in each room.
Cross check
Experimental controls, page 47
Procedure:
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b How was the psychological (cognitive) component
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1 Each participant was taken to the private room and told that the study was
a test of vision and the vitamin supplement Suproxin.
2 If the participant agreed to do the study, a short while later a doctor arrived
and gave an injection of Suproxin.
3 Participants were then given one of three different sets of instructions
depending on whether they were in the INF, MIS or IGN/placebo group.
4 Each participant was then placed in a room and introduced to another
‘participant’ (actually a stooge) and told to wait for 20 minutes. The stooge
either behaved euphorically or angrily:
• Euphoric – doodled on paper, crumpled it, threw it in wastebasket and
played basketball. Asked participant to join in. Made paper plane, flew
it. Built a tower with folders then knocked it over. Played with a hulahoop.
• Angry – began to answer a questionnaire, which got increasingly
personal and insulting. Made aggressive comments about it.
5 The experimenter entered the room and handed out questionnaires for
‘feedback on the effects of Suproxin’.
6 The experimenter debriefed the participants (11 of the participants were
‘suspicious of the procedure’ so their data were discarded).
manipulated?
12 a Give one advantage of using a stooge in this study.
b Give one problem with the use of a stooge in psychological
research.
Answers on p.192
Data:
• Observation (controlled and structured) – objective behaviour coded into
categories. Four categories for euphoria: joins in, initiates new activity,
ignores stooge and watches stooge. Six categories for anger: agrees,
disagrees, neutral, initiates agreement/disagreement, watches, ignores.
• Self-report – subjective data gathered by a structured questionnaire. Mock
questions were asked, then two questions about emotional state: ‘How
irritated, angry or annoyed would you say you feel now?’ and ‘How good
or happy would you say you feel now?’ Answers were on a 5-point scale
from 0: ‘I don’t feel…’ to 4: ‘I feel extremely…’ Then two questions were
asked about physiological state: ‘Have you ever experienced any
palpitations?’ and ‘Did you feel any tremor?’ Answers on a 4-point scale
from 0: ‘not at all’ to 3: ‘an intense amount’.
Cross check
Types of data, page 60
Results: there were too many results tables to include here. See the original
study or look at the summarised findings below.
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Findings:
1 Participants in the epinephrine condition experienced more physiological
responses than those in the placebo conditions (as would be expected) and
the difference was significant (p = 0.001).
2 For euphoria self-reports:
a EPI INF reported significantly less euphoria than the EPI MIS (p < 0.01).
b EPI INF reported significantly less euphoria than the EPI IGN (p < 0.02).
c There was no significant difference between the placebo and the other
groups.
3 For euphoria observations. This shows that EPI MIS had more instances
of euphoric activity (22.56) than any other group; EPI INF had the least at
12.72. This difference was significant (p = 0.05). No other comparison was
significant.
4 For anger self-reports. This shows that EPI INF had the highest anger
score of 1.91 and that EPI IGN had the lowest with 1.39.
5 For anger observations. This shows that EPI IGN had the highest anger
score of 2.28 and that EPI INF had the lowest with –0.18.
Expert tip
This theory is important because it brings together physiological and
cognitive components. The study by Piliavin et al. also does this.
Conclusions: all three propositions are supported and so the findings of the
study provide experimental evidence for the two-factor theory of emotion.
Evaluation
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• Ethics – stooges were used in this study (weakness). This is
automatically unethical because the use of a stooge is deceiving a
participant. However, without the use of a stooge it would not have
been possible to conduct the study (strength). The ends might
justify the means.
• Theory – any theory needs to be tested and this study provides
evidence to support the two-factor theory of emotion (strength).
• Biological and cognitive approach – this study shows the
interaction between biological factors and cognitive factors
(strength). This study links with that by Piliavin et al. which also
considers how these two factors are linked (strength).
• Sample – the participants were volunteers (for the ‘subject pool’)
(strength). However, all the participants were male, they were paid
for participating, and they were students, limiting the
generalisability (weakness).
• Controls – the study employed many controls to try to ensure that
the IV caused the DV (strength). However, the study was low in
ecological validity and also low in mundane realism (weakness).
Cross check
Ethics, page 57
Samples and sampling techniques, page 56
Experimental controls, page 47
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of this core study.
Expert tip
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Also think about the ethics of deception and individual and situational
explanations.
1.2 The cognitive approach
Doodling
Authors: Andrade (2009)
Key term: doodling
Approach: cognitive approach
Cross check
The cognitive approach, page 71
Background/context: doodling is ‘aimlessly sketching patterns and figures
unrelated to the primary task’, but is doodling aimless? It might impair
performance by moving concentration from the primary task; or it might
improve performance and be an aid to concentration. The study by Andrade
aimed to find out.
Aims/hypotheses: to test the view that doodling aids concentration.
Method: laboratory experiment.
Now test yourself
13 Explain why this study is an example of the cognitive approach.
Answers on p.192
Variables:
IV – a doodling group and non-doodling/control group.
DV – mean number of correct recall, false alarms and memory scores for
names and places.
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Design: as participants were in either the ‘doodling’ group or the ‘control’
group, the design was independent measures.
Cross check
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Participants and sampling technique: 40 participants aged 18–55 who were
members of the Applied Psychology Unit at the University of Plymouth,
originally recruited from the general population. The participants
volunteered to be part of a ‘pool’ of participants who could be invited to take
part in this, or any other study. They were recruited for this study by the
experimenter taking the opportunity to invite them to participate in her study
immediately after completing an unrelated study. They were randomly
allocated to the ‘doodling’ group (20 participants: 18 female and 2 male) or
the control group (20 participants: 17 female and 3 male).
Cross check
Independent measures design, page 46
Cross check
Samples and sampling techniques, page 56
Random allocation, page 46
Apparatus:
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• A mock telephone message lasting for 2½ minutes recorded at an average
voice speed played at a comfortable volume. The message included eight
names of people attending a party (e.g. William and Claire), three names of
people (e.g. John) and of a cat (Ben) who could not attend, and eight place
names (e.g. London, Colchester).
• Doodling group: a pencil and a piece of A4 paper with 10 shapes (1 cm
diameter squares and circles in alternating rows); a space for writing the
target information.
• Control group: a pencil and a piece of blank A4 paper.
14 Describe what is meant by ‘random allocation’.
Answers on p.192
Controls: standardised instructions to participants; the same message for all
participants.
Cross check
Experimental controls, page 47
Procedure:
1 Participants completed an unrelated experiment and, on their way home,
were invited to participate.
2 Participants were given standardised instructions: ‘listen to a dull/boring
tape about a friend inviting you to a party. Write down the names of the
people attending, ignoring the names of people who can’t come and any
other information.’
3 The doodling group were also told to shade in the squares and circles while
listening to the tape.
4 All the papers were collected. Half of each group were asked to recall the
names of those going to the party and then the place names. The other half
were asked to recall the place names and then the names of those attending
the party.
5 All participants were debriefed and given an apology for disguising the
fact that it was a memory test.
Data: quantitative data were gathered: mean number of correct recall, false
alarms and memory scores for names and places.
Findings:
1 Those in the doodling group recalled more party-goers (7.8) than the
control group (7.1), as shown in Table 1.3. Any mis-hearings which were
close to the original were credited, e.g. ‘Greg’ for ‘Craig’.
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Table 1.3 Mean number of correct recall and false alarms for partygoer names
Control
group
Mean number of correct names (out of 8)
Number of participants making a ‘false
alarm’ (incorrect name)
Doodling
group
7.1
7.8
5
1
2 The doodling group recalled a mean score of 7.5 for names and places,
29% more than the control group (mean of 5.8).
3 The data were then re-categorised. The number of false alarms was
subtracted from the number of correct names to give an overall memory
score. As can be seen from Table 1.4, the memory score for the doodling
group was better than for the control group for both names (5.1 compared
to 4.0) and places (2.4 compared to 1.8).
Now test yourself
15 Draw a fully labelled bar chart for the mean number of correct
names for the doodling and for the control group.
Answers on p.192
Cross check
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Types of data, page 60
16 Suggest one reason why the findings of this study may not
generalise.
Answers on p.192
Conclusion: doodling aids concentration. Participants who doodled
concentrated better on the task than participants who did not, as shown in the
scores on the memory test (for names and places).
Discussion: doodling could improve concentration by stabilising arousal and
keeping people awake, or by reducing daydreaming.
Evaluation
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• Experiment – the study was tightly controlled (strength); the
message was the same for all participants and the instructions
were standardised. Participants were randomly allocated to each
group. It is likely that the DV was due to the IV and not any
extraneous variable.
• Ethics – all ethical guidelines were met (strength). The participants
were deceived in a very small way as they were told ‘I do not want
you to remember any of it. Just write down the names of people
who will be coming to the party’, when they were later asked to
recall place names. However, participants did receive a full
debriefing and an apology.
• Cognitive approach – the study investigated ways in which
concentration on a task can be improved (strength).
• Generalisations – the study showed that for a shading task,
participants recalled more than the control group. However, the
task was restricted in many ways (weakness). In reality, people
have different methods for concentrating on a task in addition to
doodling, and even doodle in different ways.
• Design/sample – the participants were randomly allocated to be in
either the doodling or control group (strength). Random allocation
and being in independent groups meant that only one message
was needed to test the participants. Some participants allocated to
the control group might have been doodlers, using it regularly to
help concentration and some participants allocated to the doodling
group might never have doodled and so it was a novel task for
them (weakness).
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
Ethics, page 57
Samples and sampling techniques, page 56
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application for this core study.
Eyes test
Authors: Baron-Cohen et al. (2001)
Key term: Eyes test
Approach: cognitive approach
Cross check
The cognitive approach, page 71
Now test yourself
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Background/context: one feature of autism is a lack of theory of mind. This
was first tested in children by Baron-Cohen et al. in 1985 using a procedure
called the ‘Sally-Anne test’. In 1997, Baron-Cohen et al. devised a theory-ofmind test for adults called the ‘eyes test’. A number of methodological
weaknesses arising from this test were resolved and the revised version was
published in 2001.
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17 Briefly describe the background to the 2001 core study by Baron-
Cohen et al.
Answers on p.192
Problems with the original eyes test (and how they were resolved):
• There was a choice of only two words for each set of eyes, meaning the
answer could be a 50/50 guess. Four words were added in the revised test.
• Parents of children with AS/HFA scored at the same level. The test did not
differentiate widely enough as the scores covered a very narrow band. The
revised test had 40 items (reduced to 36) not 25 items.
• Ceiling effects (too many scores at the top end of the mark range) were
observed with too many people scoring too highly. Having 36 items and
four words was intended to remove the ceiling effect.
• Some test items were too easy, again causing ceiling effects. The revised
version had fewer easy items.
• Some items were guessed by checking gaze direction (e.g. ‘noticing’).
These items did not assess mental states so were excluded from the revised
version.
• The original version had more female faces than male. In the revision there
were equal numbers.
• In the original, the semantic word and foil (the other word) were semantic
opposites, such as sympathetic and unsympathetic. Again this could be too
easy and contribute to ceiling effects. If three of the four words are not
semantic opposites, then the level of difficulty increases and ceiling effects
should be removed.
• The words used might not have been understood by all participants. In the
revised version a glossary of terms was included, which participants could
refer to.
Expert tip
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AS/HFA means Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autistic. You
can use abbreviations rather than writing the full terms.
18 Describe two problems with the original (1997) version of the
eyes test.
Answers on p.192
Aims/hypotheses:
1 To test a group of autistic adults to see if the revised version ‘works’.
2 To see if there is an inverse correlation between the eyes test and AQ for a
sample of normal adults.
3 To see if females have superiority on the eyes test.
The study made five predictions:
1
2
3
4
5
The AS/HFA (autistics) will score lower on the eyes test than other groups.
The AS/HFA (autistics) will score higher on the AQ test than other groups.
‘Normal’ females will score higher than males on the eyes test.
‘Normal’ males will score higher than females on the AQ.
Scores on the AQ and eyes test will be inversely correlated.
Expert tip
You will never be asked for all eight of these problems. A typical
question will ask for one or two and possibly ask how the problem
was solved.
What is the AQ? The autism spectrum quotient is an adult self-report
closed questionnaire designed by Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) to test for autism
in adults. It includes 50 questions and responses are given on a 4-point scale.
A score of 32 or more indicates ‘clinically significant levels of autistic traits’.
A typical question is:
38. I am good at social chit-chat.
Definitely agree
Slightly agree
Slightly disagree
Definitely disagree
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Explanation: (Aim 2/Predictions 1, 2 and 5) those with AS disorders score
high on the AQ. One feature of AS disorders is a lack of theory of mind, and
such people score low on the eyes test. This means that there should be an
inverse (or negative) correlation with AS people scoring high on one variable
and low on the other.
(Aim 3/Predictions 3 and 4) Baron-Cohen suggests that autism may be due to
what he calls an ‘extreme male brain’ and that males in general have more
autistic tendencies than females. If this is true, then a ‘normal’ female should
score higher on the eyes test than a ‘normal’ male, and inversely a ‘normal’
male should score higher on the AQ test than a ‘normal’ female.
Now test yourself
19 The revised (2001) version of the eyes test made five predictions.
Outline two of these predictions.
Answers on p.192
Method: quasi-experiment (participants with autism can only participate in
one condition; ‘normal’ participants cannot be autistic); questionnaire (the
AQ).
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
Questionnaires, page 49
The eyes test consists of 36 black-and-white photographs of different male
and female eye regions taken from a magazine. The images are all the same
size (15 × 10 cm). Each photograph has four words that describe the mental
state of the person. A participant is presented with a set of eyes and four
words and is asked ‘Which word best describes what this person is feeling or
thinking?’ One answer is correct; the other three are incorrect. After
completing all 36, the total number of correct answers is added to give an
overall score.
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The words for each set of eyes were initially chosen by two of the authors
and judged by a four-male- and four-female-member team. At least five of
the judges had to agree that a particular word was the correct one. As a
further check, at least 50% of participants from groups 2 and 3 had to choose
the correct word. Four items did not achieve this level of consistency and so
were dropped, reducing the test to 36 items. This meant that there was a
check (of validity) to see if the correct word really was describing the mental
state.
Now test yourself
20 Suggest one problem with photographs and suggest how this
problem could be resolved.
Answers on p.192
Participants and sampling technique:
• Group 1: 15 male adults with AS/HFA recruited from an autistic society
magazine advertisement. Their IQs had a mean score of 115. This sample
is self-selecting.
• Group 2: 122 normal adults (the control group) selected from community
classes or public libraries in Cambridge and Exeter by opportunity
sampling. There was a mixture of occupations and educational levels.
• Group 3: 103 normal adult students (Cambridge undergraduates, 53 male
and 50 female), with a much higher than average IQ.
• Group 4: IQ-matched controls: 14 normal adults IQ matched with group 1
(mean of 116). The authors state that they were ‘randomly selected from
the population’, but there is no explanation of how this was done.
Cross check
Samples and sampling techniques, page 56
Design: groups 1 and 4 were matched (as above) but each group was
independent. It was impossible for a participant to be male with AS/HFA
and also be a ‘normal’ adult female student.
Cross check
Experimental designs, page 45
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Procedure:
1 All four groups were given the eyes test to complete in a quiet room.
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Apparatus: the AQ, the eyes test and a quiet room in Cambridge/Exeter.
2 Participants in groups 1, 3 and 4 were given the AQ.
Data: quantitative data were gathered because both the eyes test and the
AQ test gave numerical scores. Participants were not asked any ‘why do you
think…’ questions or open-ended questions.
Cross check
Types of data, page 60
Results:
Expert tip
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You do not need to know all the numbers in this table. Look at the
findings to see how the numbers are used.
1 The distribution of the eyes test scores showed no score lower than 17 and
none higher than 35 (scale of 0 to 36), and most participants were normally
distributed with the modal score being 24.
2 Prediction 1: the mean eyes test score was lowest for group 1 at 21.9 and
this group scored significantly lower than all the other groups (e.g. means
of 26.2, 28 and 30.9). Prediction 1 was supported.
3 Prediction 2: for the AQ, group 1 (mean of 34.4) scored significantly
higher than groups 3 and 4 (means of 18.3 and 18.9). Prediction 2 was
supported.
4 Prediction 3: sex differences on the eyes test were examined in groups 2
and 3 and females did score higher than the males but this difference was
not significant. Prediction 3 was supported.
5 Prediction 4: sex differences on the AQ test were examined in groups 2
and 3 and males (19.5) did score higher than the females (16.6) but this
difference was not significant. Prediction 4 was supported.
6 Prediction 5: there was a significant (p = 0.004) inverse (negative)
correlation of –0.53 between the AQ and the eyes test scores. Prediction 5
was supported.
Cross check
Correlations, page 53
Expert tip
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Conclusions:
1 This study replicates the results found in the original eyes test – that
AS/HFA participants are significantly impaired compared with nonAS/HFA participants.
2 The modifications made in this test, compared with the original version,
improved the test ‘in that the same weaknesses were not observed’.
3 This test helps to validate the eyes test as a useful tool for identifying
impairments related to AS/HFA.
4 All the initial aims were met and all the predictions were confirmed.
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Always know the aims of a study and whether the conclusions match
the aims. Do these conclusions match the study’s aims/predictions?
Evaluation
• Validity – Were the pictures of the eyes valid? The study included
8 judges to confirm that the emotions in the eyes and the target
words matched (strength). However, only 5 of the 8 judges had to
agree, leaving some ambiguity (weakness).
• Ecological validity/mundane realism – all the photographs were
black and white; real-life isn’t black and white (weakness). The
quality of some photographs was poor because newsprint was
used. The photographs were static whereas in real life a person is
animated and the eyes (and face) move continuously
(weaknesses).
• Cultural bias – all the photographs were of white, western people
(weakness).
• Questionnaire design – do the eyes in the test have an equal
male/female balance of positive and negative emotions?
(weakness). There is no difference between ‘definitely’ and ‘slightly’
in scoring, simply 1 point is given to ‘agree’ on half the items and 1
point to ‘disagree’ on the other half (weakness). The AQ has no
mid ‘opt-out’ choice, so this forces the participant to either agree or
disagree (strength and weakness). The AQ test is both reliable
and valid. This test and the eyes test are both psychometric tests
(strength).
• Correlations – the inverse relationship between high AQ scores
and low eyes test scores could only be determined by applying a
correlation (strength). These two tests, eyes and AQ, don’t cause
each other; they merely confirm features of autism (weakness).
Cross check
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Ecological validity/mundane realism, page 67
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Validity, page 67
Questionnaires, page 49
Correlations, page 53
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of this core study.
False memory
Authors: Laney et al. (2008)
Key term: false memory
Approach: cognitive approach
Cross check
The cognitive approach, page 71
Background/context: false memories happen when post-event information
changes the original memory so a person believes that the false information
really was part of the original event, even though it never existed. Loftus and
Pickrell (1995), for example, successfully planted a memory for a false but
possible event (getting lost in a shopping mall) and Braun et al. (2002) even
planted a false memory for an impossible event (meeting Bugs Bunny at
Disneyland).
Experiment 1
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Aims/hypotheses:
1 Can a positive false memory, such as the suggestion that they loved a
specific food as a child (i.e. asparagus), be successfully planted in
participants?
2 Are ‘believers’ more susceptible to false memory manipulation compared
to non-believers’?
Cross check
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Self-reports, page 48
Method: laboratory experiment; self-report questionnaires.
Variables:
IV – the love group (in whom the false memory that they love asparagus will
be planted) and the control group.
DV – scores on various questionnaires.
Design: independent measures as a participant can only be in one condition
of the independent variable for obvious reasons.
Now test yourself
21 What is a ‘false memory’?
22 Suggest a suitable null hypothesis for the statement ‘are
believers more susceptible to false memory manipulation
compared to non-believers’?
Answers on pp. 192–3
Participants and sampling technique: 128 undergraduates who received
course credits for participating; the sampling technique is not stated. The
participants were randomly allocated to the love or control group; 77% of the
sample were female with a mean age of 20.8 years. There were 63
participants in the love group and 65 in the control group.
Cross check
Random allocation, page 46
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Apparatus: Session 1: food history inventory with 24 items rated on an 8point scale from 1 = definitely did not happen to 8 = definitely yes. Item 16:
‘loved asparagus the first time you tried it’ (to create the false memory).
Restaurant questionnaire, looking like a menu, and also rated on an 8-point
scale from 1 = definitely no to 8 = definitely yes.
Session 2: food preferences questionnaire with 62 items rated on an 8-point
scale from 1 = definitely don’t like to eat to 8 = definitely like to eat. Food
costs questionnaire on how much they would be willing to pay for 21 food
items at a grocery store and for asparagus ranging from ‘never buy it’ to costs
ranging from $1.90 to $5.70. Memory or belief questionnaire with three
answer options: ‘have specific memory’, ‘belief that it happened’ and
‘positive that it hadn’t happened’.
Procedure:
1 Session 1: participants completed the food history inventory and the
restaurant questionnaire. Three ‘filler’ questionnaires were completed to
hide the true nature of the study.
2 Session 2: one week later participants returned and the experimental
participants were given false feedback disguised in a computer-generated
profile of food preferences with the critical item being ‘you loved to eat
cooked asparagus’. Control participants did not receive the asparagus
feedback.
3 Session 2: all participants answered questions such as ‘imagine the setting
in which this experience might have happened’, ‘where were you?’, ‘who
was with you?’ and ‘to what extent did this affect your adult personality?’
The answer options were on a 1–9 scale (1 = not at all and 9 = very much).
4 Session 2: all participants completed the food history inventory and the
restaurant questionnaire to compare pre- and post-manipulation. In
addition, three other questionnaires were completed: the food preferences
questionnaire, the food costs questionnaire and a memory or belief
questionnaire.
Data: data were quantitative and consisted of responses on the 1–8 scale.
Cross check
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Types of data, page 60
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Results – food history inventory: 31 participants (17 in love group and 14 in
control group) were excluded from the study because they already liked
asparagus. The 46 participants in the love group showed a mean increase of
2.6 points on the 8-point scale whereas the control group showed very little
difference (mean increase of 0.2).
Results – memories or beliefs: 22% of the love group said that ‘they had a
memory’, 35% ‘had a belief’ and 44% had no memory.
Results – believers versus non-believers: believers state ‘memory’ or
‘belief’ rather than ‘no memory’ (believers meet two criteria: a low rating in
session 1 and a higher rating in session 2 on the food history inventory; nonbelievers are those not meeting these criteria). Believers (2 males and 20
females) increased 4.5 points on the 8-point scale, non-believers 0.9; 12
believers claimed they ‘had a memory’ and 10 ‘had a belief’, significantly
different from the non-believers.
On the restaurant questionnaire, believers were much more likely to report a
desire to eat asparagus in session 2 than the controls. On the food preferences
questionnaire, they reported that they liked asparagus significantly more, and
on the food costs questionnaire, they were willing to pay significantly more
for asparagus than the controls.
Findings: positively framed false beliefs about experiences with foods can be
created in participants and these beliefs can lead to an increased liking of
those foods. Nearly half of participants (48%) said they had loved asparagus
the first time they tried it as children, even though they began the study
relatively confident that they did not.
Experiment 2
Aims: to replicate the findings of Experiment 1 and to explain the underlying
mechanism for false memory.
Method: laboratory experiment; self-report questionnaires.
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Participants and sampling technique: 103 undergraduates who received
course credits for participating; 62% were female with a mean age of 19.9
years. The sampling technique was not stated.
23 Give one difference and one similarity between the sample of
participants in Experiment 1 and Experiment 2.
Answers on p.193
Variables:
IV – a love group (as previously) where N = 58 and a control group (N = 45).
DV – scores on various questionnaires.
Design: independent measures as a participant can only be in one condition
of the independent variable for obvious reasons.
Cross check
Laboratory experiment, page 43
Questionaries, page 49
Designs, page 45
Apparatus: the same questionnaires as were used in Experiment 1: food
history inventory, food preferences questionnaire, restaurant questionnaire
and memory or belief questionnaire. An additional photographs questionnaire
with questions 1, 2 and 4 rated on a 4-point scale.
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Procedure:
1 Session 1: participants completed the food history inventory, the food
preferences questionnaire and the restaurant questionnaire as in
Experiment 1.
2 Session 2: one week later participants returned and received false
feedback; the control participants received no feedback.
3 Session 2: participants in the experimental group completed an elaboration
exercise, answering questions about their memory for the event, including
their age at the time, the location and what they were doing, who was with
them and how it made them feel.
4 Session 2: participants then answered a qualitative question (an additional
exercise) asking: ‘What is the most important childhood, food-related
event in your life that your food profile did not report? Please explain in
the space below.’
5 Session 2: participants then viewed 20 slides of common foods (each
displayed for 30 seconds), including spinach, strawberries, pizza and
asparagus. Each slide was rated on four questions: how appetising the food
was, how disgusting the food was, whether the photograph was taken by a
novice, amateur or expert, and the artistic quality of the photo (the first,
second and fourth questions were rated from 1 = not at all to 8 = very
much).
6 Session 2: participants then completed the restaurant questionnaire, the
food preferences questionnaire and the food history inventory for a second
time.
Cross check
Types of data, page 60
Data: data were quantitative and consisted of responses on the 1–8 scale,
the 1–4 scale and the qualitative, ‘important food-related event’ question.
Results: these were similar to Experiment 1 on the food history inventory in
that the love group showed a mean increase of 2.5 points on the 8-point scale
whereas the control group showed very little difference (mean increase of
1.07). On the memory or belief questionnaire, 28% of the love group said that
‘they had a memory’, 28% ‘had a belief’ and 45% had no memory. For
believers versus non-believers: the believers increased 6.48 points on the 8point scale, non-believers 1.42.
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For the photograph ratings (see Table 1.6), believers rated the asparagus
photo as more appetising (5.10 to 2.63 and 4.0); and less disgusting (1.81 to
3.84 and 3.24).
Conclusions:
1 It is possible to implant false beliefs and false memories for a positive
childhood experience, such as liking or loving asparagus the first time that
one tried it.
2 These false beliefs are associated with positive attitudinal and behavioural
consequences, such as an increased self-reported preference for asparagus,
a willingness to spend more on asparagus in the grocery store, and
increased willingness to eat asparagus in a restaurant.
Now test yourself
24 a What is a standard deviation?
b How was a standard deviation used in Experiment 2 of the
Laney et al. experiment?
Answers on p.193
Evaluation
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• Questionnaires – the use of closed questionnaires with rating
scales provides quantitative data which allow for comparisons
between, in this study, session 1 and session 2 and even between
experiments 1 and 2 (strength). This study uses five different
questionnaires and although most use a 1–8 scale, participants
may begin to tire (weakness).
• Quantitative/qualitative data – this study uses closed
questionnaires to provide quantitative data but also asks an openended question to give qualitative data (strength).
• Longitudinal studies – this isn’t on the AS syllabus, but Laney et
al. raise the question of how long the consequences of false belief
might last. A follow-up (longitudinal) study testing the same
participants 6 or 12 months later would determine this.
• Ecological validity/mundane realism – as Laney et al. state:
‘Completing paper-and-pencil tasks may not involve the same
processes as choosing to eat (or not eat) a specific food in a
restaurant setting, or buying that food in the grocery store’
(weakness).
Cross check
Questionnaires, page 49
Types of data, page 60
Longitudinal studies, page 91
Ecological validity/mundane realism, page 67
Expert tip
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Think about a real-world application of this core study.
1.3 The learning approach
Aggression
Authors: Bandura et al. (1961)
Key term: aggression
Approach: learning approach
Background/context: behaviourists believed that all behaviour is learned.
This was shown in studies by Pavlov on dogs (classical conditioning) and in
studies by Skinner on rats and pigeons (operant conditioning). Watson (1923)
classically conditioned ‘Little Albert’ to be fearful of a white rat. Bandura
outlined observational learning (or imitational learning), suggesting that if
behaviour of a model is observed then it will be copied. To test his theory
Bandura designed a laboratory experiment. He could choose any behaviour to
study because all behaviour is learned. Bandura chose to teach aggression.
Learning is said to have taken place if a behaviour is reproduced in a new
setting or in the absence of the model.
Cross check
The learning approach, page 71
Aims/hypotheses: To show that observed behaviour is imitated. There were
four hypotheses:
1 If a behaviour is observed it will be imitated.
2 If a behaviour is not observed it cannot be imitated.
3 Boys will copy a male model more than a female model, and girls will
copy a female model more than a male model.
4 Boys will be more predisposed than girls towards imitating aggression.
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Method: laboratory experiment with controlled observation.
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Observations, page 51
Variables:
IV1 – three conditions: aggressive model group, non-aggressive model group
and a control group who were not exposed to any model; IV2 – sex of model;
IV3 – sex of children.
Group 1: aggressive group – six boys with male model and six girls with
male model, six girls with female model and six boys with female model.
Group 2: non-aggressive group – six boys with male model and six girls with
male model, six girls with female model and six boys with female model.
Group 3: control group – 12 boys and 12 girls who saw no model at all.
DV – number of behaviours out of 240 maximum in each of the response
categories (see Table 1.7)
Cross check
Experimental designs, page 45
Design: independent measures, as outlined in the three groups above. No
child could be in the aggressive, non-aggressive and control group. Also
matched groups: the children were matched for pre-existing levels of
aggression, meaning that a child rated as 5 (very aggressive) was matched
with a child also rated 5 (with one going to the aggressive group and one to
the non-aggressive group).
Expert tip
There were two different designs in this study: children were
matched for aggression and then put into one of the three
independent groups.
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Participants and sampling technique: 36 boys and 36 girls aged 37–69
months from Stanford University nursery school. The sampling technique is
unspecified, but was likely to be children who were there at the time and so
was an opportunity sample. There was quota sampling to achieve 12
participants in each sub-category.
Cross check
Samples and sampling techniques, page 56
Apparatus:
Room 1: potato prints and picture stickers, table and chair, Tinker Toy set,
mallet and inflatable 5-foot bobo doll (adult-size).
Room 2: toys included a fire engine, locomotive, doll set, spinning top.
Room 3: one-way mirror for observations; a 3-foot bobo doll (child-size),
mallet and peg board, two dart guns, tetherball with a face, tea set, three
bears, cars, farm animals, ball, crayons and colouring paper.
Common misconception
Don’t confuse the toys in the original room (1) with the toys in the
‘aggression arousal room’ (2) and the toys in the test room (3).
Controls:
• The toys in room 1 and room 3 were always the same and always in the
same position when a child entered the room.
• The actions of the aggressive model were always the same, in the same
order and for the same length of time (see procedure 2 below).
• Observations were done by two independent observers. The 20-minute
session was divided into 5-second intervals, giving 240 response ‘units’.
Observer data were compared (to assess inter-rater reliability) and showed
correlations in the 0.9 range.
Cross check
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Procedure:
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Experimental controls, page 47
1 Pre-existing levels of aggression were determined by the experimenter and
nursery teacher by rating each child on four aspects (e.g. physical
aggression and verbal aggression), using a 5-point scale.
2 Each child was shown to room 1. He/she played with the potato prints and
stickers to ‘settle in’. The child was taken to other side of room where the
model behaved either in a non-aggressive way or in an aggressive way.
Aggressive (and associated verbal) actions were as follows: sits on bobo
and punches on nose (saying ‘sock it on the nose’); hits bobo on head with
mallet (‘hit him down’); throws bobo up in air (‘throw him in the air’);
kicks bobo about the room (‘kick him’). After 10 minutes, the child was
taken from the room by the experimenter. In the non-aggressive group, the
model went to the corner of the room, and played quietly with the tinker
toy set. In the control group, the children did not see any behaviour by a
model.
3 Each individual child (from all three groups) was taken to room 2 for ‘mild
aggression arousal’. He/she played with the toys but was then frustrated
when told ‘these are not for you to play with’ and taken to room 3. (The
frustration-aggression hypothesis means the child is highly likely to
behave in an aggressive way given the opportunity.)
4 Room 3 (the room to test delayed imitation) contained aggressive toys and
non-aggressive toys plus additional toys (e.g. dart guns). The child was left
alone and his/her behaviour observed for 20 minutes. The child was then
taken back to nursery school.
Now test yourself
25 a What is meant by inter-rater reliability?
b Give two examples where inter-rater reliability was used in this
study.
Answers on p.193
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Data: quantitative data were gathered because the observers used ‘response
categories’ to record the number of times each behaviour occurred. The
response categories were: imitative physical aggression; imitative verbal
aggression; partial imitation – mallet aggression, sits on bobo doll; nonimitative aggression – punches bobo, aggressive gun play. A record was
made every 5 seconds (time sampling) and as the test lasted for 20 minutes,
240 instances of behaviour were recorded. Qualitative data were also
gathered. Comments were made by the children when observing the models,
such as ‘Who is that lady? That’s not the way for ladies to behave’ and ‘That
man is … a good fighter, like daddy.’
Expert tip
Questions might ask candidates to identify one or more of the
response categories. The correct answer is, for example, ‘imitative
physical aggression’ not ‘imitative aggression’ or ‘physical
aggression’.
Cross check
Types of data, page 60
Observations, page 51
Results:
Now test yourself
26 a Describe the observation sampling strategy used by Bandura et
al.
b Suggest why this observation strategy was used.
27 Give two types of behaviour (the response categories) that the
observers looked for when they observed the children.
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Answers on p.193
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Conclusion: behaviour that is observed is likely to be imitated.
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Findings: all four hypotheses were supported. There were many more
instances of aggression in the aggression group than in the non-aggression
group and the control group. Boys showed more physical aggression when
with a male model; girls show more verbal aggression when with a female
model. Children in all groups, both male and female, showed aggressive gun
play even though this had not been observed in the room 1 (‘exposure’)
situation.
Now test yourself
28 a Describe how the children were matched for pre-existing levels
of aggression.
b Explain why the children were matched for pre-existing levels
of aggression.
Answers on p.193
Evaluation
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• Experiment – the experiment was well designed, and with a sound
procedure and appropriate controls; it can be assumed that the IVs
caused the DV (strength).
• Ecological validity – the laboratory is not a natural environment
for children and the behaviours that the children watched could
also be said to be not true to real life (weakness).
• Reliability – the level of agreement for pre-existing levels of
aggression between the two observers was checked and the
correlation was +0.89, meaning that the observations were reliable
(strength). In addition, the inter-rater reliability in the room 3 (test
room) produced correlations of +0.9 or better.
• Validity – the children were matched for pre-existing levels of
aggression which added to the validity of the study (strength). If
this was not done then any difference in the results may not have
been due to learning, but due to pre-existing aggression.
• Generalisations – some of the specifics of the study (e.g. sample,
setting) raised questions about generalising (strength and
weakness). However, what can be generalised is Bandura’s
original premise that if the behaviour of a model is observed, it is
likely to be copied.
• Children – there are always issues when children participate in
research (strength and weakness). They cannot give full, informed
consent because they are under age. Do they fully understand the
task and what the experiment requires? How does the child
respond: does the experimenter interpret behaviour (or what a child
says) in the correct way? However, are these comments
appropriate to this particular study? What do you think?
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
Ecological validity, page 67
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Generalisations, page 68
Children, page 75
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of this core study.
Button phobia
Authors: Saavedra and Silverman (2002)
Key words: button phobia
Approach: learning approach
Cross check
The learning approach, page 71
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Background/context: Watson (1920) taught ‘Little Albert’ to be afraid of a
white rat using classical conditioning, also known as expectancy learning.
This is where a previously neutral object (e.g. white rat) is associated with a
potentially threatening negative event (e.g. loud noise) so that in the future
the person is fearful because of the expectation of what will happen when
coming into contact with the object (in Albert’s case, the white rat). In
contrast, in evaluative learning there is no expectancy (no fear); instead the
person thinks about and evaluates the object (such as a button) negatively,
typically with feelings of disgust towards the object.
Aims/hypotheses:
1 To determine the cause of a button phobia.
2 To successfully treat the button phobia using exposure-based cognitivebehavioural therapy.
Method: case study with interviews being used.
Cross check
Case study, page 51
Interviews, page 50
Participant and sampling technique: a 9-year-old American-Hispanic boy
who went to the Child Anxiety and Phobia Program at Florida international
University and Saavedra and Silverman took the opportunity to study and
treat him. The boy’s mother provided full informed consent.
Assessment: the boy and his mother were first interviewed using the childparent anxiety disorders interview schedule (originally devised by
Silverman). Questions requiring ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers are asked about
symptoms and the total number of ‘yes’ answers determines whether the
DSM-IV (the study was conducted in 2002) criteria are met. Second,
questions are asked about whether those symptoms cause clinically
significant impairment. These questions are answered using a ‘feelings
thermometer’, a 9-point scale (from 0 to 8) and ‘clinically significant’ is
determined if the score is 4 or greater for each question.
Now test yourself
29 Identify the type of interview used in this study.
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Cause of button phobia: for an art project the boy tried to take buttons from
a bowl on a teacher’s desk, but slipped and the bowl fell on him. After that
his avoidance of buttons increased. Over time his avoidance got worse and he
avoided wearing clothes with buttons, especially his school uniform. After 4
years treatment was needed.
Treatment of button phobia: the boy was treated with exposure therapy.
This involved exposure to the feared object (buttons) in a ‘safe’ and
controlled place with the therapist; constructing a hierarchy of ‘graded
exposures’ (see Table 1.8) ranging from mildly arousing items to more strong
ones. This hierarchy was constructed by the boy using the feelings
thermometer.
Table 1.8 Disgust/fear hierarchy with child’s ratings of distress
Stimuli
Distress ratings
(0–8)
2
3
1 Large denim jean buttons
2 Small denim jean buttons
3 Clip-on denim jean buttons
4 Large plastic buttons (coloured)
5 Large plastic buttons (clear)
3
4
4
6 Hugging Mom when she wears large plastic
buttons
5
7 Medium plastic buttons (coloured)
5
8 Medium plastic buttons (clear)
9 Hugging Mom when she wears medium plastic
buttons
10 Small plastic buttons (coloured)
11 Small plastic buttons (clear)
6
7
8
8
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The boy was also exposed to the buttons in vivo (in real life). Treatment
sessions lasted for 30 minutes with the boy alone, and 20 minutes with the
boy and his mother. Successful exposure to each stimulus had the added
bonus of positive reinforcement from the mother. Positive reinforcement
increases the probability of a behaviour happening again. By the fourth
session, the boy had successfully completed all the stimuli in the graded
hierarchy. However, his subjective ratings of distress were higher than when
the treatment began, which was unusual. For example, ‘medium coloured
buttons’, initially graded as a ‘5’, was now higher.
Disgust cognitions and treatment: it was determined that the boy found
buttons disgusting upon contact with his body and he claimed that they
smelled unpleasant. The next seven treatment sessions therefore involved
disgust-related imagery exposures. Therapy involved imaginal exposure
about the things he found disgusting (e.g. he was to imagine buttons falling
on him and how they looked, felt and smelled) and cognitive restructuring
where the unpleasant emotions and negative thoughts were replaced with
positive thoughts.
These treatments were successful: before treatment, the imaginal exposure of
‘hundreds of buttons falling on your body’ was rated as 8 on the distress
scale, at the mid-point the rating was down to ‘5’, and it went as low as ‘3’
after the exposure.
Treatment effectiveness: was the treatment effective? At 6-month and 12month follow-up sessions, the child-parent anxiety disorders interview
schedule was re-administered and the boy reported minimal distress. Further,
he was wearing school uniform with buttons on a daily basis.
Now test yourself
30 What is ‘cognitive restructuring’?
Answers on p.193
Conclusion: the button phobia and experience of disgust was successfully
treated using exposure-based, cognitive-behavioural therapy.
Evaluation
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• Interviews – a structured interview specifically designed for use
with children and parents was used to assess whether the phobia
was clinically significant (strength). The use of an interview allowed
the boy and parent to describe their story, giving the therapist
(Saavedra) insight into the disorder.
• Case study – in-depth detail could be gathered about the boy’s
phobia: what caused it and the specific details of treatment for his
particular situation (strength). This is just one boy with a specific
problem and so it has very limited generalisability (weakness).
However, the principles underlying the treatment can be
generalised (strength).
• Nature versus nurture – this case study is evidence to support
the learning approach and that phobias are learned rather than
being inherited (strength). Saavedra and Silverman explain the
learning process.
• Quantitative/qualitative data – the interview gathered qualitative
data with the boy and his mother explaining how the phobia
developed (strength). The use of a rating scale, the ‘feelings
thermometer’, allowed the extent of distress to be measured over
time (strength). The rating scale gathered subjective rather than
objective data (weakness).
• Children – children are like adults in that any child like any adult
can have a phobia and can have treatment for it (strength).
However, aspects of the treatment were designed for a child rather
than an adult (weakness). The boy could not give informed
consent, but the boy’s mother could and she attended parts of the
treatment sessions (strength and weakness).
Cross check
Interviews, page 50
Case study, page 51
Nature versus nurture, page 75
Types of data, page 60
71
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Children, page 75
b Give one disadvantage of a case study.
Answers on p.193
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of this core study.
Parrot learning
Author: Pepperberg (1987)
Key term: parrot learning
Approach: learning approach
Cross check
The learning approach, page 71
Animals, page 58
Background/context: there is no doubt that animals communicate with each
other, and many studies have shown that animals can communicate with
humans using various signs and symbols; but to what extent do animals have
human language? Does one or more species possess the cognitive skills for
human language? Pepperberg has shown that Alex, an African grey parrot,
can use English vocalisations to identify, request, refuse and comment on 80
different objects of various colours, shapes and materials. However, Alex
cannot use abstract symbolic relationships. This core study focuses on one
cognitive ability, that of understanding whether an object is the same or
different.
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Aim/hypothesis:
1 To test whether Alex could distinguish between same and different objects.
2 To test additional comprehension of categories, e.g. whether Alex could
distinguish between two novel objects he had never been seen before with
regard to colour, shape and material.
Method: case study; laboratory experiment.
Participant and sampling technique: Alex was an African grey parrot
bought by Pepperberg in a pet shop when he was a year old. Alex died in
2007 aged 31. Alex had been studied by Pepperberg for 10 years before this
specific study. The sampling technique is opportunity.
Cross check
Case studies, page 51
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Apparatus: objects that have similar and different properties with regard to
colour, shape and material. For training (and testing) the objects used were
restricted to red, green or blue, triangular or square, rawhide or wood.
Design: before the start of the experiment, Alex could already name five
colours, several shapes and four materials. Further, he could respond to
questions such as ‘What colour?’ and ‘What shape?’, showing some
comprehension of abstract categories.
However, the test was not for Alex to merely name a colour, shape or
material but to test his comprehension of categories by asking questions such
as ‘What’s same?’ and ‘What’s different?’ This meant that Alex had to
understand similarity and difference for colour, for shapes and for materials
(making the task quite complex).
To further test his comprehension, Alex would be presented with novel
objects he had never seen before with regard to colour, shape and material
(such as pink and brown paper triangles).
This meant that Alex would have to assess three categories of two objects;
understand that the question asked about ‘same’ or ‘different’; determine
from the objects what was ‘same’ or ‘different’; and provide a vocal answer
for the correct category.
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General training procedure: Pepperberg used the model/rival (M/R)
technique, based on social learning outlined by Bandura (see page 26). This
involves a human trainer and a second human, the model. The trainer
presents objects and asks questions about them, giving praise and reward
(positive reinforcement) to the model for correct answers and disapproval for
incorrect answers. The model’s responses were observed by Alex and in
addition the model acted as a rival, competing with Alex for the trainer’s
attention.
Now test yourself
32 What is ‘observational learning’? Identify one other study that
involves observational learning.
Answers on p.193
Training for same/different: observed by Alex, the trainer held two objects
in front of the model and asked either ‘What’s same?’ or ‘What’s different?’
The model responded with the category (colour, shape or material) and was
rewarded by being given the object if correct, or scolded and removed from
view (a ‘time-out’) if incorrect. If incorrect, the object was re-presented and
the question repeated. At this point, the roles of the trainer and model were
reversed. Alex could use the words ‘colour’ and ‘shape’ but had to be taught
the word ‘mah-mah’, meaning matter or material.
Controls (for testing): the testing was conducted by secondary trainers who
had not trained Alex on ‘same/different’ (to prevent answer ‘cuing’). Testing
for ‘same/different’ was also incorporated into other test procedures being
conducted. A student not involved in the research chose the objects to be
paired and randomly ordered the questions to be asked. This meant that
neither Alex nor the principal trainer knew what was going to be asked. The
principal trainer sat back and did not look at Alex during the testing.
Test procedure: testing went on for over 2 years (26 months). In any week,
testing was conducted between one and four times. The secondary trainer
would present two objects and ask ‘What’s same?’ or ‘What’s different?’ If
Alex was correct (this was a first-trial response), he was given the object and
praised, and if incorrect he was told ‘No!’
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In addition, to confirm the validity of the testing procedure, three additional
tests were used:
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• Tests on objects (of categories) that were familiar, such as another colour
or material. These objects meant that the pairings were always novel.
• Transfer tests with novel objects: Alex was presented with pairs of objects
never used in training to find out if Alex could generalise to new situations.
• Probes: to ensure Alex was concentrating, questions were asked which
included a wrong answer in addition to correct ones.
Now test yourself
33 Identify two controls to add validity to the testing procedure.
34 Is this study single-blind or double-blind? Explain your answer.
Answers on p.193
Data: quantitative data were gathered – what was said by Alex was repeated
by the principal trainer and the percentage of correct responses was
calculated.
Results:
• Familiar objects: Alex scored 69/99 (69.7%) on first trials and 99/129
(76.6%) on all trials, which is very significant and well above 33.3%
chance.
• Transfer tests: Alex scored 79/96 (82.3%) on first trials and 96/113 (85%)
on all trials.
• Probes: Alex scored 55/61 (90.2%) on all trials, showing that he was
processing questions.
Conclusion: African grey parrots have the ability to comprehend ‘same’ and
‘different’.
Evaluation
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• Case study – in-depth detail could be gathered about Alex’s
abilities, acquired and tested over a period of time (strength). This
is just one parrot and Alex was trained over many years
(weakness). Alex may be unique and these findings cannot be
generalised (weakness). However, if Alex can be trained then so
can any other African grey parrot (strength).
• Ethics – Pepperberg and the trainers conformed to all appropriate
animal guidelines (strength). Alex was not deprived of food and his
rewards were appropriate. Alex was housed in suitable
‘accommodation’ and only one parrot was used.
• Experiment – the study was conducted in controlled settings and
the testing procedure was strictly controlled (strength). The study
was conducted in a laboratory (low ecological validity) and the task
was rather artificial for a parrot (weakness).
• Learning approach – this study shows what can be learned (and
how it can be learned) (strength), and supports the nurture side of
the nature–nurture debate (strength).
Cross check
Case study, page 51
Ethics, page 57
Experiments, page 43
The learning approach, page 71
Expert tip
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Think about a real-world application of this core study.
1.4 The social approach
Obedience
Author: Milgram (1963)
Key term: obedience
Approach: social approach
Cross check
The social approach, page 72
Background/context: obedience is productive; and it can be destructive.
The slaughter of millions of people from 1933 to 1945 ‘could only be carried
out on a massive scale if a very large number of persons obeyed orders’,
according to Milgram. He believed that extreme obedience to authority was a
one-off, that ‘the Germans were different’ from the rest of society. He
expected that in 1960s USA, no-one would obey if he created an extreme
situation. Before the study Milgram asked 14 Yale senior students ‘if asked,
would you give an electric shock to another person.’ Less than 3% said they
would. He asked his colleagues and they also believed that few, if any, would
give shocks.
Aim/hypothesis: to test the hypothesis that the obeying of orders to kill
another human was a ‘one-off’; that it would not happen again – specifically,
that US citizens in the 1960s would not obey the command to give an electric
shock to another person.
Method: laboratory ‘experiment’ (with interview and observation).
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Variables: there was no IV in this study and no variables were compared
(although the command to obey is sometimes said to have been the single
IV). There should be no DV because there was no IV, but ‘shock intensity
level’ is sometimes said to have been the DV.
Common misconception
It is often said that the study by Milgram is a laboratory experiment.
Milgram himself called it an experiment. However, there was no
independent variable, so it isn’t an experiment in the strict sense.
Often people call any study an ‘experiment’ when it is not.
Design: there was no design. Each participant did the ‘one condition’ of the
experiment.
Participants and sampling technique: the sampling technique was selfselecting as participants could volunteer by responding to an advertisement
placed in a local newspaper for a study on ‘learning and memory’ stating that
$4 would be paid (plus $0.50 for travel). Forty males from the New Haven
area aged 20–50 of various occupations were chosen to participate.
Cross check
Samples and sampling techniques, page 56
Use of a stooge, page 59
Experimenters: also participating as stooges were a 31-year-old high-school
biology teacher wearing a grey lab coat, who was the experimenter (not
Milgram himself), and Mr Wallace, the ‘learner’, a 47-year-old accountant
trained for the role.
Common misconception
A ‘newspaper sample’ is incorrect. The correct terminology is selfselecting sample via a newspaper.
Apparatus: shock generator labelled from 0–450 volts in 15-volt increments,
with labels from ‘slight shock’ through to ‘XXX’. Electrodes attached to the
generator and a chair onto which the learner was strapped.
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Controls: the procedure was the same for all participants, including drawing
of teacher/learner, use of equipment, word pairs and prods.
Now test yourself
35 a Describe how the participants were recruited.
b Outline one disadvantage of recruiting participants in this way.
Answers on p.193
Common misconception
Students often think that it is important to know the ages and
occupations of these stooges, but these details are irrelevant to the
purpose of the study.
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Procedure:
1 There was a general introduction by the experimenter about punishment
and learning to both the participant and Mr Wallace.
2 Choice of who was to be teacher and learner was done by taking a slip of
paper from a hat. However, the participant was always the teacher (both
slips of paper said ‘teacher’).
3 Both teacher and learner were taken to the room next door where the
learner was strapped into a chair, and electrodes attached to his wrist. A
sample shock of 45 volts was given to the teacher and further instructions
confirmed the authenticity of the apparatus.
4 The teacher read out word pairs and the learner responded with an answer
by pressing a button so it was displayed on a screen in the teaching room.
5 If the learner got the answer right, the next pair was presented, but if the
learner got the answer wrong (which the learner did deliberately at predetermined points), the teacher was to give an electric shock to teach the
learner to do better.
6 The stooge responded in a fixed way at each voltage level. At 75 volts Mr
Wallace shouts ‘Hey, this hurts!’ for example. At 300 volts the learner
‘pounds on the wall of the room’.
7 As the ‘learning’ progressed and the 15-volt shock increments increased, if
the teacher showed doubt or did not continue, the experimenter gave a
‘prod’ – an instruction to continue, whatever the response from the learner.
There were four prods: please continue/please go on; the experiment
requires that you continue; it is absolutely essential that you continue; you
have no other choice, you must go on.
8 The study progressed with prods either until the teacher pressed the 450volt switch or until the teacher refused to continue and began to leave the
room.
9 The teacher/participant was then given an interview and a debriefing (or
‘dehoax’ as Milgram called it).
Common misconception
The teacher (the participant) and the learner (Mr Wallace, the
stooge) are often confused.
Method: all the participants were given an interview (with open-ended
questions) and a debrief after the study. Using a one-way mirror, most of the
trials were observed and photographs taken. Often the trials were recorded on
video-tape.
Data: quantitative data were gathered – the frequency of participants going
to a particular voltage level. Milgram noticed participants were becoming
stressed and although this was noted, it was only reported anecdotally.
Now test yourself
36 Describe three features of the type of observation that was
conducted.
Answers on p.193
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Results:
Expert tip
You don’t need to remember every voltage level for every participant.
Be selective – for example, how many stopped at 300 volts? How
many (or what percentage) went to 450 volts?
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Findings:
1 All participants gave shocks up to and including 285 volts.
2 5 of the 40 participants withdrew at 300 volts, 4 at 315, 2 at 330, 1 at 345
and 1 at 360 volts.
3 26 participants went to the full 450 volts.
4 Observations – many participants showed signs of nervousness: sweating,
trembling, stuttering, biting lips, digging finger-nails into flesh and
nervous laughter. Full-blown uncontrollable seizures were observed in
three participants – one was very severe.
5 Interviews – most participants were convinced the situation was real.
When asked about how painful the shocks at the end were for the learner,
on a 14-point scale, the mean rating was 13.42 – ‘extremely painful’.
6 Milgram reported two surprising findings: the sheer strength of the
obedience shown by participants and the extraordinary tension generated
by the procedures.
Conclusions:
1 Milgram found that the Germans were not different; that US citizens of the
1960s obeyed an authority figure when instructed.
2 Although most of the participants obeyed, they were far from happy in
doing so. The signs of tension and stress indicated the mental ‘torture’ they
were experiencing.
Explanations: why did people obey authority?
1 Situational factors: it was conducted at the prestigious Yale University; it
was a scientific experiment; the participants felt obliged to continue, to
earn the money paid; the instruction that the shocks were not dangerous;
the experimenter was in charge and so was responsible.
2 Dispositional factors: the nature of the conflict the participants faced.
These were between the demands of the experimenter to continue and the
demands of the learner to stop. Further, there were the demands not to
harm other people, but also to obey people who were perceived to be in
authority.
3 Milgram outlines the shift from being in an autonomous state (being in
control of one’s own decisions) to an agentic state (an ‘agent’ of the
experimenter, being under their control and obeying their orders).
Now test yourself
37 a Identify two features of the experimenter that may have led to
obedience.
b Identify two features of the setting that may have led to
obedience.
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Answers on p.193
• Self-selecting sample – participants volunteered for the study so there
was no experimenter selection bias (strength). However, Milgram chose
40 participants from all those who volunteered (weakness). Use of
newspaper (strength) covered a relatively wide catchment area, but
volunteers may be different from non-volunteers (weakness).
• Individual and situational – to what extent were participants going to
450 volts responding to aspects of the situation? To what extent were
those who dropped out before 450 volts showing their individuality?
• Ethics – there are numerous ethical issues raised by this study: informed
consent, deception, harm, right to withdraw (weakness). Milgram did
however de-brief participants and maintained confidentiality (strength).
• Interviews – Milgram interviewed participants at the end of the study
and many said they were pleased to have participated (strength).
• Use of a stooge – Mr Wallace (the stooge) acted in the same way for
every participant (strength). However, there are many disadvantages to
using a stooge, including it being unethical (weakness).
Cross check
Samples and sampling technique, page 56
Individual and situational, page 74
Ethics, page 57
Stooges, page 59
Interviews, page 50
Expert tip
Also think about ecological validity, and the ethics of deception and
the right to withdraw.
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Authors: Piliavin, Rodin and Piliavin (1969)
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Subway Samaritans
Key term: Subway Samaritans
Approach: Social approach
Background/context: following the 1964 murder of Kitty Genovese and the
apparent apathy of 37 witnesses, where no-one telephoned the police or went
to help, many psychologists began to conduct laboratory experiments into
what became known as ‘bystander behaviour’ – in particular, Darley and
Latané. They conducted studies such as ‘a lady in distress’, ‘an epileptic
seizure’ and ‘the smoke-filled room experiment’. All these studies showed
that as group size increased, the amount of helping behaviour decreased and
this was termed diffusion of responsibility.
Now test yourself
38 a Identify two ethical guidelines that were broken.
b Identify two ethical guidelines that were not broken.
Answers on p.193
Aims/hypotheses:
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1 To test the diffusion of responsibility hypothesis in a real-life setting.
Previous laboratory experiments showed diffusion of responsibility in a
laboratory but not in the real world. Would the same effect be found?
2 To look at the effect of type of victim and race of victim on the speed of
helping, frequency of responding, and race of the helper. Would helping
differ according to the type of victim? Would someone who needed help
(an ill person) be helped more than a person whose need was their own
fault (a drunken person)? Other research suggested that a person is more
likely to help someone of his or her own race. Would this be true when a
person needed help in an emergency?
3 To look at the effects of modelling in emergency situations. Research by
Bryan and Test (1967) found that people are more likely to help when they
have seen another person helping. If a model was used to help, would
other people join in and help too?
4 To examine the relationship between size of group, and frequency and
latency of helping response with a face-to-face victim. This was because
previous laboratory studies had shown that group size made a difference to
the frequency of helping (because of diffusion of responsibility).
Now test yourself
39 What murderous event triggered all the research into bystander
behaviour?
40 Describe what is meant by the term ‘diffusion of responsibility’.
Answers on p.193
Method: field experiment and non-participant, structured, naturalistic
observation.
Variables: IV1 – type of victim (ill/cane and drunk); IV2 – race of victim
(‘black’ and ‘white’); IV3 – model conditions (see procedure 3, below). DVs
– frequency of helping, speed of helping, race of helper, sex of helper.
Design: the design is independent measures because the people on the
subway train only experienced an ill black trial, an ill white trial, a drunk
black trial or a drunk white trial.
Setting: New York subway, IND (Independent line), 59th Street station to
125th Street station – a 7½-minute journey.
Cross check
Field experiments, page 44
Observations, page 51
Experimenter(s): students from Columbia University (New York): four
male victims (three white and one black, aged 26–35); four male models (all
white, aged 24–29); and eight female observers. The experimenters were
divided into four teams of one victim, one model and two observers.
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Participants and sampling technique: 4450 men and women travelling
between 11 am and 3 pm unaware that they were involved in an experiment.
The racial composition was about 45% black and 55% white. The sample was
opportunity because it consisted of participants who just happened to be on
that train at that time of day.
Apparatus: a subway train (an old model which had 13 seats only). All
victims were dressed in Eisenhower jackets and old slacks (no tie). In the ill
condition, a black cane was carried; in the drunk condition, the victim
smelled of alcohol and carried a liquor bottle in a brown paper bag. Response
categories were used to record the observations (as outlined for the DVs
above).
Controls: the same 7½-minute train journey for all trials. Victims wore the
same clothes and fell over at the same time (after 70 seconds) in the same
place and in the same way on every trial. Each team member started the
journey in the same place (e.g. observer 1 in the adjacent carriage near the
exit door and observer 2 in the adjacent carriage in the far corner).
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Procedure:
1 Four members of the team position themselves in a specific location on the
subway train.
2 Subway train leaves station; 70 seconds later, victim (black or white, drunk
or ill condition) staggers forward, collapses and remains on the floor,
looking at the ceiling of the carriage.
3 If no-one helps then a model intervenes. There are four model conditions:
• Critical-early (model in same carriage as victim) and helps 70 seconds
after falling over.
• Critical-late (model in same carriage as victim) and helps 150 seconds
after falling over.
• Adjacent-early (model in adjacent carriage to victim) and helps 70
seconds after falling over.
• Adjacent-late (model in adjacent carriage to victim) and helps 150
seconds after falling over.
4 Observer 1 records: sex of passengers, race of passengers (‘black’ or
‘white’), location of passengers (seated or standing) and in critical
carriage, total number of people, and total number who went to help
(including race, sex and location). Observer 2 records: sex, race and
location of people in adjacent area. She also records time taken for first
observer to help (the latency), and time taken for someone to help the
model. Both observers record comments by passengers sitting next to
them.
5 If no-one helps, the model helps victim to his feet. At the next station the
team of four gets off train, crosses over and repeats procedure on a train
going in the opposite direction. 6–8 trials completed each day. 103 trials
conducted in total.
Cross check
The social approach, page 72
Common misconception
There was no inter-rater reliability done in this study. As you will see,
the observers recorded different things.
Data: quantitative data were gathered – demographic characteristics,
frequency of helping, etc. Qualitative data were also gathered through the
comments that were made to the observers.
Cross check
Types of data, page 60
Results: the results tables for this study are numerous and complex. They
have not been included and are replaced by detailed findings.
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Findings:
1 The victim with the cane received spontaneous (before the model) help on
62 out of 65 trials. This means that the model only helped on 3 occasions.
The drunken victim received spontaneous help on 19 of the 38 trials. The
2
3
4
5
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median helping time for cane victims was 5 seconds; for the drunken
victim, 109 seconds.
When people did give spontaneous help, on 60% of the 81 trials there was
helping from two, three and even more people. There was no difference on
this between black and white, or drunk and ill. A first helper is the crucial
thing: if one person helps then others join in.
Who helped? 60% of first helpers in the critical area were males; 90% of
people helping were male. Racial composition was 55% white, 45% black
and 64% of first helpers were white – not a significant difference.
Was there same-race helping? When the victim was white 68% of first
helpers were white (32% black), significantly above the 55%. When the
victim was black, only 50% of first helpers were white (and 50% black).
There was a tendency toward ‘same-race’ helping.
In the ill condition there was no difference between black or white helpers.
In the drunken condition mainly members of the same race came to help.
Other responses:
• People left the critical area only 20% of the time and totalled only 34
people. More people left when the victim was drunk rather than ill.
• Most comments happened during the drunken trials, particularly when
no-one helped until after 70 seconds. This may be due to the discomfort
of not helping and a need to justify inaction, such as saying ‘it’s for men
to help’ and ‘I’m not strong enough’.
7 Was there diffusion of responsibility? The simple answer is no, and the
simple explanation is that in this situation the victim and the witnesses
were face-to-face, whereas they were not in the laboratory studies. Further,
diffusion of responsibility predicts that the more people there are, the less
helping there will be. In this study helping was faster when there were
more people.
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Conclusions:
1 An individual who appears to be ill is more likely to receive help than a
person who appears to be drunk.
2 Even when an audience includes both men and women, men are more
likely to help than are women.
3 Same-race helping is more likely, particularly when the victim is drunk as
compared with ill.
4 There is no strong relationship between the number of bystanders and the
speed of helping; the expected diffusion of responsibility was not
observed.
5 The longer the emergency continues without help being offered, the less
impact a model has and the more likely it is that individuals will leave the
immediate area.
Now test yourself
41 Piliavin et al. drew five conclusions from their data. Outline two
conclusions.
Answers on p.194
Model of response to emergency situations:
1 Observation of any emergency situation creates arousal in a bystander.
2 Arousal is an unpleasant feeling, and the bystander has a need to reduce it.
The arousal will be differently interpreted in different situations as fear,
sympathy, etc., and possibly a combination of these. Arousal can be
higher, the more one can empathise with the victim (e.g. same-race
helping), the closer one is to the emergency, and the longer the state of
emergency continues.
3 Arousal is reduced by the following responses: helping, going to get help,
leaving the scene of the emergency, or concluding that the victim doesn’t
deserve help.
Expert tip
Look at ‘Now test yourself 42’. The answer is NOT ‘costs and
benefits/rewards’ as many candidates incorrectly assume. Make sure
you know the correct answer.
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What determines the response is our thoughts, our ‘cognitive processes’
summarised in this model as the cost–reward matrix. This means we weigh
up the costs and benefits and then make a decision. What are those costs and
benefits? They include: the costs of helping (e.g. possible physical harm); the
costs of not helping (e.g. damaged self-esteem); the rewards of helping (e.g.
social approval such as a ‘thank you’); and the rewards of not helping (e.g.
getting to work on time, or not getting harmed).
This means that the two major features of this model include our
physiological arousal and our cognitive (or psychological) decisionmaking.
As Piliavin et al. state, all of the effects observed in this study can be
explained by this model.
Now test yourself
42 Identify the two components of the model of response to
emergency situations.
Answers on p.194
Evaluation
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• The model of response to emergency situations has much in
common with Schachter’s two-factor theory of emotion (strength).
Both models have a stimulus that creates arousal (physiological
component) and then there needs to be a psychological (cognitive)
component for a decision or conclusion made.
• Generalisations – Piliavin et al. suggest that the model of
response to emergency situations can be generalised as it explains
what all people experience when faced with an emergency
situation (strength). However, the specific findings of this study
cannot be generalised (weakness).
• Reliability – the two observers recorded different things and so the
reliability of their observations (i.e. inter-rater reliability) could not
be checked (weakness).
• Design – it is possible for a person to travel on the same train at
the same time every day (weakness). The study was only
conducted between 11 am and 3 pm, so this limits the sample.
• Controls/ecological validity/ethics – the study had many controls
(strength) and high ecological validity (strength). This could only be
achieved by the study being unethical (weakness). Participants
gave no informed consent and they were deceived. They could not
withdraw (for 7½ minutes), there was no debrief and a drunk male
falling over in front of them may have been distressing.
• Ethics – there are several advantages when using a stooge in a
study (strength). There are also many problems that may arise
when using a stooge (weakness).
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Reliability, page 66
Experimental controls, page 47
Ethics, page 57
Stooges, page 59
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of this core study.
Chimpanzee helping
Author: Yamamoto et al. (2012)
Key term: chimpanzee helping
Approach: social approach
Cross check
The social approach, page 72
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Background/context: humans are believed to be unique when they show
altruistic behaviour and co-operate with others. It is argued that this
uniqueness is because only humans have a theory of mind (see Baron-Cohen
et al. page 20).
However, studies have shown that animals (such as marmoset and capuchin
monkeys) show co-operative abilities, such as sharing food. Studies usually
focus on ‘why’ animals help each other (e.g. kin selection) but they don’t
focus on ‘how’, the reasons animals help each other, the underlying cognitive
function. The study by Yamamoto et al. investigated the cognitive abilities of
chimpanzees using targeted helping to find out whether they can understand
the needs of other chimpanzees.
Aims/hypotheses: to investigate the ‘how’ rather than the ‘why’, and
whether chimpanzees can understand the needs of other chimpanzees
(conspecifics).
Method: laboratory experiment; structured, controlled observation.
Cross check
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Obstruction, page 51
Variables:
IV – three conditions: two ‘can see’ and one ‘cannot see’; the ‘can see’ as the
experimental condition and the ‘cannot see’ as the control condition.
DV – percentage of trials of what object the helper offered the recipient first.
Percentage of trials where the stick or straw was given when it was/wasn’t
needed.
Design: as all participants performed in all three phases of the experiment,
the ‘can see’, ‘cannot see’ and ‘can see’ trials design is repeated measures.
Now test yourself
43 Why is the Yamamoto et al. study a structured, controlled
observation?
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Answers on p.194
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Participants and sampling technique: the participants were mother and
child pairs: Ai and Ayumu, Pan and Pal, and Chloe and Cleo (but Chloe did
not participate). All were housed at the Primate Research Institute in Japan.
The chimpanzees had participated in similar studies and were chosen because
they were experts in the two tool-use tasks used in this study.
Apparatus: two adjacent experimental booths (136 × 142 cm and 155 ×
142cm) with a hole cut to allow a chimpanzee to reach through (see Figure
3). In the ‘can see’ condition there was a transparent (see-through) panel wall
between the two booths and in the ‘cannot see’ condition there was an opaque
panel.
Tray of seven tools including a stick, a straw, a hose, a chain, a rope, a brush
and a belt.
Three video cameras to record all the behaviour of the chimpanzees.
Controls: all chimpanzees underwent the same tool familiarisation
procedure, so they were equally familiar with the function of each tool. The
‘can see’ and ‘cannot see’ initial 48 conditions were randomly allocated.
Ethics: the study was approved by the Animal Care Committee of the
Primate Research Institute of Kyoto University.
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Procedure: one chimpanzee acted as the helper and another as the recipient
(the conspecific). The aim was for the recipient to obtain a juice reward
which could be achieved by using either the stick (stick condition) or the
straw (straw condition) that was supplied by the helper in the booth. The
recipient could ‘request’ a tool by putting their hand through the hole
between the two booths.
1 Familiarisation phase: all chimpanzees undergo eight 5-minute trials (one
per day).
2 Phase 1: 48 trials (randomly ordered) including 24 ‘stick’ and 24 ‘straw’
trials in the first ‘can see’ condition.
3 Phase 2: 48 trials as above but with the ‘cannot see’ control condition.
4 Phase 3: 48 trials as above in the second ‘can see’ experimental condition.
A comparison in performance could then be made between the phase 1 and
the phase 3 conditions.
Cross check
The learning approach, page 71
Observations, page 51
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A trial in each phase began when the tray of tools was put into the helper
booth and ended either when the correct tool was passed to the recipient to
acquire the juice or when 5 minutes had passed without the correct tool being
passed. (The juice provided positive reinforcement as originally outlined by
Skinner.) Between 2 and 4 trials were conducted each day.
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Data: the quantitative data recorded by the video cameras can be analysed:
what object the helper offered the recipient (and only the first offer was
counted); upon-request offers (helper offering a tool when requested); and
voluntary offers (tool offered by helper when not requested). Any ‘theft
transfer’ was classified as a ‘no offer’.
Now test yourself
44 Give two advantages when analysing video recordings of
behaviour.
45 What is a ‘repeated measures design’? How was it used in this
study?
Answers on p.194
Results:
Phase 1– first ‘can see’ condition: offer of an object on 90.8% of trials,
90% of which were ‘upon request’ offers. This confirmed that a direct request
is important for the onset of targeted helping. Four chimpanzees offered the
stick or straw first, but Pan offered the non-tool brush on 79.5% of offers.
Importantly, the stick or straw was offered significantly more when it was
needed, showing flexible targeted helping depending on their partner’s needs.
Phase 2 – ‘cannot see’ condition: an object was offered on 95.8% of trials
with 71.7% following a request. As previously, four chimpanzees offered the
stick/straw with Pan continuing to offer the brush.
Importantly there was no difference (50/50) in choice of stick or straw when
stick or straw was needed. This suggests that the chimpanzees can only
understand their partner’s needs when they can see the task themselves.
Phase 3 – second ‘can see’: only three participants were tested (Ai, Cleo and
Pal) and objects were offered on 97.9% of trials. All three offered a stick or
straw more frequently than other objects (Pal 100%). As previously, the stick
or straw was offered significantly more when it was needed.
This again shows flexible targeted helping with an understanding of which
tool was needed when they could see their partner’s situation.
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Conclusions: chimpanzees can understand the needs of other chimpanzees
by applying flexible targeted helping and this is an advanced cognitive
process.
When the helper can see the partner’s needs they are significantly more likely
to select the correct tool.
Chimpanzees will still try to help their partner even if they cannot see what
their partner’s needs are.
Evaluation
• Animals – should animals be studied in their natural environment
or in a laboratory? (weakness) This laboratory experiment
investigates the cognitive processes of chimpanzees and this could
only be studied in a controlled environment (strength and
weakness).
• Ecological validity – the setting was a psychology laboratory and
the chimpanzees were tested in ‘experimental booths’ (weakness).
The task (using the correct tool to obtain a reward of juice) was low
in mundane realism.
• Laboratory experiment – the conditions of the IV were
manipulated, the environment controlled and behaviour was
recorded on video-tape. This scientific method establishes cause
and effect (strength).
• Cognitive approach – humans show helping behaviour and so do
animals. Humans have a theory of mind, and with the correct
choice of stick or straw the chimpanzees in this study showed
theory of mind behaviour (strength).
• Social approach – this study demonstrates that behaviour (and
cognitions) of animals, as well as humans, can be influenced by
social interactions with others (strength).
Cross check
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Animals, page 58
The social approach, page 72
Experiments, page 43
Expert tip
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Think about a real-world application of this core study.
2 Research methods
Research methods in psychology can usefully be divided into two categories:
• the five main research methods
• methodological aspects of the research process
Expert tip
All the research methods also relate to the A Level options. Cross
checks appear for each option.
You need to know the main research methods and methodological aspects
because questions are asked about them on Papers 1 and 2:
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• On Paper 1 you will need to be able to describe the main methods and
methodological aspects and give their strengths and weaknesses.
• On Paper 2 you will need to be able to define and give examples of each
method and methodological aspect; give their strengths and weaknesses;
and apply them to a scenario-based question. You will also need to be able
to design a study, know its limitations and suggest how any weakness
could be resolved.
2.1 The five main research methods
The five main research methods include experiments, self-reports, case
studies, observations and correlations. This section will describe each in turn,
before summarising their strengths and weaknesses.
Experiments
One of the ideas behind the experimental method is that of cause and effect –
that changes or differences in one factor bring about changes in another.
Three types of experiment
There are three different types of experiment: laboratory experiment, field
experiment and natural (or quasi-) experiment. In both a laboratory and field
experiment, the researcher manipulates the IV and controls any variables
extraneous (or irrelevant) to the study. In a natural experiment, which may be
conducted in a laboratory, the IV varies naturally, without the researcher’s
intervention, for example if people who are left-handed are compared with
people who are right-handed.
Common misconception
Many students get the IV and DV the wrong way round. Make sure
you do not.
Laboratory experiments
Examples of laboratory experiments
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• The study by Canli et al. had to be conducted in a laboratory simply
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A laboratory experiment takes place in a laboratory where conditions are
controlled and IVs manipulated in order to discover cause and effect. It is
probably the method psychologists use most often to conduct research. There
is an IV, all extraneous variables are controlled and the DV is measured.
because it used a piece of scientific equipment, a brain (MRI) scanner
which could not be used in any other location.
• Yamamoto et al. investigated helping behaviour in chimpanzees in
controlled laboratory conditions using three IV conditions – two ‘can see’
and one ‘cannot see,’ with the ‘can see’ as the experimental conditions and
the ‘cannot see’ as the control condition.
Cross check
Canli et al., page 10
Yamamoto et al., page 40
Common misconception
The study by Milgram was conducted in a laboratory and although it
is claimed by Milgram that it is an experiment, it isn’t as there was no
independent variable.
Advantages of laboratory experiments
• The manipulation of one IV while controlling irrelevant variables means
that cause and effect are much more likely to be shown.
• They allow for control over many extraneous variables, e.g. temperature
and noise levels.
• Standardised procedures mean that replication is possible.
• In a laboratory, participants must have given some degree of consent, but
not neccessarily informed consent, to take part.
Expert tip
An experiment always has an IV and a DV, whether it is conducted in
or outside a laboratory.
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• The results may be biased by sampling, demand characteristics or
experimenter bias.
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Disadvantages of laboratory experiments
• Some people regard the process as dehumanising, with participants being
treated like laboratory rats by having something done to them.
• Controlling variables is reductionist as it is unlikely that any behaviour
would exist in isolation from other behaviours.
• Artificial conditions (setting and task) can produce unnatural behaviour,
which means that the research lacks ecological validity.
• For the IV to be isolated, participants might be deceived about the true
nature of the study. There may be other ethical issues.
• It is more likely that the data will be snapshot.
Now test yourself
1 Give one similarity and one difference between a laboratory
experiment and a field experiment.
2 Give two disadvantages of conducting a study in a laboratory.
Answers on p.194
The field experiment
A field experiment takes place in a natural or normal environment for the
behaviour being studied. For example, to conduct a field experiment about
how children learn, the logical place to do this is in a classroom.
Examples of field experiments
• The study by Piliavin et al. was a field experiment. There were IVs, DVs
and many controls, but the study was conducted in a New York subway
where the natural behaviour of participants could be observed without their
knowledge that they were participating in a study.
Cross check
Piliavin et al., page 36
Advantages of field experiments
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• There is greater ecological validity because the surroundings are natural.
• There is less likelihood of demand characteristics (if people are unaware of
the research taking place).
• The features of an experiment (IV, DV etc.) are retained.
• The behaviour is natural and so tells us how people behave in real life.
Now test yourself
3 Give two advantages of conducting a field experiment.
Answers on p.194
Disadvantages of field experiments
• There might be difficulties in controlling the situation, and therefore more
possibility of influence from extraneous variables.
• The experiment might be difficult to replicate exactly.
• There might be problems of access to where the study is to be done; such as
consent from a company.
• There might be ethical issues of consent, deception, invasion of privacy etc.
The natural experiment
In a natural experiment the conditions of the IV happen by themselves. For
example, we might be interested in whether males or females are more likely
to choose science or humanities subjects. The IV is sex – male or female.
This cannot be ‘manipulated’ by the experimenter – it happens
independently.
Examples of natural (quasi-) experiments
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• The study by Baron-Cohen et al., the ‘eyes test’, is an example of a natural
experiment because the participants could not be randomly allocated to be
either autistic (AS or HFA) or non-autistic. The AS/HFA condition was
naturally pre-existing. The eyes test was exactly the same for all four
groups of participants without the experimenters creating an experimental
and control group.
• Dement and Kleitman is an example of a natural experiment because the
experimenters could not manipulate REM or NREM or whether the
participant recalled a dream or not (this occurs naturally). The
experimenters did create the IV of REM versus NREM and the IV of 5
versus 15 minutes.
Cross check
Baron-Cohen et al., page 20
Dement and Kleitman, page 12
Experimental designs
Because many of the core studies are experiments (field or laboratory), we
need to look in more detail at how an experiment works – its design.
There are three types of design: repeated measures, independent measures
and matched pairs/groups.
Repeated measures
A repeated measures (or related samples) design is where each participant
takes part in all conditions of the IV. For example:
Condition 1
Participant A
Participant B
Participant C
Condition 2
Same participant A
Same participant B
Same participant C
Expert tip
An easy way to spot a repeated measures design is to see if the
same participants do all the conditions of the IV.
Examples of repeated measures designs
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• In the study on sleep and dreaming, Dement and Kleitman used a repeated
measures design when comparing recall of dreams from REM and NREM
and when comparing estimations of 5 and 15 minutes. These had to be
done with the same participants because there might have been individual
differences in reportings (as can be seen from Table 1.2, page 14).
• In the study by Canli et al., all ten participants saw all 96 pictures, which
was essential for each participant to give consistent intensity ratings to each
picture. This could not have been achieved with any other design.
Cross check
Dement and Kleitman, page 12
Canli et al., page 10
Advantages of repeated measures designs
• This design is best for the control of participant variables, because the same
people do both conditions and their level of intelligence, motivation and
many other factors remain the same throughout.
• Although much less important, it means that only half the number of
participants are needed than for other designs because each participant
‘scores’ in both conditions.
Disadvantages of repeated measures designs
• Some experiments are impossible to do as a repeated measures design, e.g.
a participant cannot be both left-handed and right-handed or both male and
female.
• If a participant completes both conditions then it may be necessary to
duplicate apparatus, such as word lists. But how can the lists be balanced
so they are of equal difficulty? It may be better to use a different type of
design.
• A major flaw is that the design can create order effects. If a participant
performs an activity twice, they may become tired or bored the second time
(known as the fatigue effect) and the result is different from the first time.
It might be that the second result is much better than the first because the
participant knew what to expect or treated the first as a practice. This is
simply known as the practice effect.
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One way to eliminate order effects is to counterbalance. This is where
participant 1 performs in condition 1 first and then condition 2, participant 2
performs in condition 2 and then condition 1, and so on. As a result, both
practice and fatigue effects are controlled.
Now test yourself
4 What is meant by the term ‘repeated measures design’?
5 Suggest one way in which order effects can be overcome.
Answers on p.194
Independent measures
An independent measures design is where each participant is in just one
condition of the IV. For example:
Condition 1
Participant A
Participant C
Participant E
Condition 2
Participant B
Participant D
Participant F
Expert tip
An easy way to spot an independent measures design is so see if
there are different participant numbers in the conditions of the IV. If
they are unequal, it cannot be a repeated measures design.
Examples of independent measures design
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Cross check
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• In the study on doodling by Andrade, the design was independent
measures. Participants were randomly allocated to either doodle or not to
doodle (control), and this was important because a participant could not
hear the message when doodling and then without (or vice versa) as this
would confound the result.
• The participants in the Schachter and Singer study could only be in one of
four groups: EPI INF, EPI MIS, EPI IGN or control/placebo. Further, they
could only be in the euphoric or angry conditions. If a single participant
had done all four conditions, the experiment would clearly not have
worked.
Andrade, page 17
Schachter and Singer, page 15
Advantages of independent measures designs
• Participants only perform in one condition of the IV and so there are no
order effects.
• Only one word list (or test) is needed for participants.
• Each participant only experiences one condition so it might stop them
guessing what the study is all about and so reduce demand characteristics.
Expert tip
In the examples for both repeated and independent measures
‘Condition 1’ and ‘Condition 2’ are used. This design is called a ‘2sample’ because there are just two conditions. Many other designs
exist which have three conditions, or even more. This type of design
is a ‘K-sample’ (meaning more than two). This isn’t on the syllabus,
but now you know!
Disadvantages of independent measures designs
• Twice as many participants are needed as for a repeated measures design.
• This design does not always adequately control for participant variables.
The researcher may end up with participants in one group who are all
somehow ‘naturally’ better at the DV than the participants in the other
group – more intelligent, or more suited to the condition to which they
have been allocated.
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One way to try to eliminate participant variables is to randomly allocate
participants to conditions. Random allocation is done by (for example)
tossing a coin for each participant, giving them a 50/50 chance of doing
Condition 1 or Condition 2 first. For this design, it does not matter if there are
unequal numbers of participants in each condition. Note that random
allocation is very different from a random sample.
6 What is meant by the ‘random allocation’ of participants to
conditions?
Answers on p.194
Matched pairs/groups
A matched groups design is where the experimenter tries to match as many
aspects as possible on which two (or more) groups of participants may differ.
The aim is that overall the two (or more) groups are the same. A special case
of this is matched pairs, where each pair of participants in the whole group
are matched. For example, twins have many things in common so using pairs
of twins is ideal.
The aim of this design is to control participant variables (see page 49) and so
it is sometimes used to reduce participant variables in an independent groups
design. There is no need to use this for a repeated measures design because
the same participant is in the two (or more) conditions.
Examples of matched groups designs
• The study by Bandura et al. matched groups of participants for preexisting levels of aggression. If they had not done this – if all the ‘naturally
aggressive’ children were in one group and all the ‘non-naturally
aggressive’ children in another group – the result would be confounded and
the effect of learning would not be shown. Matching of pre-existing levels
was therefore essential to the study. Note that an independent measures
design was also used in this study to measure the IV of aggressive, nonaggressive and control groups.
• The study by Baron-Cohen et al. matched the participants in group 4. These
were randomly selected individuals from the general population who were
IQ matched with group 1 (the AS or HFA participants). Note that an
independent measures design was also used in this study for the IV of
participants who were autistic and those who were non-autistic/controls.
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Bandura et al., page 26
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Cross check
Baron-Cohen et al., page 20
Advantages of matched designs
• Participant variables are controlled because participants are matched across
the conditions of the IV.
• There are no problems with order effects.
Disadvantages of matched designs
• This design is only as good as the experimenter’s ability to match
participants, and it is questionable whether all relevant variables can be
matched.
• It can be difficult (and time consuming) to find and match participants.
Experimental controls
In order to make sure that it is the manipulation of the IV that is causing the
change in the DV, it is important for the researcher to control any
confounding variables. These are factors apart from the IV that may affect
the DV.
Now test yourself
7 Why do psychologists try to control extraneous variables?
Answers on p.194
Confounding variables
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There are three main types of confounding variable that need to be controlled:
1 Situational variables concern the environment or situation in which the
experimental and control groups are participating in the experiment. If one
group is tested in one environment and another group in a different
environment, then this might cause the result to be different.
2 Experimenter variables are where the presence of the researchers
themselves may affect the outcome of the experiment. This can happen in
two different ways:
a The mere presence of the experimenter may cause demand
characteristics. The one way to control demand characteristics is by
using a single blind design, in which the participant is unaware of the
behaviour that is expected of them (i.e. they are not told whether they are
in the experimental or the control group, or they are not told what
behaviour is being measured, or why).
b Experimenter bias occurs when an experimenter who wants to achieve
a particular outcome gives different ‘signals’ to participants, for example
smiling if a participant is doing what is desired or encouraging them if
they are not. This can be controlled by using a double blind design, in
which not only is the participant unaware of the behaviour that is
expected of them but also the experimenter does not know whether the
participant is in the experimental or the control group. Experimenter bias
can also be reduced by giving all participants the same standardised
instructions.
3 Participant variables are individual differences between participants,
such as level of motivation, eyesight, intelligence or memory. One solution
is to have two very large groups (to minimise the effect of a rogue
individual or an ‘outlier’) and to allocate participants to the two groups
randomly. Another solution is to match the groups of participants, so
extraneous variables are equally distributed across the two (or more)
groups.
Now test yourself
8 Identify three types of extraneous variable that experimenters
should try to control.
Answers on p.194
Examples of studies with controls
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• The study by Bandura et al. had many controls. For example, he matched
participants for pre-existing levels of aggression (and so controlled
participant variables). He used the same three rooms and the same toys,
and in each room even the toys were replaced in their original position
before the next child entered. This was to control any situational
variables. To control experimenter bias, Bandura used more than one
observer when testing the responses of the children.
• The study by Piliavin et al. had many controls (even though it was a field
experiment). The victims were dressed in the same outfit; the train journey
was always the same (7½ minutes long); the victim always fell over after
70 seconds); the model intervened if needed after 70 or 150 seconds.
Cross check
Bandura et al., page 26
Piliavin et al., page 36
Advantages of controlling variables
• More control over irrelevant/extraneous variables means that the DV is
more likely to be due to the IV; cause and effect are much more likely to be
shown.
• Participants are more likely to behave in predictable ways – particularly
ways in which the experimenter wants them to behave.
• Controls act as a benchmark of ‘normality’ against which things can be
compared. This is most likely through using an experimental group and a
control group, where nothing is done to the control group and a measure of
their ‘normal’ behaviour is recorded.
Disadvantages of controlling variables
• Controlling variables is reductionist – it is unlikely that any behaviour
would exist in isolation from others.
• The more controls, the more artificial the situation becomes and the more
participants are likely to respond to demand characteristics. They are less
likely to behave naturally. This lowers the ecological validity of the study.
• Attempting to control variables for many different trials can lead to
participants becoming suspicious.
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Expert tip
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Don’t just think about one evaluation issue (such as controls); think
about how two or more interact with each other.
Controlling variables is highly desirable but so is high ecological validity.
Low control means high ecological validity, and high control means low
ecological validity. Which is better? The solution to this dilemma is not a
desirable one – to be unethical. The field experiment by Piliavin et al. was
done in a real-life setting and they had many controls. To achieve this, there
was no informed consent, many deceptions, no right to withdraw, no
debriefing and possible psychological harm.
Now test yourself
9 Identify four controls used by Piliavin et al. in their ‘subway
Samaritan’ study.
Answers on p.194
Self-reports
A self-report simply means asking participants about something so they can
report on it themselves. There are three main components to take into
account:
• the specific method (questionnaire or interview) used to ask questions and
gather data (the answers)
• the format or structure of the questions themselves
• the way in which participants will provide answers to the questions
Questionnaires
Expert tip
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How questions are asked in a questionnaire depends on what type of
response or data the researcher is looking for. Data can be quantitative (in the
form of numbers) or they can be qualitative (in the form of words). There are
advantages and disadvantages to both these types of data (see page 60).
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When doing an experiment a participant can give a one-word or one-
sentence answer. This is a ‘self-report’ but it isn’t a ‘stand-alone’
method like a questionnaire or interview.
We can ask open-ended questions, which are simply questions that ask the
participant to give a response in his or her own words, with no predetermined way to answer. Closed questions, on the other hand, require the
participant to choose from a range of pre-determined answers. There are
several forms of pre-determined answer:
• a simple yes/no
• a choice from a range of categories such as 0–6, 7–12, 13–18 etc.
• a choice of number on a scale, with or without descriptor words at either
end, such as:
strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5 strongly disagree
A rating scale like this is often known as a Likert scale and can be 5-point
(as in the example above) or 7-point, or it could be 4-point. If a scale is 5point, it gives the participant a chance to opt out, to be neutral. In the
example above, the mid-point of the 5-point scale would be neutral or
‘neither agree nor disagree’. This may well be the case depending on what
question is asked. But what if every participant responded like this? There
would be no useful data. Using a 4-point scale, with a fixed/forced choice,
means the participant must commit to either agreeing or disagreeing. Think
about the advantages and disadvantages of using each type of scale.
Now test yourself
10 Describe the two main types of question that can be included on
a questionnaire.
11 Describe what is meant by a ‘forced-choice’ questionnaire. Give
an advantage of this type of questionnaire.
Answers on p.194
Questionnaires can be completed in a number of ways:
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• by approaching a person and asking them to complete the questionnaire
there and then
• by posting the questionnaire and asking for it to be returned
• by completing it online
Think about the advantages and disadvantages of these different ways in
relation to:
• Cost: posting out a questionnaire and having it returned is relatively very
expensive; asking people ‘in the street’ has no monetary cost at all.
• Return of answers: postal questionnaires take the most time because of
postage and not every person will return the questionnaire immediately.
• Target population: a postal questionnaire can target specific individuals or
it can cover a wide area; asking people in the street limits the sample.
Completing a questionnaire online only targets people who are online and
the sample may therefore be very restricted.
• Question design: asking ‘in the street’ means that questions need to be
relatively short.
Expert tip
Psychologists rarely ask single-statement questions. They usually
ask a number of questions which all relate to the same thing. For
example, the autism quotient (AQ) has 50 questions, all asking about
the features of autism, to give a score between 0 and 50.
Examples of studies using questionnaires
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• Laney et al. used a range of questionnaires with closed questions, including
the food history inventory, the restaurant questionnaire, the food
preferences questionnaire, the food costs questionnaire, the memory or
belief questionnaire and the photographs questionnaire.
• Baron-Cohen et al. used the autism quotient (AQ) test which includes 50
questions, and responses are given on a forced-choice, 4-point scale:
definitely agree, slightly agree, slightly disagree, definitely disagree.
Scores of 32 and above suggest autism.
Baron-Cohen et al., page 20
Interviews
Interviews can be:
• structured, where the questions are pre-prepared and every participant
receives the same questions in the same order without variation
• unstructured, where there is no pre-preparation of questions and questions
are asked depending on the direction in which the discussion goes, or
questions are open-ended
• semi-structured, where there are some structured questions and some
unstructured/open-ended questions.
An interview that is face-to-face is not anonymous and neither is a telephone
interview, even if it is not face-to-face. A medical practitioner can conduct a
clinical interview.
Expert tip
Think about the advantages and disadvantages of answering face-toface questions compared with answering questions over the
telephone.
Example of a study using interviews
Saavedra and Silverman interviewed the boy and his mother using the childparent anxiety disorders interview schedule. Structured questions were
asked about symptoms requiring ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers. Questions were also
asked about whether symptoms cause clinically significant impairment and
answered using a ‘feelings thermometer’ on a 9-point scale (from 0 to 8).
Cross check
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Advantages of self-reports
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Saavedra and Silverman, page 29
• Participants are given an opportunity to express a range of feelings and
explain their behaviour.
• The data obtained may be ‘rich’ and detailed, especially with open
questions.
• Data are often qualitative, but may also be quantitative depending on the
types of question that are asked.
• Closed/forced-choice questions are easier to score/analyse.
• Relatively large numbers of participants can be questioned relatively
quickly, which can increase representativeness and generalisability of the
results.
• Questionnaires are relatively easy to replicate.
Now test yourself
12 Describe the three main types of interview.
13 Outline two ways in which interviews can be conducted.
Answers on p.194
Disadvantages of self-reports
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• Closed questions often do not give the participant the opportunity to say
why they behaved or answered a question in a particular way.
• Participants might provide socially desirable responses, not give truthful
answers or respond to demand characteristics.
• Closed/forced-choice questions might force people into choosing answers
that do not reflect their true opinion, and therefore may lower the validity.
• Researchers have to be careful about the use of leading questions; it could
affect the validity of the data collected.
• Open-ended questions can be time-consuming to categorise/analyse.
• If a telephone interview is conducted, a participant can easily withdraw, or
might find it difficult to understand how to respond if the questions being
asked cannot be seen.
Answers on p.194
Case studies
A case study is a detailed piece of research involving a single ‘unit’, for
example one participant or one organisation. It often gives us a detailed
insight into unique behaviour and many would argue this is the fascination of
psychology. Others would argue that case studies are often not scientific at
all. Some case studies make use of a range of different methods and
techniques.
Examples of case studies
• The case study by Saavedra and Silverman, who successfully treated a 9year-old boy with a button phobia and feelings of disgust using exposurebased cognitive behaviour therapy.
• The case study by Pepperberg of Alex the parrot, who was trained and
tested to distinguish between ‘What’s same?’ and ‘What’s different?’ As
Alex’s results were above chance, Pepperberg concluded that Alex showed
comprehension of the concept of same/different.
Cross check
Saavedra and Silverman, page 29
Pepperberg, page 31
Expert tip
Case studies are not automatically longitudinal, so this is not a key
feature. For example, Griffiths (2003) interviewed ‘Jo’ about her
gambling behaviour. This was a study of one person, but she was
interviewed on three different occasions in quick succession.
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• There are some circumstances where it is impossible to have a large
number of participants, making case studies ideal; rare or unique
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Advantages of case studies
•
•
•
•
behaviours can be studied in detail.
Participants can be studied over a period of time, so developmental
changes can be recorded. This is longitudinal, and it often means that the
data gathered are detailed.
The sample may be self-selecting, which means that the participants are not
chosen by the researchers.
Ecological validity is usually very high – the participant is often studied as
part of everyday life.
The data gathered may be rich and detailed.
Now test yourself
15 Outline two key features of any case study.
Answers on p.194
Disadvantages of case studies
• Case studies might not produce enough quantitative data for statistical
testing; this means that some people regard case studies as little more than
anecdotal evidence.
• Because case studies sometimes involve quite an intense relationship
between the researcher and the participant, the researcher may lack
objectivity. He/she may become too involved and thus alter the natural
course of the participant’s life events and experiences.
• There might be only one participant (or very few) involved, and so any
conclusions cannot be generalised to other people.
• The participant might be unique and possibly not ‘normal’ in some way.
This might mean that the researchers do not know how to proceed, or they
might draw false conclusions.
Common misconception
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Some case studies are longitudinal, but not all. Studying a participant
over time is not a feature of all case studies.
Observations
Types of observation
An observation can best be understood by considering how it applies to its
four main features: the participants, the observers, the data to be gathered and
the setting.
The participants: is the observation overt or covert?
• Overt observation is where a participant knows that they are being
observed.
• Covert observation is where the participant does not know that they are
being observed.
The observers: are they participant or non-participant?
• Participant observation is when the observer becomes part of the
community (or group of people) they wish to observe (this could be overt
or covert).
• Non-participant observation is when the observer isn’t part of the group
and observes from a distance (this could be overt or covert).
The setting: is the setting natural or controlled?
• Naturalistic observation is when the observation is conducted in an
environment that is natural for the participant.
• Controlled observation is when the observation is conducted in a nonnatural environment such as a laboratory where the environment is
controlled.
The data: will the data be structured or non-structured?
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• In a structured observation, the observer creates a list of what is to be
observed (response categories or tally chart) before beginning the
observation.
• In a non-structured observation, the observer records what is happening as
it happens.
Expert tip
Go back to each study that includes observation and decide whether
it is overt/covert, participant/non-participant, natural/controlled, and
structured/ unstructured.
Recording observational data
Structured observations can use:
• event sampling, where the observer is looking for certain behaviours and a
tally chart or record is kept of every instance of these behaviours (e.g. in
the Piliavin et al. study where an observer recorded whether the helpers
were male or female, black or white)
• time sampling, where the observer notes down or records the behaviour at
certain times (e.g. at 5-second intervals, as done in the study by Bandura et
al.)
The reliability of observations can be checked in two ways (depending on
the type of observation):
• Test/re-test reliability where an observation is repeated at a later date and
the two sets of observations are compared.
• Inter-rater reliability where two observers observe the same behaviour
independently. The data are compared and the level of agreement can be
calculated using a correlation test. Note that this simply checks the
reliability (which may be good or bad), it does not make an observation
reliable. For example, Bandura et al. found the inter-rater reliability for
pre-existing levels of aggression to be + 0.89.
Examples of studies using observation
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• The study by Bandura et al. was covert as the children did not know they
were being observed. It was non-participant because the model did not
remain in the test room with the children. The setting was a laboratory
which was tightly controlled (e.g. the toys were always in the same place).
The data gathered were structured because the observers had pre-
determined categories (such as imitative physical aggression).
• The study by Piliavin et al. is more complex. It was covert because the
participants on the train did not know they were being observed. It was
participant because the model and the observers were bystanders. The
model, by not helping for at least 70 seconds, could have created diffusion
of responsibility as could the two observers (who never helped). It was
structured because each observer recorded specific pre-determined items. It
was naturalistic because the subway train is a natural place for the
participant to be. However, the researchers did control many things that
appeared to be natural (e.g. train journey for 7½ minutes).
Cross check
Bandura et al., page 26
Piliavin et al., page 36
Now test yourself
16 Give one similarity and one difference in the type of observation
conducted by Bandura et al. and Piliavin et al.
Answers on p.194
Advantages of observation
• The observed behaviour can be natural. As ‘real’ behaviour is observed,
because the person is unaware, it is high in ecological validity.
• The data are often quantitative through using response categories, meaning
they can be measured objectively and statistical tests can be applied.
• The data can be extremely rich if unstructured observation or participant
observation is used.
• If the participants are unaware of the observation (covert or naturalistic),
they are unaffected by demand characteristics.
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Disadvantages of observation
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• In non-participant/covert observations, the participants cannot explain why
they behaved in a particular way (and the observer should not make
•
•
•
•
•
assumptions about it).
Practically, the observer’s view might be obstructed and the observations
might not be reliable, although this can be resolved with inter-rater
reliability (see page 66).
With natural observation there is a lack of control over variables, making it
difficult to conclude cause-and-effect relationships.
With unstructured observation or participant observation there might be
bias, with the observer ‘seeing’ things he or she desires; with structured
observation and no time or event sampling, the observer might mis-record
instances of a behaviour.
It might be difficult to replicate natural observations as some circumstances
can be unique (however, a good replication of controlled observation is
possible).
It is unethical if people are observed without their permission in a nonpublic area; it is also deception if the observer, in order to obtain data,
pretends to be something he or she is not.
Now test yourself
17 Using the Piliavin et al. study as an example, give one advantage
and one disadvantage of an observation.
Answers on p.195
Correlations
A correlation coefficient is a number between 0 and 1 that expresses how
strong a correlation is. If this number is close to 0, there is no real connection
between the two variables at all. If it is approaching 1, there is strong
correlation.
Correlations can be positive or negative. This has nothing to do with how
strong or weak a correlation is; it is a measure of how the variables interact
with each other.
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• If the scores on one variable increase, and the scores on the other variable
also increase (or both decrease), the correlation is positive.
• If the scores on one variable increase, and the scores on the other variable
decrease (or one decreases when the other increases), the correlation is
negative.
Look at the three examples in Figure 4. They show no correlation, a good
positive correlation and a good negative correlation. The positive and
negative merely show the direction.
Correlations can show that one variable causes an effect in another. Rain
might cause people to open an umbrella. Sometimes variables correlate
where there is no cause and effect. In a now famous example, it was shown
that the divorce rate in the USA increased when sales of margarine increased.
Clearly margarine does not cause people to divorce! Sometimes correlations
stimulate further research to try to find out cause and effect. Fifty years ago it
was found that incidence of lung cancer increased and sales of cigarettes
increased. Research discovered that this was a cause and effect relationship.
Now test yourself
18 What is the difference between a positive correlation and a
negative correlation?
19 What should never be assumed about a correlation?
Answers on p.195
Examples of studies using correlations
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• The study by Canli et al. used correlations to show the relationship between
emotionally arousing stimuli and activation of the amygdala. He found that
the more intense stimuli (rating of ‘3’) were significantly positively
correlated with the percentage of amygdala activation.
• The study by Baron-Cohen et al. found that performance on the revised
eyes test was inversely correlated (i.e. negatively correlated) with scores on
the AQ (the autistic spectrum quotient). This means that those scoring high
on ‘autism’ scored low on the eyes test. The value found was –0.53.
Cross check
Canli et al., page 10
Baron-Cohen et al., page 20
Advantages of correlations
• They can provide useful information about the specific strength of the
relationship between two variables.
• They can be used to check agreement between observers (inter-rater
reliability).
• They might provide information that could prompt future research to
determine whether one variable does cause another variable.
Disadvantage of correlations
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Causality should never be assumed, i.e. that one variable causes the other,
because sometimes totally unrelated variables might co-vary together.
2.2 Methodological aspects of the
research process
What follows in this section is a definition and brief explanation of each
methodological aspect followed by an advantage/strength and then a
disadvantage/weakness. The methodological aspects comprise:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
hypotheses and aims
samples and sampling techniques
ethics (human and animal)
types of data (qualitative and quantitative)
data analysis (measures of central tendency and spread)
reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test)
validity (ecological, generalisability, subjective and objective)
Expert tip
All the methodological aspects of the research process also
relate to the A Level options. Cross checks appear for each option.
You need to know all these methodological aspects because questions are
asked about them in all four examination papers (AS and A2).
Hypotheses and aims
A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the outcome of a study. This
differs from an aim because the aim is a more general statement describing
the purpose of the study.
Now test yourself
Answers on p.195
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20 What is the difference between an aim and a hypothesis?
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In a hypothetical study, the aim might be ‘to see whether sinistrals (left-
handers) perform better in a spelling test than dextrals (right-handers)’. The
hypothesis for this might be ‘sinistrals will spell more words correctly in a
test than dextrals’.
A hypothesis should always be operationalised, meaning that the IV and DV
should always be precisely defined. In our example, the IV are dextrals
(right-handers) and sinistrals (left-handers). The DV is the number of words
correctly recalled out of 20 on a spelling test.
Writing hypotheses is complicated because they can be different depending
on whether they are directional or non-directional, whether a difference or a
correlation is predicted and whether there are two or more conditions (or even
a trend).
A directional (or one-tailed) hypothesis predicts a difference or correlation
and the expected direction of the results. A non-directional (or two-tailed)
hypothesis predicts a difference or correlation but not the expected direction
of the results.
When writing hypotheses (e.g. for an experiment with two conditions), there
is a general formula that can be followed (and its components rotated)
depending on the type:
• state the first condition of the independent variable (IV)
• state the dependent variable (DV)
• state the second condition of the independent variable (IV)
So a directional hypothesis for our example could be:
Participants who are dextrals (first condition of the IV) will score
significantly more words correctly out of 20 on a spelling test (the DV) than
participants who are sinistrals (second condition of the IV)
This can be easily changed if it is believed that sinistrals will score more than
dextrals.
A non-directional hypothesis for our example could be:
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There will be a significant difference in the number of words spelled
correctly out of 20 for participants who are dextrals and participants who
are sinistrals.
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A hypothesis never exists in isolation; it always has a null hypothesis. The
null hypothesis uses very similar words to the hypothesis but the null
hypothesis states that the result is due to chance (i.e. that there will be no
difference). The null hypothesis is never directional and if there is no
difference, we never need to write that there is no significant difference.
Now test yourself
21 Why do psychologists have a null hypothesis?
Answers on p.195
For example, the null hypothesis could be:
There will be no difference in the number of words spelled correctly out of 20
on a spelling test between participants who are dextrals and participants who
are sinistrals.
Here the formula still applies, it is just re-arranged.
Samples and sampling techniques
The choice of participants for any study is fundamental and is based on two
questions:
• What group of people is being studied? (This is the target population.)
• How much effort is a researcher prepared to put in to make the sample
representative of the target population?
The sample refers to the details of the participants themselves, including how
many of them participate and features such as age, gender and any other
feature relevant to the specific study.
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How many participants are needed for research? There is no fixed answer,
but generally the larger the sample, the more representative it will be of the
target population. It also means that any outliers will have less effect on the
data collected. When planning research there are practical considerations –
getting a sample of 1,000 participants may simply not be practical. For
research into social psychology, such as that by Milgram, where there are
cultural differences, the larger the sample the better; for physiological
research, such as sleep and dreaming, the sample can be smaller as sleep is a
cultural universal.
The sampling technique is how the sample is selected from a target
population. There are different sampling techniques and some are more
effective in being representative of the target population than others.
Now test yourself
22 What is the difference between a sample and the sampling
technique?
Answers on p.195
Opportunity sample
An opportunity sample can include people who happen to be in a particular
place at the time the study is being conducted. These participants do not
know they are taking part in a study; the researcher takes advantage of their
presence. The study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) is an example of
this.
An opportunity sample can also involve the researcher approaching people;
they might approach people who walk past in a shopping mall or in a student
common room (and invite them to participate). These participants know they
are taking part in a study.
Advantage of opportunity samples
It is relatively quick and easy to get participants. A large sample can be
obtained quickly and without too much effort.
Disadvantages of opportunity samples
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• Participants who are chosen are unlikely to be representative of the target
population. They may be psychology students, who have been paid or
receive course credits for taking part.
• A researcher might choose people they think look suitable, ignoring others,
and so biasing the sample.
Expert tip
Know the difference between describing the sample (details of the
participants, such as how many, etc.) and the sampling technique
(how the participants were selected, e.g. a self-selecting sample).
Self-selecting (volunteer) sample
These are people who volunteer to participate in the research and ‘select
themselves’ rather than being chosen by a researcher. Sometimes a person
may approach a researcher, or it may involve the researcher advertising for
participants. An advertisement could appear in a newspaper (as done in the
study by Milgram), or on notice boards (a common way to attract university
students). The people who reply are ‘self-selecting’ – that is, they volunteer
themselves for the research. Sometimes volunteers are not paid at all;
sometimes they receive a small amount of money; and sometimes students
receive course credits.
Now test yourself
23 Identify two examples of core studies that used a self-selecting
sample.
Answers on p.195
Advantages of self-selecting (volunteer) samples
• They are useful when the research requires participants of quite a specific
type or with a specific experience.
• There is no researcher sampling bias.
• It can be easy to place an advert (e.g. in a newspaper).
Disadvantages of self-selecting (volunteer) samples
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• Recruiting a sample in this way can be expensive (advertisements in
newspapers cost money, and the researcher may need to offer a fee), and it
can take more effort.
• People may not see the advert; they may see it but ignore it; or they may
see and read it but will not make the time or effort to reply.
• The type of people who do volunteer to take part may be different in some
ways from the type of people who are eligible but do not choose to
volunteer.
• We can never really be sure that a self-selecting sample is representative of
the target population.
• Participants may only volunteer if they are paid (or receive something in
return). This may lead to demand characteristics.
Expert tip
You do not need to know five disadvantages. Choose two, which you
think are high-quality points.
Random samples
A random sample is where each participant is randomly selected from the
target population. If the target population is students then selecting a sample
of students would be representative. But there might be 1,000 students and
only 20 in the sample. One way to achieve a random sample is to put every
student’s name into a hat and pick out the first 20 names.
Advantage of random samples
They are more likely to be representative than opportunity or self-selecting
samples.
Now test yourself
24 What is the difference between a random sample and random
allocation?
Answers on p.195
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Disadvantages of random samples
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• It can be time-consuming to get the right sample.
• Some of the people picked by the random generator may not want to take
part and will need replacing; this might end up producing a biased sample.
Examples of sampling techniques
• Self-selecting sample: Milgram advertised in a newspaper in the New
Haven district of New York. He asked for volunteers to take part in a study
on learning and memory, and from all the replies he selected 40 to take
part.
• Opportunity sample: Schachter and Singer used 184 male students who
were taking part in introductory psychology classes. They volunteered for a
‘subject pool’, receiving two extra points on their final examination for
every hour they served as participants.
Cross check
Milgram, page 33
Schachter and Singer, page 15
Ethics (human and animal)
The British Psychological Society (BPS), American Psychological
Association (APA) and ethical associations in other countries have guidelines
on consent, deception, harm, the right to withdraw, debriefing,
confidentiality, the use of children and the use of animals.
Humans
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When an ethical guideline is broken it is an ethical issue.
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Informed consent: participants should (in most cases) be asked if they want
to take part in the study and they should be given all the relevant information
about what it will involve, what the aims of the research are and so on. In the
Milgram study, the participants thought they were taking part in a study on
learning and memory, not obedience to authority.
Deception: participants should not be deceived about the aims of the study
and should not be deliberately misled about any aspect of the study. For
example, the use of a stooge or confederate would be considered to be
deception by today’s standards. In the Piliavin et al. study, participants were
deceived because they thought the victim was genuinely ill or drunk, whereas
the male stooge (or confederate) was acting.
Protection of participants (harm): participants should not be harmed in any
way (mentally or physically). This may occur if the participants are exposed
to aggression, as in the Bandura et al. study.
Right to withdraw: participants should be told they can withdraw
completely from the study at any time during and after the data collection.
There should be no pressure to keep them in the study. This cannot be
granted if the participants do not know that they are being studied or when, as
in the Milgram study, the right to withdraw was denied as part of the actual
study.
Confidentiality: participants’ data and information about them should not be
passed on to other people not directly involved in the research, or published
in a way that would reveal their identity. No participant is ever named or can
be identified in the research, so this guideline is always met.
Debrief: at the end of a study participants should be told what has happened,
asked if they have any concerns, and given any explanations they require.
Anything which may have caused stress should be resolved so that the
participant can leave the study in the same state in which he or she arrived.
Now test yourself
25 Define (a) deception and (b) debrief.
Answers on p.195
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The British Psychological Society (BPS) outlines eight guidelines for
working with animals.
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Animals
Replacement: wherever possible, alternatives to using animals should be
considered, such as using computer simulations or watching videos of
previous studies.
Species and strain: an appropriate species should always be chosen and
some strains (of laboratory rodents for example) are more suitable for use
than others.
Numbers: the smallest number of animals to meet the goals of the research
must be used.
Procedures: no procedure should cause physical or psychological harm or
distress. For any procedure that might, a special project licence is needed.
Housing: distress (which varies according to species) caused in animals who
are caged in isolation or where there is over-crowding must be avoided.
Reward, deprivation and aversive stimulation: normal feeding patterns
should be adhered to and deprivation or aversive stimulation should be
avoided, or kept to the minimum needed to achieve the goals of the study.
Anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia: post-operative care should
minimise stress, and when needed the animal must be killed humanely using
an approved technique.
Examples of ethical and unethical studies
All 12 of the AS core studies could go here, as could some studies from the A
Level options. Some break more ethical guidelines than others, but it is also
worth considering which ethical guidelines are not broken. For example, does
any study breach the confidentiality of the participants?
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• Milgram’s study is unethical. Participants did not give informed consent;
they were deceived because they thought it was a study on ‘learning and
memory’. They were also deceived in many other ways. They were denied
the right to withdraw because of the ‘prods’: ‘the experiment requires that
you continue’ etc. Some participants suffered psychological harm and
Milgram states that some participants suffered ‘full blown uncontrollable
seizures’, suggesting they suffered physical harm. To give him credit,
Milgram gave a debrief and no participant was identified.
• Yamamoto et al. conducted a study on chimpanzees that was approved as
being ethical by an ethics committee prior to conducting the study. No
animal was harmed (no deprivation or aversive stimuli) in conducting the
study, and numbers were kept to a minimum.
Expert tip
Which is the most unethical core study? Why is it so? Debate this
with your friends. It will allow you to revise the issue with different
examples.
Cross check
Milgram, page 33
Yamamoto et al., page 40
Advantages of conducting unethical studies
• The knowledge gained may be valuable, so a small amount of harm may be
justified. It is argued that the ends justify the means.
• Participants behave naively – if they do not know the true nature of the
study, they behave more naturally and will not show demand
characteristics.
• Being unethical can simulate or help create a more realistic/ecologically
valid situation.
• Participants are never really harmed in psychological studies.
Disadvantages of conducting unethical studies
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• Being unethical is not ethical! Breaking guidelines is unacceptable because
participants are not protected.
• The participant may make a false assumption about the true nature of the
study and behave in a way in which the experimenter does not wish.
• Being unethical might discourage future participation in psychological
research; it can give psychology a bad name and lower the status of the
subject.
• If participants are harmed, something may go seriously wrong; there may
be long-term damage.
Now test yourself
26 Give one reason why studies in psychology should be ethical
and one reason why it is believed that studies in psychology
should be unethical.
Answers on p.195
The use of stooges
A stooge is a person who acts in a way that has been predetermined by the
researcher. They follow the script: performing, saying and doing things at
certain times, and as this is consistent for all participants, it standardises the
procedure of the study. Participants think that the stooge is just another
participant and so they are likely to behave more naturally.
Examples of studies using stooges
• Schachter and Singer used a stooge to manipulate the cognitive
components of euphoria (e.g. throwing paper like a basketball) and anger
(e.g. making increasingly angry comments about the questionnaire).
• Milgram used Mr Wallace as another participant arriving for the study,
who received the fake electric shocks, and who responded to the different
voltages in ways pre-scripted by Milgram.
Cross check
Schachter and Singer, page 15
Milgram, page 33
Advantages of using a stooge
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• A stooge standardises the procedure of a study with the aim of repeating
everything in exactly the same way with every participant.
• The participants, thinking the stooge is another participant, behave more
naturally and will not respond to demand characteristics (as the stooge isn’t
an experimenter).
• A stooge can be used as a model to suggest to participants how they should
behave.
Now test yourself
27 Using an example, give an advantage of using a stooge.
28 Using an example, give a disadvantage of using a stooge.
Answers on p.195
Disadvantages of using a stooge
• It is unethical. It deceives participants because they think the stooge is
another participant.
• The stooge may lead a participant to behave in ways in which they would
not normally behave; ways in which an experimenter has predetermined.
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative)
Quantitative data involve describing human behaviour and experience using
numbers and statistical analysis. Examples of quantitative data in research
include: a score recorded for each participant; the time taken to complete a
task; the number of people in each condition who displayed a particular
behaviour.
Qualitative data consist of descriptions or words, rather than numbers.
These could be descriptions of events, actual quotes from participants,
descriptions of participants’ responses to a task, etc. Some studies produce a
mixture of qualitative and quantitative data.
Examples of studies using quantitative data, qualitative data and
both
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• Schachter and Singer gathered quantitative data through observations and
through structured questionnaires about the participants’ emotional and
physiological state. They also asked two open-ended questions (on other
physical or emotional sensations) which provided qualitative data.
• Dement and Kleitman gathered quantitative data largely from the
recordings of the EEG machine, which told them whether or not a
participant was in REM or NREM, and the direction of the eye movements.
However, whether the participant was having a dream could only be known
if the participant was asked about his or her dream and what they had been
dreaming about – qualitative data.
Cross check
Schachter and Singer, page 15
Dement and Kleitman, page 12
Strengths of quantitative data
• The use of numbers and statistics allows direct comparison of participants
in different conditions. It can also allow comparison if the study is
replicated.
• The use of numbers and statistics is more objective and scientific, so is
more likely to be accepted by the scientific community.
• The collection of data and numbers through ‘snapshot’ studies can be done
relatively quickly; it is the most appropriate way to gather data for some
aspects of behaviour.
Now test yourself
29 Using an example, give a weakness of quantitative data.
30 Give two examples of studies obtaining qualitative data.
Answers on p.195
Weaknesses of quantitative data
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• Using quantitative data is reductionist: it often reduces behaviour to a
single number or a yes/no, failing to find out why a participant behaved in a
particular way.
• It is reductionist: human behaviour is complex and conclusions drawn from
a number or statistic should not be generalised.
• Researchers might misinterpret what is said or observed or put detailed
answers into a limited number of categories to enable conclusions to be
drawn. There may be bias, with researchers modifying evidence to match
the aim of the study.
Expert tip
Candidates often write ‘one disadvantage (of quantitative data) is that
participants do not give the reason “why” to explain their behaviour.’
Think about this. It may be obvious, e.g. because they have autism; it
may be that the participants themselves do not know.
Strengths of qualitative data
• The data can be in-depth, rich in detail, insightful and therefore not
reductionist.
• The data might help us to understand why people behave in a particular
way.
Now test yourself
31 What is meant by ‘qualitative data’? Give one advantage of
qualitative data.
Answers on p.195
Weaknesses of qualitative data
• There may be problems of interpretation. Words and descriptions are more
subjective than numbers, and are more open to bias and misinterpretation
by participants.
• Statistical comparisons cannot be made with qualitative data.
• The data might be more prone to researcher bias, as information that best
fits the researcher’s hypothesis could be selected.
• The participants might give socially desirable answers. Participants might
want to look good for the researcher.
Expert tip
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Make sure in any examination answer that you get quantitative and
qualitative the right way round.
Data analysis (measures of central tendency
and spread)
When psychologists have carried out their research using the methods
described earlier, they end up with a set of raw data. These data are the
results of their research that they must then make sense of. This can be done
in a number of ways depending on the data collected. Data analysis can be
categorised into the following:
1 Descriptive statistics which describe data in different ways such as tables,
summary statistics such as mean, median, mode and range (measures of
central tendency and dispersion), and in visual formats such as a graph.
2 Inferential statistics where a statistical test is calculated in order to draw
conclusions about hypotheses (note that inferential statistics are not on the
syllabus).
Now test yourself
32 What is the difference between descriptive and inferential
statistics?
Answers on p.195
There are three different scales or levels of measurement to consider which
determine the type of data analysis.
1 Nominal data: this is when the number just acts a label (it doesn’t have
any genuine mathematical properties), for example when people are put
into categories. For nominal data, you cannot use the measures of central
tendency such as mean, median and mode.
Example of nominal data:
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Suppose you work at a factory and you decide to observe the days of the
week on which workers are absent the most (the frequency). You display
your raw data in a table like Table 2.1.
A pie or bar chart could be used to display these data, but no measure of
central tendency (mean, median or mode) can be calculated.
2 Ordinal data: this is where numbers can be put in order but do not have
any other mathematical properties. For example, in an athletics race the
first person past the winning post is 1st and the others 2nd, 3rd, etc. Note
that it isn’t known how close to each other the athletes are when they
finish. In psychology studies, most of the scores obtained from self-report
questionnaires and rating scales are ordinal.
3 Interval and ratio data: interval level data are one step better than ordinal
data. With ordinal data we could say that a rating of 6 was more than a
rating of 5, but we could not be sure that the difference between 5 and 6
meant the same as the difference between 7 and 8. With interval level data,
the points are equally spaced. For example in centigrade, the difference
between 35°C and 40°C is the same difference as that between 20°C and
25°C.
Now test yourself
33 What is the difference between nominal and ordinal data?
Answers on p.195
Measures of central tendency
For the syllabus, you do not need to make a distinction between ordinal and
interval/ratio data because for both you can use measures of central
tendency in order to summarise and display the data:
• mean – the average (the ‘arithmetic’ average)
• median – the middle value of a set of scores
• mode – the most common value.
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Raw data tables do not tell us anything very much until they are organised
and summarised in a suitable way using measures of central tendency. A raw
data table (e.g. scores out of 20 for a memory test with and without noise)
may look something Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Word recall scores out of 20
Word recall with noise Word recall without noise
10
16
12
14
11
10
15
14
7
17
8
17
10
13
17
16
12
14
17
14
Calculating the mean
Add up the numbers in both sets of data to find the sum (Σ). Find N, the
number of scores in each set. Divide the sum by the number for each set to
give the mean. For example:
Word recall with noise: Σ = 107, N = 10, therefore the mean is 107/10 = 10.7
Word recall without noise: Σ = 157, N = 10, therefore the mean is 157/10 =
15.7
Sometimes the mean is affected by exceptional scores (called outliers) either
way above or way below the average.
Calculating the median
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Word recall with noise Word recall without noise
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Table 2.3 Calculating the median
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Put all the scores in increasing order. Cross off the lowest score and the
highest score. Continue to do this at each end until one score remains. That is
the median. If there are two numbers remaining, divide each by 2 to give the
median. In Table 2.3, for the ‘with noise’ group, the median is 10.5 (the midpoint of 11 and 10) and for the ‘without noise’ group, the median is 16.
14
17
13
12
17
17
12
17
11
10
16
16
10
15
10
8
14
14
7
14
median = 10.5
median = 16
Calculating the mode
Look at the data and the number that has the most scores is the mode.
Sometimes, there are two modes (bi-modal) and sometimes even more.
In Table 2.4, for the ‘with noise’ group, the mode is 10 (because there are 3
scores of 10), and for the ‘without noise’ group, the mode is 17 (because
there are 4 scores of 17).
Table 2.4 Calculating the mode
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14
15
14
17
17
17
16
17
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7
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Word recall with noise Word recall without noise
14
14
mode = 10
mode = 17
Measures of dispersion
With ordinal (and interval/ratio) data, you can also use measures of
dispersion. These give you some idea of ‘how spread out’ your data are.
There are different measures of dispersion:
• range – for any set of data, this is simply the difference between the top
value and the bottom value; this is usually used for ordinal data
• standard deviation – this is a measure of spread of data around the mean
and is usually used with interval/ratio data
Calculating the range
Calculate the difference between the highest and lowest scores. Using the
word recall example above:
Word recall with noise: 14 (highest score) – 7 (lowest score) = a range of 7
Word recall without noise: 17 (highest score) – 14 (lowest score) = range of 3
Calculating the standard deviation
This is much more complex to calculate (and you will never need to calculate
a standard deviation), so example calculations do not appear here. However,
for the above set of data the standard deviations have been calculated as
follows:
Word recall with noise: s = 2.16
Word recall without noise: s = 1.33
The symbol used to represent standard deviation is ‘s’. Remember that the
standard deviation is a measure of spread around the mean.
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On a graph, a ‘normal distribution’ is a bell-shaped curve that is
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For the ‘without noise’ group, there is much less spread around the mean (s =
1.33, mean = 15.9) than there is for the ‘with noise’ group (s = 2.16, mean =
10.7). The larger the score, the more spread out it is.
symmetrically distributed around the central point of the mean, median and
mode (see Figure 5). The curve shows standard deviations of 1 (where 68%
of scores lie), of 2 (where 95% of scores lie), and of 3 (where 99.7% of
scores lie). Many things follow this curve, such as blood pressure, the height
of people and intelligence.
Visual displays
Raw data (and measures of central tendency) can be represented graphically.
There are three main types of visual display: bar charts, histograms and
scatter graphs.
Bar charts
Bar charts are used when data are in categories rather than on a continuous
scale, for example they can be used when the means of sets of data are
calculated. Using the data from the word recall test above, where the two
means were 10.7 and 15.7, the bar chart in Figure 6 can be drawn.
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• the x-axis (horizontal) should have the names of the
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A bar chart should have a full title to show exactly what it is and the axes
should always be fully labelled:
categories/groups/conditions (e.g. of the IV), in this case ‘noise’ and ‘no
noise’ groups
• the y-axis (vertical) should have the scale or frequency (e.g. of the DV), in
this case ‘the mean number of words correctly recalled out of 20’
Now test yourself
34 Identify four features of a bar chart.
Answers on p.195
Histograms
Histograms show the pattern of data and are used when data are on a
continuous scale rather than in categories. It can show a distribution of
scores.
As in Figure 7, a bar chart should have a full title to show exactly what it is
and the axes should always be fully labelled:
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• the x-axis (horizontal) should have the names of the categories of the
distribution, in this case the grades
• the y-axis (vertical) should have the frequency of occurrences, in this case
the number of students
Scatter graphs
Scatter graphs apply only to correlations (see page 53).
As in Figure 8, a scatter graph should have a full title to show exactly what it
is and the axes should always be fully labelled:
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• the x-axis (horizontal) should have the details of one variable, in this case
number of hours deprived of sleep
• the y-axis (vertical) should have the details of one variable, in this case
number of words correctly recalled
Reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test)
If your car always starts first time (or indeed never starts first time) you can
describe it as being reliable. If your car only sometimes starts first time, it is
unreliable. In psychology, the reliability of a psychological measuring device
(e.g. a test or scale) is the extent to which it gives consistent measurements. If
an IQ (intelligence) test was given to a person and a few days or weeks later
the same test was taken again, the same (or very similar) score should be
obtained. If the test gave a very different result, the test would be criticised
because it would lack reliability.
Now test yourself
35 What is meant by the term ‘reliability’?
Answers on p.195
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36 Using an example, give one way in which the reliability of a
questionnaire can be checked.
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Now test yourself
Answers on p.195
The reliability of an experiment is the extent to which it can be repeated.
Reliability can also be applied to both questionnaires and observations. The
reliability of a questionnaire, for example, can be checked in two main
ways:
• The test/re-test method is a system for judging the reliability of a
psychometric test or measurement. It involves administering the same test
to the same person on two different occasions, such as 3 weeks apart, and
comparing the results. The results can then be correlated (see page 53).
• The split-half method involves splitting the test into two and
administering each half of the test to the same person. The scores from the
two halves should be the same (but only if certain test items are balanced
equally).
The reliability of an observation can also be checked in two ways. Some
types of observation can be repeated and the findings compared.
Observations can also be checked using inter-rater reliability. This is the
extent to which two (or more) independent observers (coders/raters) agree on
the observations that they have made. The two sets of data can be statistically
compared using a correlation test. Note that inter-rater reliability is merely a
test of the extent to which the observers agree. It does not improve reliability.
Now test yourself
37 Using an example, give one way in which the reliability of an
observation can be checked.
Answers on p.195
Examples of studies referring to reliability/inter-rater reliability
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• The study by Bandura et al. on aggression used two observers to check the
reliability of the observations. Bandura found a correlation of 0.89 when
judging pre-existing levels of aggression and ‘high inter-score reliabilities
in the 0.90s’ in the test for delayed imitation.
• In the study by Piliavin et al., the two observers in the subway carriage
recorded different things and so the reliability of their observations (i.e.
inter-rater reliability) could not be checked.
Cross check
Bandura et al., page 26
Piliavin et al., page 36
Advantages of reliability
• If a reliable experimental study is replicated exactly, we would expect to
achieve very similar results.
• If an observation has high inter-rater reliability, it means that two or more
observers are agreed on how behaviour should be categorised.
• If a questionnaire is reliable then it is consistent in its measurement.
Validity (ecological, generalisability,
subjective and objective)
If I devised an intelligence test, how would I know whether it was accurately
measuring intelligence? How would I know if my test was valid? If a person
scored an IQ of 120 on my test and an IQ of 120 on an existing test, then
because the existing test measures intelligence, so must my test. I conclude
that my test is valid.
There are several different types of validity:
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• Construct validity sees how the measure matches up with theoretical ideas
about what it is supposed to be measuring.
• Criterion validity compares the measure with some other measure. If the
other measure is assessed at roughly the same time as the original one, then
the type of criterion validity being applied is concurrent validity; if it is
taken much later, then it is predictive validity.
• Predictive validity is used to see if a measure can predict a future
outcome. For example, is IGCSE score a valid predictor of A Level
results?
• Face validity is the degree to which a test or measure appears superficially
as though it probably measures what it is supposed to.
Expert tip
Know the difference between reliability and validity. Never write ‘and
this improves the reliability and validity’ without saying why. Show
you understand both terms and can apply them.
Now test yourself
38 What is meant by the term ‘validity’?
39 What is the difference between construct validity and predictive
validity?
Answers on pp.195–6
Example of studies checking validity
Baron-Cohen et al. checked the validity of words/foils for each set of eyes.
The words were initially chosen by two of the authors and judged by a fourmale and four-female member team. At least five of the judges had to agree
that a particular word was the correct one.
Ecological validity (and mundane realism)
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If the place where a study is conducted is close to (or is) real life, we say that
it is high in ecological validity and we can generalise from it because
behaviour is natural and normal. However, studies with low ecological
validity cannot be used to generalise because they are less true to real life.
Experiments low in ecological validity may be of limited value in
psychology. If a study is a laboratory experiment, ecological validity will be
low. If an experiment is a field experiment then ecological validity will be
higher. However, a field experiment may mean that there are fewer controls.
One way of achieving high ecological validity and achieving a high level of
control is to make the study unethical.
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Mundane realism is whether the task that participants are required to do is
something they would normally do in real life. If mundane realism is high
then again we can generalise from it because behaviour is natural and normal;
studies that have low mundane realism have limited value.
Examples of studies high and low in ecological validity/mundane
realism
• The study by Milgram is low in ecological validity because it was
conducted in a laboratory. It is also low in mundane realism because giving
electric shocks to another person is not something people do in everyday
life.
• In the study by Pepperberg, it isn’t a natural task for a parrot to distinguish
between colours, shapes and materials, and so this suffers from a lack of
mundane realism.
Cross check
Milgram, page 33
Pepperberg, page 31
Advantages of high ecological validity/mundane realism
• If a study is located in a real-life setting, participants are more likely to
behave ‘normally’. There are less likely to be demand characteristics,
meaning that, since the participant is not conscious of being studied, there
will be no pressure on him/her to perform in a certain way.
• if a study is based on real life, it is more likely that strong generalisations
can be made.
Problems when trying to achieve high ecological
validity/mundane realism
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• It may be impossible, on a practical level, to create a real-life situation or to
make something happen naturally.
• Similarly, it may be very difficult to make the task that participants are
required to do (such as when in a brain scanner) a real-life task.
• There may be a lack of control over confounding variables. Experimenters
cannot control all variables; they may not be able to isolate one variable
from many others.
Now test yourself
40 What is the difference between ecological validity and mundane
realism?
Answers on p.196
Generalisations
One of the aims of psychology is to apply the findings of research to people
other than those who participated in the research. This is known as
generalisation. Generalisations are more likely with biological studies
(because human biology is the same for all), whereas they are less likely with
social studies where society has an influence on us. How do people behave in
a restaurant? Shank and Abelson (1973) argued that we all have a very
similar mental ‘script’ of how we behave in a restaurant, so wherever we are
in the world we follow the same script of entering, sitting, ordering, eating,
paying and leaving.
Examples of generalisations in psychological research
• Dement and Kleitman used only five participants in their study on sleep
and dreaming, but this was not a weakness of the study because sleeping is
something that every human does and findings from the study can be
generalised.
• Five chimpanzees participated in the Yamamoto et al. study. They were
bred in captivity and housed in a laboratory. The extent to which the
findings of this study can be generalised to other chimpanzees, especially
those not in captivity, is very limited.
Cross check
Dement and Kleitman., page 12
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Advantages of making generalisations
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Yamamoto et al., page 40
• Generalisations focus on the similarities between us and, arguably, take a
nomothetic approach to psychology (i.e. one that focuses on the common
features shared by human beings) rather than an idiographic approach (i.e.
focusing on what makes each of us unique).
• It means we can predict how people are likely to behave in a particular
situation.
• It can simplify complex behaviour.
• It helps most people to interact successfully in society – following ‘scripts’.
Now test yourself
41 What is a ‘generalisation’?
42 What generalisation can be made from the study by Schachter
and Singer?
Answers on p.196
Disadvantages of making generalisations
• The sample size of the original study might be very small or not very
representative (i.e. the sample is restricted in some way).
• The findings of studies performed in one country cannot be generalised to
all countries. This would be ethnocentric (show cultural bias).
• A study might be laboratory-based and so might not apply to a real-life
situation. The study might involve some artificial task and so might not
apply to real-life behaviour.
• Generalising assumes a nomothetic approach, i.e. it is concerned with rules
and predictability, and so disregards important individual differences.
Objective and subjective data
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Data that are objective are not under the control or cannot be influenced by
the individual from whom data are being gathered. If a person is being
observed without their knowledge then the data are objective; if data are
gathered about a physiological process, such as a brain scan, then the data are
objective. Subjective data are based on personal feelings or judgements. If a
person is interviewed or answers a questionnaire then that person can answer
in any way that he or she chooses, and this may be influenced by demand
characteristics, be a socially desirable answer, or could simply not be the
truth. It is often assumed that quantitative data are objective. Some are and
some aren’t. Some questionnaires use a rating scale, so in response to a
question a person may score ‘4’. This is quantitative but it is subjective
because the person can say ‘4’ or whatever number he or she chooses.
Cross check
Canli et al., page 10
Saavedra and Silverman, page 29
Expert tip
Don’t assume quantitative data are objective and qualitative data are
subjective. Some types of quantitative data are subjective.
Examples of objective and subjective data in psychological
research
• Canli et al. collected objective data when they scanned the brains of their
participants. That the amygdala is activated when emotional pictures are
viewed is fact and not something that can be changed by a participant.
• Saavedra and Silverman used an interview with responses on a ‘feelings
thermometer’. These data are subjective as the boy with the button phobia
gave his own personal judgement as to which number on the scale
represented his feelings. Those data, though, were quantitative.
Now test yourself
43 Give an example of quantitative data that are objective.
44 Give an example of quantitative data that are subjective.
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Answers on p.196
3 Approaches and issues and
debates
3.1 Approaches
An approach is an area of research characterised by a particular focus or by a
particular set of themes, outlooks or types of explanation; is a particular view
as to why and how we think, feel and behave as we do. It. There are four
approaches on the syllabus:
•
•
•
•
biological
cognitive
learning
social
What follows in this section is a definition and brief explanation of each
approach followed by advantages/strengths and then
disadvantages/weaknesses. Examples from the core studies are also given.
The biological approach
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Examples of the biological approach
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The biological approach concerns the role of genetics, hormones, brain
function, neurotransmitters. It is assumed that all humans and animals
function physiologically and that processes, such as hormone release and
brain activity, determine behaviour (i.e. biological determinism). It is also
assumed that human physiological functioning is the same in all cultures; a
cultural universal. This approach assumes that physiological processes can be
measured objectively and reliably using recording devices such as EEG,
fMRI, etc. These data are objective, so they are more scientific than a selfreport. The approach uses the experimental method, with scientific apparatus
and controls to try to determine cause and effect.
• The study by Canli et al. investigated the role of the amygdala (a structure
in the medial temporal lobe) in the experience of emotion when viewing
emotionally intense stimuli.
• The study by Schachter and Singer shows that although we are often
determined by our ‘biology’, there are many processes that interact with
each other, and emotion is a perfect example. The research by Schachter
and Singer showed that a physiological response needs a cognitive
interpretation before it is labelled as a particular emotion.
Cross check
Canli et al., page 10
Schachter and Singer, page 15
Strengths of the biological approach
• It involves direct observation (such as brain activity), so it is more
scientific than a self-report, which is open to bias from the participant.
• It uses the experimental method, with scientific apparatus and controls to
try to determine cause and effect.
• The use of recording devices (apparatus) provides consistent (reliable)
measurement. For example, an ECG provides a reliable measure of heart
rate.
• Human physiological functioning is the same in all cultures.
Now test yourself
1 Give one assumption of the biological approach.
2 Explain why the study by Canli et al. is an example of the
biological approach.
Answers on p.196
Weaknesses of the biological approach
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• It is often reductionist – can we reduce complex intentions and emotions to
a part of the brain/physiological processes?
• The findings often show associations (or correlation), but we cannot
assume cause and effect.
• The apparatus used may provide false or misleading information – the data
may be reliable but are not necessarily valid.
• Subjective (qualitative) data tend not to be used, but can be of equal
importance.
Expert tip
Link approaches with issues and debates. For example, link the
biological approach with the issue of reductionism, or with
determinism and the nature versus nurture debate for A Level. It can
also be linked with the cognitive approach, as in the studies by
Schachter and Singer, and Piliavin et al.
The cognitive approach
Cognitive psychology concerns the mind – thinking (rationally and
irrationally), solving problems, perceiving, making sense of and
understanding the world, using and making sense of language; and
remembering and forgetting. The main assumption of the cognitive
approach is that how we think is central in explaining how we behave and
how we respond to different people and different situations. Another
assumption is that the cognitive approach sees a human as rather like a
complicated computer – information enters the mind (input), it is processed
and stored, and it is sometimes used again later (output) through
remembering or responding to a situation.
Examples of the cognitive approach
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• Andrade focused on whether the cognitive process of concentration could
be improved by doodling. In her study she found that the participants in the
doodling group had higher memory scores for recall of both names and
places than those in the control group.
• Laney et al. successfully implanted a false memory for the liking of
asparagus, showing that our cognitive processes are not perfect, and are not
like a ‘tape-recorder’ which can be replayed. Laney et al.’s research shows
there are real consequences for participants.
Cross check
Andrade, page 17
Laney et al., page 23
Expert tip
Know the strengths and weaknesses of the cognitive approach, and
also know two assumptions.
Strengths of the cognitive approach
• The cognitive approach typically uses the experimental method, i.e.
manipulation of an IV, and so it is scientific.
• This approach deals with the mind, which many psychologists would say is
central to any understanding of human psychology.
• It is the part of psychology that genuinely engages in how we think.
Weaknesses of the cognitive approach
• Some psychologists say that this approach is less scientific, as we cannot
observe the subject matter directly – we are just inferring or guessing how
people think or process information.
• The analogy to information processors is too reductionist. It does not give
account of other factors or levels of explanation, e.g. social, emotional or
behavioural.
• It assumes all people’s cognitive processes are the same. Thus, this
approach does not account for individual differences.
Now test yourself
3 Outline what is meant by the cognitive approach in psychology.
4 Give a weakness of the cognitive approach.
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The learning approach
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Answers on p.196
One of the main assumptions of the learning approach is that all behaviour
is learned (nurture) through experience and nothing is inherited (nature).
Another is the view that the subject matter of psychology should have
standardised procedures, with an emphasis on the study of observable
behaviour (which is why people advocating this view are ‘behaviourists’)
that can be measured objectively, rather than a focus on the mind or
consciousness. The learning approach explains phobias and many mental
illnesses and a range of behavioural therapies developed from this approach.
• Classical conditioning theory was outlined by Pavlov, where a dog would
associate a previously neutral object (e.g. a bell) with a positive event (e.g.
receiving food) so that in the future the dog would salivate when hearing
the bell because of the expectation of receiving food.
• Operant conditioning theory (Skinner) is based on the principle that if the
consequences of a behaviour are good, we are more likely to repeat that
behaviour, whereas if the consequences of a behaviour are neutral (or
negative), we are much less likely to repeat it.
• Social learning theory was outlined by Bandura, who believed that
humans learn through observing other people’s behaviour (and the
consequences they receive for their actions).
Examples of the learning approach
• Saavedra and Silverman show how phobias can be learned by association.
The boy tried to take buttons from a bowl on a teacher’s desk, but slipped
and the bowl fell on him. His avoidance of buttons got worse and he
avoided wearing clothes with buttons, especially his school uniform. After
4 years, treatment was needed.
• The study by Pepperberg shows how animals can learn through a form of
observational learning. In this case what is called the model/rival technique
is used. However, it shows that learning is possible and supports the
nurture rather than the nature side of that debate.
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Cross check
Expert tip
Link approaches, issues and debates. For example, link the learning
approach with nature versus nurture (for AS), and determinism and
reductionism (for A Level).
Strengths of the learning approach
• The original learning approach focused on observable data, typically using
the experimental method, and rejected the role of cognitive factors.
• This approach claims to explain how all humans and animals learn (by
association, consequences or imitation).
• The approach explains how many mental illnesses (such as phobias) are
acquired and also explains how such illnesses can be treated.
Now test yourself
5 Give an assumption of the learning approach, using an example.
6 Give one everyday application of the learning approach.
Answers on p.196
Weaknesses of the learning approach
• Learning is much wider than the original behaviourist view and now
considers the essential role of cognitive factors.
• To focus only on learning to explain behaviour is reductionist, and
although this is also a strength, it is a weakness because behaviour is
influenced by many more factors such as the people with whom we
interact, and our ‘biology’.
The social approach
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Social psychologists look at the numerous complex issues that surround
human interactions and human relationships. One assumption is that
individual behaviour can only be understood in relation to other people. A
second is how individual behaviour can be modified by social contexts
(situations) that both frame and direct the individual’s actions and
experiences. We like to think that we are true to ourselves in what we do and
say, and that we only follow everyone else when we want to. However, we
may be more susceptible to social influence than we think. The social
approach would say we can only understand people in the context of how
they operate in their interactions and perceptions of others. So what about
animals? Do animals interact socially? The study by Yamamoto et al.
provides a fascinating insight.
Examples of the social approach
• The study by Yamamoto et al. shows that the behaviour (and cognitions) of
animals, as well as humans, can be influenced by social interactions with
others.
• The study by Milgram is a good example of the extent to which many
people have accepted the role of an authority figure in society and obey on
command. Just because they were told to, most of his participants gave
electric shocks they thought were real to another person. That said, some of
the participants did not continue, showing that the decision an individual
makes can be independent of the situation they are in.
Cross check
Yamamoto et al., page 40
Milgram, page 33
Strengths of the social approach
Expert tip
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• We can see how our behaviour is determined by those around us and the
society in which we interact (e.g. we can understand what processes are at
play in group situations).
• We can discover how we are likely to behave in social situations. We
follow a script we have learned from society about society.
• It tends to be a ‘holist’ approach (i.e. not reductionist), as it usually looks at
different levels of explanation.
social approach with the issue of individual and situational
explanations.
Weaknesses of the social approach
• Social knowledge may become redundant as societies change – i.e. what is
true now may not be true in the future.
• Social behaviour is necessarily culture bound. Therefore a study conducted
in one culture may say little or nothing about any other culture.
• Because social behaviour is very complex, studying it is difficult in terms
of controlling all the variables.
• Problems include distinguishing individual from situational influences, and
ensuring that the social behaviour observed is ecologically valid.
Now test yourself
7 Give an assumption of the social approach.
8 Give one weakness of the social approach.
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Answers on p.196
3.2 Issues and debates
What is an issue and what is a debate? An issue is simply a (single) topic for
discussion whereas a debate is a topic for discussion with two opposing
viewpoints. The use of children in psychological research is an issue to be
discussed whereas the nature versus nurture debate has two opposing
viewpoints.
The application of psychology to everyday life
This refers to the contribution that psychology makes to human welfare.
Miller (1969) argued that psychology should aim to improve people’s quality
of life, and that it should be useful to everyone. In psychology, some research
is clearly much more useful than other research. Some research naturally
lends itself to real-life applications and improvements, for example advice on
the best way to raise and educate children, promote health, and diagnose and
treat mental illnesses.
Expert tip
As ‘usefulness’ (or application to everyday life) will be commonly
asked in examinations, it is essential that you know at least one way
in which all 12 core studies have a useful application. Add this to
your list of things to do. Further, rather than everyone in the class
having the same example, impress the examiner and think of your
own!
Strengths of useful psychological research
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• If research is useful, it can be of benefit to society. It can improve the world
in which we live, e.g. in understanding crime, mental illness and how
students can learn more effectively.
• It helps us to understand social behaviour, our interactions with others,
obedience, etc.
• If research is useful to many people, it enhances the value and status of
psychology as a subject.
Expert tip
Is a study useful or not? This is sometimes difficult to decide and it
may be a matter of opinion. Your opinion. Which studies do you think
are useful and which studies do you think are less useful?
Problems when trying to conduct useful psychological research
• A study must be ethical – participants should give informed consent and
not be deceived. But a study may need to be unethical to be truly useful,
such as the Milgram study.
• A study should be ecologically valid. Studies conducted in a laboratory
may not be useful as they are low in ecological validity. Studies involving
tasks that are not true to real life may be less useful.
• A study should use a representative sample (not too small or restricted, e.g.
to males or students) and be generalisable. Useful research should apply
worldwide so there is no ethnocentrism.
Now test yourself
9 What is good about useful research? Give three benefits.
10 Psychologists want their research to be useful. Outline two
methodological problems psychologists should address if they
want their research to be useful.
Answers on p.196
Individual and situational explanations
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Individual and situational explanations refer to the way that we describe the
cause of a behaviour as being due to something in that person (individual or
dispositional) or as a response to the situation that they are in (situational).
An individual (dispositional) explanation for an event will look to some
feature or characteristic in the person themselves, whereas a situational
explanation will look at the wider context – the social group, the environment
or even other people influencing our behaviour.
Examples of studies with individual and situational explanations
• The classic example is the Milgram study. Many participants continued to
450 volts because of the situation they were in. It was too powerful for
them to ignore, so they obeyed. However, some participants stopped before
450 volts because their individuality allowed them to refuse to obey the
demands of the authority figure and the situation they were in.
• Piliavin et al. found that the situation participants were in, a face-to-face
event, led them to help the drunk/ill victim. However, the model of
response to emergency situations suggests that people individually weigh
up the costs and benefits before deciding whether to help or not.
Cross check
Milgram, page 33
Piliavin et al., page 36
Strengths of studying individual and situational explanations
• If we can discover which behaviours are individually determined and
which are situationally determined, such findings may be useful for
society.
• Discovering that behaviour may involve a complex interaction between
individual and situational factors opens up new directions for further study.
• Reminding ourselves of the power of the situation can help prevent us from
blaming people for their behaviour.
Now test yourself
11 What is meant by a ‘dispositional’ explanation of behaviour?
12 Name two studies where the situation participants were in may
have caused their behaviour.
Answers on p.196
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Problems when studying individual and situational explanations
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• It can be difficult to separate the effects of a situation from the disposition
of a participant.
• How can situations be investigated? If investigated in a laboratory there is
low ecological validity; if investigated in a natural setting the situation may
be difficult to control.
• Rather than individual or situational factors being exclusive alternatives,
there may be a complex interaction between the two.
Nature versus nurture
This debate focuses on whether particular behaviours are innate (inborn or
genetically determined) – i.e. nature, or whether they are acquired through
experience and the influence of the environment – nurture. In the past
psychologists would support one extreme or the other and although there are
some who still subscribe to such extremist views, the ‘modern’ version
considers what percentage is inherited and what is learned.
Examples of studies relating to the nature and nurture debate
• The study by Bandura et al. supports the behaviourists’ belief that all
behaviour is learned (i.e. nurture). Bandura proposed social learning theory
to explain how children learn from adults. The learning environment is
crucial for the child. If there is aggression in an environment, a child will
observe and copy it, whereas if there is no aggression, a child cannot see it
and so cannot imitate it. This is environmental determinism.
• The study by Pepperberg also provides evidence for the nurture side of this
debate. Alex, an African grey parrot, was clearly able to distinguish
between ‘same’ and ‘different’ after observing a human model.
Expert tip
Nurture can be linked to the learning approach, and both nature and
nurture link to reductionism (for A Level).
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Cross check
Strengths of studying nature and nurture
• The distinction can help us identify which behaviours are inherited or
learned, or allow us to consider the relative contributions of inheritance and
learning.
• It can be valuable to discover that some behaviours are due to nature and
not to inappropriate upbringing by parents.
Now test yourself
13 Prepare for A Level: Why are both the nature and nurture
arguments deterministic?
14 Prepare for A Level: Why are both the nature and nurture
arguments reductionist?
Answers on p.196
Problems when studying nature and nurture
• It is too simplistic to divide explanations into either nature or nurture, as
the two often combine in complex ways to influence behaviour.
• Discovering that a particular behaviour or capacity (e.g. intelligence) is
inherited might lead to the assumption that much more behaviour is
inherited, while failing to consider the effects of the environment. This
could encourage eugenics.
The use of children in psychological research
Some people view children as miniature adults, but in reality they are very
different. One question is to what extent can we generalise from children to
adults. Piaget suggested that children under 11 years think differently from
adults and perhaps they learn differently too.
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If children are used in any study, there are advantages and disadvantages in
studying them, such as whether they understand the instructions and whether
the researcher understands what the child really means by an answer, rather
than making an assumption. There are also ethical problems, because a child
under 16 years can never give full informed consent. Longitudinal studies
with children allow us to see how they grow, develop and change.
Examples of studies using children
• Bandura et al. studied how behaviour is learned (using aggression as an
example). The children were aged between 37 and 69 months. Consent was
given by the classroom teacher (who observed the children).
• Saavedra and Silverman studied a 9-year-old boy with a button phobia.
Consent was given by the mother of the boy and she participated in some
of his treatment sessions.
Cross check
Bandura et al., page 26
Saavedra and Silverman, page 29
Advantages of studying children
• It is important to study children because they represent the most important
and formative period of human development. What happens in early life
can determine many things in adult life.
• By understanding children’s thoughts and behaviour, it might help us to
understand adults’ thoughts and behaviour.
• In some ways, children are better participants than adults as they are naive
and can be more open and truthful.
Expert tip
Know the strengths and weaknesses of the use of children in
psychological studies. Studies using children as participants come
from many different approaches.
Disadvantages when studying children
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• Children might not understand the task or the complex language of an
experimenter.
• An experimenter might misinterpret what a child says or how the child
behaves.
• Children under 16 years cannot give informed consent and, if debriefed,
they might be too young to understand. Children might be more prone to
harm or longer-term effects.
• Children might be more prone to demand characteristics – i.e. wanting to
please the researcher.
• Studies of child development need to be longitudinal.
Now test yourself
15 Give three reasons why we should study children.
Answers on p.197
The use of animals in psychological research
Some people argue that animals are no different from humans; they just don’t
have the same influence of society and so we can study much of their
behaviour unimpeded. For example, the brain structures involved in eating
behaviour are located in the same brain region in many higher-species
animals as they are in humans. However, some people argue that animals are
different and that what we know about animals cannot be generalised to
humans. As always, some things can be generalised and some things cannot.
There is also the question of how we can best study animals: in a laboratory
(e.g. Pavlov and Skinner) or in a natural environment?
Examples of studies using animals
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• Pepperberg studied Alex the parrot, showing that Alex understood the
difference between ‘same’ and ‘different’ when having to discriminate
colour, shape and material, which is a complex cognitive skill. As in the
study by Yamamoto et al. below, Alex was kept in a laboratory
environment; it would not be possible to study the complex cognitive
capacity of any animal in a natural environment.
• Yamamoto et al. studied the flexible targeted helping behaviour of five
chimpanzees. It was discovered that the chimpanzees could understand the
needs of other chimpanzees by applying flexible targeted helping, which is
an advanced cognitive process. When the helper could see the partner’s
needs they were significantly more likely to select the correct tool (stick or
straw).
Cross check
Pepperberg, page 31
Yamamoto et al., page 40
Advantages of studying animals
• Animal research can give us insight into human behaviour, such as animal
navigation systems.
• It is easier to do longitudinal studies on animals because their life cycle is
shorter than in humans.
• It can tell us what is similar and what is different between humans and
animals.
Disadvantages when studying animals
• We can only observe the way animals behave. We cannot ask about reasons
for behaviour or about feelings.
• The behaviour of animals is more biologically determined; humans are
more influenced by culture and society (or so we think).
• There are limitations on what can be studied in a natural environment and
what can be studied in a laboratory.
Can we generalise from animals to humans?
There are some instances and behaviours that we can generalise. For
example, we know how motivation centres with regard to hunger and thirst
work; we know animals become stressed in crowded conditions just like
humans. We learn about human navigation by studying how animals wayfind. On the other hand, the behaviour of animals is more biologically
determined; humans are more capable of adaptation and adjustment to their
environment.
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16 Should animals be studied in a laboratory or in the natural
environment? Answer in relation to controls and ecological
validity.
17 Can we generalise from animals to humans?
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Now test yourself
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4 AS examination
guidance/questions and
answers
4.1 AS examination guidance
The AS examination is divided into two papers: Paper 1 Approaches, issues
and debates and Paper 2 Research methods
Paper 1 Approaches, issues and debates
Paper 1 lasts for 90 minutes, is worth 60 marks, and consists of short-answer
questions and an essay question about the core studies and how the
approaches, issues and debates apply to the studies. Although the paper is not
divided into different sections, five different question types can be identified.
All questions are compulsory.
Type 1 questions
These are short-answer questions about specific details of the 12 core studies
and consist of:
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• Name/identify questions: these are worth just 1 mark and require a oneline answer with no detail or elaboration. Sometimes ‘2 for 2’ questions ask
for two things to be identified, worth 1 mark each.
• Outline/describe/explain questions: these require more than a one-line
answer and to score full marks a little detail or elaboration beyond the basic
answer is needed. Sometimes ‘2 for 4’ questions ask for two things to be
outlined/described/explained, worth 2 marks each.
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Examination preparation: there will usually be four questions of this type,
some with a part (a) and part (b) with varying mark allocations, but 16 marks
in total. Spend approximately 24 minutes on these questions.
Expert tip
For the part (a) ‘identify’ questions, very little detail is needed, but for
the ‘outline’ and ‘describe’ questions, more detail is needed. Give
sufficient detail to guarantee full marks. For part (b), again give
sufficient detail.
You will need to learn all the details of all 12 core studies. These questions
are knowledge recall questions, and the more accurate you are, the more
marks you will score.
Type 2 questions
These questions are about outlining/describing/explaining the method or
methodological aspect of a named core study.
They could include part (a) ‘define terms’ or ‘outline theory’, followed by
part (b) asking whether the results of the study support the term/theory or not.
Alternatively, the question could (a) ask for an outline of part of a procedure
of a named study, and (b) ask about the reasons why a particular aspect of a
procedure was followed.
Examination preparation: you are required to answer two questions of this
type: one worth 6 marks in total and one worth 8 marks in total. Spend
approximately 21 minutes on these two questions.
For part (a), learn the procedure of all 12 core studies. For part (b), don’t just
learn the procedure, think about the reasons why certain things were done by
the researchers. For example, think about why Dement and Kleitman used a
doorbell.
Expert tip
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For part (a) describe the procedure (or whatever is asked) in
sufficient detail to score full marks. Do not leave any aspect out. Be
careful to start your description at the specific point that is identified
in the question. Do not write about any other aspect because it won’t
score any marks. For part (b), you should apply your methodological
knowledge. Write about standardised instructions and controls,
explaining any decision the researchers might have made to make
the study better, e.g. controlling extraneous variables.
Type 3 questions
These questions are about how a named approach/issue/debate relates to a
named core study. You will (a) be asked for an assumption about an approach
(or issue or debate), and (b) be asked to describe how a named core study
from the named approach is relevant. Finally, in part (c), you will be asked
for a real-world application of the approach.
Examination preparation: you are required to answer one question of this
type. The question will be divided into 3 or 4 parts, each worth between 2 and
4 marks. The total mark will be 8, so spend approximately 12 minutes on this
question type.
For part (a), learn two assumptions from each approach, and ‘what is meant
by’ for each issue and debate. For part (b), think about how each core study
relates to each approach and all the issues and debates. For part (c), prepare a
real-world application for each core study.
Expert tip
For part (a), give an assumption and an example; there are marks for
each. For part (b), make it clear how the approach and the study are
related to each other. For part (c), explain your application clearly –
don’t be too brief, leaving the examiner guessing what your
suggestion is.
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Type 4 questions
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These questions are about the methodology of a named core study and how it
is similar to, and different from, another core study. Part (a) generally asks
you to describe an aspect of the method in the named study, such as the
apparatus or materials used, the procedure or the questions participants are
asked. Part (b) asks for a similarity and a difference between the named study
and a study from the same approach, although this could vary.
Examination preparation: you are required to answer one question of this
type. Part (a) is worth 4 marks and part (b) 8 marks. The total mark will be
12, so spend approximately 18 minutes on this question type.
Part (a) requires knowledge recall from all 12 core studies. Part (b) requires
similarities and differences, so it is worth thinking about these well in
advance of the examination. Think about similarities and differences in the
methods that were used, the participants, and specifics like the experimental
design.
Expert tip
Part (a) will require description from any of the core studies. Part (b)
is worth up to 8 marks, 4 marks for the similarity and 4 marks for the
difference. The best technique is to state the similarity and then to
explain how it relates to the first study followed by an explanation of
how it relates to the second study. The same format is then repeated
for the difference.
Type 5 questions
These questions ask for an evaluation of a named core study in terms of two
strengths and weaknesses, and one strength or weakness must be about a
named issue or debate, or method.
Examination preparation: you are required to answer one question of this
type. It is allocated 10 marks, so you should spend approximately 15 minutes
on the answer.
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You can prepare and learn two strengths and two weaknesses of all 12 core
studies before the examination. You cannot prepare for the named
issue/debate/method; instead you will have to think about this and apply it in
the examination. You will know about these issues/debates/methods because
of other questions.
Expert tip
As the question is worth 10 marks, your answer should be
reasonably detailed. To achieve top marks, the answer must include
four evaluation points. Three evaluation points can be of your choice,
but at least one must be specifically about the named issue. If you do
not write about the named issue, you will fail to score marks.
Paper 2 Research methods
Paper 2 lasts for 90 minutes, is worth 60 marks, and consists of short-answer
questions, scenario-based questions and a design-based question on research
methods and how research methods apply to core studies. The paper is
divided into three sections.
Section A
Section A contains short-answer questions about research methods and
methodological aspects, some of which are based on the methodology of the
12 core studies.
Examination preparation: Section A carries 22 marks and may have 4, 5 or
6 compulsory questions, depending on how many marks are allocated to each
individual question. Approximately 35 minutes should be spent on this
section.
You will need to learn about the five main research methods and all the
methodological aspects from the syllabus, and you will need to know how the
methodology applies to each core study.
Expert tip
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Marks allocated to the Section A questions vary from 1 to 6 marks.
Questions worth just 1 mark require a one-line answer with no detail
or elaboration. Questions worth 2 marks require more detail and
might need two things to be identified (or outlined), worth 1 mark
each. There is often a question worth 6 marks and this asks for
strengths and weaknesses or similarities and differences (both sides
are plural) between two different methods or aspects of methodology.
1 mark is allocated for a definition, for a similarity or difference, and
for examples.
Section B
Section B contains short-answer, scenario-based questions about applying
research methods and methodological aspects to scenarios unrelated to the
core studies.
Examination preparation: Section B carries 24 marks and always has three
compulsory questions. Approximately 35 minutes should be spent on this
section. Marks allocated to the questions vary from 1 to 4 marks for each
question part.
As for Section A, you will need to learn about the research methods and
methodological aspects from the syllabus. You will have to apply what you
know to a scenario for which you have not prepared. The best preparation
therefore is to answer as many different questions as you can to see how you
manage this type of question. The more you try, the better you will become.
Expert tip
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In these three questions you will have to think! They are not about
writing knowledge you have memorised; instead you have to apply
your knowledge to something new. Questions worth just 1 mark
require a one-line answer with no detail or elaboration. Questions
worth 2 marks require more detail and might need two things to be
identified (or outlined), worth 1 mark each.
Section C contains one compulsory question about designing a study of your
own and considering its limitations. It will involve applying your knowledge
of research methods and methodological aspects to a given scenario.
Examination preparation: Section C carries 14 marks and approximately 20
minutes should be spent on it. Part (a) carries 10 marks and asks you to
design a study, based on a given scenario, and using a named method
(questionnaire, laboratory experiment, etc).
For the named method, there are a number of specific features that you
should include, for example:
• For experiments: type, IV, DV, controls, experimental design.
• For questionnaires/interviews: type, setting, example questions,
scoring/rating scale, analysis of responses.
• For observations: type, setting, response categories, sampling frame,
number of observers.
In addition, your design should include general methodological aspects such
as the sampling technique and details of the sample, the type of data, ethical
considerations, reliability, validity and data analysis.
Your design does not need to include all these features to score full marks –
five specific or general features described in reasonable detail will be
sufficient.
Again, you will need to learn about the research methods and methodological
aspects from the syllabus. You will have to apply what you know to a
scenario for which you have not prepared. To prepare, try answering as many
different practice questions as you can. The more you try, the better you will
become. In part (b), you have to suggest a limitation of your design, so ensure
you have a number of possibilities that you can use.
Expert tip
This ‘formula’ of what to include in your answer also applies to the A
Level questions appearing on Paper 4.
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Part (b) asks you to evaluate your design and suggest how it could
be resolved. Your evaluation could be in relation to a practical or
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methodological limitation, or an aspect of the procedure of your
study. 4 marks are allocated to this question part.
4.2 AS questions and answers
This section contains exam-style questions followed by example answers.
The answers are followed by expert comments (shown by the icon
) that
indicate where
credit is due. In the weaker answers, they also point out areas for
improvement, specific problems and common errors such as lack of clarity,
weak or non-existent development, irrelevance, misinterpretation of the
question and mistaken meanings of terms.
Paper 1 Approaches, issues and debates
Question 1
(a) Identify two features of the sample in the study by Canli et
al.
[2]
(b) Describe how the equipment was used in the study by
Dement and Kleitman on sleep and dreaming.
[4]
Answer A
(a) Right-handed, female
This is a correct answer and scores 1 mark for ‘right-handed’ and 1
mark for ‘female’. For this type of question there is no need to add any more
detail.
(b) The equipment included EEG, EOG, EMG and a taperecorder.
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The weakness here is that the candidate identifies items of equipment but
does not describe how they were used, as the question asks. The items
identified are correct, but without description of what they are or what they
do, a maximum of 2 marks can be awarded. Note that EMG, which records
muscle movement, is incorrect because it was not used in this study.
Answer B
(a) The female participants were chosen by opportunity sample.
This is a partially correct answer. 1 mark is scored for ‘female’ but
‘opportunity sample’ is incorrect for two reasons. First, the question asks
about the sample and not the sampling technique. You should know the
difference between these two. Second, the study states that participants
volunteered but it isn’t known how they volunteered. If a study doesn’t state
the technique then do not guess.
(b) The electrodes of an EEG (electroencephalogram) were
connected to the scalp of the participant, and electrodes of an
EOG were connected around the eyes. Both of these were
connected to the EEG machine in the room next door. The EEG
records the electrical activity of the brain and the EOG records
eye movement. A doorbell was used to wake up the participant,
giving a loud and standardised sound. A tape-recorder was also
used so that the precise details of any dream could be recorded
immediately on waking up.
This answer identifies four different pieces of equipment, the EEG, EOG,
tape-recorder and doorbell. The answer includes a description of how each is
used, and there is ample detail here to score the full 4 marks. Note that only
one machine records activity from the different electrodes. If it records ‘brain
waves’, it is called an EEG; if it records eye movement, it is an EOG.
Question 2
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(a) Describe the procedure of the Milgram study from when the
participants arrive at the laboratory until the word-pairs
learning begins.
[4]
(b) Describe why it was important for the researchers to follow
the same procedure.
[2]
Answer A
(a) The participants arrive at the laboratory, and Mr Williams
explains to the two participants that the study is about learning
and memory. He explains that one is to be teacher and the other
is to be learner. They draw lots but this is fixed with the stooge
always being the teacher. To confirm the authenticity, the
teacher is given a 45 volt shock and then the teacher sees the
learner, Mr Wallace being strapped to the electrodes from the
shock generator. The study then begins.
This is a good answer which explains the procedure clearly and in good
detail. Did you spot the error? In the answer it states ‘with the stooge always
being the teacher’ when the stooge (i.e. Mr Wallace) is always the learner.
Although this is incorrect, no answer is negatively marked and a one-word
error will not prevent a maximum mark being awarded.
(b) The answer is that every participant then does the same thing
which makes the study more valid and reliable.
The opening sentence merely repeats the question but adds that it ‘makes
the study more valid and reliable’. This is partially correct but the lack of
elaboration suggests that the candidate doesn’t know what these terms mean
and has just written them because they sound good. Doing this is not a good
idea because without elaboration the terms are meaningless and will score
no marks. If the terms are understood then a little elaboration could lead to
full marks being awarded.
Answer B
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(a) Participants arrive at the laboratory and lots are drawn and each
person is allocated their teacher and learner roles. The learner is
connected to the equipment which will deliver the (fake) shocks
and the study begins. If the teacher wants to stop the study, the
experimenter gives a prod such as ‘please continue’ and the
study continues, either up to 450 volts or when the participant
walks out of the room.
This answer is correct and scores 2 marks out of 4 for ‘drawing lots’ and
‘connected to the equipment’. But the answer then describes the prods and
beyond and this is not asked for in the question. However accurate and
detailed an answer might be, if it is not asked for in the question it will score
no marks, and so there is no point in doing it. Always read the question fully!
(b) It is important that every participant does the same thing
because then extraneous variables do not confound the
experiment. If participants did different things then any result
might be due to those differences, meaning that the study is not
measuring what it claims and it loses its validity.
This answer is written by someone who has studied psychology and
knows the relevant jargon. The answer is sufficient for the full 2 marks.
Compare this answer with that for Answer A above.
Question 3
(a) Give one assumption of the cognitive approach using an
example from a core study.
[2]
(b) Describe how doodling can be explained by the cognitive
approach.
[4]
(c) Outline another real-world application based on this study.
[2]
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Answer A
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(a) One assumption of the cognitive approach is that how we think is
central in explaining how we behave and how we respond to
different people and different situations. This is shown in the
study by Baron-Cohen et al. because people with autism
struggle to think about emotions and this means that they can’t
respond to people in certain emotional situations.
This is an appropriate assumption of the cognitive approach and it
scores 1 mark. The example from the study by Baron-Cohen is really good
because it matches the assumption. The example scores 1 mark, gaining the
full 2 marks overall.
(b) Doodling is a cognitive process because it is a ‘thinking process’.
The study by Andrade raised a good question when asking
whether doodling can aid concentration or whether it hinders it.
Doodling is a cognitive process and the comment is a relevant one, but it
doesn’t answer the question. The answer is worth 1 mark, but no more.
(c) There might be quite a few things that help us to concentrate and
if we can identify them all then we might have more effective
cognitive processing. Similarly there might be things that hinder
our processing which we should identify.
This response doesn’t answer the question that is set either. The
comment is quite right but no actual real-world application is stated. This
answer scores 0 marks.
Answer B
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(a) One assumption is that the cognitive approach sees a human
like a computer — information enters the mind (input), it is
processed and stored, and it is sometimes used again later
(output), through remembering or responding to a situation. The
study by Laney et al. shows how the computer model isn’t quite
right because memory is reconstructive and shows we can
remember things that were not true, such as liking asparagus.
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This is a correct assumption and the answer uses a good example to
support the comment about the approach. Full marks here.
(b) Doodling can help cognitive processing because it can act as a
kind of mind-map or spider diagram. As learning any list is verbal
and as any doodle is visual or pictorial, then the doodle can act
as a ‘back-up’ system. The doodle can act as ‘summary notes’,
or it can act as an ‘aide memoire’ to help the person remember
the details of what they need to remember.
This is a really good, thoughtful answer. There is no detail but the range
of suggestions is impressive, showing that the candidate is thinking about the
doodling study and thinking about how doodling can be used to enhance
cognitive processes. This scores the full 4 marks.
(c) One real world application is that students can use doodles to
help them concentrate. Teachers can suggest this to all students
and then students can develop their own type of doodle which
helps them to concentrate better when they are taking notes in
class.
This is a really good suggestion that could actually be used in the real
world. This answer scores 2/2 without any doubt.
Question 4
Answer A
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(a) Describe the assessment interview given to the boy with a
button phobia and his mother in the study by Saavedra and
Silverman.
[4]
(b) Explain one similarity and one difference between this
study and another study from the learning approach.
[8]
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(a) The assessment interview was the child-parent anxiety disorders
interview schedule. This is a structured interview where the
therapist asks questions about two things: (i) the symptoms of
the disorder which require ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers, and (ii)
questions about whether the symptoms cause clinically
significant impairment. The answers are judged by the therapist
on a ‘feelings thermometer’, a 9-point scale with ‘clinically
significant’ being a score of 4 or more.
This is an appropriately detailed answer and the candidate provides a
number of correct pieces of information. There is the name of the assessment
interview, and it is also stated that it is a structured interview, that there are
two components, plus there is a description of the answers that are required
(yes/no and 9-point scale), and that it is called a ‘feelings thermometer’. In
addition, it is clear that the candidate understands what they are writing
about. This answer scores the full 4 marks because at least four different
points about the procedure are provided.
(b) One similarity is that both studies I will write about are based on
the learning approach. This is obvious, but it is the fact that it
means that no behaviour is inherited that is important. It also
means that the learning environment is important and this is also
evidence for the nurture side of the nature—nurture debate.
Bandura’s study was based on a type of learning called
observational learning, which means that if a child observes a
behaviour, they are likely to copy or imitate that behaviour. In the
study, this is what the children did, copying behaviour they had
seen and not behaving in ways they had not seen. In the
Saavedra study, the type of learning was expectancy learning
because the previously neutral object (the bowl of buttons) was
associated with a potentially threatening negative event (falling
on him) so that he became fearful of the expectation that buttons
were dangerous. Although different, both these are forms of
learning and that is their similarity.
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These two studies are different because of the ways in which
they could be generalised or not. Generalisations are the ways
in which the findings of one study apply to those not involved in
the study. In the Bandura study, there were many children and
what was found (children see, children do) could be generalised,
according to Bandura, to all children and not just for aggression,
but for all behaviours. However, although the principles of
learning a phobia can be generalised, the specifics of any
person’s phobia cannot be generalised. So, it is highly unlikely
that bowls full of buttons fall onto children and if they do, it is
unlikely that they will develop a button phobia. So whereas the
Bandura study has things that can be generalised, the Saavedra
study is quite specific.
This is an impressive answer which shows excellent understanding. The
similarity is well explained and the marks are guaranteed because there is
elaboration where the answer is related to the nature–nurture debate. There
is an example from the Bandura study and there is an example from the
Saavedra study, and these are very detailed. For the similarity, this answer
scores a very clear 4 marks out of 4. The difference is a relevant issue, that of
generalisations. There could be a little more detail here, but it is sufficient.
The example from the Bandura study shows that the candidate understands
what can be generalised. The example from the Saavedra study shows that
the candidate understands what cannot be generalised, hence the difference
between the two, and in addition the candidate makes the excellent point that
the principles underlying the learning of all phobias can be generalised. The
difference plus the example from one study and the example from the other
study give this part of the answer 4 marks. Overall, it scores the full 8 marks.
Answer B
(a) The child is interviewed by a therapist who asks questions about
the disorder. Answers are judged on a feelings thermometer and
the higher the score, the worse the disorder is.
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This answer is quite brief for a question carrying 4 marks. The first
sentence merely repeats the question, so stating that ‘it is an interview by the
therapist’ scores no marks. The candidate is correct in stating that a feelings
thermometer is used and is also correct in stating that the higher the score,
the worse the disorder is. This answer scores 2 marks out of 4.
(b) The similarity between the Saavedra and parrot studies is that
they both show learning. Although they are different types of
learning, it is still learning.
The difference is that Alex is a parrot and the child in the
Saavedra study is not a parrot. There are lots of differences
between humans and animals, but these studies showed that
both can learn.
It is a correct statement that they both show learning, but this is too
obvious and is repeating the question. Unlike Answer A, this answer adds
nothing more, when more is needed to score marks. Note that 4 marks are
allocated for the similarity and 4 marks for the difference, so much more than
one sentence is needed to score top-band marks.
For the difference, it is true that Alex is a parrot rather than a child, but this
is a very basic statement. The answer states that there are lots of differences
between humans and animals, but doesn’t say what any of them are. It also
picks up on the human/animal difference, but any difference could have been
used, such as a methodological difference. This answer scores no marks for
the similarity and no marks for the difference. Answers should be based on
psychological knowledge rather than very basic common sense.
Question 5
Evaluate the study by Bandura et al. in terms of two strengths
and weaknesses. One evaluation point must be about reliability.
[10]
Answer A
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One strength of the study by Bandura et al. is the controls that
were employed. Controlling variables is an essential part of any
experiment because it reduces confounding variables and makes
the result more likely to be due to the independent variable. One
control in the study was that the toys in the third room, the test
room, were always in the same location in the room for every
participant. If they were not, then a different placing may have
suggested more or less aggression to a child. For example, if the
mallet had been left next to the bobo doll for one child then it might
lead to that child being more aggressive than another.
Another strength of the study was the use of inter-rater reliability to
check pre-existing levels of aggression. Interrater reliability is
where two independent people observe the same behaviour and
then later compare their ratings to see if they agree. If they do
agree there is consistency, another word for reliability. In the study,
one observer was the classroom teacher and another observer
was one of the experimenters. They rated each child on four
aspects (e.g. physical aggression and verbal aggression), using a
5-point scale. The level of agreement for pre-existing levels of
aggression using a correlation was +0.89 meaning that the
observations were reliable.
One weakness of the study is that it isn’t true to real life — it was
low in ecological validity. Children don’t normally go somewhere to
observe an unknown adult behave aggressively to a bobo doll, and
they are then not put into a room with toys to play with. It might be
that the results were created by being in that situation and if the
study was repeated in a more natural situation a different result
may have been found.
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Another weakness is that the findings can’t be generalised. The
study was done on just one relatively small group of boys and girls
from one nursery school in one city in the United States. The study
doesn’t automatically generalise to all children in all cultures. Some
cultures are based on co-operation rather than competition and so
aggression would never be used to show Bandura’s theory. That
said, what can be generalised is the idea of ‘children see, children
do’ because all children will copy an adult.
This is a very impressive answer and it scores the full 10 marks. The
marks are gained for one evaluation point about reliability, as the question
requests; and two strengths and two weaknesses, each clearly related to the
study. Although it carries no marks, this candidate shows where each
strength and weakness starts and that is good organisation. On the negative
side, the candidate does get carried away by including unecessary
information. The examiner needs to see the strength and weakness and an
example, but not the full story of each point.
Answer B
One strength is that there were many controls, for example all the
children went through exactly the same procedure. Another
strength is that the model in the first room went through the same
actions in front of each child. One weakness, for example, is that
the bobo doll was always male.
This short answer is not going to receive top-band marks. It scores some
marks for naming a strength, which is ‘controls’, with a correct example.
While this is good, there is no elaboration about why ‘controls’ is a strength.
The second strength given is just another example of controls. An example is
provided for the weakness, but no weakness is stated. And there is nothing on
reliability at all. The answer scores 3 marks because there is a general
strength and an example (2 marks) and the mention of a weakness takes the
mark up to a maximum of 3 marks. What is required for full marks is an
explicitly stated strength (or weakness) with an example to support the
strength (or weakness).
Paper 2 Research methods
Question 6
(a) What is a hypothesis?
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[1]
(b) Write a suitable null hypothesis for the study by Andrade on
doodling.
[2]
Answer
(a) A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the outcome of
a study.
This is a fully correct answer that states exactly what a hypothesis is.
This answer scores 1 mark.
(b) There will be no significant difference in the mean number of
correct names between the doodling and the
nondoodling/control group.
This scores the full 2 marks. The answer begins ‘there will be no
significant difference’ and this is the way a null hypothesis is written. The
answer continues with ‘doodling and non-doodling’ and this is
unambiguously the Andrade study, as the question requests.
Question 7
(a) What is the difference between the sample and the sampling
technique?
[2]
(b) Describe one of the sampling techniques used in the study
by Baron-Cohen et al. to gather participants with autism.
[2]
(c) Give one disadvantage with this sampling technique.
[2]
Answer
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(a) The sample is the people who participate in the study. The
sampling technique is how those participants are selected to
take part in the study.
The question requires two things which are each allocated 1 mark. The
answer has a correct statement about the sample (and scores 1 mark) and it
has a correct statement about the sampling technique (which also scores 1
mark).
(b) One sampling technique was self-selecting sampling where an
advertisement was placed in the Autistic Society magazine and
15 males with autism volunteered to take part.
This answer also scores the full 2 marks. A number of sampling
techniques were used in this study, one of which was self-selecting sampling.
The answer correctly identifies this technique and then adds some additional
detail to guarantee full marks. For example, there are comments about how
the target population heard about the study (the advert in a magazine), how
the participants were volunteers, and how the sample consisted of 15 males
with autism.
(c) One disadvantage is that all the participants were male. Another
disadvantage is that they were all volunteers and they might
have been different in some important way to the people with
autism who decided not to volunteer.
The candidate provides two answers. The first is incorrect and so it is
ignored. It is incorrect because the sample being ‘all male’ is a weakness of
the sample and not the sampling technique. The weakness of ‘this’ sampling
technique (i.e. the one chosen) is that people who self-select are volunteers
and a disadvantage is that they might be different from non-volunteers. Note
that volunteers might be different, but they might not.
Question 8
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Describe the similarities and differences between a controlled
and a naturalistic observation using examples.
[6]
Answer
A controlled observation usually takes place in a laboratory
whereas a naturalistic observation will take place in an
environment that is natural for the participant. The purpose of a
controlled observation is to provide a setting that is standardised
which can be replicated for every participant. The study by
Bandura et al. was a controlled observation with the toys in the test
room always being the same and in the same place for each child.
The idea of a naturalistic observation is to have participants who do
not know they are taking part in a study and so their behaviour is
natural. This was the case in the study by Piliavin et al. where the
participants did not know they were participating or being
observed. In both studies the observations were structured. For
example, Bandura et al. used categories such as ‘imitative verbal
aggression’ and the Piliavin et al. study always timed how long it
took for the first person to help.
There is sufficient in this answer to score the full 6 marks. There is 1
mark for a similarity, 1 mark for one example and 1 mark for a second
example. The same marks are allocated for the difference. The answer also
includes a controlled observation with an example and a naturalistic
observation with an example, from two studies.
Question 9
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Kim thinks that it is the type of doodling that is done that affects
concentration levels. She asks participants firstly to doodle
specific objects and then to doodle anything from their
imagination.
(a) Write a one-tailed (directional) hypothesis for this study.
[2]
(b) Write an appropriate null hypothesis for this study.
[2]
(c) Identify the independent variable in this experiment.
[2]
(d) Suggest how Kim’s ‘concentration levels’ could be
operationalised.
[2]
(e) Suggest what experimental design would be used.
[2]
(f) Give one weaknesses that might arise when using this
design in this study.
[2]
Answer
(a) Specific object doodling will result in significantly higher levels of
concentration than doodling from imagination.
This is a correct one-tailed hypothesis and it scores the full 2 marks. The
answer is telling us that ‘specific object doodling’ will be significantly better
than ‘doodling from imagination’ and this is what makes it directional (or
one-tailed). The wording used in this answer is taken directly from the stem
of the question so there is no ambiguity in what is written.
Answer
(b) There will be no difference between specific object doodling and
doodling from imagination in levels of concentration.
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This is a correct null hypothesis and scores the full 2 marks. It is correct
because it uses the words ‘no difference’. There is no need to state ‘no
significant difference’ because if there is no difference there will
automatically be no significant difference. The words used appear in the
correct order, meaning that ‘there will be no difference’ appear at the start.
It is sometimes argued that the null hypothesis should be written exactly like
the directional hypothesis but with the word ‘no’ inserted. This is not quite
correct. Also note that although the null hypothesis looks like a nondirectional hypothesis, it isn’t. Never think that the null is a non-directional
form of a directional hypothesis.
Answer
(c) The independent variable consists of two conditions: specific
object doodling and doodling from imagination.
The two conditions of the independent variable have been correctly
identified from the words used in the question stem about what Kim thinks.
To do this correctly, you must understand what an independent variable is
and apply to the words in the stem. This answer scores the full 2 marks.
Answer
(d) ‘Concentration levels’ is too vague and something specific and
testable is needed. I would measure the number of names of
food types correctly recalled out of 25.
Again, the answer scores full marks. It isn’t possible to test
‘concentration levels’ because it is too vague and there is nothing to quantify.
If ‘concentration levels’ are operationalised then something directly testable
is needed. In this case, the answer suggests using types of food (although
anything else could have been equally valid) and the number of food types
that could be correctly identified is 25. Note that the directional hypothesis
could now be worded even more precisely – rather than stating ‘result in
significantly higher levels of concentration’ it would be more precise to write
‘result in significantly more food types correctly recalled out of 25’.
Answer
(e) The experimental design would be repeated measures with each
participant taking part in all the conditions of the independent
variable so participant variables are controlled.
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The chosen design was repeated measures and the answer gives a
correct definition. Many candidates think that repeated measures means
repeating the experiment. It does not, so never make this mistake. Repeated
measures means that all participants take part in all the conditions of the
independent variable. Note that an independent measures design could also
have been chosen. This answer scores full marks.
Answer
(f) One weakness is that by using a repeated measures design
there might be a cross-over effect, meaning that the doodling
condition that is first may affect the doodling condition which
comes second and this order effect could confound the results.
Is the result due to the IV or the order of presentation? This
could be resolved either by using counter-balancing or by using
an independent measures design.
One weakness of using repeated measures design is that there might be
order effects. The answer not only explains this but also suggests what the
implication of an order effect is – that of confounding. The answer goes on to
suggest how this can be resolved, although this isn’t required by the question
and gains no marks. The full 2 marks are scored.
Question 10
Tatiana and Mariana are discussing whether sleep deprivation
affects memory recall more in younger or older people.
(a) Design a laboratory experiment to investigate how sleep
deprivation might affect memory recall.
[10]
(b) Identify one weakness with the methodology of your study
and suggest how this methodological weakness could be
resolved.
[4]
Answer
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(a) My study will be conducted in a laboratory, as the question
requests. The independent variable will be sleep deprivation and
no sleep deprivation and the dependent variable will be the
score on a memory test. All participants are shown 25 objects for
3 minutes and asked to memorise them. Participants with no
sleep deprivation will sleep in the laboratory and will sleep for
their normal number of hours. Those deprived of sleep will be
kept awake in the laboratory for 6 hours and allowed to sleep for
only 2 hours. In the morning, both groups will complete a
memory test to recall the number of objects they can remember.
My directional hypothesis will be ‘participants who are not sleep
deprived will recall significantly more objects out of 25 than
participants who are sleep deprived’. The null hypothesis will be
there will be no difference in memory recall scores out of 25
between participants who are sleep deprived and those who are
not. The design will be independent measures because
participants cannot take part in both conditions. The quantitative
data can have the mean difference calculated and a bar chart
can be drawn.
This is an excellent answer. It addresses the question and it uses the
stated method of laboratory experiment. The answer includes at least five
different aspects of methodology: there is an IV, a DV, a hypothesis, a null
hypothesis, an experimental design, a comment about data analysis and a
mention of the sampling technique. What is written about all these features is
correct and the details of the study are consistent and without ambiguity. The
answer has relevant terminology showing good understanding. It scores the
full 10 marks.
Answer
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(b) One weakness is that participants are not sleeping in their own
bed. This is a weakness because participants in the normal
sleep group might not sleep well or maybe not sleep at all and
this might make them as sleep deprived as the sleep deprivation
group, which would confound the result. This weakness could be
resolved if participants slept in their own bed. It would mean that
an experimenter would need to go to their home to give the test
before sleep and test again after sleep, but this inconvenience is
irrelevant if the result is worth it.
Two marks are allocated to the weakness and 2 marks to how the
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weakness can be resolved. The weakness is appropriate and the mention of
confounding is good, scoring 2 marks. The answer then makes an
appropriate comment on how the weakness can be resolved, also scoring 2
marks.
5 Specialist options
5.1 Methods, issues and debates
It is very important at the start of this A Level component to post a reminder
that all the methods, issues and debates that were included for the AS
component are also required here. In addition, there are a few more for you to
know about at A Level. They appear below with examples given as they
apply to each option.
Cultural bias
The findings of research conducted in one culture don’t automatically mean
that those findings will apply to another culture. If the assumption is made
that they do, then it is cultural bias. The findings of the study by Milgram
cannot automatically be generalised to all cultures, for example. However,
some findings can be generalised to all cultures, such as sleep, as all people
have REM and NREM sleep (unless they have a sleep disorder). Studies from
the biological approach are much more likely to apply to all cultures; studies
from the social approach much less so.
Examples of potential cultural bias
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• Health: the study by Lau et al. (1990) on health change in adolescents uses
students and parents from the USA. The findings from the study apply just
to the USA and may not apply to other countries/cultures which are very
different.
• Consumer: the study by Robson et al. (2005) on table spacing gathers data
from people in the USA. There are cultural differences in personal space,
so the table spacings suggested by Robson may not apply to all cultures.
Reasons for studying cultural bias
• It allows us to discover that not all cultures are the same; to discover the
diversity of behaviour and experience that people all over the world have.
• It might allow us to discover the causes of prejudice; to realise that our
values are not the only ones possible. It educates us not to make value
judgements.
• It might allow us to discover what behaviours are inherited and what
behaviours are learned through conducting cross-cultural studies.
Problems when studying different cultures
• The sample in a study may be very small or representative of just one
culture, and so the findings cannot be generalised to all countries/cultures.
• Many cultures have different philosophies and so cannot be compared.
Some cultures are based on cooperation, others on conflict.
• Researchers might speak a different language from participants, so there
might be problems in the giving of instructions and the understanding of
tasks. There might be misinterpretation of behaviour by the experimenters.
Now test yourself
1 What is meant by the term ‘cultural bias?’
Answer on p.197
Reductionism
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Reductionism is the view that complex behaviour can be explained by
simple principles; that we can break something down into its component parts
and study each more effectively. There is nothing wrong in doing this, but if
we break something down into parts, we need to be able to put all the parts
back together again. If we do not, we may have an explanation that is too
simplistic, exists in isolation and ignores other important aspects or factors
that interact to form the whole. A holistic view looks at a person as whole, or
at least looks at a complex of factors that together might explain a particular
behaviour. It is often said that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.
Expert tip
Note that although holism isn’t included on the syllabus, it is logical to
have some knowledge of what it is and how it contrasts with
reductionism.
Examples of studies relating to the reductionism/holism debate
• Health: the health belief model reduces health beliefs into component parts
and allows each component (perceived seriousness, perceived
susceptibility, cues to action, etc.) to be studied individually. However,
each component interacts to form a whole that is greater than the sum of
the parts.
• Consumer: Turley and Milliman (2000) studied retail atmospherics
(holism) and placed 56 different variables into five main categories (e.g.
external variables, interior variables, layout and design variables, point-ofpurchase and decoration and human variables). Each of these should be
studied individually (reductionism).
Cross check
The health belief model, page 142
Turley and Milliman (2000), page 112
Strengths of reductionism
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• It helps us to understand the world, because a fundamental way of
understanding is to analyse, break things down into component parts, test
them and then build them back up again. This is important in studying the
world in a scientific way.
• In theory it is easier to study one component rather than several interacting
components. If one component is isolated and others are controlled then the
study is more objective and scientifically acceptable.
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It is often assumed that reductionism is something negative. In some
ways it is, but in many more ways it is positive. If complex
phenomena were not broken down, they could not be studied. The
scientific method is reductionist and as psychology is a science using
the experimental method, most psychological research is
reductionist.
Weaknesses of reductionism
• The components may be difficult to isolate and so manipulate. If a study
looks at an isolated behaviour in a laboratory, then it may lack ecological
validity.
• If a factor is studied in isolation, this may not give a proper, valid and full
account of a behaviour. A behaviour might not be meaningful if it is
studied in isolation from the wider social context.
Now test yourself
2 Outline what is meant by the reductionism/holism debate in
psychology.
3 Give two arguments supporting reductionism.
Answer on p.197
Psychometrics
Psychometrics literally means measurement of the mind. More formally it is
the science of psychological assessment. The emphasis is on questionnaires
and tests mainly of intelligence and personality.
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Psychologists develop tests to assess features of personality or specifically
for use in organisations and employment or for assessing mental illnesses.
For example at AS, Saavedra and Silverman assessed a phobia using the
child-parent anxiety disorders interview schedule (page 29). The
fundamental aim is to ensure that any psychometric test is both valid (page
67) and reliable (page 66). Psychometric tests are standardised, meaning that
anyone taking a test can be compared with a sample of results already
obtained. For example, if you take an IQ test, we know that the score you get
can be placed on the same scale as everyone else, with the average score of
100.
Examples of psychometric measures
• Abnormality: the Maudsley obsessive–compulsive inventory (MOCI)
assesses obsessive–compulsive behaviour. It has 30 questions/items with
four sub-scales: checking, cleaning/washing, slowness and doubting. The
extent and severity of the OCD is determined by a score out of 30.
• Organisations: Walton’s quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire uses a
5-point scale: very dissatisfied, dissatisfied, neither satisfied nor
dissatisfied, satisfied, very satisfied. It has 35 questions, an example of
which is ‘Regarding a fair and appropriate salary: How satisfied are you
with your salary (renumeration)?’
Cross check
Maudsley obsessive-compulsive inventory (MOCI), page 109
Quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire, page 177
Advantages of using psychometric measures
• The use of standardised measures is objective/scientific.
• They allow comparisons/generalisations to be made with others on a
standardised scale.
• Standardised tests are said to be reliable and valid.
Expert tip
Psychometric testing is used in many different topic areas: tests are
used to assess mental disorders (such as OCD) and to assess
various aspects of organisations.
Disadvantages of psychometric measures
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• The measure might not be valid. What does an intelligence test actually
measure?
• Not all people will be familiar with the tests or test items.
• People often generalise and make assumptions about test results that could
be culturally biased.
• Once labelled by a test it can be difficult to remove that label.
• Often tests assume that people do not change. People do.
Now test yourself
4 Give two definitions of the term ‘psychometrics’.
Answers on p.197
Determinism (and free will)
Determinism represents the view that all behaviours and mental acts
(thoughts, judgements, decisions) are determined by factors out of our
control. Free will represents the view that our behaviours and mental acts all
come about as a result of our own choices and volition, i.e. we can exercise
our own free will.
We have biological determinism (see the biological approach, page 71) – our
genetics or our hormones cause us to behave in certain ways – and
environmental determinism, which means the environment in which we live,
our education and our work cause us to behave in certain ways. There is also
climatological determinism – the view that the climate or weather determines
our behaviour. Architectural determinism is the view that architecture
determines the way that we behave. For example, the design of a gambling
casino (with high or low ceiling) or a shopping mall can have a significant
effect on our behaviour inside the building.
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Determinism is at the opposite end of the scale from free will, with
possibilism and probabilism in between. Things are not so black and white as
‘hard determinism’ would have us believe. There is ‘soft determinism’,
which says that, although as humans we do have choices to make and can
exercise free will, these choices are often constrained (or determined) by
other factors. Indeed, some choices are more likely than others, and this is
determined by, say, previous experiences.
Note that although free will isn’t included on the syllabus, it is logical
to have some knowledge of what it is and how it contrasts with
determinism.
Examples of studies relating to the determinism and free will
debate
• Abnormality: any genetic explanation is ‘biological determinism’. Oruc et
al. (1998) found that first-degree relatives of people diagnosed with
depression are significantly more likely to be diagnosed with depression
than non first-degree relatives.
• Organisations: the study by Oldham and Brass (1979) investigated the
effects of newspaper employees moving from conventional multi-room
offices to an open plan office (an office with no interior walls or partitions;
just partitions between desks). Worker satisfaction decreased. This shows
how the work environment determines worker attitudes.
Cross check
Genetic explanation of depression, page 97
Open plan office spaces, page 171
Strengths of determinism
• If we can establish cause and effect (X causes Y), it makes the world more
understandable and predictable. This suggests that it might be worthwhile
trying to change certain things (e.g. education systems) because it could
benefit everyone.
• Determinism is the purpose and goal of science: to explain the causes of
things (of behaviour, in the case of psychology). This makes the subject of
psychology more acceptable to society, with its explanations, scientific
basis and objectivity.
Weaknesses of determinism
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• It does not allow (especially in hard determinism) for free will. A hard
determinist would say that we think we have choice, but free will is just an
illusion.
• It is often reductionist. Determinism can never fully explain behaviour
because behaviour might be far too complex.
Now test yourself
5 a Give one example of environmental determinism.
b Give one example of biological determinism.
Answers on p.197
Longitudinal studies
A longitudinal study takes place over a period of time, usually following
one or more participants throughout the period (or visiting them at regular
intervals) to monitor changes.
In contrast, a snapshot study takes place just at one point in time – a one-off
picture – perhaps involving a participant in a study for just a few minutes. It
may well isolate a behaviour and it may not be known why a participant
performed in a particular way.
Examples of longitudinal studies
• Health: in the field experiment by Tapper et al. (2000) over a 5-month
period, children in an experimental group were presented with fruit and
vegetables at lunchtime. Levels of fruit and vegetable consumption were
measured at baseline, intervention and a 4-month follow-up.
• Organisations: the study by Fox et al. (1987) using token economy. The
system continued to be used at one mine for 12 years (until it closed) and
was used at the other for at least 11 years.
Cross check
Tapper et al. (2000), page 155
Advantages of longitudinal studies
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Fox et al. (1987), page 174
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• The development of an individual (or number of participants) is tracked. A
baseline is recorded at the start, and changes that occur over time (e.g. 5
years) in attitudes and behaviour can be measured.
• Studying the same participant means that individual differences such as
intelligence are controlled.
• The effects of ageing can be seen, which makes this approach perfect for
studying development, both within childhood and beyond.
• The long-term effects of a disorder or treatment, or exposure to a particular
situation, can be observed.
Disadvantages of longitudinal studies
• Participant attrition – participants may drop out for a variety of reasons:
they may have changed address; they may have died; or they may simply
have decided not to continue with the study.
• Once started, the study cannot be changed or new variables introduced.
• The researchers may become attached to the participants. Bias may be
introduced, and the study can become less objective.
• Cross-generational effects – those from one generation cannot be compared
to another generation due to the social conditions of society changing over
time.
Now test yourself
6 a What is meant by the term ‘longitudinal study’?
b Give one strength of longitudinal studies.
c Give one potential weakness of longitudinal studies.
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5.2 Psychology and abnormality
What is abnormality? What is mental illness?
Mental health diagnosis differs according to where in the world the
assessment takes place. In most places its diagnosis is based on the person’s
report of symptoms, his or her ability (or inability) to function in society
appropriately and an observation of the person’s attitudes and behaviour.
Reference is then made to one of two classificatory guides that list all
recognised mental illnesses:
• The DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual) which began in 1952. The
latest version is DSM-V (2013).
• The ICD (International Standard Classification of Injuries and Causes of
Death) which began in 1958 and is now in its 10th edition, ICD-10.
Introduction: approaches to mental illness
Specific to the abnormality option are a number of approaches that relate to
each topic in this option. For example, the biomedical approach, which
includes genetic, chemical and neurochemical aspects, is referred to in all
five topic areas. The assumptions of each approach are summarised below.
The biomedical approach
The biomedical approach to abnormality focuses only on biological factors
to understand a person’s illness and excludes psychological and social
factors. The model includes all possible biological bases for behaviour –
chemical, genetic, physiological, neurological and anatomical. The approach
is summarised in a classic quotation from Maher (1966):
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Deviant behaviour is referred to as psychopathology, is classified
on the basis of symptoms, the classification being called
diagnosis, the methods used to try to change the behaviours are
called therapies, and these are often carried out in mental or
psychiatric hospitals. If the deviant behaviour ceases, the patient
is described as cured.
The biomedical model of abnormality assumes the following:
• Dysfunctional behaviour has a biological cause.
• Mental disorders are the same as physical illnesses, but are just located in a
different part of the body.
• Mental illnesses can be diagnosed and treated in the same ways as physical
illnesses – mainly with drugs, but with the options of surgery or electroconvulsive therapy.
The behavioural approach
The behavioural model of abnormality assumes the following:
• All behaviour (adaptive and maladaptive) is learned through the principles
of classical conditioning (association) and operant conditioning
(reinforcement).
• Dysfunctional (maladaptive) behaviour is learned in exactly the same way.
• Dysfunctional behaviour can be treated with behaviour therapies, or with
behaviour modification, in which maladaptive behaviour is replaced with
adaptive behaviour.
The psychodynamic approach
The psychodynamic model of abnormality assumes the following:
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• It emphasises the roles of the unconscious mind: the id, ego and superego.
• Adult behaviour is determined through early childhood experiences and by
ego defence mechanisms (repression, displacement, etc.).
• The unconscious (the psyche) can be understood through dreams and
‘Freudian slips’ – psychoanalysis.
• The theory of psycho-sexual development proposes stages (oral, anal, etc.)
through childhood. Supporting evidence is the study of Little Hans.
The cognitive approach
The cognitive model of abnormality assumes the following:
• Cognitive psychologists believe that thinking determines all behaviour and
that dysfunctional behaviour is caused by inappropriate or faulty thought
processes.
• Cognitive therapy involves helping people to restructure their thoughts and
to think more positively about themselves, their life and their future.
Schizophrenic and psychotic disorders
Characteristics
Definition and types
Psychotic disorders are characterised by an impaired sense of reality and
schizophrenia is one type of psychotic disorder.
Symptoms of schizophrenia can be ‘positive’ or ‘negative’. ‘Positive’
(common) symptoms include:
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• hallucinations – hearing, smelling, feeling or seeing something that is not
there
• delusions – believing something completely even though others do not
believe it
• disorganised thinking – finding it hard to concentrate and drifting from one
idea to another
• feeling controlled – that thoughts are vanishing, or that they are not your
own, or being taken over by someone else
• catatonic behaviour, involving impairment of motor activity – where the
person often holds the same position or performs repetitive movements for
hours.
Answer on p.197
‘Negative’ (not very common) symptoms include:
• loss of interest, energy and emotions
• feeling uncomfortable with other people.
Delusional disorder is another type of psychotic disorder. It is where a
person has delusions for at least 3 months and they must be specific to the
person. There are no other symptoms and general functioning is not impaired.
There are several types:
• persecutory – being watched, followed, drugged, etc. by others who intend
harm
• grandiose – a belief that they have an unrecognised skill, talent, knowledge
or status
• erotomatic – a belief that another person, usually of higher social status is
in love with him or her.
Now test yourself
8 Outline two types of delusional disorder.
Answer on p.197
Symptom assessment: virtual reality
Freeman (2008) believes that virtual reality ‘allows one of the key variables
in understanding psychosis, social environments, to be controlled, providing
exciting applications to research and treatment’. Freeman outlines seven
applications of this method, two of which are symptom assessment and
treatment.
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Symptom assessment usually involves a practitioner/doctor and patient sitting
in a clinic room talking, recalling events of the past week or month. The
practitioner has no idea of how the patient actually behaves in the real world
(or whether they are telling the truth). Use of virtual reality (VR) could assess
how a patient behaves in certain situations, particularly when misinterpreting
other people’s behaviour (persecutory ideation, the belief of being harmed or
mistreated by others), and then a treatment (how the patient can respond to
the situation) can be applied.
Freeman developed a VR program about a 5-minute ride on the London
underground where people could ‘check each other out’. He trialled it on
students rather than actual patients and found that these ‘normal’ students
reported comments that were positive, neutral and paranoid (‘the lady sitting
down laughed at me when I walked past’). This adds validity to Freeman’s
view that VR can be useful in assessing and treating aspects of schizophrenia.
Freeman lists other applications of VR, for example to treat people with a
height phobia or a public speaking anxiety.
Strengths of VR
• It can be used in a safe environment for both patient and public.
• It shows how patients with schizophrenia (and other disorders) actually
behave rather than having them anecdotally describe their behaviour
(which may not be truthful).
• A wide range of situations can be created which can even be tailored to the
needs of the individual patient.
Weaknesses of VR
• The patient may have side-effects, such as dizziness, nausea and headaches,
i.e. experience ‘simulator sickness’.
• VR is only as good as the programmer’s ability to write an appropriate
programme.
• Despite increased ecological validity, VR is laboratory-based and whether
it transfers to real-world situations remains to be seen.
Evaluation
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• Cultural bias may exist here in two ways: definitions of
abnormality such as the DSM are based on the cultural norms of
the USA (weakness); the virtual reality program by Freeman (2008)
is also based on western cultures, e.g. travel on the London
underground (weakness).
• Freeman’s VR has higher ecological validity (strength) but it has
not been tested on ‘real’ patients (weakness).
Cross check
Cultural bias, page 88
Ecological validity, page 67
Explanations of schizophrenia and delusional
disorder
There are many explanations of schizophrenia, three of which are the genetic,
the biochemical and the cognitive explanations.
The genetic explanation: studies show that 1 in 10 people with
schizophrenia have a parent with the illness. While this does not provide
proof of a genetic link for schizophrenia, such figures add support. Twin
studies are also important. Gottesman and Shields (1972) examined the
records of 57 schizophrenics (40% monozygotic twins and 60% dizygotic
twins) between 1948 and 1964. In this sample, they found concordance rates
(the probability of a twin having schizophrenia if the other twin has it) of
42% for monozygotic twins and 9% for dizygotic twins. This again provides
evidence for a genetic link for schizophrenia.
The biochemical explanation: this suggests that schizophrenia is caused by
changes in dopamine function in the brain. An excess of dopamine causes
the neurones that use dopamine to fire too often and therefore transmit too
many messages, overloading the system and causing the symptoms of
schizophrenia. Lindstroem et al. (1999) gave 10 people with and 10 people
without schizophrenia L-Dopa, a drug that increases dopamine levels, and
found that those with the disorder took up the drug quicker than those without
schizophrenia.
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The cognitive explanation: this suggests that schizophrenia is a result of
‘faulty information processing’ due to specific ‘cognitive deficits’. It claims
that schizophrenia sufferers have problems with meta-representation, which
is involved with giving us the ability to reflect upon our thoughts, behaviours
and feelings, as well as giving us the sense of self-awareness. Frith (1992)
took this further and argued that several symptoms of schizophrenia could be
explained by mentalising impairment (impairment of the ability to attribute
mental states such as thoughts, beliefs and intentions to people, allowing an
individual to explain, manipulate and predict behaviour) and that theory of
mind is impaired in schizophrenics.
Now test yourself
9 Outline the cognitive explanation of schizophrenia proposed by
Frith (1992).
Answer on p.197
Evaluation
• All three explanations are reductionist (strengths and
weaknesses). If schizophrenia is genetic then it is ‘nature’ rather
than ‘nurture’ compared with the other explanations.
• The individual–situational debate is also relevant as all three
explanations locate the disorder in the person rather than offer a
situational or social explanation (strengths and weaknesses).
Cross check
Reductionism, page 89
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Individual–situational debate, page 74
The cognitive approach, page 71
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The use of biochemicals (drugs) is very common in the treatment of
schizophrenia and has gone through a number of phases. The first anti-
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Treatment and management of schizophrenia
and delusional disorder
psychotics (or neuroleptics) were produced in the 1950s. The first such drug
was chlorpromazine, which has a powerful calming effect and was known as
the ‘chemical lobotomy’. Other phenothiazines act as tranquillisers, sedating
the patient and relieving the symptoms of psychosis such as delusions and
hallucinations. The second generation of drug treatments were the atypical
anti-psychotics, which act mainly by blocking dopamine receptors. They
also reduce many of the side-effects of the first-generation drugs. The third
generation of drugs, such as Aripiprazole, are thought to reduce susceptibility
to metabolic side-effects associated with the second-generation atypical antipsychotics.
Strengths of using drugs
• A chemical imbalance is best treated with a drug to restore balance.
• Drugs can be given on a fixed schedule (e.g. one pill every 8 hours).
• Little effort or inconvenience for the patient – all they have to do is to
swallow a pill at regular intervals.
Weaknesses of using drugs
• Drugs may have many side-effects such as nausea, even impotence (see
Bulpitt, page 142) which may make a person feel worse.
• Many drugs are addictive and so can only be taken for a short period of
time.
• Drugs often alleviate symptoms rather than remove the cause.
Cross check
Treatment and management of depression: chemicals/drugs, page
98
Treatment and management of OCD: biomedical, page 110
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Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) was originally developed as a treatment
for schizophrenia in 1938 by Cerletti. In its early days it was given
bilaterally, where electrodes were placed on each side of the patient’s head.
However, it was found to be ineffective in reducing psychotic symptoms. It is
now used mainly as a treatment for severe depression and is usually only
administered when drug treatment has failed. It is sometimes used to treat
catatonic schizophrenia.
Cross check
Treatment and management of depression: electro-convulsive
therapy, page 100
Paul and Lentz (1977) found that the use of a token economy was
successful in reducing bizarre motor behaviour and in improving social
interactions with staff and other patients. Originally devised by Ayllon and
Azrin (1968), the token economy system is based on the behaviourist
principle of positive reinforcement, which involves giving tokens for good or
desirable behaviour; these can later be exchanged for rewards. However, the
token economy system does not have any impact on hallucinations and
delusions, and any improvements tend not to last once the patients are
released.
Expert tip
Token behaviour can also be used to promote safety behaviour. See
page 155 if you study the Health option.
Sensky et al. (2000) used cognitive–behaviour therapy (CBT) to treat
schizophrenia. The participants had schizophrenia for at least 6 months,
despite drug treatment with chlorpromazine. After CBT sessions for at least 2
months, patients showed significant improvements. At the 9-month follow-up
evaluation, patients who had received CBT continued to improve and this
was not due to changes in prescribed medication. It was concluded that CBT
is effective in treating negative as well as positive symptoms in
schizophrenia.
Evaluation
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• Biomedical treatments such as drugs and electro-convulsive
therapy each have strengths and weaknesses.
• Token economy and cognitive–behaviour therapy have limited
use (weaknesses) for patients with schizophrenia and delusional
disorders.
• Different treatments reflect different approaches to mental
illnesses (strengths and weaknesses).
Cross check
Strengths and weaknesses of ECT, page 99
Approaches to mental illness, page 92
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on schizophrenic and psychotic
disorders. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to
include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than
12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a
range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in
addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18
minutes on part (b).
Bipolar and related disorders
Characteristics
Definitions and types
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• physically lethargic; a loss of energy
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The term ‘affect’ relates to mood or feelings. A person with depression will
have intense feelings of negativity or despair, while a person who is manic
will have intense feelings of happiness and ‘over-activity’. A person can have
depression (unipolar) or they can be bipolar which is the alternative name
for manic depression, where a person has swings of mood from one extreme
to the other.
• loss of interest; feelings of unhappiness, inadequacy, worthlessness;
possibly thoughts of suicide
• continual urges to cry
• difficulty in concentrating and an inability to think positively, often with
hopeless feelings of guilt
• difficulty in sleeping; possible loss of appetite and weight; avoiding other
people.
Common misconception
Many students think ‘abnormal affect’ is a generalised term that
concerns all ‘abnormal’ disorders. It does not. It concerns disorders
of mood or feelings.
Features of manic episodes include:
• feeling very excited; having lots of energy and enthusiasm
• quickly moving from one thing to another; spontaneous and full of good
ideas
• outbursts of exuberance, heightened good humour; often entertaining those
present
• talking quickly; feeling less inhibited; making spur-of-the-moment
decisions.
Measuring depression
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0 – I am not particularly discouraged about the future
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0 – I do not feel sad
1 – I feel sad
2 – I am sad all the time and I can’t snap out of it
3 – I am so sad and unhappy that I can’t stand it
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The Beck depression inventory (BDI) is a 21-item, self-report rating
inventory that measures characteristic attitudes and symptoms of depression.
Originally devised in 1961, the latest version is BDI-II (1996). It is scored on
a 4-point scale from 0 (symptom is absent) to 3 (symptom is severe). Scores
can range from 0 to 63 with a score over 40 indicating extreme depression.
Typical questions are:
1 – I feel discouraged about the future
2 – I feel I have nothing to look forward to
3 – I feel the future is hopeless and that things cannot improve
Evaluation
• There is cultural bias because definitions of depression are based
on the DSM and the cultural norms of the USA (weakness). The
BDI is also based on US culture (weakness).
• The BDI is a psychometric test. It is reliable and valid. It gathers
quantitative data only. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
Cross check
Cultural bias, page 88
Psychometric tests, page 89
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Quantitative data, page 60
Explanations of depression
Biological (genetic and neurochemical) explanations: depression may be
genetic. The closer the genetic relationship, the more likely people are to be
diagnosed with depression. First-degree relatives (close family members)
share 50% of their genes and according to Oruc et al. (1998), first-degree
relatives of people diagnosed with depression are significantly more likely to
be diagnosed with depression than non-first-degree relatives.
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Depression may be caused by neurochemicals. Schildkraut (1965) suggested
that too much noradrenaline causes mania and too little causes depression.
However, serotonin was found to exist in low levels for both depression and
mania. What is known is that both serotonin and noradrenaline imbalances
are involved in affective disorders.
Cognitive explanation: Beck (1979) proposes a cognitive theory, believing
that people react differently to aversive stimuli because of the thought
patterns that they have built up throughout their lives. Schemas (core beliefs)
are formed in early life, for example a self-blame schema makes the person
feel responsible for everything that goes wrong, while an ineptness schema
causes them to expect failure every time. These predispose the person to have
negative automatic thoughts (NATs), but they will only surface if an event
triggers them. When that happens, cognitive errors maintain the negative
beliefs. Depression results from the negative cognitive triad, comprising
unrealistically negative views about the self, the world and the future.
Learned helplessness/attributional style: Seligman et al. (1988) extended
the original theory of learned helplessness, suggesting that a person’s
attributional style determined why people responded differently to adverse
situational events. If a person makes an internal attribution (they are the
cause), and if they believe that this is stable and global (the cause is
consistent and this applies everywhere), then they may feel helpless and may
experience depression. However, if they make other attributions (e.g. that the
cause is external or situational; or unstable and specific), then helplessness
and depression are unlikely. Attributional style is assessed using the
attributional style questionnaire (ASQ). Seligman and others have found
depression to be associated with an internal/global/stable pattern. After
therapy, depression is again assessed and the attributional style is indeed less
internal/global/stable.
Expert tip
Many students write ‘X is reductionist’ without further elaboration or
explanation. Doing this will score no marks. An explanation is needed
of why ‘X’ is reductionist along with a strength or weakness of
reductionism.
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• The nature–nurture debate is applicable here (strengths and
weaknesses) because the extremes of genetics (nature) and
nurture (learning) are shown by Oruc et al. and Seligman.
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Evaluation
• Each explanation is reductionist, focusing on one aspect only
(strengths and weaknesses).
• Determinism also applies (strengths and weaknesses), because
any genetic explanation is ‘biological determinism’.
• The individual–situational debate applies (strengths and
weaknesses) because genetic and cognitive explanations focus on
the individual whereas for Seligman situational factors play a role.
Cross check
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Determinism, page 90
Reductionism, page 89
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Expert tip
Many students refer to ‘anti-depressants’ to cover a wide range of
drug treatments (including those for schizophrenia). It is far more
accurate to refer to the drug type (e.g. SSRIs) and then apply it to
treating depression, obsessive–compulsive disorder, etc.
Treatment and management of depression
Biochemicals: there are three main types of drug that relieve the symptoms
of depression:
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• MAOIs (monoamine oxidase inhibitors, e.g. Marplan, Nardil, Parnate,
Emsam)
• SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, e.g. Citalopram,
Escitalopram)
• SNRIs (serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors, e.g. Venlafaxine,
Duloxetine)
Now test yourself
10 Outline the drug treatments used for depression.
Answer on p.197
Anti-depressants affect neurotransmitters. Those relevant to depression are
serotonin and noradrenaline. SRRIs inhibit serotonin and SNRIs inhibit both
serotonin and noradrenaline. MAOIs inhibit a wider range of
neurotransmitters such as adrenaline and melatonin in addition to serotonin
and noradrenaline. Anti-depressants do not remove the cause of depression
but instead relieve the symptoms.
Cross check
‘Strengths and weakness’ of changes, page 96
Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) was originally developed as a treatment
for schizophrenia in 1938 by Cerletti. In its early days it was given
bilaterally, where electrodes were placed on each side of the patient’s head.
ECT is now used to treat severe depression when other treatments are
ineffective. A patient is given a general anaesthetic (unlike in the early days)
and an electrical pulse is given to the head. Bilateral ECT (both sides of the
head) is more common as this is more effective than unilateral ECT. Some
patients are confused afterwards and some suffer memory problems.
Cross check
Treatment and management of schizophrenia: electro-convulsive
therapy, page 96
Strengths of using ECT
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• It has a higher success rate for depression than any other treatment.
• ECT is immediate, quicker than taking anti-depressants or any other form
of treatment.
• It can be applied to anyone without restriction (some people cannot take
anti-depressants because of side-effects).
Weaknesses of using ECT
• ECT is not a permanent solution; people often relapse so either follow-up
ECT is needed or it is used alongside other treatments (such as antidepressants).
• ECT has short-term side-effects: confusion and memory loss.
• ECT has long-term side-effects, sometimes severe, such as permanent
memory loss, loss of skills or a change in personality.
Cognitive restructuring: Beck et al. (1979) believe in cognitive
restructuring. This is done in a six-stage process, starting with an explanation
of the therapy. Next the person is taught to identify unpleasant emotions, the
situations in which these occur and associated negative automatic thoughts.
Then the person is taught to challenge the negative thoughts and replace them
with positive thoughts. Finally, the person can begin to challenge the
underlying dysfunctional beliefs before the therapy ends. Dobson (1989)
compared restructuring scores on the Beck depression inventory (BDI) with
other treatments: 98% were better than controls; 70% better than those in
anti-depressant drug treatments; and 70% better than those in some other
form of psychotherapy.
Rational emotive therapy: Ellis (1962) outlined rational emotive therapy,
which developed into rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT). Ellis
focused on how illogical beliefs are maintained through:
A: an activating event, perhaps the behaviour or attitude of another person
B: the belief held about A
C: the consequences – thoughts, feelings or behaviours – resulting from A.
Ellis described the illogical or irrational beliefs using the terms musterbating
(I must be perfect at all times) and I-can’t-stand-it-itis (the belief that when
something goes wrong it is a major disaster). In order to change to rational
beliefs, Ellis expands the ABC model to include:
Now test yourself
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Answer on p.197
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11 Outline the rational emotive behaviour therapy proposed by Ellis.
D: disputing the irrational beliefs
E: the effects of successful disruption of the irrational beliefs.
Evaluation
• Biomedical: drug treatments and electro-convulsive therapy both
have strengths and weaknesses.
• Different treatments reflect different approaches to mental
illnesses (strengths and weaknesses).
• The issues of nature–nurture, determinism, reductionism and
the individual–situational debate applying to the treatment and
management of schizophrenia also apply here (see page 95).
Cross check
Strengths and weaknesses of drugs, page 96
Approaches to mental illness, page 92
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Determinism, page 90
Reductionism, page 89
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Expert tip
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Prepare an exam-style essay on bipolar and related disorders. For
part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and
exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part
(b).
Impulse control and non-addictive substance
disorders
Characteristics
Definitions
People can be addicted to many things, not just drugs. People can be addicted
to alcohol (alcoholics) and to nicotine (most smokers). However, the focus of
attention here is on non-substance addictive disorders.
Simply, people can be addicted to anything, so what is the definition of an
addiction?
Griffiths (2005) believes there are six components that help define any
addiction (even to coffee, chocolate and the internet):
• Salience – when an activity becomes the single most important activity in
the person’s life and dominates their thinking, feelings and behaviour.
• Euphoria – the experience people report when carrying out their addictive
behaviour, such as a ‘rush’, a ‘buzz’ or a ‘high’.
• Tolerance – where an increasing amount of activity is required to achieve
the same effect.
• Withdrawal – the unpleasant feelings and physical effects that occur when
the addictive behaviour is suddenly discontinued or reduced.
• Conflict – with those around them (interpersonal conflict), with other
activities (job, schoolwork, social life, hobbies and interests) or from
within the individual themselves (intrapsychic conflict).
• Relapse – chances of relapse are very high, even after a long time.
Expert tip
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Impulse control disorders have three typical features:
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The syllabus does not include addictions to substances, so you do
not need to know anything about drugs, alcoholism, physical
dependence and associated terms.
• before committing the act there is a growing tension
• during the act the person feels pleasure from acting, and often feels relief
from the urge
• afterward the person may or may not feel guilt, regret or blame.
Types of impulse control disorder
Pyromania is where a person has the urge to deliberately start a fire (and
often to watch the fire or emergency services). Specifically, before setting the
fire, the person must have felt some feelings of tension or arousal, must show
that attraction to fire, must feel a sense of relief or satisfaction from setting
the fire and witnessing it, and must not have other motives for setting the fire.
Burton et al. (2012) distinguished between fire-setting, arson and
pyromania:
• Fire-setting includes both the accidental (e.g. falling asleep with a
cigarette) and intentional setting of fires (with or without criminal intent).
• Arson, a subtype of fire-setting, is a criminal act in which one wilfully and
maliciously sets fire to, or aids in setting fire to, a structure, dwelling, or
property of another.
• People with pyromania engage in intentional and pathological fire-setting,
but do not always commit the crime of arson.
Fire-setting is a behavior, arson is a crime, and pyromania is a psychiatric
diagnosis.
Kleptomania is the repetitive, uncontrollable stealing of items not needed for
personal use. Kleptomania is different from shoplifting because shoplifters
plan the stealing of objects and usually steal because they do not have money
to purchase the items.
Kleptomania has the following diagnostic criteria:
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• recurrent failure to resist stealing impulses unrelated to personal use or
financial need
• feeling increased tension right before the theft
• feeling pleasure, gratification or relief at the time of the theft
• thefts are not committed in response to delusions or hallucinations or as
expressions of revenge or anger.
Problem gambling (a term now much preferred to pathological gambling) is
where a person has to gamble to gain euphoria or relieve tension. This
typically includes feelings of gratification or relief afterward. The term
‘compulsive’ is often used because compulsions are recurring actions that the
individual has a need to carry out.
Blaszczynski and Nower (2002) identifed common influences in all problem
gamblers: availability and access, classical and operant conditioning
reinforcements, arousal effects and biased cognitive schemas. They outline
three pathways into problem gambling:
• Behaviourally conditioned problem gamblers who gamble excessively as
a result of poor decision-making strategies and bad judgements.
• Emotionally vulnerable problem gamblers who use gambling as a means
of modifying mood states and/or to meet specific psychological needs.
• ‘Antisocial impulsivist’ problem gamblers who have biological
dysfunctions, either neurological or neurochemical. They are characterised
by antisocial personality disorder and impulsivity.
Now test yourself
12 What are the typical characteristics of impulse control disorders?
Answer on p.198
Measure of impulse control disorder
The kleptomania symptom assessment scale or K-SAS (Grant and Kim,
2002) is an 11-item, self-rated scale designed to assess the change of
kleptomania symptoms during treatment. It includes four main sections:
• four questions examine urges/impulses to steal
• three questions examine thoughts of stealing
• two questions ask about the degree of emotional distress immediately
prior to and after the act of theft
• two questions examine emotional distress and impairment due to stealing.
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All items ask for an average symptom in the last 7 days. A maximum score is
44 and any reduction shows improvement. Typical questions are shown in
Figure 9.
Evaluation
• Generalisations: the features of addiction are said to apply to the
addiction of anything (strengths and weaknesses).
• The K-SAS is a psychometric test. It is reliable and valid. It
gathers quantitative data only. (Strengths and weaknesses for
all.)
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Psychometric tests, page 89
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Causes of impulse control and non-addictive
substance disorders
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Biochemical causes: when dopamine is released it gives feelings of pleasure
and satisfaction. These feelings of satisfaction become desired, and to satisfy
that desire the person will repeat the behaviours that cause the release of
dopamine. This means that there is a complex relationship between
physiological and psychological factors.
Behavioural causes (positive reinforcement): according to Skinner,
positive reinforcement is when a behaviour is likely to repeated because of
the addition of a reinforcing stimulus (a reward). If a person gambles and
wins, the reward (and the thrill experienced) means the person is likely to
repeat the behaviour. The thrill of stealing or setting fires and the release of
dopamine explain why some people repeat this behaviour. The thrill (or high)
is so intense that the person cannot resist and will do all they can to repeat the
experience.
Cognitive causes (feeling-state theory): people often become addicted to
something to reduce negative affect – to relieve anxiety and tension – or for
positive affect – stimulation, relaxation and pleasure. The feeling-state theory
(Miller, 2010) argues that disorders are created when intense positive
feelings (‘intense desire’) become linked with specific behaviours (a
‘triggering event’), and this creates a state-dependent memory or a ‘feelingstate’ (Figure 10).
To generate the same feeling-state, the person compulsively repeats the same
behaviour, even if it is detrimental. This re-enactment creates the impulsecontrol disorder (Figure 11).
‘Feelings’ refers to the total complex of sensations, emotions (physiological
sensations) and thoughts related to an event (both positive and negative).
There are three associated sets of beliefs:
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• pre-existing negative beliefs that created the need to engage in a particular
behaviour (‘I’m a loser’)
• positive beliefs that result from having an intense positive experience when
performing the behaviour (‘I’m a winner’)
• negative beliefs that result when the behaviour becomes out of control (the
ICD) (‘I mess up everything’).
This theory explains pyromania, kleptomania and gambling.
Evaluation
• The behavioural explanation is based on the work of Skinner and
the learning approach. This is the nurture side of the nature–
nurture debate. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
• However, the dopamine hypothesis is based on the physiological
and biochemical approaches and the nature side of the nature–
nurture debate. The dopamine hypothesis is biological
determinism and individual rather than situational. (Strengths
and weaknesses for all.)
Cross check
The learning approach, page 71
The biological approach, page 70
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Determinism, page 90
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Treating and managing impulse control and
non-addictive substance disorders
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Biochemical treatments such as selective serotonin uptake inhibitors
(SSRIs) have been used to treat pyromania, kleptomania and sometimes
gambling. Grant (2006) questions the use of SSRIs and suggests that other
medications (such as opioid antagonists) have shown early promise in
treating kleptomania. Grant et al. (2008) treated gamblers with the opiate
antagonists nalmefene and naltrexone, which work by reducing the urge to
engage in the addictive behaviour. The study invited 284 diagnosed problem
gamblers and assigned half randomly to a 16-week course of nalmefene (or
placebo) and the others to an 18-week course of naltrexone (or placebo).
Using scores on a Yale-Brown obsessive–compulsive scale (see page 109)
for gambling, Grant et al. found a significant reduction in urges to gamble.
Cross check
Strengths and weakness of drugs, page 96
Cognitive–behavioural treatments
Covert sensitisation involves an aversive stimulus in the form of anxietyproducing imagery (such as being caught or feeling nauseous) being paired
with the undesirable behaviour to change that behaviour. It is covert because
it involves imagery about the undesired behaviour rather than the actual
behaviour (which would be overt).
Glover (1985, 2011) reported the case of a 56-year-old woman who had been
stealing from shops every day for 14 years. Every morning on awakening she
would have the obsessive thought that she must shoplift later that day. Glover
decided to use imagery of nausea and vomiting paired with the act of
stealing. As she imagined approaching the item to steal, she would imagine
vomiting which would attract the attention of other shoppers. The vomiting
would cease as she replaced the article and left the shop. At her final
appointment, 19 months after completion of covert sensitisation, she had not
once lapsed into stealing.
Similarly, Kohn and Antonuccio (2002) used kleptomania-specific covert
sensitisation (images of getting arrested, going to court and spending time in
jail) successfully.
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Imaginal desensitisation involves teaching progressive muscle relaxation
and then the person visualises themselves being exposed to the situation that
triggers the drive to carry out the impulsive behaviour. The aim is to reduce
the strength of the drive. Blaszcznski and Nower (2003) found this
technique was particularly effective with gamblers. There are six steps in a
typical treatment sequence:
1 Initiating the urge.
2
3
4
5
6
Planning to follow through on the urge.
Arriving at the venue.
Getting arousal and excitement with the behaviour.
Having ‘second thoughts’ about the behaviour.
Decreasing the attractiveness of the behaviour.
Sessions are initially conducted with the therapist but can then be conducted
at home. The ‘home’ pack includes:
• Tape 1 so the client can listen to the imaginal desensitisation process.
• Handout 1: a table to be completed regarding situations, feelings and
thoughts that trigger the need to carry out the behaviour.
• Handout 2: a script for conducting progressive muscle relaxation.
• Handout 3: a sheet to record each day the number of times Tape 1 is
listened to.
Expert tip
In the Blaszcznski and Nower study, the client is conducting and
recording details of their own therapy. Think about the advantages
and disadvantages of a client conducting their own therapy at home.
At the end of the programme the client should report a significant reduction
in the frequency and intensity of urges to act on impulse.
Impulse control therapy is outlined by Miller (2010). Based on his theory
of feeling-states, he believes that both cognitive and behaviour change is
necessary to control the disorder. Miller proposed the impulse-control
disorder protocol (ICDP) developed from EMDR. EMDR is eye-movement
desensitisation and reprocessing, which was originally devised by Shapiro
(1998) to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). EMDR treatment
involves identifying the traumatic image, identifying the negative feelings
and beliefs associated with the image, and then using eye movements to
process the image and feelings and install positive beliefs and feelings.
Miller outlines a 12-step process summarised as:
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• identifying the specific aspect of the compulsive behaviour that has the
most emotional intensity
• identifying the specific positive feeling (and physical sensations) associated
with this behaviour and calculating its PFS* rating
• forming an image linking the behaviour, feelings and sensations
• performing eye movements (EMDR)
• setting homework and conducting follow-up sessions
* Baseline and progress can be assessed using the positive feelings scale
(PFS) with 10 being the most positive feelings.
Miller cites the case study of ‘John’, a 35-year-old male with a gambling
problem who had lost more than $1,000,000 playing poker. John’s ‘feelingstates’ were identified, e.g. a time when he won $16,000 and felt excitement.
His PFS was rated as 10. John followed the 12-step process and in his followup interview 3 months later he reported that his poker compulsion had not
returned.
Evaluation
• The biological treatments are reductionist (strengths and
weaknesses) but so are the cognitive-behavioural treatments.
• Biochemical treatments are based on the physiological and
biochemical approaches (strengths and weaknesses) and the
nature side of the nature–nurture debate.
• Biological treatments are biological determinism and individual
rather than situational. The two case studies reported here have
many strengths and weaknesses.
Cross check
Reductionism, page 89
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Determinism, page 90
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Case studies, page 51
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Individual–situational debate, page 74
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on impulse control and non-addictive
substance disorders. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what
you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no
more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part,
choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two
issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more
than 18 minutes on part (b).
Anxiety disorders
Characteristics
Definitions and types
Some people have generalised anxiety disorder, meaning they might have a
‘panic attack’ but do not know its cause. The characteristics of generalised
anxiety disorder are as follows:
• Excessive, uncontrollable and often irrational worry, which interferes with
daily functioning.
• Physical symptoms of headaches, nausea, numbness in hands and feet,
muscle tension, difficulty swallowing and/or breathing, trembling,
twitching and sweating.
• Feeling anxious most days and struggling to remember the last time they
felt relaxed; as soon as one anxious thought is resolved, another may
appear about a different issue.
• It is a long-term condition that causes feelings of anxiety about a wide
range of situations and issues, rather than one specific event.
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On the other hand, some people know the actual cause and this is called a
phobia. In everyday life people say ‘I have a phobia of…’ when they don’t
like something. To be diagnosed formally as phobic there must be anxiety
‘attacks’ and the person must have ‘difficulty in social and occupational
functioning’ because of it. For example, a person with agoraphobia may not
have left their home for 6 months or more, they will have closed curtains and
never go to a door because of their fear of the outside world.
There are many different phobias, some very common and some quite rare.
Acoraphobia (heights) and agoraphobia (the ‘outside’) are common, while
koumpounophobia (buttons) is rare. Blood-injection phobia (a blood phobia
is hemophobia) often results in the person fainting (see below and page 107).
There are two classic case studies about phobias in psychological literature:
the case of Little Albert (based on classical conditioning – see page 29) and
the case of Little Hans (based on the psychodynamic approach of Freud – see
page 93).
McGrath et al. (1990) report a case study about Lucy, a 9-year-old girl with a
phobia of specific loud bangs such as fireworks and popping balloons. She
was treated successfully with systematic desensitisation (see treatments of
phobias, page 107).
Saavedra and Silverman (2002) report on a 9-year-old with a fear of buttons.
A large bowl of buttons fell on him while at school and from that point he
would not wear clothes with buttons. Small, plastic buttons caused him most
distress. Slow exposure with associated positive reinforcement led to
improvements, but it was then discovered that he found buttons disgusting
when they touched his body.
Cross check
Case studies, page 51
Saavedra and Silverman, page 29
Measures of anxiety disorders
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• 50 items about diverse situations related to blood, injections, and the
dentist. Items include:
13. When I feel the needle go into the vein of my arm to extract blood.
26. When I get local anaesthesia.
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Blood injection phobia can be assessed using the blood-injection phobia
inventory (BIPI) devised by Mas et al. (2010). The BIPI is a selfadministered questionnaire of three parts:
29. When I see a bloody wound or cut.
• It measures the frequency of a patient’s different types of response
(cognitive, physiological and behavioural) to the situations on a 4-point
scale ranging from 0 (never), 1 (sometimes), 2 (almost always) to 3
(always).
• It appraises both ‘situational anxiety’ and ‘anticipatory anxiety’ responses.
Generalised anxiety disorder can be measured using GAD-7 (Spitzer et al.,
2006). The ‘GAD score’ is calculated by assigning scores of 0 (not at all), 1
(several days), 2 (more than half the days), and 3 (nearly every day),
respectively. A GAD-7 total score for the seven items ranges from 0 to 21.
Scores represent: 0–5 mild anxiety, 6–10 moderate anxiety, 11–15
moderately severe anxiety and 15–21 severe anxiety.
Typical items include:
‘Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by the following
problems?’
Q1: Feeling nervous, anxious or on edge (0, 1, 2, 3)
Q3: Worrying too much about different things (0, 1, 2, 3)
Q4: Trouble relaxing (0, 1, 2, 3)
Evaluation
• BIPI and GAD-7 anxiety questionnaires gather quantitative data.
Both questionnaires claim that they are reliable and valid because
they are psychometric. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
• These tests may have cultural bias (weakness). The case study
of ‘button boy’ has strengths and weaknesses.
Cross check
Cross check
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Validity, page 67
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Reliability, page 66
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Quantitative data, page 60
Cultural bias, page 88
Case studies, page 51
Explanations of phobias
Behavioural explanations: classical conditioning assumes that fears are
acquired by a process of association. A previously neutral object (e.g. white
rat) is associated with a potentially threatening negative event (e.g. loud
noise) so that in the future the person is fearful because of the expectation of
what will happen when coming into contact with the object (in Albert’s case,
the white rat).
Watson and Raynor (1920) classically conditioned Little Albert. Initially,
Albert was not afraid of animals, and his favourite was a white rat. But then,
every time the rat was presented to Albert, a loud noise, made by banging
two metal bars together, made him jump and frightened him. Albert
associated the fear with the rat, and this fear of the rat generalised to other
animals too. This demonstrated that fears and phobias can be learned.
Psychoanalytic explanations: the Freudian psychoanalytic theory suggests
that phobias are a defence mechanism against the anxiety created by the
unresolved conflicts between the id and the superego. The ego attempts to
resolve these conflicts by using the coping mechanisms of repression and
displacement. In repression, the ego attempts to ‘forget’ that the conflict
exists. In displacement the ego re-channels the anxiety, which is displaced
from the feared impulse (such as hatred towards one’s father) and moved
towards an object or situation that is symbolically connected to it (such as
Little Hans’s father resembling a horse).
Freud (1909) writes about the case of Little Hans, who apparently had a
phobia of horses. Freud’s interpretation was that Hans was really afraid of his
father but displaced this onto horses.
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Biomedical (genetic) explanations: genes may predispose some people to
anxiety (and phobic) disorders. Kendler et al. (1992) argue that the genetic
factor common to all phobias strongly predisposes a person to specific
phobias such as blood phobia.
Ost (1992) sampled 81 blood phobics and 59 injection phobics. Ost
discovered that 61% of those with a specific phobia for blood injuries had
61% of first-degree relatives (parent or sibling) who had the same phobia. Ost
et al. concluded that ‘The high percentage of blood phobics with the same
fear could mean that a heredity component is of importance.’
Cognitive explanations: DiNardo et al. (1988) suggested a cognitive
explanation for phobias. They found that only half of people who had a
traumatic experience with an animal, even when pain was inflicted,
developed a phobia of animals. Why? DiNardo et al. believed that people
who have any traumatic experience (e.g. with animals) but do not develop a
phobia must interpret the event differently from those who do develop a
phobia. This means that it is the way people think about their experience that
makes the difference. It is an exaggerated expectation of harm in some people
that leads to the development of a phobia.
Now test yourself
13 Describe one study supporting the cognitive explanation for
phobias.
Answer on p.198
Evaluation
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Reductionism, page 89
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• All the approaches here are reductionist (strengths and
weaknesses).
• The nature—nurture debate (strengths and weaknesses) applies
because genetic and psychoanalytic explanations are nature, and
behavioural explanations are nurture.
• Behavioural approaches emphasise environmental determinism
whereas biochemical approaches emphasise biological
determinism.
Nature—nurture debate, page 75
The learning approach, page 71
The cognitive approach, page 71
The behaviourist approach, page 93
The biomedical approach, page 92
The psychodymanic approach, page 93
Determinism, page 90
Treating and managing anxiety disorders
Systematic desensitisation, based on classical conditioning, was developed
by Wolpe in 1958, specifically for the counter-conditioning of fears, phobias
and anxieties. The aim is to replace the conditioned fear, which is
maladaptive, with relaxation, which is adaptive and desirable. It involves
three phases:
• An anxiety hierarchy is constructed – a range of situations or events with
which the fear is associated. These are arranged in order from the least
fearful (e.g. imagining exposure) to the most fearful (e.g. in vivo).
• The person is trained in deep muscle relaxation and deep breathing
techniques. This counteracts the effects of anxiety-related hormones such
as adrenaline.
• The person then thinks about, or is brought into contact with, the least
fearful item and applies relaxation techniques. When relaxed, the next item
in the hierarchy is presented. This continues systematically until all the
items in the hierarchy have been removed and the person is desensitised.
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Applied tension (Ost et al., 1989) is specifically for people with blood and
injection phobias. At the sight of blood, blood pressure drops sharply (called
vasovagal response), often leading the person to fainting (passing out).
Applied tension involves tensing the muscles in the arms, legs and body for
about 10–15 seconds, relaxing for 20–30 seconds and then repeating both
these five times to raise blood pressure. Ost et al. found that 73% of patients
were improved (i.e. no fainting) at the end of the treatment and 77% were
improved at follow-up.
Now test yourself
14 Describe the applied tension technique for treating blood and
injection phobias.
Answer on p.198
Cognitive therapy is based on the principle that certain ways of thinking can
trigger, or ‘fuel’, various disorders. The aim is to change ways of thinking to
avoid these ideas. Behaviour therapy aims to change any behaviours that are
harmful or not helpful. Cognitive–behaviour therapy (CBT) is a mixture of
cognitive and behaviour therapies combined because behaviour often reflects
thoughts about certain things or situations.
Ost and Westling (1995) compared CBT with applied relaxation in the
treatment of panic disorder. Over 12 weekly sessions those in the applied
relaxation group received training in deep muscle relaxation only. The CBT
group also received training in restructuring the thoughts associated with the
panic attacks. Results: the CBT group had a significant reduction in the
number of panic attacks after treatment (74%), and 89% at follow-up.
Evaluation
• The learning approach underlies systematic desensitisation and
CBT. Applied tension is a biological approach. (Strengths and
weaknesses for both.)
• The learning approach is the nurture side of the nature—nurture
debate (strengths and weaknesses), whereas the biological
approach is nature.
Cross check
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The biological approach, page 70
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The learning approach, page 71
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on anxiety disorders. For part (a), the
‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the
exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For
part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include
(three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue.
You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
Obsessive–compulsive and related disorders
Characteristics
Definitions and types
People can have obsessions, compulsions or both, with obsessive–
compulsive disorder (OCD) being one of the most common anxiety
disorders. Some estimate 69% of those diagnosed have obsessions and
compulsions (with 25% just obsessions and 6% just compulsions). Generally,
there is some trigger event, followed by obsessive thoughts, which cause
discomfort if not resolved (e.g. something might not have been done, or
something might happen or cause a problem). There might then be the ritual
of checking (e.g. to confirm something has been done) or washing (e.g. to
remove a contamination). The compulsion involves repeating the action
continually.
Examples of obsessions include:
• fearing contamination from dirt, bacteria, etc. when touching surfaces
• imagining a fire breaking out in every building entered.
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• washing hands many times until they are thoroughly clean
• checking fire exits or exit route in every building entered
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Compulsions include:
• doubting and so reading an email many times before sending it to ensure it
is correct
• touching repeatedly, such as a door, to see if it is closed.
Hoarding has the following features:
•
•
•
•
•
accumulation of things that have little or no value
difficulty in discarding or parting with things
indecision about what to keep or where to put things
severe anxiety when attempting to discard things
difficulty categorising or organising things.
Expert tip
Hoarding is a pattern of behaviour that is characterised by excessive
acquisition and an inability or unwillingness to discard large
quantities of objects that cover the living areas of the home and
cause significant distress or impairment.
The ‘things’ people hoard include newspapers, magazines, paper and plastic
bags, cardboard boxes, photographs, household supplies, and often animals.
They hoard them for the following reasons:
• Prevention of harm: people fear harm if things are thrown away.
• Deprivation hoarding: people feel that they might need the thing at some
point in the future.
• Emotional: a belief that the thing has some emotional significance.
Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) has three main features:
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• A preoccupation with some imagined defect in appearance in a normal
appearing person. If a slight physical anomaly is present, the person’s
concern is markedly excessive.
• The preoccupation causes clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, occupational or other important areas of functioning.
• The preoccupation is not better accounted for by another mental disorder.
Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a condition marked by an
excessive pre-occupation with an imaginary or minor defect in a
facial feature or localised part of the body.
The most commonly disliked body areas are: skin (73%), hair (56%) and
nose (37%) but can it also be eyes, feet, or any other body part. Typical BDD
behaviours include:
• camouflaging (91%) with body position or posture, with clothing, make-up,
etc.
• comparing the body part with others (88%)
• checking appearance in mirrors (i.e. mirror gazing) (87%)
72% of people with BDD seek cosmetic/plastic surgery but this is of little use
because BDD is a psychological disorder and any physical change will not
‘cure’ the person.
Both hoarding and BDD are best treated with cognitive behaviour therapy.
Examples and case studies
A case study of OCD is that of ‘Charles’ by Rapoport (1989). When aged
12, Charles started to wash compulsively. He followed the same ritual each
day in the shower, which would take him up to 3 hours. Getting dressed
would take another 2 hours. Charles was treated by Rapoport who prescribed
the drug Anafranil and linked this with a behavioural management
programme, such as washing in the evening. For a while the symptoms
disappeared. Over time Charles went on to cope with his disorder.
Cross check
Case studies, page 51
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Measures
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An example of a BDD sufferer is Kayla who never goes out and spends
hours looking in a mirror: ‘I hate my face, my eyes, my nose, my jaw, my
mouth’. She is clinically significantly distressed about her appearance. She
has had nine operations on her nose, but because she is delusional (a false
fixed belief that cannot be changed) she is considering further surgery.
The Maudsley obsessive–compulsive inventory (MOCI) is a psychometric
test originally designed by Hodgson and Rachman (1977) to assess OCD. It is
a self-report questionnaire using a forced-choice ‘yes’ or ‘no’ format. It has
30 questions/items with four sub-scales:
• Checking (9 items), for example ‘I frequently have to check things (gas or
water taps, doors etc.) several times’.
• Cleaning/washing (11 items), for example ‘I am not unduly concerned
about germs and diseases’ (reverse scored).
• Slowness (7 items), for example ‘I am often late because I cannot seem to
get through everything on time’.
• Doubting (7 items), for example ‘I have a very strict conscience’.
A person can have a total score between 0 (no symptoms) and 30 (maximum
presence of symptoms). This determines the nature, extent and severity of the
OCD.
The Yale–Brown obsessive–compulsive scale (Y-BOCS) is designed to rate
the severity and type of symptoms in patients with OCD. It is intended to be
used as a semi-structured interview, which means in addition to the standard
questions, the interviewer is free to ask additional questions for purposes of
clarification and the patient can give more information at any time during the
interview.
There are questions about obsessions and about compulsions such as:
How much of your time is occupied by obsessive thoughts?
0 None
1 Mild, less than 1 hr/day or occasional intrusion
2 Moderate, 1 to 3 hrs/day or frequent intrusion
3 Severe, greater than 3 and up to 8 hrs/day or very frequent intrusion
4 Extreme, greater than 8 hrs/day or near constant intrusion
How much time do you spend performing compulsive behaviours (or how
frequently are they performed)?
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Overt Covert
0
0
None
Less than 1 hr/day or occasional performance of compulsive
1
1
behaviour
2
3
2
3
4
4
Between 1 and 3 hrs/day, or frequent
Between 3 and 8 hrs/day, or very frequent
More than 8 hrs/day or near constant performance (too
numerous to count)
Now test yourself
15 Describe one way in which obsessive–compulsive disorder has
been measured using a questionnaire.
Answer on p.198
Evaluation
• The MOCI and YBOCS questionnaires gather quantitative data,
and the YBOCS has the option via interviews to gather
qualitative data. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
• Both questionnaires claim that they are reliable and valid because
they are psychometric. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
• These tests may have cultural bias (weaknesses).
• The case study of Charles and example of Kayla have strengths
and weaknesses.
Cross check
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative data), page 60
Interviews, page 50
Psychometric tests, page 89
Questionnaires and ratings, page 49
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Case studies, page 51
Explanations of obsessive–compulsive and
related disorders
Biological (genetic, biochemical and neurological) explanations: studies
on genetics have shown that the SLITRK family of genes is linked to aspects
of OCD. Studies have linked SLITRK1, SLITRK3 and SLITKR5 to OCD in
mice. Other studies show the gene PTPRD is also linked, along with DRD4, a
dopamine receptor.
Biochemical explanations have been proposed. The hormone oxytocin has
been associated with aspects of OCD and Humble et al. (2011) found that
levels of oxytocin positively correlated with OCD symptoms.
Neurological studies have shown that people with OCD show abnormal
functioning in the orbital region of the frontal cortex and/or the caudate
nuclei. These regions are responsible for converting sensory input into
thoughts and behaviours, and if these regions do not regulate activity (e.g.
they become over-stimulated), this could account for the recurring thoughts
and behaviour. Evidence for this is gained from brain scans and studies of
people with brain injury in these regions (e.g. Paradis et al., 1992).
Cognitive and behavioural explanations: the behavioural explanation
suggests that people associate a particular ‘thing’ with fear and so they learn
to avoid that ‘thing’ and perform ritualistic behaviour (the compulsion) to
help reduce the anxiety and fear. The cognitive side looks at why people
misinterpret their thoughts associated with the ‘thing’ and how these become
obsessive.
Psychodynamic explanations: the psychodynamic explanation of OCD
follows the same principles as with other mental disorders: there is a conflict
between the id and the ego, which creates anxiety. The impulsive nature of
the id may be responsible for the creation of obsessive thoughts, while the
ego, in an attempt to control the id, may create compulsive behaviour to try to
counteract the obsessive thoughts and resolve the conflict.
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Psychoanalytic psychotherapy encourages the verbalisation of all the
patient’s thoughts, including free associations, fantasies and dreams, from
which the analyst formulates the nature of the unconscious conflicts which
are causing the patient’s symptoms and character problems.
Evaluation
• All the approaches here are reductionist (strengths and
weaknesses).
• The nature—nurture debate (strengths and weaknesses) applies
because genetic and psychoanalytic explanations are nature and
behavioural explanations are nurture.
• Behavioural approaches emphasise environmental determinism
whereas biochemical approaches emphasise biological
determinism.
Cross check
Reductionism, page 89
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Determinism, page 90
Treatment and management of obsessive–
compulsive and related disorders
Biomedical treatments assume that if OCD is caused by low serotonin
levels, then drugs can be used to increase the activity of serotonin in the
brain. This is exactly what clomipramine does. About 60% of patients with
OCD improve with medication but a high dose of the drug needs to be taken
for at least 12 weeks. Of those patients who do respond, at least 75% will
relapse in the months after stopping the drug.
Cross check
Strengths and weaknesses of drug treatments, page 96
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Psychological treatments
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Cognitive–behaviour therapy (CBT) is a mixture of cognitive and
behaviour therapies combined because behaviour often reflects thoughts
about certain things or situations. Research by Lovell et al. (2007) aimed to
compare the effectiveness of CBT delivered by telephone with the same
therapy given face to face in the treatment of OCD. Seventy-two patients
diagnosed with OCD were randomly given either face-to-face therapy (ten 1hour sessions) or ‘telephone’ therapy (initial face-to-face therapy then eight
‘home/telephone’ sessions of 30 minutes’ duration and one face-to-face final
session). The study concluded that cognitive–behaviour therapy delivered by
telephone was equivalent to treatment delivered face to face and similar
levels of satisfaction were reported by patients.
Now test yourself
16 Describe the assumptions of cognitive–behavioural therapy
regarding obsessions and compulsions.
Answer on p.198
Exposure and response prevention (ERP): exposure means facing or
confronting the feared stimuli and/or situations repeatedly until the fear
associated with them subsides, and response prevention means not carrying
out the compulsive, avoidant or escape behaviour. ERP targets the
behavioural component of CBT.
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Lehmkuhl et al. (2008) reported on the use of ERP to treat a 12-year-old boy
with OCD with autism, an autistic spectrum disorder (see page 20). Jason
experienced contamination fears, avoiding ‘contaminated’ items (e.g. door
knobs, library books, etc.). He would not sit on chairs, turn pages with his
hands, or touch papers that other children had touched. Jason reported
significant anxiety when prevented from completing his rituals (e.g. hand
washing, using hand sanitiser) and this began interfering with his everyday
functioning. Jason spent several hours per day at home washing his hands or
worrying about potentially contaminated items throughout the house. In early
therapy sessions, Jason was required to touch items in the hospital such as
elevator buttons and door handles until his anxiety was much reduced. When
touching, Jason had to repeat coping statements such as ‘I know that nothing
bad will happen.’ Jason even reported being proud of himself when
exposures were successfully completed. In later sessions other feared stimuli
were targeted, also with success.
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on obsessive–compulsive and related
disorders. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to
include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than
12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a
range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in
addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18
minutes on part (b).
Evaluation
• The case study of Jason has strengths and weaknesses.
• Biomedical treatments are reductionist, are nature rather than
nurture and are deterministic. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
• CBT (and ERP) are based on the learning approach and nurture.
(Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
Cross check
Case studies, page 51
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Reductionism, page 89
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Determinism, page 90
5.3 Psychology and consumer
behaviour
The physical environment
Retail/leisure environment design
The term ‘retail atmospherics’ refers to all of the physical and psychological
elements of a store that can be controlled in order to enhance (or restrain) the
behaviour of both customers and employees (Eroglu and Machleit, 1993).
Turley and Milliman (2000) reviewed the evidence for retail atmospherics.
They divided 56 different variables into five main categories:
1 External variables (e.g. entrances, exterior window displays, signs, size
of building and surrounding stores).
2 General interior variables (e.g. colour scheme, lighting, music, odour,
aisles, temperature, cleanliness).
3 Layout and design variables (e.g. space design, placement of
merchandise and cash registers, traffic flow).
4 Point-of-purchase and decoration (e.g. signs, product displays, price
displays).
5 Human variables (e.g. employee characteristics, employee uniforms,
crowding, customer characteristics).
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Atmospheric variables are generally measured in three ways:
1 Sales/purchase behaviour: e.g. in 25 of 28 studies, Turley and Milliman
found that atmospheric variables had some significant influence on
consumer sales.
2 Time spent in store: most time = music, colour and pleasure; least =
lighting.
3 Approach-avoidance behaviour: including pleasure (the degree to which
a person felt happy or satisfied in a place), arousal (the degree of
stimulation caused by an atmosphere), and dominance (the degree to
which a person feels in control in a situation). This is the ‘PAD’ model
(page 115).
Now test yourself
17 According to Turley and Milliman, what are the three components
of approach-avoidance behaviour when measuring atmospheric
variables?
Answer on p.198
Leisure environments: one type of leisure environment is a gambling
casino. Finlay et al. (2006) examined the influence of the physical design of
gambling venues on emotion. Two designs were identified:
• The Kranes (1995) playground model has features designed to induce
pleasure, legibility and restoration. The design has open space, high
ceilings, vegetation and an entertaining, fantasy environment that is
comfortable and pleasant.
• The Friedman (2000) design lists 13 principles of effective casino design,
the most important of which is to focus on the gambling equipment (e.g.
slot machines). Ceilings should be low with no signs and compact
gambling areas (a maze-like design), so it is hard to find the exit, which
encourages continuous playing of the machines.
To determine preference, Finlay et al. sampled 48 participants (26 male, 22
female) in six different casinos (three of each design) in Las Vegas, USA.
They were given $5 and 30 minutes in each casino. At the end, participants
completed a questionnaire, rating 18 items including pleasure, arousal and
restoration (feeling relaxed and comfortable). Findings showed that the
Kranes-type design gave more pleasure, arousal and restoration than the
Friedman-type design.
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Think about the layout of a casino: it is ‘maze-like’ and has no
windows or clocks. Why not? IKEA stores have exactly the same
layout.
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Expert tip
Store interior layout: there are three major types of store layout (see figure
12).
• Grid: a rectangular arrangement of displays with long aisles that run
parallel to one another. This makes efficient use of selling space with
increased product display space. Shopping is simplified with clear, distinct
traffic aisles. However, the customer is forced to follow a certain path in
the store.
• Free form: arranges displays and aisles in a free-flowing and asymmetric
pattern using different sizes, shapes, and styles of displays. It is used by
large department stores to increase the time spent in the store.
• Racetrack/boutique: arrangement is in individual, semi-separate areas,
each built around a theme to create an unusual, interesting and entertaining
shopping experience. The design leads customers through specific paths to
visit as many sections as possible. It encourages impulse purchasing.
Vrechopoulos et al. (2004) conducted a laboratory experiment to
investigate the three layout types (IVs) in a virtual environment: 60
participants in the UK and 60 in Greece were given £20 to make purchases in
an online grocery store. The design was independent measures. At the end of
the ‘shopping trip’, participants completed questionnaires in relation to:
Now test yourself
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• perceived usefulness (e.g. ‘the store enables me to search and buy products
faster’)
• ease of use (e.g. ‘the store is easy to use’)
• entertainment (e.g. ‘the store was fun to browse’).
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Answer on p.198
In addition, the time taken to complete the ‘trip’ was recorded.
Results showed that the free form layout was the most useful, the grid layout
was easiest to use, and the free form was most entertaining. The fastest was
the grid layout (mean of 747.5 seconds), the slowest was the racetrack layout
(971.3 seconds).
Evaluation
• The study by Turley and Milliman was a review of many studies.
Experiments were used in both Finlay et al. and Vrechopoulos et
al. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
• Both studies also used questionnaires and gathered quantitative
data, some of which was objective (e.g. time in virtual store) and
some subjective. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
• The Vrechopoulos et al. study had low ecological validity.
Participants in different countries may experience shopping and
gambling differently, so there is potential for cultural bias
(weakness).
• All three theories have strengths and weaknesses. For example,
do the theories have any evidence to support them? To what
extent can the theory be generalised from one organisation to
another and does the theory apply in all cultures? (potential
cultural bias). Theories are often based on organisations in the
USA and this is another source of bias. Theories were also based
on industrial life in the 1970s and 1980s and these theories may
not be useful in today’s society.
Cross check
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Experiments, page 43
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Questionnaires, page 49
Subjective and objective data, page 69
Virtual reality, page 94
Ecological validity, page 67
Cultural bias, page 88
Sound and consumer behaviour
Music in restaurants: North et al. (2003) conducted a field experiment in a
restaurant to investigate the effect of type of music on the amount of money
spent. The study was conducted over 3 weeks so that each of the three
conditions of the IV could be tested on different days. They were: classical
music, pop music and no music. A total of 393 people (who did not know
they were in a study) ate in the restaurant over 3 weeks and listened to only
one type, so the design was independent measures. The dependent variable
was actual spend in pounds broken down into starters, main course, dessert,
coffee, bar drinks and wine. Total spend was also calculated. Results showed
that most money was spent with classical music being played at £32.51,
compared with pop music at £29.46 and no music at £29.73. There was very
little difference in the amount spent on main course and the greatest
difference was spending on coffee: classical £1.06, pop £0.80 and no music
£0.53.
North et al. suggest the most likely reason for the overall difference in total
spend (and on coffee) is that classical music promotes an upmarket
atmosphere which primes people to spend more money.
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Music in open-air markets: music, particularly classical, is associated with
spending more money inside a restaurant, but will music played outside lead
to increased spending? Guéguen et al. (2007) conducted a field study
outside the stall of an open-air market. The music was chosen for its
association with toys and trinkets (which the stall sold) and was joyful.
Participants were 154 men and 86 women who were randomly allocated to
the music or no music conditions (the IV) on arrival at the stall in a town in
France. There were three DVs: length of stay at the stall (observed with a
stop-watch), number of purchases and amount spent (in euros) on purchases.
Results:
• Time at stall: with music = 5.27 minutes’ stay, without music 3.72 minutes’
stay.
• Number of purchases: with music 18.3% made purchases, without music
10%.
• Amount spent: with music €6.34, without music €5.67.
Guéguen et al. concluded that playing music (appropriate to the items on
sale) leads to customers staying longer, buying more and spending more.
Background noise and food perception: the perception of food is
influenced not only by taste and smell but also by colour and sound. Woods
et al. (2010) investigated the effects of auditory background noise on the
perception of levels of sugar and salt and liking in Experiment 1, and overall
flavour, food crunchiness and food liking in Experiment 2.
Students were the participants in both laboratory experiments. In
Experiment 1 participants tasted Pringles crisps (salty and crunchy),
Cathedral City cheese (salty and soft), Nice biscuits (sweet and crunchy) and
a flapjack (sweet and soft). They tasted (with their eyes closed) small
amounts of each (repeated measures design) while being presented with
(through headphones) noise of three types: white noise of 45–55 dB (quiet),
white noise of 75–85 dB (loud) and a no-white noise condition. After tasting,
they rated saltiness, sweetness and liking. Results showed that both sweetness
and saltiness were rated lower in the loud noise condition.
In Experiment 2 (different participants) sweet and salty were again used
(different foods from Experiment 1) and a ‘dummy’ (neutral food) with no
noise, quiet and loud conditions. ‘Flavorsomeness’, liking and crunchiness
were the DVs. Participants also rated the liking of the background noise.
Results showed that crunchiness was rated higher in the loud noise condition.
Overall, sweetness and saltiness were reduced with loud noise while
crunchiness (sound-mediated food cue) was increased. Liking the noise was
correlated with liking the food.
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Evaluation
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• All three studies were experiments (two field and one laboratory),
•
•
•
•
•
so there were many strengths and weaknesses.
The two field experiments had high ecological validity (strength)
and the participants did not know they were participants, so there
were no demand characteristics (strength).
There are elements of reductionism (strengths and weaknesses)
in all three: the North et al. study had data that could be reduced to
individual items, but with a total (holistic) amount spent. The
Guéguen et al. study was just one stall with a certain product.
Whether the findings that music leads to more spending can be
generalised is debatable (strengths and weaknesses).
Observations (with no inter-rater reliability) were used in the
Guéguen et al. study (strengths and weaknesses).
The North et al. and Guéguen et al. studies gathered objective
quantitative data, whereas the Woods et al. study gathered
subjective quantitative data (strengths and weaknesses). There
could be cultural bias because all three studies were located in
one place in a specific country (weaknesses).
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
Reductionism, page 89
Ecological validity, page 67
Generalisations, page 68
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Subjective and objective data, page 69
Cultural bias, page 88
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Lighting, colour and smell
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The Mehrabian and Russell (1974) pleasure/arousal/dominance (PAD)
model: retail atmospherics (music, scent, etc.) have an effect on the
emotional state of the consumer, which in turn causes behavioural changes,
both positive (approach, buy more, stay longer, etc.) and negative (avoid,
buy less, leave earlier, etc.) Mehrabian and Russell (1974) outlined the PAD
model which proposes that emotions can be measured along three
dimensions:
• Pleasure (the degree to which a person is contented, happy, satisfied,
pleased, relaxed, important, cares, hopeful).
• Arousal (the degree to which a person is stimulated, excited, jittery,
aroused, frenzied, autonomous, wide-awake, controlling).
• Dominance (the extent to which a person feels in control of the situation
(rather than being controlled) and is able to act freely).
Now test yourself
19 Describe the three measures of the ‘PAD’ model.
Answer on p.198
Customer reactions, according to Mehrabian and Russell, can be either
approach or avoidance. These include: store patronage intentions,
exploration inside a store, desire to communicate with others, and satisfaction
and performance, including time and money expenditures.
Expert tip
This congnition–emotion model is used by many studies to assess
the effects of the consumer environment on shopper behaviour. Look
out for it being used.
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The cognition–emotion model: the simple view is that our appraisal of a
situation (the cognitive component) causes an emotional (or affective)
response that is going to be based on that appraisal. This is the gist of the
Lazarus (1991) cognition–emotion model. A stimulus in the
environment/situation can be consciously or unconsciously processed (our
appraisal of it) and this leads us to be aroused and experience emotion (which
both happen at the same time). In sum, cognition then emotion.
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However, Zajonc and Markus (1984) propose the emotion–cognition model,
suggesting that emotion can occur because of cognitions (appraisal), but it
can also occur because of biological or other sensory events. In sum, emotion
with or without cognition.
The purpose of researching the physical (and psychological) environment is
to create a ‘servicescape’ (Bitner, 1992) which is the first aspect of the
environment (lighting, colour, smell, etc.) that is perceived by the customer
that is likely to form impressions of the level of service they will receive.
Lighting and colour in retail stores: research shows that:
• people are drawn to light; light can draw attention to products
• under ‘bright lighting’ conditions, products are more often examined and
touched than under ‘dim lighting’ conditions; bright light is associated with
‘quick’ purchases; low-level light encourages customers to stay longer
• lighting influences the attractiveness of products in a store – products under
high light levels were found to be more appealing than products under
lower light levels
• consumers spent significantly more time at displays with the additional
accent lighting.
Research on colour is ambiguous: one study showed cool-coloured stores are
preferred (create better feelings for purchase intentions), but other research
shows warm-coloured stores are more up-to-date.
In sum, a well-designed lighting and colour scheme in a store can create
dramatic spaces which motivate customers to purchase merchandise. It
attracts customers and reinforces the image of the store.
Kutlu et al. (2013) investigated how a high-quality brand is affected by
colour and light. They used what they called the ‘square method’, which
allowed consideration of how the variables of store image and product design
interact. A total of 121 shoppers visiting four stores in Istanbul (aged 15–60;
85% female) completed an eight-item questionnaire about the psychological
effects of store image and product design.
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Results showed that 72.7% thought that the interior colour scheme had an
effect on brand image. Participants also thought that the store image was
stylish (83.3%), the light-colour scheme was relaxing (31.7%), and it was
pleasing and matched the merchandise (24%).
Now test yourself
20 Describe the ‘square method’ outlined by Kutlu et al. (2013).
Answer on p.198
Effects of odour on shopper arousal and emotion: the use of ambient scent
in the retail environment can be beneficial if it is congruent with the shopping
environment. However, the same fragrance can become totally inefficient, or
worse, have negative effects if used inappropriately.
Chebat and Michon (2003) conducted a field experiment in a shopping
mall in Montreal. In the first week there was no odour (the control) and in the
second week a light citrus scent was emitted between two major retailers for
3 seconds every 6 minutes from ten diffusers. A total of 145 participants in
the scent condition and 447 in the control condition completed a
questionnaire about their pleasure and arousal (i.e. the PAD model) and also
about their spending and the quality of the mall in general.
Results showed that the ambient scent directly affected shoppers’
perceptions, enhancing mood and improving shoppers’ perception of their
shopping environment. They concluded that the cognitive theory of emotions,
rather than the PAD model, better explains the effect of ambient scent.
A specific scent can be associated with and enhance purchases of a specific
product, or associated with a specific store (e.g. the company Hollister
releases a fragrance in its stores and its clothes often smell of this scent).
Evaluation
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• There are different models of the effects of ambience – these can’t
easily be evaluated. The study by Kutlu et al. has high ecological
validity, but as it was conducted in just one city there may be
cultural bias (weakness) and the findings may or may not be
generalised (strengths and weaknesses). Exactly the same
applies to the study by Chebat and Michon (one shopping mall in
one city).
• The Chebat and Michon study was a field experiment and both
studies gathered data using a questionnaire. (Strengths and
weaknesses of both.)
Cross check
Cultural bias, page 88
Generalisations, page 68
Experiments, page 43
Questionnaires, page 49
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on the physical environment. For part
(a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and
exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part
(b).
The psychological environment
Environmental influences on consumers
Cognitive maps of retail locations: shoppers remember the design layout of
many different stores and if they want to locate a specific item quickly they
apply their ‘cognitive map’ to take them directly to the item. Shoppers also
have cognitive maps for the actual location of the store (i.e. where it is in the
city). If the cognitive maps of shoppers could be known, then this could have
implications for store patronage (the store they prefer to go to).
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However, cognitive maps are internal to the individual and cannot be
measured directly. A common method is a sketch map or ‘draw-a-map’
technique (first used by Lynch, 1960). Another ‘graphic’ technique is to draw
lines indicating distances between two points. A third technique is multidimensional scaling (MDS), which creates a map displaying the relative
positions of a number of objects, based on the distances between them.
Mackay and Olshavsky (1975) approached 78 shoppers randomly in eight
different supermarkets in Indiana, USA, inviting them to participate in a
laboratory experiment. Shoppers had to have a car and had to have ‘heard
of’ all the other stores. At the laboratory, participants were interviewed,
ranked all eitht stores in order of preference and rated the stores on other
variables, but most importantly they were asked to draw a (sketch) map of
their departure point (e.g. their home) and of the eight supermarkets (with as
much or as little detail as they wished). This was followed by an ordering of
all possible pairs of the eight supermarkets and their place of departure in
terms of their geographical proximity (i.e. MDS). It was concluded that better
cognitive maps were related to store preference and that sketch maps are
more like actual maps than are MDS maps.
Crowding in retail environments: one variable that might have a negative
effect on the experience of pleasure, arousal and particularly dominance is the
perceived crowding in a retail store. Whereas density is physical (spatial
density is the store size and social density is the number of people), crowding
is psychological, meaning that two shoppers in the same store may perceive
different levels of crowding.
The study by Machleit et al. (2000) hypothesised that:
1 High levels of perceived retail crowding would lead to lower levels of
shopper satisfaction (i.e. an inverse/negative correlation), and the opposite
would also apply.
2 People who tolerate crowds (i.e. tend not to perceive crowding) would be
less affected by high crowding levels than others.
3 The type of store will affect perceived crowding. In discount-type stores
(low cost and high value), high levels of crowding should not affect
shopping satisfaction.
Now test yourself
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21 What were the three hypotheses in Study 1 by Machleit et al.
(2000) on crowding.
Answer on p.198
In Study 1 the participants were 722 students who were asked to take home a
questionnaire and, following a shopping trip, complete it fully. Questions
were asked about:
• perceived crowding (e.g. ‘the store was a little too busy’) on a Likert-type
scale
• the type of store
• crowding tolerance questions (e.g. ‘I avoid crowded stores whenever
possible’)
• satisfaction/emotional measurement questions (‘I enjoyed shopping at the
store’) on a 7-point scale.
Study 2 replicated Study 1 because the authors were concerned that a student
sample was too restricted.
Study 3, a laboratory experiment, was conducted (on 231 students) because
Studies 1 and 2 were retrospective (questionnaires completed after the
shopping trip) and because many other variables could not be controlled
(such as type of store). Participants watched one of four videotapes of a
bookstore (different levels of density) and then answered questions like those
in the previous studies.
Overall hypothesis 1 was confirmed as was hypothesis 2. Study 3 showed
that in the discount store condition, crowding is significantly correlated with
satisfaction (because of the type of store it is).
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Movement pattern clusters:
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Shopper movement patterns: it is often assumed that shoppers move in
similar ways when shopping in a supermarket where the store layout is
regular. Research by Gil et al. (2009) suggests this is not the case. Using 480
participants in a supermarket in the UK, they first briefly interviewed people
entering the store, gaining consent and information about age, gender, etc.
and giving them a coloured tag. Then, using CCTV, they tracked their
movement around the store, and finally on exit, they asked about the aim of
the trip, use of shopping list, money spent, etc. From the results, Gil et al.
identified four types of movement pattern clusters and five types of shopper
behaviour patterns.
• Short trip: shoppers on a simple, short trip in and out of the store with few
specific targets that can be located anywhere in the store, not necessarily
visiting the most popular products.
• Round trip: shoppers moving up and along the top corridor and aisles,
visiting the vegetable, fruit and bread at the start; returning along the main
corridor with various types of incursions into aisles; generally exiting near
fruit and vegetables.
• Central trip: shoppers progressing in and out of the store using the main
corridor; with various types of incursions into the aisles, mainly visiting the
top aisles first and the bottom ones when returning.
• Wave trip: shoppers in linear progression through the store along the main
corridor, zigzagging through the aisles; most exiting near the far end of the
store.
Now test yourself
22 Contrast the explorer and raider types of shopper as outlined by
Gil et al. (2009).
Answer on p.198
Shopper behaviour patterns.
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• The specialist: short-trip shoppers who focus on a few products, and are
mainly on ‘top-up’ (42%) or ‘non-food’ (31%) missions; 58% take baskets
and 30% a shallow trolley.
• The native: shoppers who make long trips visiting only relevant aisles.
Interactions with products are likely to result in purchases; 37% on ‘main’
and 58% on ‘top-up’ missions; 90% take a trolley.
• The tourist: fast-moving shoppers on short to medium trips. Prefer main
corridors and don’t go far from the entrance. They look more than buy;
68% take a trolley and 82% are on a ‘top-up’ mission.
• The explorer: shoppers making the longest trips, going everywhere more
than once, slowly, with long interactions with the products and buying a
lot. They cover all the aisles in the store and 82% are on a main mission;
62% are female alone; 87% take a trolley.
• The raider: fast shoppers, both in moving and making decisions, with
clear preference for main corridors, going far into the store if necessary, on
‘top-up’ or ‘food for tonight’ missions. They have the highest ratio of male
shoppers.
Expert tip
The question above asks for a contrast. This isn’t merely a ‘describe
one then describe the other’ task. A contrast asks how the two are
different, so write that ‘X’ does this, whereas ‘Y’ does that. Then
contrast on a different aspect. Look at the answer to the question
above to see how it is done.
Evaluation
• All three studies gathered participants outside stores and
conducted experiments (strengths and weaknesses). These
studies have high ecological validity and have high mundane
realism.
• All three studies were conducted on shoppers in the USA and so
there could be cultural bias (weakness) as shopper attitudes
might differ significantly from one country to another.
• The study by Gil et al. tracks shopper movement, so this is
objective quantitative data (strengths and weaknesses).
• Part of the study by Machleit was retrospective (questionnaires
completed after the shopping trip), so this may involve demand
characteristics/social desirability (weaknesses). This study also
used a questionnaire (strengths and weaknesses).
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
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Cultural bias, page 88
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Ecological validity/mundane realism, page 67
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Questionnaires, page 49
Menu design psychology
The menu is one of the most important features of any food establishment.
The menu is used for planning (items to be included), pricing, and operating
(quality, hygiene and cost of food items). The menu design (the position and
description of menu items) can directly influence not only what customers
will order, but how much they will spend. It directly influences sales revenue;
introduces the customer to your restaurant; and its design should complement
the décor, service, food quality and price range of the restaurant. The menu is
the restaurant’s business card (Pavesic, 2005).
Eye movement patterns, framing and common menu mistakes: Pavesic
(2005) lists common menu mistakes:
• Hard to read: poor font size, paper colour and font style; crowded pages
with too many items; printing on dark paper with dark ink.
• Monotonous design: using the same graphic design so nothing stands out.
• Poor salesmanship: not emphasising with graphics, fonts and colour items
that bring more profit.
• Incongruence: failing to design the menu to fit the décor and personality
of the restaurant. The menu should: visualise your décor, type of food,
price range and whether you offer casual or upscale dining.
• Too big: oversized menus can be awkward to hold; the size should match
the size of the table, the place setting and the table appointments.
Pavesic also reviewed other menu design research:
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• Customers will spend 109 seconds reading a menu or rather scanning it.
The eye is drawn to the first and last items rather than the middle items (see
the Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011) research below) unless there are ‘eye
magnets’. An eye magnet draws the eye by treating a particular section
differently from the others. This could be a box, a larger font, different
colour, use of icons or symbols and even descriptions such as ‘heart
healthy’. Figure 13 shows the typical pattern when scanning a menu.
• Never have more than 24 menu items: 60–70% of sales are from 18–24
items; fewer items means less cooking, so reducing stock and wasted food.
• It is better to offer fewer items that can be prepared well rather than many
items done poorly.
• Menu formats: single page (or card); two-page/single-fold and three-panel,
two-fold (as in Figure 13 above) are common.
• Research on menu design can be conducted using eye-tracking techniques
(see page 130)
Primacy, recency and menu item position: trade publications on menu
design suggest that ‘people tend to remember the top two items on a list and
the bottom item’ and that ‘the most frequently selected items are those in the
first and last position in the category list’. (Primacy = first items, and recency
= last or most recent items.) This ‘edge bias’ was studied by Dayan and BarHillel (2011) who manipulated the position of different foods on a restaurant
menu.
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• Menu 1 ‘baseline’: appetisers A1, A2, A3 and A4
• Menu 2 ‘mirror’: appetisers A4, A3, A2 and A1
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For Study 1 Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011) created four menus (with no prices)
consisting of four appetisers, ten main courses, six soft drinks and eight
desserts. Each item was ‘randomised’:
• Menu 3 ‘inside out’ base: appetisers A2, A1, A4, A3
• Menu 4 ‘inside out’ mirror: appetisers A3, A4, A1, A2
A total of 240 Hebrew University (Israel) students were asked to choose a
single item from each category of the menu. The results were quite clear:
participants were significantly more likely to choose items at the extremes
rather than those placed in the middle (see Figure 14).
However, a significant weakness was that participants were making
hypothetical choices rather than actual choices that they would make if they
were eating/purchasing the item.
Study 2, a field experiment, was conducted in a small Tel Aviv café with
‘real’ customers over a 30-minute period. The IV was menu type (original
and ‘inside out’) and the DV was the orders placed from each menu type
(recorded by the waiters). A total of 459 orders were placed from the base
menu and 492 from the ‘inside-out’ menu.
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The results confirmed those of Study 1, giving the overall conclusion that
items placed at the beginning or the end of the list of their category options
(primacy and recency) were up to twice as popular as when they were placed
in the centre of the list.
Sensory perception and food name: menu item position affects choice but
does the wording of the item also affect choice? Further, can menu item
descriptive names suggestively influence the perceived taste of restaurant
food?
In a 6-week field experiment conducted in a café at the University of
Illinois, USA, Wansink et al. (2005) manipulated the names of six menu
items as shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Descriptive and regular names of six menu items
Descriptive name
Regular name
Traditional Cajun Red Beans with Rice Red Beans with Rice
Succulent Italian Seafood Filet
Seafood Filet
Tender Grilled Chicken
Grilled Chicken
Homestyle Chicken Parmesan
Satin Chocolate Pudding
Grandma’s Zucchini Cookies
Chicken Parmesan
Chocolate Pudding
Zucchini Cookies
The descriptive and regular named items were rotated (or left off the menu),
so each item was available six times in the 6-week period. After choosing and
paying for the menu item, 140 participants completed a questionnaire. Using
a 9-point Likert scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 9 = strongly agree,
questions were asked such as: ‘this item was appealing to the eye’, ‘this item
tasted good’ and ‘I felt full and satisfied’. They were also asked to estimate
how many calories each item contained. These quantitative data were
supported with a ‘comment on the food’ open-ended question, providing
qualitative data.
Results showed that when the descriptive name was used the item was more
appealing (6.66 v 5.87); tasted good (7.31 v 6.83); and participants felt full
(6.83 v 4.47). The descriptive items also received significantly more positive
comments when the open-ended answers were analysed. However, the
descriptive items were said to have more calories (366 versus 302).
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Wansink et al. (2005) concluded that adding a few extra words to menu items
can have a positive effect on how food is perceived by diners.
Evaluation
• The two studies are field experiments, so have many strengths
and weaknesses. Field experiments have high ecological validity
and the participants did not know they were participants, so there
were no demand characteristics.
• There could be cultural bias (weakness) because the Wansink et
al. study was conducted in the USA (and menu names may not
influence people in all cultures: some cultures use pictures rather
than names) and one in Israel, although primacy and recency
effects could generalise to all cultures.
• The Dayan and Bar-Hillel study gathered objective quantitative
data while the Wansink et al. study gathered quantitative and
qualitative subjective data. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
Cross check
Field experiments, page 44
Ecological validity, page 67
Cultural bias, page 88
Generalisations, page 68
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Subjective and objective data, page 69
Personal space
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• intimate – for people in a relationship, close friends and family
• personal – for friends and family
• social – for interacting work colleagues
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Theories of personal space: Hall (1966) outlines four zones of personal
space:
• public – for speaking in public, e.g. a lecture.
Alpha personal space is an objective, externally measurable distance and
beta personal space is the subjective, individual experience.
Personal space has a number of functions:
• Overload – personal space prevents others coming too close and overstimulating us with sensory experience (e.g. with their smell).
• Arousal – when space is invaded we are aroused. Are we happy with this,
or fearful? The answer will determine how we respond (e.g. we may move
away).
• Behaviour constraint – suggests we maintain space to prevent our
behavioural freedom from being taken away (e.g. if others are too close, we
may feel crowded).
Space at restaurant tables: personal space is our ‘personal’ bubble but this
can be extended (such as when we are in a car or at a restaurant table). When
sat in a restaurant, how much space is ‘adequate’ between the table we are at
and that of another customer? Many restaurants minimise the amount of
space to maximise their profit, but this could alienate customers (e.g. early
departure or a disinclination to spend) who like more space to relax when
eating.
Robson et al. (2011) used a web-based questionnaire to investigate
‘adequate’ table spacing. The questionnaire included photographs of tables
spaced apart at distances of 6 inches (Hall’s ‘intimate’ zone), 12 inches and
24 inches (Hall’s ‘personal’ zone). (1 inch = 2.5 centimetres.) Questions were
also asked about three types of dining: for business purposes, with a friend
and while on a romantic date (also linked to Hall’s zones). This presented
nine different combinations and participants were randomly assigned to just
one of these.
The participants were people responding to the web-based questionnaire and
included: 461 male and 537 female; 182 from a major city, 230 from a rural
area with others between these; 63 dined (in a restaurant) more than three
times per week, through to 319 who dined less than once per month.
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The above information was gathered in the first part of the questionnaire. In
the second part there were 32 statements such as: ‘I would feel like I was
being watched’, ‘I would feel comfortable’, ‘I would be overheard by other
diners’. These were rated on a 7-point scale from 1 = strongly disagree, 4 =
neither agree nor disagree to 9 = strongly agree.
Several conclusions were drawn:
• respondents strongly objected to closely spaced tables in most
circumstances, particularly in a ‘romantic’ context
• women were much less comfortable than men in tight quarters (i.e. 6-inch
spacing)
• diners may be less likely to return to a restaurant with uncomfortable table
spacing.
It was also found that diners did not like banquette-style seating (a long
bench-type seat which can sit many people close together).
Defending place in a queue: what is a queue? According to Milgram et al.
(1986) a queue:
• regulates the sequence in which people gain access to goods or services
• gives ordering a distinctive spatial form
• maintains its line when there is a shared knowledge of appropriate
standards of behaviour.
The aim of the study was to see what would happen if an intruder pushed into
a queue. Milgram used a field experiment in different locations in New York
City. The IVs were the number of intruders (one or two), and the number of
buffers/stooges (zero, one or two) who allowed the invader to push into the
queue. The DVs (gathered by observation) were qualitative verbal comments
and quantitative behaviours (physical actions and non-verbal behaviours).
The study was repeated 129 times. The intruders were stooges.
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People in the queue responded with (response categories):
1 Physical action (10.1%) including touching, tugging at the sleeve, tapping
the shoulder of the intruder and even pushing the intruder firmly out of the
line.
2 Verbal objection (21.7%), which was either directly to the intruder,
‘Excuse me, you have to go to the back of the line’, or generalised, ‘Excuse
me, it’s a line.’
3 Non-verbal objections (14.7%) including hostile stares and gestures to the
invader to get out of the line.
It was also found that two intruders provoked more of a reaction that one
intruder, and in buffer conditions the responses were less than without any
buffer.
Evaluation
• The Robson et al. study used a questionnaire while the Milgram
et al. study was a field experiment which used observation.
(Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
• The Milgram study invaded personal space which is unethical and
it also used stooges. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
• The Milgram study gathered quantitative and qualitative data,
both were objective; the Robson et al. study gathered quantitative
data which were subjective. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
• Both studies were conducted in the USA. There may be cultural
differences (weakness) both in queuing behaviour and in table
spacing in restaurants. The Robson et al. study has low
ecological validity (using photographs rather than actual table
spacings) (weakness).
Cross check
Questionnaires, page 49
Experiments, page 43
Observations, page 51
Ethics, page 57
Use of stooges, page 59
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
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Subjective and objective data, page 69
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on the psychological environment. For
part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and
exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part
(b).
Consumer decision-making
Models, strategies and theories
Should I buy this or not? What thoughts are in a shopper’s mind before they
make a decision to purchase or not? How do consumers make decisions?
There are three models: utility theory, satisficing and prospect theory.
Utility theory (Neumann and Morgernstern, 1953) is the method of ranking
preferences. It states that consumers will chose the option with the highest
utility (or value). This assumes that people are rational in making decisions
and that they can consistently rank order their options based on their
preferences. Each individual has different preferences, but common ones
include: ‘more-is-better’ and ‘mix-is-better’.
However, consumers are not completely rational; they are often inconsistent
and are often unaware about the factors that determine their decisions.
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Satisficing (Simon, 1956) is a combination of the words ‘satisfy’ and
‘suffice’ and unlike in utility theory, rather than considering all options and
deciding on the one with the best utility score, Simon believes we select the
first option that appears to meet the need, or which appears to meet most
needs. Simply put: ‘why continue searching for an item when this one will
do? This is more efficient in time and resources, even though it might not be
100% perfect.
However, although satisficing might explain consumer decisions, it is of little
help to the seller. Prospect theory combines elements of both the above
models.
Prospect theory, first proposed by Kahneman and Tversky (1979), suggests
that value (or utility) is not a single ‘thing’ but is based on a decision-making
process of weighting costs and benefits. Further, costs and benefits are valued
differently and if there are two alternatives, the one presented in terms of
benefits will be chosen over the one presented in terms of possible losses
(this is loss aversion). What also affects value is the endowment effect, which
is where people put more value on things that they own. The theory involves
four stages:
1 The editing process, which tries to make things simpler using ‘rule of
thumb’ shortcuts, such as the representative heuristic, the availability
heuristic and anchoring and analogy.
2 Coding – setting a point of reference on which the outcome of the decision
can be measured.
3 Value (as described above).
4 Weighting and risk assessment (e.g. ‘framing’ where ‘95% chance of
recovery compared to 5% chance of death’).
Strategies of decision-making: there are three strategies: compensatory,
non-compensatory and partially compensatory.
In compensatory decision strategies, an attractive or high value on one
attribute of a thing can compensate for an unattractive or low value on
another attribute. For example, in choosing between birthday cake-makers, all
the attributes (cost of cake, delivery charges, quality of cake) that have an
impact on the final decision must be considered. Attractive attributes (e.g.
cake quality) can compensate for unattractive attributes (e.g. high cost). The
cake company chosen is the one with the highest value.
By contrast, in non-compensatory decision strategies, consumers making
choices consider attributes sequentially, and benefits on some attributes may
not overbalance shortfalls on others. Three strategies apply:
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• Lexicographic: if the first product has high value attributes, there is no
reason to look further.
• Satisficing: we select the first option that appears to meet the need or
which appears to meet most needs (see above).
• Elimination by aspects: sets a cut-off value and any product not meeting
the desired value is eliminated.
Partially compensatory strategies combine aspects of the other models:
• The majority of conforming dimensions is where two competing products
are evaluated across all attributes, and the one that has higher values across
more attributes is retained. This winner is then evaluated against the next
competitor, and so on.
• The frequency of good and bad features is where all products are
simultaneously compared and the product that has the highest frequency of
good attributes is the winner.
Marketing theories:
• Consideration is simply where we make a logical decision based on salient
factors. We could name 25 restaurants in the area, but if we needed the
closest, the nearest one would come to mind.
• Involvement is where the amount of effort put into making a decision is
directly related to the importance of acquiring that product.
Choice heuristics
Kahneman outlines heuristics and biases. Heuristics are mental shortcuts or
‘rules of thumb’ that people use to help them make judgements. However,
these sometimes go wrong, and these cognitive ‘errors’ are known as biases.
There are many heuristics and biases, for example:
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• Avaliability: this is the ease with which a particular idea can be brought to
mind; how easily we remember things. The bias is that we remember
‘spectacular things’; we think aeroplane crashes are common, when they
are not.
• Representativeness: this is where we make a judgement of similarity;
whether a thing is representative of a category. Sometimes things are
similar, but (the bias is that) often they are not. The quote ‘if it looks like a
duck, walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, then it must be a duck!’
comes to mind. The associated bias is sometimes called the illusory
correlation bias – there may be no relationship at all.
• Anchoring: this is the tendency to rely on the first piece of information
provided (the anchor). It is where people make estimates based on an initial
value – for example, we estimate a number and then adjust from that
starting point. The bias is that the starting point may be very wrong. See
below for an experimental study on anchoring.
• Confirmation bias: this is where a person is biased towards evidence that
confirms their view rather than seeking evidence that challenges it.
Anchoring and purchase quantity decisions: Wansink et al. (1998)
reported five experiments to show how a simple anchoring and adjustment
judgement process can influence consumer decisions at point of purchase.
Study 1: Multiple unit pricing: over 1 week, 43 stores used single unit
pricing and 43 stores used multiple pricing for 13 categories of items. Results
showed that, for example, for bathroom tissue, ‘buy 4 for $2’ resulted in 45%
more sales than ‘buy 1 for $0.50’. The anchor of ‘4’ resulted in more
purchases.
Now test yourself
23 Using an example, describe what is meant by ‘multiple unit
pricing’.
Answer on p.198
Purchase quantity limits: being told there is a limited number available
leads people to purchase more than they would without the quantity limit.
Study 2: a field study using end-aisle displays to advertise Campbell’s soups
for $0.79 per can. A sign was then placed on the display stating ‘Limit of 12
per person.’ The results show that purchase limits increased sales; shoppers
with no limit purchased an average of 3.3 cans, whereas buyers with limits
purchased an average of 7 cans of soup. The brain anchors with the number
12 and adjusts downward.
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Study 3 also looked at purchase quantity limits, this time with items being
advertised at a limit of 7, 14, 28 or 56, or in their original ‘shipped-in box
size’. Results confirmed those of Study 2.
Expert tip
In questions that ask for an example make sure you do include an
example. Many students describe the term and forget about the
example. Don’t make up an example of your own – always use an
example that you have studied. To answer the above question, use
an example from the Wansink et al. study.
Study 4 looked at suggestive selling (slogans) with and without anchors. The
slogan ‘Buy Snickers Bars for Your Freezer’ was compared with ‘Buy 18
Snickers Bars for Your Freezer’. Results showed that sales increased with
both anchors. Study 5 aimed to provide an answer for this.
Study 5: this investigated the question: can shoppers counter external
anchors with their own self-generated ‘internal’ anchor? This experiment
used well-known products offered at a 20–30% discount (e.g. Snickers,
Wrigley’s gum, Sunkist oranges, and diet or regular Coke). The external
anchor had four quantity limit conditions of none, 14, 28 and 56. The internal
anchor had three conditions of none, default and expansion. The results
supported the anchoring model by showing that both low (past purchase
quantities) and high (future usage quantities) anchors overpowered the effects
of external (purchase limit) anchors.
Pre-cognitive decisions: the aim of the study by Knutson et al. (2007) was
to determine whether distinct neural circuits in the brain respond to product
preference versus excessive prices, and to explore whether anticipatory
activation extracted from these brain regions could independently predict
subsequent decisions to purchase.
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A novel task was created called SHOP (save holdings or purchase) where
images of a product were shown for 4 seconds (product period), the price
shown for 4 seconds (price period), then a ‘choice period’ followed, also 4
seconds, where the participant had to choose whether to purchase the product
or not (by pressing ‘yes’ or ‘no’). After a 2-second pause, the next trial would
begin. Crucially, the task was done while the participants were in an MRI
scanner which could pinpoint the region of the brain associated with each of
the three task stages.
1 In the product period, preference would be associated with an anticipated
gain.
2 During the price period, excessive prices would be associated with
anticipated loss.
3 Any brain activation before the purchase period would predict whether
‘yes’ or ‘no’ would be pressed.
Results showed that anticipated gain (product preference) was associated
with the NAcc (nucleus accumbens) region; excessive prices (price period)
activated the insula and deactivated the mesial prefrontal cortex (MFPC).
Purchasing the product caused deactivation in the insula.
Knutson et al. concluded: ‘Activity from each of these regions independently
predicted immediately subsequent purchases above and beyond self-report
variables. These findings suggest that activation of distinct neural circuits
related to anticipatory affect precedes and supports consumers’ purchasing
decisions.’
Evaluation
• Generalisations (strengths and weaknesses) is a relevant issue in
relation to the work by Kahneman, Wansink et al. and Knutson et
al. Does every person in the world use heuristics and biases, or is
there cultural bias? (weaknesses) Does the same brain region
activate for every consumer? Does multiple-unit pricing work in
every store, or just in the USA?
• The study by Wansink et al. was a field experiment gathering
objective, quantitative data (whether people purchase items or
not), and the laboratory experiment by Knutson et al. used an
MRI scanner so that data were also quantitative and objective.
(Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
Cross check
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Experiments, page 43
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Generalisations, page 68
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Intuitive thinking and its imperfections
Thinking fast and thinking slow: Schleifer (2012) summarises Kahneman’s
work, explaining that we think fast and we think slow, according to
Kahneman (2011). Kahneman calls these System 1, which corresponds to
thinking fast, and System 2, thinking slow.
System 1 is the first thing that comes to mind. This type of thinking is
intuitive, automatic, unconscious and effortless; it answers questions quickly
through associations and resemblances; it is non-statistical, gullible and
heuristic. It is the first response a person makes when answering a quiz
question.
System 2 in contrast is ‘second thoughts’. It is conscious, slow, controlled,
deliberate, effortful, statistical, suspicious and lazy. It is when we begin to
doubt our first response to the quiz question (and we change our minds and
then find that the first answer was correct)!
Kahneman also outlines heuristics and biases. Heuristics are mental
shortcuts or ‘rules of thumb’ that people use to help them make judgements.
However, these sometimes go wrong, and these cognitive ‘errors’ are known
as biases. These biases are imperfections in our intuitive thinking. See above
for more details.
Choice blindness: this is another imperfection in our thinking and decisionmaking.
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Hall et al. (2010) asked 180 participants at a supermarket in Sweden to
participate in a field experiment. They used three pairs of jam and three pairs
of tea. These pairs were chosen by judges prior to the study for being middle
to dissimilar to each other. The jam pairings were: blackcurrant vs blueberry,
ginger vs lime and cinnamon-apple vs grapefruit. The tea flavours were apple
pie vs honey, caramel and cream vs cinnamon and Pernod (aniseed) vs
mango.
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Participants tasted one jam (or tea) and then rated their liking on a 10-point
scale (not at all good to very good) before tasting and rating the other jam (or
tea). After tasting, an experimenter ‘flipped’ the container over, so the
opposite flavour was uppermost. The participants could not see the contents
of the container, so they thought it was still the same. After tasting both, they
were asked which they preferred and then to taste again. The tasting would
automatically be the one they did not prefer, but would the participants
notice?
There were three possible answers:
1 Concurrent detection was if the participants voiced any concerns
immediately after tasting or smelling the manipulated jam or tea.
2 Retrospective detection was if the participants (either before or after the
debriefing) claimed to have noticed the manipulation.
3 Sensory-change detection was where the experimenters registered any
reason for the choice being somehow different the second time around (i.e.
tasting/smelling stronger, weaker, sweeter, etc.)
Results: 33% of the jam and 32.2% of the tea trials were detected (combining
all the above possibilities), meaning that in two-thirds of the trials
participants were blind to the mismatch between the intended and the actual
outcome of their choice, and instead believed that the taste or smell they
experienced in their final sample corresponded to their initial choice.
Advertising and false memory: Braun-LaTour et al. (2004) suggested that
advertising can exert a powerful retroactive effect on how consumers
remember their past experiences with a product. Put another way, through
reconstructive memory, could information received after an event produce a
false memory for that event? They conducted two experiments.
Experiment 1: 66 students were randomly allocated to one of two conditions
(independent measures design) based on an experience at Disneyland.
• a ‘truthful’ advertisement featuring the probable event of shaking hands
with Mickey Mouse
• a ‘false’ advertisement featuring the shaking of hands with Bugs Bunny
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A picture of either Bugs Bunny or Mickey Mouse appeared at the bottom of
the advertisement. Note that Bugs Bunny is a Warner Brothers character and
would never have been part of a childhood experience at Disneyland.
Participants were told to read the advertisement and then rate their attitude
toward Disneyland and the likelihood of visiting it in the future. They had to
recall their memories of visiting Disneyland.
Two independent judges coded the replies. The result was that 22% of the
‘false’ group said they had shaken hands with Bugs Bunny, i.e. they had a
false memory for the event; 7% of the ‘true’ group said they had shaken
hands with Bugs Bunny, even though Bugs Bunny was not on the advert or
ever at Disneyland, showing people confuse things without any experimental
manipulation!
Experiment 2 had three conditions:
1 Pictorial condition with Bugs Bunny at the bottom of the advertisement.
2 Verbal condition with a headline ‘Bugs Bunny Says It’s Time to
Remember the Magic’.
3 Both pictorial and verbal conditions combined.
Results showed that the advertisements with pictures (‘pictorial’ 48% and
‘both’ 32%) had the largest number of false memories compared to ‘verbal’
with just 17%. Interestingly there were more ‘Bugs Bunny detectors’ (those
who noticed the discrepancy that Bugs Bunny in Disneyland was false) in the
‘verbal’ group: 31% compared with 12% and 8% in the other groups.
Experiment 3 used the same advertisements as Experiment 2. The results
were similar: more false memories in ‘pictorial’ (52%) and more Bugs Bunny
detectors in ‘verbal’ (34%). In addition, it was found that participants
remembered most items from the ‘both’ condition (6.2%), compared to 5.1%
from ‘pictorial’ and 4.7% from ‘verbal’, showing deeper processing, and so
more likelihood of creating false memories, in pictorial conditions.
Evaluation
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• The Hall et al. study was a field experiment, and the sample was
people shopping. The study by Braun-LaTour et al. was a
laboratory experiment and the sample was students. (Strengths
and weaknesses for all.)
• Both studies gathered quantitative data and the Braun-LaTour et
al. study gathered qualitative data. The data in both studies was
subjective, rather than objective. The study by Hall et al. uses
deception which could be considered unethical. (Strengths and
weaknesses for all.)
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
Samples, page 56
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Ethics, page 57
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on consumer decision-making. For part
(a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and
exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part
(b).
The product
Packaging, positioning and placement
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The packaging of a product influences how quickly and easily a product
catches the eye. Important features include its colour, font style and size
(labels), images, brand name and logo. Also important are the quality of the
packaging (whether it is innovative, whether it is environmentally friendly),
its shape and its design. Inexpensive items are packaged, so are food items
and so are luxury items and gifts.
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Gift-wrapping: in a study by Howard (1992) on gift-wrapping and mood,
when participants were asked why they prefer to have their gifts wrapped,
many replied that ‘gifts are supposed to be wrapped’. Why are gifts wrapped?
• Wrapping creates an expectation of what is inside.
• Wrapping shows attention to detail; that the person giving the gift cares.
• Wrapping meets individual and social expectations of what a gift should
look like.
• Wrapping can create a positive impression in a recipient being met for the
first time.
Howard et al. suggested that gifts can be either ‘naked’ (unwrapped),
traditionally wrapped (looks like a gift) or non-traditionally wrapped (e.g. in
plain paper) and that this creates different expectations in recipients.
Porublev et al. (2009) used three methods to collect data:
• Observation of a Christmas gift-wrap stall (to see different wrappings and
how gifts are wrapped).
• In-depth interviews with 20 participants aged 25–35 from Victoria,
Australia (to reflect on gift-wrapping) with questions such as ‘Do you
prefer to receive gifts that are wrapped or unwrapped?’ and ‘In what
instances do you wrap/not wrap gifts?’
• Six projective workshops where participants in pairs were asked to wrap
two gifts, one for someone they are close to and the other for an
acquaintance, and have a discussion about gift-wrapping while doing so.
Findings:
• People like wrapped gifts (in Victoria, Australia and presumably some
other cultures) simply because there was a ‘Christmas gift-wrap stall’.
• Gifts should be wrapped: ‘I prefer wrapped. I like the reveal’, and ‘I enjoy
receiving gifts that are wrapped’.
• Gifts should look like gifts: gifts created at the workshops, 24 in total, all
looked like a gift using traditional wrappings, decorative bag with ribbons,
bows or other embellishments.
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Now test yourself
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24 Give three findings from the study by Porublev (2009) on giftwrapping.
Answer on p.198
Product colour and associative learning: one aspect of product packaging
is the colour of the package/wrapping because colour plays an important role
in the purchase decision. Colour associations are much more general:
yellow, orange and red are associated with warm (i.e. the sun) and white and
blue with cool/cold (snow and ice).
Grossman and Wisenblit (1999) suggested that colour associations can be
understood through classical conditioning/associative learning (see the
learning approach, page 71). For example, Stuart et al. (1987) paired a brand
of toothpaste with images of water scenes and subjects developed more
favourable attitudes toward the toothpaste than a control group. If colour
associations are learned, then there will be cultural differences. In the West,
green is associated with hopefulness, white with purity, black with mourning;
in China, white is associated with righteousness and yellow with
trustworthiness; black is associated with dullness and stupidity. There are
also cross-cultural colours: blue is associated with boys and pink with girls in
many cultures. Colours such as red are associated with danger and green with
safety (e.g. traffic lights). Worldwide brands are associated with specific
colours, such as cans of Coca-Cola being red. Colours indicate the attributes
of products: kitchen goods are usually white to indicate cleanliness, and in
washing powder blue is chosen because it signifies cleanliness, while yellow
is not perceived as clean.
The implications of colour association is that marketers should consider their
product’s colour, the colour of packaging and any colours that are associated
with the product in advertising, as an essential part of their marketing
strategy.
Attention and shelf position: the positioning and placement of an item on a
shelf can have a major effect on sales. Research suggests that people gaze at
products in the horizontal centre (the gaze cascade effect) and these are more
likely to be chosen. The aim of the studies by Atalay et al. (2012) was to test
‘horizontal centrality’.
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Three experiements were conducted: 1a, 1b and 2. Participants in all three
studies were students. Experiments 1a and 1b, laboratory experiments, used
eye-tracking screens, so when an item is viewed on the screen an infra-red
camera records the exact location of where the eyes are looking on the screen.
In Experiment 1a to test gaze centrality, the planograms were in a 3 × 3
matrix, including stimuli of fictitious brands Priorin, Alpecin and Labrada for
vitamins, and Bega, Niran and Salus for meal replacement bars. Each
participant reviewed the two product categories, made a choice and then
responded to a questionnaire. The questionnaire asked for ratings, on a 9point scale (1 = low, 9 = high), of quality, popularity and attractiveness.
Results showed that products in the centre were looked at for longer and
received more fixations. Central products were chosen more often.
Experiment 1b was conducted as a control to test whether the central gaze
cascade effect was due to horizontal centrality of the brand or merely the
centrality of the computer screen. This time the planogram was moved off
centre, either to the right or to the left of the screen. The stimuli were energy
drinks with the fictitious names of Cebion, Niran and Viba.
Results showed that, as in Experiment 1a, participants fixated on the central
column items, confirming the ‘centrality effect’.
Just because an effect is shown in a laboratory it does not mean that it is
automatically transferred to real-life settings. In Experiment 2 the energy
drinks were presented on a horizontal shelf layout along with filler items.
Participants were positioned in the middle, and were required to choose an
energy drink from the three when placed to the left or right of the shelf.
Results showed that the central item was chosen more often, leading to the
conclusion that the central gaze effect is confirmed.
Strengths of using eye-movement tracking
• Eye-movement tracking uses scientific equipment which is reliable.
• The data recorded are objective: where the person looks is clear and
unambiguous.
• It can be used on any person and to study things other than consumer
behaviour.
Weaknesses of using eye-movement tracking
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• Participants can choose to look in whatever direction they wish – they
know their eye movements are being tracked.
• There may be cultural differences in where people are socialised to look.
• It tells us where the participant has looked but it does not tell us why a
person looked in a particular direction
Evaluation
• The Porublev et al. study focused on people giving gifts for certain
religious festivals, which can be generalised (strengths and
weaknesses) to some cultures (but not others), so there is cultural
bias (weaknesses).
• The Atalay et al. study had two laboratory experiments, but low
ecological validity, so Experiment 2 was conducted (strengths
and weaknesses). A questionnaire was also used. The central
gaze effect perhaps can be generalised and so be useful to
anyone placing products on a shelf.
• The study by Grossman and Wisenblit supports the
nurture/learning approach rather than nature (strengths and
weaknesses) which shows cultural differences exist, although
there are some cultural universals (same in all cultures).
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Experiments, page 43
Ecological validity, page 67
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
The learning approach, page 71
Selling the product
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Sales techniques: traditionally, salespeople are stereotyped by the public for
having one goal in mind: to sell. However, it isn’t quite so simple…the role
of any sales person is to manage a portfolio of different buyer–seller
relationships. DelVecchio et al. (2003) outlined three buyer–seller
relationships: customer focused, product focused and competition focused.
Product focused:
• The product is everything and once the customer is educated, the sale will
be made.
• As in competition-focused selling, the customer is unimportant.
• The salesperson needs to have excellent product/technical knowledge
regarding the features of the product.
Many companies have unique products, such as Apple, and people visit
Apple stores to be told more about the product they are interested in.
Competition focused:
• Assumes that every buyer is the same with no individual differences.
• The salesperson already knows the needs of the customer and there is no
need to ask questions.
• The salesperson tries to convince the customer using examples of other
customers.
• Usually the cost of a product is the same in other stores – it is then the task
of the salesperson to emphasise the advantages of their store, such as
extended guarantees, after-sales service or half-price (or free) extras, or to
offer a discount.
Many stores sell the same product as their competitors, so focusing on
technical/product knowledge is irrelevant. A television, for example, can be
bought from a competitor, so the emphasis needs to be on being better than
the competition.
Customer focused:
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• A customer’s problems are viewed as unique and a good salesperson will
address the individual needs of the customer.
• The salesperson actively engages the buyer; is a consultant rather than a
persuader.
• The salesperson seeks information and input from the buyer rather than
telling the buyer what he or she wants.
This approach tends to create loyal customers, and if a customer is happy,
they are likely to ‘spread the word’ and tell their friends.
Interpersonal influence techniques: how can people best be persuaded to
make a purchase? One compliance technique is based on the ‘Pique
technique’ (Santos et al.,1994) but goes further by using the need for
cognitive closure with anything ambiguous.
The disrupt-then-reframe (DTR) technique (Kardes et al., 2007) involves
deliberately confusing consumers with a disruptive message (or confusing
information) and then re-wording (reframing) in a much clearer way so that
the consumer understands what is being said, and is happy. This reduces the
number of counter-arguments and can close a sale. This technique is said to
work because the consumer has a need for ‘cognitive closure’ (NFCC), i.e.
resolving the ambiguity rather than it being left ambiguous.
Experiment 1: in this field experiment, 147 participants were approached in
a supermarket with a box of candy. In the DTR condition the salesperson said
‘The price is now 100 eurocents [approximately 100 pennies]’, then after a 2second pause, ‘that’s 1 euro. It’s a bargain!’ In the reframe only, the
salesperson said ‘The price is now 1 euro. It’s a bargain!’ Of the participants,
54% bought the box of candy, 64% from the DTR and 44% from the control.
Experiment 2: in this field experiment 155 participants were asked if they
would give €3 to a student group in the Netherlands. The DTR condition was
‘You can now become a member for half a year for 300 eurocents
[approximately 300 pennies]’, followed by a 2-second pause and ‘That’s 3
euros. That’s a really small investment!’ In the reframe only it was ‘You can
now become a member for half a year for 3 euros. That’s a really small
investment!’ Groups then completed a 20-item questionnaire assessing the
need for cognitive closure; 30% in the DTR group donated compared to 13%
in the control group. Of the DTR group, 43% were high NFCC scorers,
showing the need for cognitive closure.
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Experiment 3: this laboratory experiment compared three groups (of
students): DTR, reframe only and disrupt only. Participants watched a video
clip, heard one of the three statements, and completed additional
questionnaires. Results showed again that DTR was effective because of the
need for cognitive closure.
Ways to close a sale: there is no one agreed way to close a sale, and many
suggestions are based on successful experiences of closing sales with
customers. Psychologist Cialdini (1984) suggests there are six ways to get
people to say ‘yes’:
• Reciprocity: I’ll give you something (a free gift) if you give me something
(the sale). This could include a free trial.
• Commitment and consistency: getting people to agree to something small
(a micro-commitment) can lead to them agreeing to something larger. This
is also known as the step-by-step technique.
• Liking: not just the product, but the salesperson, the store and everything
else associated, demonstrated by similarity: people like people like
themselves; humour (done in an appropriate way) can be effective.
• Social proof: positive customer reviews on social media for example are
positively reinforcing.
• Authority: be an expert, know the product. People will buy from someone
who answers all their questions. Know the competition.
• Scarcity and urgency: if it is in short supply, people are more likely to
buy. Sales with ‘last few days’, ‘when it’s gone its gone’, ‘only two
rooms/seats left at this price’ are typical strategies. The ‘best time close’
strategy is an example of this – emphasise that now is the best time to buy
because…
Now test yourself
25 Describe three ways to close a sale.
Answer on p.198
Expert tip
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Other techniques include
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The question above requires three ways to close a sale and Cialdini
suggests six. Choose the ‘best three’. Don’t choose the shortest or
any that you don’t understand. Choose three that have enough detail
to score full marks and that you understand.
• Yes set close: get the customer saying ‘yes’ and they’ll keep saying yes.
• The alternative or choice is a powerful form of closing sales technique. It
gives the client the choice of two alternatives, either of which confirms the
sale: for example, ‘Would you like to have it this week or next week?’
Evaluation
• There are different sales techniques, but whether these generalise
or not (strengths and weaknesses), and whether there is cultural
bias (weaknesses), is debatable. Sales techniques and ‘ways to
lose a sale’ are based largely on consumers in the USA and these
techniques may not even generalise to other Western societies.
• The Kardes et al. study used a questionnaire as part of its
laboratory experiment and observation in the field
experiments. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Questionnaires, page 49
Experiments, page 43
Buying the product
Purchase decisions: the theory of reasoned action (extended to the theory
of planned behaviour) was first outlined by Fishbein and Azjen (1962) and
proposed that a person’s overall attitude toward an object is derived from his
beliefs and feelings about various attributes of the object.
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According to Azjen (1991), three determinants explain behavioural intention:
1 The attitude (opinions of oneself about the behaviour): for example, ‘I like
Apple products’.
2 The subjective norm (opinions of others about the behaviour): for
example, ‘many people like Apple products’.
3 The perceived behavioural control (self-efficacy towards the behaviour):
for example, ‘I can afford an Apple product’.
These three components feed into the behavioural intention (what I intend
to do): for example, ‘I intend to go and purchase an Apple product’.
There is then the assumption that having the intention to purchase will
automatically result in the behaviour (the purchase happening) although this
might not happen in some instances (see Figure 15).
The model has been shown to be predictive of the purchase of a specific
brand of grape drink (Bonfield, 1974) and toothpaste (Wilson et al., 1975),
for example. Studies have shown that is predictive of consumer behaviour
across cultures. For example, Bagozzi et al. (2000) found it predicted fastfood restaurant patronage in samples from the USA, Italy, Japan and the
People’s Republic of China.
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The black-box model: this is based on the early stimulus–response models
of behaviourism. The model has three components:
1 The stimulus is the environment which includes marketing stimuli
(product, price, place and promotion – McCarthy’s 4Ps) and
environmental factors (demographic, economic, socio-cultural,
technological, ecological and political factors). These feed into the…
2 …(buyers) black box which includes buyer characteristics (cultural,
psychological) and buyer decision-making (problem recognition,
information search) which determine the…
3 …response which includes purchase behaviour (what, when, where and
how much, i.e. brand choice, dealer choice, etc.)
The consumer decision model: this was originally developed by Engel et al.
(1968). The model has seven stages: need recognition, search of information
both internal and external, pre-purchase evaluation of alternatives, purchase,
consumption, post-consumption evaluation, and divestment. These decisions
are influenced by two main factors: stimuli received will be associated with
memories of previous experiences, and external variables in the form of
either environmental influences (culture, class, etc.) or individual differences
(consumer resources, lifestyle).
Blackwell (2006) has revised the above model into the five stages of
consumer decision-making:
1 Problem/need recognition: when an individual recognises the difference
between what they have and what they want/need to have.
2 Information search: an internal search refers to consumers relying on
their personal experiences and beliefs, and an external search involves a
wide search for information from the media, advertising or feedback from
others.
3 Evaluation of alternatives: the consumer considers all the types and
alternatives, taking into account factors such as size, quality and price.
4 Purchase decision: the decision is made to purchase or not.
5 Post-purchase evaluation: the consumer’s experience of their
product/purchase.
Expert tip
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Advertising
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Prepare an exam-style essay on the product. For part (a), the
‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the
exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For
part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include
(three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue.
You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
Types of advertising and advertising
techniques
Advertising media and persuasive techniques: how are products
advertised? There are many different forms of advertising media, all of which
have strengths and weaknesses, and the type of media used often depends on
the product being advertised.
Shavitt et al. (2004) compared six different types of advertising in over 2,500
respondents in the USA, concluding that catalogues/specific magazines were
most preferred because they could be specifically selected by the
respondents, and television advertising was least preferred because of its
intrusive nature (whether the product is wanted or not).
The ‘classic’ model of persuasive techniques is the Yale model of
communication which appears in the next sub-section (see page 154).
Marketing mix models: according to McCarthy (1960), to effectively
market a product or service there are four things to get right: product, price,
place and promotion. These four elements are known as the marketing mix
or the 4Ps.
• Product: this could be the physical (or basic) product or it could be the
extensive product, the product with added qualities such as its packaging,
brand name, service and guarantee. The total product includes all the above
plus the emotional value that a customer may attach to the product.
• Price: the amount a customer pays for the product (including aspects such
as discount, special offer, sale price, etc.)
• Place: the location of where the product is sold (retail park, shopping mall,
online).
• Promotion: includes all the communications the company makes about the
product, such as advertising.
Later models write about the 7Ps, adding people, process and physical
evidence to the original four.
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Alternatively, Lauterborn (1990) outlines the 4Cs:
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• Consumer wants and needs (product): the focus is on selling only what
the customer specifically wants to buy. There must be something unique,
different, something that makes it desirable.
• Cost to satisfy (price): a focus on the cost for satisfaction will mean that
there is more important information being taken into account than just the
purchase price.
• Convenience to buy (place): a marketer needs to be aware of how a
particular customer group like to make their purchases in order to make it
convenient for them to buy.
• Communication (promotion): this is a tool to put information about the
product in front of the customer.
Product placement in films: product placement can happen in films, as part
of television programmes or in social media. There are famous examples in
films: Converse shoes in I, Robot, Mini Cooper cars in The Italian Job; Pizza
Hut in Wayne’s World, but what about product placement in children’s films?
Auty and Lewis (2004) investigated the influence on children of branded
products in film and television. The participants were 105 children, 48 aged
11–12 and 57 aged 6–7 from schools in the UK. Parents and teachers gave
consent for the children to participate. This laboratory experiment
(conducted in the school of the children) included two independent groups
exposed to an IV of a 1 minute 50 second clip of the film Home Alone, a
sequence where a bottle of Pepsi is evident throughout and is referred to
explicitly by name: ‘Fuller, go easy on the Pepsi’. The control group watched
a clip from the same film that has no branded products on display. Later the
children were interviewed, and invited to help themselves to a drink with
cans of both Pepsi and Coke on display. The child’s choice of drink was
recorded (the DV). The children were asked questions like ‘what were they
(the people in the film) drinking?’, ‘was it a cola?’ and ‘what was the name of
the cola?’
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Results: the experimental group chose the Pepsi over Coke (62% to 38%) and
the control group chose the Coke over Pepsi (58% to 42%). Although age
was manipulated (11–12 and 6–7 year olds), there was no significant
difference between the groups. It was concluded (on the basis of the
interviews) that it is not simply exposure to the film, but rather previous
exposure together with a reminder in the form of recent exposure that affects
choice.
Now test yourself
26 What is meant by ‘product placement’?
Answer on p.198
Evaluation
• The study by Auty and Lewis is an experiment conducted at the
school of the children. The use of children in psychology studies is
relevant. Controls and typical design features were applied. Ethics
were a consideration, but the researchers gained consent from
parents and teachers. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
• The children were interviewed (strengths and weaknesses).
Quantitative objective data were gathered through observation of
the drink chosen and quantitative subjective data were gathered
from interview responses.
• The 4Ps and 4Cs are based on work largely in the USA, so
whether the findings can generalise (weaknesses) or whether
there is cultural bias (weaknesses) can be debated.
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
Children in studies, page 75
Ethics, page 57
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Generalisations, page 68
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Cultural bias, page 88
Communication and advertising models
Changing attitudes and models of communication: Hovland et al.’s (1953)
Yale model of communication looked at persuasive communications: ‘Who
says what to whom and with what effect’.
• The source of the message (the communicator or ‘who’): is the presenter
of the message credible, an expert, trustworthy?
– Expertise: experts are more persuasive than non-experts.
– Popular and attractive communicators are more effective than unpopular
or unattractive ones.
– People who speak rapidly are more persuasive than people who speak
slowly.
• The message itself (the communication or ‘what’): is it clear and direct,
colourful and vivid, is it one-sided or two-sided?
– Persuasion can be enhanced by messages that arouse fear in the
audience.
– Sometimes a two-sided argument is better than a one-sided one.
– The order in which arguments are presented can make a difference.
• The medium: is the message personal, what media are used, via television,
radio or printed?
• The target audience (to ‘whom’): who is the target audience? School
children, communities?
• The situation: where will the message be presented? In the home, a
medical surgery?
All of these features contribute to the success (or failure) of persuasive
communication.
Expert tip
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The Yale model of communication can also be used when promoting
health. See page 154 if you study that option.
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The AIDA model: this model (Lewis, 1899) describes the stages a consumer
goes through from when they first become aware of a product through to
making a purchase decision. The stages are:
A gaining attention (the consumer becomes aware of a product or brand
(through advertising).
I holding interest (the consumer becomes interested in finding out more
about the product), so the challenge is to build on the initial attention.
D arousing desire (the consumer develops desire toward the product).
Attention has been grabbed and kept. The product now needs to be made
irresistible.
A obtaining action (the consumer intends to purchase the product) and the
sale is closed/deal done.
The original model is over 100 years old and there are updates of it. One
simple one is the same four factors, with ‘satisfaction’ added at the end to
form AIDAS or ‘confidence’ added to form AIDCA.
An alternative model is DAGMAR (Colley, 1961) which is used to measure
the results of an advertising campaign. DAGMAR stands for Defining
Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results. There are five phases
regarding the product – is the consumer unaware, aware, has comprehension,
has conviction and will take action – while also setting specific, measurable
objectives to determine the overall success of the campaign.
Hierarchy of effects models: these models focus on the steps that consumers
go through when making purchase decisions. The AIDA model is an
example. The specific ‘hierarchy of effects model’ was proposed by Lavidge
and Steiner (1961). It has six steps, as shown in Figure 16.
Cognitive (thinking):
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• Awareness: the customer becomes aware of the product through
advertising.
• Knowledge: the customer needs knowledge and information about the
product, for example through the internet (websites), retail advisers and
product packaging.
Affective (feeling):
• Liking: the customer must develop favourable attitudes towards the
product.
• Preference: the customer must prefer your product over all others. There
needs to be a unique selling point (USP).
Behavioural (action):
• Conviction: a customer’s desire for a product can be enhanced by free
samples (e.g. of food, fragrances or test driving a car).
• Purchase: the customer has not withdrawn at any of the above stages and
purchases the product.
Evaluation
• All these models break things down into component parts, which is
reductionist (strengths and weaknesses).
• Whether these models generalise (strengths and weaknesses) or
whether there is cultural bias (weaknesses) can be debated.
Cross check
Reductionism, page 89
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Advertising applications
Brand recognition is the extent to which a consumer can correctly identify a
product just by viewing the product’s logo, tag line, packaging or advertising
campaign. Some brands have become synonymous with their function:
people ‘Hoover’ the carpet, have ‘Kellogg’s’ for breakfast, etc.
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A study by Donoghue et al. (1980) suggested that children as young as 3
years understand the purpose of television advertising but at what age do
children recognise brands?
Brand recognition in children: Fischer et al. (1991) suggested that
children:
• are major consumers from a young age: food, toys and games, etc.
• influence household decisions, maybe what a family will eat, where a
family will go, etc.
• are consumers of the future, and brand awareness in children may transfer
to adulthood
In Fischer et al.’s study, 229 children aged 3–6 years participated while at
pre-school. Twenty-two brand logos were selected. All parents signed a
consent form. Seven were children’s brands (including Disney Channel,
McDonald’s, Dominos Pizza, Pepsi and Nike). Five were cigarette brands
(including ‘Old Joe’ and Marlboro) and seven were ‘adult brands’ (including
Ford, Apple and NBC). Each child was tested for brand recognition using a
game of matching cards with products. A game board included 12 products
(e.g. a burger, a pizza) and the child had to match each of 22 different logo
cards to the product. The responses of the children were scored 1 = correct or
0 = incorrect.
Results: recognition rates were (top three overall): Disney Channel 91.7%,
McDonald’s 81.7%, Burger King 79.9%. The top cigarette brand was ‘Old
Joe’ at 51.1% and the top adult brand was Chevrolet at 54.1%. Recognition
increased in relation to age (3 year olds recognised 49% of children’s brands
while for 6 year olds it was 81%). There was no race or gender difference.
There is no doubt that very young children see, understand and remember
advertising.
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Snyder and DeBono (1985) conducted three studies (after classifying
participants into high or low self-monitors).
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Advertising and consumer personality: are different personalities affected
by advertising? One possibility is that people who are more aware of their
surroundings and change their behaviour to fit are more susceptible to
advertising than people who are not. Snyder (1974) distinguished between
high and low self-monitors (based on scores on his self-monitoring scale).
The self-monitoring scale had 25 questions, each answered with a ‘true’ or
‘false’, with scores over 15 indicating ‘high’ and under 8 indicating ‘low’.
Study 1: 50 students looked at three sets of pairs of magazine advertisements
about whisky, coffee and cigarettes. Each pair had an image-oriented slogan
(e.g. for Barclay cigarettes ‘You can see the difference’) and a qualityoriented slogan for the product (for Barclay ‘You can taste the difference’).
The students then completed a 12-item questionnaire asking, for example,
‘Overall, which ad do you think is better?’ Results showed that high selfmonitors preferred image whereas low self-monitors preferred quality.
Study 2: participants viewed the same image-oriented and quality-oriented
adverts then filled out a questionnaire, with the critical item: ‘How much
would you be willing to pay for this product?’ Possible answers were $0.50–
$1.50, $2.00–$5.00 and $5.00–$15.00. Results showed that for high-self
monitors images suggested more money, whereas for low self-monitors
quality suggested more money.
Study 3: participants were telephoned at home (telephone interview) and
invited to try a new shampoo. In explaining more about the shampoo, half the
participants were given an ‘image-related message’ and the other half a
‘quality-related message’. When asked how willing they would be to use the
shampoo, high self-monitors were more swayed by the image-oriented
information and low-self monitors by the quality-oriented information.
Snyder and DeBono concluded that their study had discovered how two
personality types are influenced differently by two types of advertising – and
that many more studies are needed.
Effective slogans: a brand name gives a product its core identity – the
anchor. Logos serve as visual cues for faster processing and universal
recognition of brands. Slogans are a key element of a brand’s identity
because they say something about the image of the product, thereby making it
possible to communicate what the brand is about.
Popular slogans include: ‘Because you’re worth it’, I’m lovin it’, ‘The
ultimate driving machine’ and ‘Maybe its Maybelline’. (Can you guess
whose these are?)
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According to Kohli et al. (2007), slogans enhance a brand’s image, aid in its
recognition and recall, and help create brand differentiation in consumers’
minds. Based on their investigation, they proposed guidelines for the strategy
behind slogans, and for creating and utilising effective slogans:
• Keep your eye on the horizon: slogans are not just about now, but also
about the future.
• Slogans should be ‘positioned’ clearly: it provides reassurance to the
consumer and can reinforce brand loyalty.
• Link the slogan to the brand: the slogan should be linked with everything to
do with the product, not just the packaging.
• Please repeat that: the slogan should be consistent across all advertising.
• Jingle, jangle: jingles can be easy to remember initially, so they should be
used.
• Use slogans at the outset: slogans are fundamental, so they should be used
from the start.
• It’s okay to be creative: don’t keep it simple, be creative, but make sure the
audience ‘gets it’.
Evaluation
• The Fischer et al. study was an experiment and the participants
were children and ethical issues may have arisen. The data
gathered were objective (recognition data). (Strengths and
weaknesses of all.)
• The Snyder and DeBono study used questionnaires (selfmonitoring), the scores of which were quantitative, but
respondents could give any answer they wished, so it was
subjective. Telephone interviews were also used. (Strengths and
weaknesses of all.)
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
Children in studies, page 75
Ethics, page 57
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Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
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Questionnaires, page 49
Interviews, page 50
Expert tip
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Prepare an exam-style essay on advertising. For part (a), the
‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the
exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For
part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include
(three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue.
You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
5.4 Psychology and health
The patient–practitioner relationship
Practitioner and patient interpersonal skills
In any medical consultation interpersonal skills such as verbal and nonverbal skills are displayed by both the patient and the practitioner. Argyle
(1975) suggested that non-verbal communication is four times more powerful
and effective as verbal communication, but it should match verbal
communication.
Non-verbal communications: the study by McKinstry and Wang (1991)
looked at how acceptable patients found different styles of doctors’ clothing
and whether patients felt that this influenced their respect for his or her
opinion. This study was a field experiment using interviews. The sample
included 475 patients in five medical practices who were asked to look at
photographs and then answer a few questions.
The photographs (the IV) were of the same man and same woman. The man
was dressed in five different styles: white coat over formal suit; formal suit,
white shirt and tie; tweed jacket, informal shirt and tie; cardigan, sports shirt
and slacks; and denim jeans and open-neck short-sleeved shirt. The woman
was dressed in three different styles: white coat over skirt and jumper; skirt,
blouse and woollen jumper; and pink trousers, jumper and gold earrings.
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The patients were asked questions and scored the ‘acceptability’ of each,
from 5 to 0 for each model. First question was ‘Which doctor would you feel
happiest about seeing for the first time? Then they were asked about their
confidence in the ability of the doctors, whether they would be unhappy
about consulting any of them, and which one looked most like their own
doctor. After that, a series of closed questions followed about doctors’ dress
in general.
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Results: most acceptable was the male and female doctor wearing a white
coat; least acceptable was the man in cardigan and the woman in trousers;
41% had more confidence in a formally dressed doctor.
Conclusions: the majority of patients thought that the way the doctor dresses
is of some importance, with many patients feeling that they would have more
confidence in a doctor dressed in one of the more traditional styles.
Expert tip
Design your own study: think about what method (questionnaire or
experiment) you would choose to investigate the preferred dress
style worn by doctors in a hospital near where you live. What would
be your reasons for choosing this method?
Verbal communications: Ley (1988) investigated verbal communication –
specifically what people remember about a consultation after consulting a
practitioner. They were asked what the practitioner had told them to do and
this was compared with what had actually been said. Ley found that:
•
•
•
•
patients remembered about 55% of what was said
they remembered the first thing they were told (the primacy effect)
they remembered information that had been categorised
they remembered more if they had some medical knowledge (note how this
finding links with the McKinlay study below)
McKinlay (1975) randomly sampled 81 women registered with a pre-natal
clinic in Aberdeen, Scotland. Using doctors on a maternity ward, a list of 57
regularly used words was compiled with 13 finally selected for the study:
antibiotic, breech, enamel, glucose, membranes, mucus, etc. The women were
divided into two types: utilisers (regular attenders) and under-utilisers. When
visiting the women at home, an interview was conducted asking about their
understanding of the terms. McKinlay concluded that the utilisers had a better
understanding of terms than the under-utilisers and that users of medical
services have a better understanding of medical terminology.
Evaluation
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• McKinstry and Wang’s (1991) study was a field experiment (so
controlled with IV and DV) (strength), using interviews (structured
with rating scale) (strength). It had high ecological validity
(conducted in waiting rooms) (strength) but also cultural bias
(different views in different cultures) (weakness). Quantitative
data (statistical analysis) were gathered (strength and weakness),
but also subjective data (participants might not been honest).
• McKinlay’s (1975) study used interviews (structured with rating
scale) (strength), but may have had cultural bias (the study was
conducted in Scotland and this might not generalise to other cities
in Scotland/UK or the rest of the world) (weakness). The sample
were all women (weakness), not a problem, but do women
understand more terms than men or fewer? The study stated a
random sample was used (strength), but with no details of how
this was acquired. Ecological validity/mundane realism was high
(strength), as the study was conducted on women registered with a
clinic using ‘pregnancy-related’ terms.
Cross check
Field experiments, page 44
Interviews, page 50
Ecological validity/mundane realism, page 67
Cultural bias, page 88
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Patient and practitioner diagnosis and style
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Practitioner style: a medical practitioner can show a ‘personality style’
when a patient consults them. After analysing 2,500 tape-recorded surgery
interviews, Byrne and Long (1976) distinguished first between a ‘diagnostic
phase’ and a ‘prescribing phase’, and then went on to distinguish between a
doctor-centred style (dominated by his or her professional expertise) and a
patient-centred style (chatting and discussing with the patient and allowing
a contribution) for managing the consultation.
In a more up-to-date study, Savage and Armstrong (1990) conducted a field
experiment on 359 randomly selected patients in a London medical practice.
When the patient entered the consulting room the doctor turned over a card
that determined the style – either a sharing consulting style (patient-centred),
e.g. ‘what do you think is wrong?’, or a directive consulting style (doctorcentred), e.g. ‘you are suffering from’. After the consultation, and at home a
week later, the patient completed a questionnaire. Significantly higher levels
of satisfaction were recorded for the directive style, particularly so for
patients with physical problems, those who had excellent understanding of
terminology and patients receiving a prescription.
Now test yourself
27 Give two ways in which the directive consultation style was found
to be significantly better than a patient-centred style in the study
by Savage and Armstrong.
Answer on p.198
Practitioner diagnosis: a medical practitioner hopes to correctly diagnose an
ill person as ill and a healthy (not-ill) person as healthy. However, sometimes
errors do occur. If a practitioner makes a type 2 error, they diagnose the
person as ill when they are not. This means that the person might, for
example, take some medicine for no reason. But it is better to be safe than
sorry and, if in doubt, it is better to diagnose illness. This is what the
psychiatrists did in the study by Rosenhan (1973). The worst decision a
practitioner can make (a type 1 error) is to diagnose an ill patient as being
well. This is medical negligence and the consequences for the person can be
very serious indeed.
Expert tip
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Note the use of different terms in the question above. Savage and
Armstrong used ‘sharing’ and ‘directive’ styles, whereas Byrne and
Long used ‘doctor-centred’ and ‘patient-centred’. The syllabus uses
the latter terms, but it does not matter which terms you use – as long
as you know which style is which.
Disclosure of information: to correctly diagnose, a medical practitioner
needs information from a patient (self-disclosure). Some studies have looked
at whether males or females will disclose more to a male or female doctor.
Robinson and West (1992) studied 69 patients attending a sexually
transmitted disease centre. Information about their symptoms was taken in
three ways: by a computerised interview, a paper questionnaire or a ‘standard
physician interview’. The results showed that more information about
symptoms and undesirable behaviours was given to a computer (e.g. the
number of sexual partners) than the paper questionnaire and both these
methods were more informative than a face-to-face consultation with a
doctor. It was concluded that the use of computers to compile symptoms is a
satisfactory method.
Evaluation
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Field experiments, page 43
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• Savage and Armstrong (1990) conducted a field experiment (so
controlled with IV and DV) (strength); with high ecological validity
(conducted at surgery) (strength); questionnaires (structured with
rating scale) were used (strength), but there may have been
cultural bias (the study was conducted in London and these
participants might not generalise to other cities in the UK or the rest
of the world) (weakness).
• Robinson and West (1992) also conducted a field experiment (so
controlled with IV and DV) (strength); with high ecological validity
(conducted at a medical clinic) (strength); using interviews
(structured) (strength) and questionnaires (structured) (strength).
The study may not been generalisable and may have had cultural
bias (the study was conducted in one clinic and these findings
might not generalise to other clinics wherever they are in the world)
(weakness).
Ecological validity/mundane realism, page 67
Questionnaires, page 49
Cultural bias, page 88
Generalisations, page 68
Interviews, page 50
Misusing health services
Misuse of health services is the extent to which people do not use health
services in the usual way. Pitts (1991) suggests that people under-use services
for the following reasons:
• Persistence of symptoms – people take a ‘wait-and-see’ approach and only
seek advice if symptoms persist.
• Expectation of treatment – people seek medical advice only if it is thought
it will do some good.
• People do not want to waste valuable practitioner time, seeking advice only
for serious symptoms.
Delay in seeking treatment: Safer et al. (1979) interviewed 93 patients in
four hospital waiting rooms about delay in seeking medical treatment.
Questions asked included: ‘What was your very first symptom?’ and ‘When
did you decide to see a doctor? They were scored on a 9-point scale ranging
from ‘not at all’ to ‘very much’ with ‘moderately’ as a mid-point. The total
delay time was calculated and in addition:
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• appraisal delay – number of days from the first symptom to the patient
deciding they were ill
• illness delay – number of days from deciding they were ill until deciding to
seek medical attention
• utilisation delay – number of days from deciding to seek medical attention
until actual appointment
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28 Give three reasons why people might delay seeking help from a
medical practitioner.
Answer on p.198
Variables affecting delay included: perceptual experience (pain or bleeding),
self-appraisal processes (see if symptoms change), coping responses (try
home remedies), emotional reactions (fear or distress), imagined
consequences (maybe surgery needed) and situational barriers (such as cost).
Hypochondriasis: hypochondriacs interpret real but benign bodily sensations
as symptoms of illness. They worry excessively about their own health,
monitor their bodily sensations closely, make frequent and unfounded
medical complaints, and believe they are ill despite reassurances by
physicians that they are not.
Barlow and Durand (1995) present the case study of Gail, a married 21-yearold female. Minor symptoms (e.g. a headache) would result in extreme
anxiety, and reading newspaper or seeing television reports caused her to
believe she had a serious illness. She avoided exercise and even laughing,
and noted anything that could be a symptom. Hearing about a real illness in
her family would incapacitate her for days at a time. Doctors would always
say ‘There’s nothing wrong with you; you’re perfectly healthy.’ Gail thus
avoided going to see any more doctors.
Munchausen syndrome is where people seek out excessive medical
attention, often going from city to city to get a new diagnosis and new
surgical intervention. In very exceptional circumstances, known as
Munchausen syndrome by proxy, people seek excessive and inappropriate
medical contact through the ‘illness’ of a relative such as a child.
Evaluation
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Aleem and Ajarim (1995) presented the case study of a 22-year-old female
who had a painful swelling above her right breast. After many tests an
infection was diagnosed and treatment began. Despite treatment the infection
got worse and spread to the left breast area. A nurse found needles and a
syringe full of faecal material, which the girl had been injecting into herself.
Munchausen syndrome was diagnosed.
patients to express their views (strength). However, the interviews
were retrospective (weakness) so people may not remember
accurately. The sample were people who were waiting to see a
practitioner and so were there legitimately (high ecological
validity) (strength). However, the study did not include people who
were not there (and so may have still been delaying seeking
treatment) (weakness). Can these results generalise to others?
the theory (weakness) of delay can also be explained by health
beliefs model.
• Barlow and Durand and Aleem and Ajarim both presented case
studies (strength) which each reported the specific details of a
unique case. However, each is a specific case of only one
individual and so should not be generalised (weakness). These
were a genuine cases reported by doctors in a hospital and so they
have high ecological validity (strength). How useful (weakness)
are the findings from these studies? Do they help our
understanding of patient–practitioner interactions?
Cross check
Interviews, page 50
Sampling, page 56
Ecological validity, page 67
Generalisations, page 68
Case studies, page 51
Expert tip
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Prepare an exam-style essay on the patient–practitioner relationship.
For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and
exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part
(b).
Adherence to medical advice
Types of non-adherence and reasons why
patients don’t adhere
Types of non-adherence: adherence to medical advice includes:
• adhering to requests for short-term treatment regimens (e.g. ‘take these
tablets twice a day for 3 weeks’)
• attending a follow-up appointment
• making a lifestyle change (e.g. quitting smoking)
• engaging in more preventative measures (e.g. a healthy diet and
exercising).
Taylor (1990) suggests that 93% of patients fail to adhere to some aspect of
their treatment regime, while Sarafino (1994) suggests that people adhere
‘reasonably closely’ to treatment regimes about 78% of the time for shortterm treatments, and about 54% for chronic conditions. The main
consequences of non-adherence are that most people will have a longer
recovery period, needing more time off work, a stay in hospital, a second
prescription or a second visit to the doctor.
Expert tip
Don’t get confused. This topic area is about patients’ non-adherence.
If a patient adheres to medical requests then there is no problem.
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Why patients do not adhere: one reason why patients do not adhere to
health requests is that they do not believe it is in their interests to do so. The
patient is making a rational decision not to adhere (they are exercising their
free will). They might believe that the treatment will help them get better, or
they might believe that the treatment will cause more problems than it solves.
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Bulpitt (1998) studied male participants taking a new drug for hypertension
(high blood pressure). Taking the drug did reduce the number of headaches
and the extent of their depression compared to pre-drug states, but on the
negative side, the men experienced more problems with ejaculation and
impotence. Given such side-effects many of the men made the rational
decision to stop taking the medicine.
The health belief model: this model (Becker and Rosen stock, 1974)
outlines the factors that explain the beliefs and consequent decisions people
make about their health (see Figure 17).
1 Individual perception of the health problem, including:
• perceived seriousness – the more serious a person believes the
consequences will be, the more likely they will be to adhere
• perceived susceptibility – the more vulnerable a person perceives
themselves to be, the more likely they will adhere.
2 Modifying factors:
• demographic variables – including age, sex, race
• socio-psychological variables – including personality traits, social class
and social pressure
• cues to action – people who are reminded/alerted to a potential problem
are more likely to adhere.
3 The likelihood of taking action depends on the perceived benefits (such
as being healthier or reducing the health risks) against the perceived
barriers or costs (such as financial considerations).
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All these factors interact and determine whether people will adhere to
medical requests or not.
Evaluation
• The health belief model is reductionist (strength). Breaking health
beliefs into component parts allows the study of each component,
but each component interacts to form a whole that is greater than
the sum of the parts (holism) (strength). There is an element of
free will here (rather than determinism) – people have many
choices and decisions to make for themselves.
• The health belief model is generalisable (strength) – it applies to
anyone in any culture as it was designed for that reason. Rational
non-adherence can also apply to anyone; it is the specifics of the
study by Bulpitt that cannot be generalised (weakness).
Cross check
Reductionism, page 89
Determinism, page 90
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Generalisations, page 68
Subjective measures of adherence: Pitts et al. (1991) suggested that asking
a medical practitioner to estimate the level of non-adherence (a subjective
self-report) is ‘particularly pointless’. Asking a patient is also of little use
because of over-reporting, self-administration or the person may simply not
know. People also give socially desirable answers: they will not always tell
the truth, in order to present a good impression to the health practitioner.
Riekert and Drotar (1999) suggested that people who do not adhere are
unlikely to participate in non-adherence research. In their study, 94 patients,
11–18 year olds with diabetes (and their family), were invited to take part.
There were three types of family:
• those completing all parts of the study (n = 52)
• non-returners who did not return the postal questionnaire (n = 28)
• non-consenters refusing to participate at the first contact (n = 14).
Cross check
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Those in the first two groups completed a semi-structured interview
(subjective, quantitative data) and blood sugar levels (a biochemical test)
were recorded (objective, quantitative data). A follow-up ‘demographics’
postal questionnaire was given to be completed at home (which the nonreturners did not return). Medical records for all 94 participants showed that
the ‘completers’ adhered to treatment programme much more closely than the
‘non-returners’ and the poorest adherence (e.g. in testing daily blood sugar
levels) was in the ‘non-consenters’.
Objective measures of adherence: objective ‘quantity accounting’, or pill
counting, is where the number of pills remaining in a medication dispenser is
counted by the practitioner. However:
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• the fact that the pill has left the bottle does not mean it has been taken
• patients may simply throw away unconsumed medication
• supplies are divided up; pills may be transferred to other containers.
29 Suggest why pill counting may not be a valid measure of nonadherence.
Answer on p.198
Medication dispensers record and count the number of times they are used.
Chung and Naya (2000) developed TrackCapTM where a microprocessor in
the pill bottle cap records the date and time the bottle cap is removed and
replaced. Over 12 weeks, 57 patients who took oral medication for asthma
participated in the study (but only 47 completed it). Patients were told that
compliance was being assessed but given no specific detail. Chung and Naya
devised a formula to distinguish between compliance and adherence, finding
that the median adherence rate (precise dose on a daily basis) was 71% and
the median compliance rate was 89%.
Biochemical tests such as blood or urine tests can be used to measure
adherence. Roth and Caron (1987) reviewed different adherence measures
on patients with a peptic ulcer and treatment by antacid. They found that:
patient estimates (of antacid taking) averaged 89% whereas actual intake
averaged 47%; and for patients claiming 100% compliance actual intake
ranged from 2% to 130% with a median of 59%. Practitioner estimates were
better than patient estimates, but a correlation between practitioner estimates
and actual intake was only +0.48. Roth and Caron concluded that objective,
quantitative measures such as blood and urine levels are the best available
measures of medicine intake. They quote research by Willcox et al. who
found, when analysing urine samples, that only 31% were taking medication
as prescribed. Gordis et al. found that of 103 children who should have been
taking penicillin, a urine test revealed only 42% were compliant despite 73%
of mothers claiming they had given it to their children.
Weaknesses of biochemical tests:
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• Biochemical tests do not measure the degree of adherence; the presence of
a drug merely shows that the patient has taken an amount of the drug. It
does not indicate that the patient took the proper amount at the proper time.
• People differ in the absorption and metabolism of drugs and this can lead to
differences in the recordings of people who are equally compliant.
• Biomedical checks must be carried out frequently to accurately assess
compliance rates.
• Biomedical tests can be expensive, so this method is unlikely to be used to
determine levels of non-adherence.
Repeat prescriptions: another objective measure of adherence is recording
the number of repeat prescriptions from a pharmacy. Sherman et al. (2000)
studied 116 children with asthma. Adherence was checked by telephoning the
patient’s pharmacy (a telephone interview) to assess the ‘refill rate’. It was
assumed that if the medication (the ‘refill’) was not collected from the
pharmacy, then it could not have been taken, whereas if it was collected then
the original prescription must have been taken. They found that the pharmacy
information was 92% accurate, and so concluded that telephoning a patient’s
pharmacy is an accurate method and can be used as basis for estimating
medicine use.
Perhaps the best measure of adherence is recording the number of
appointments kept. This is 100% accurate. It is reliable and valid. It is not
time-consuming and does not involve the patient in any direct assessment.
Evaluation
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Objective and subjective data, page 69
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• Patient and practitioner subjective estimations (weakness)
provide information but this is often inaccurate. Objective
measures (strength) such as pill counting and the use of
medication dispensers in Chung and Naya (2000) is reliable
(produces consistent results) (strength), but may not be valid
(does not measure whether the medicine is actually taken)
(weakness).
• Measures such as repeat prescriptions (gathered through
telephone interview) in Sherman et al. (2000) or in semistructured interviews in Riekert and Drotar (1999) have strengths
and weaknesses. Biochemical tests Roth and Caron (1987)
provide objective data (strength and weaknesses).
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Validity, page 67
Reliability, page 66
Interviews, page 50
Improving adherence
Improve practitioner style: studies have shown that adherence can be
improved through:
• changing practitioner behaviour (DiMatteo and DiNicola, 1982)
• changing practitioner communication style (Inui et al., 1976)
• changing information presentation techniques (Ley et al., 1988).
Ley (1988) recommends that practitioners:
• emphasise key information by stating why it is important and stating it
early in the interaction
• simplify instructions and use clear and straightforward language (no
medical jargon)
• use specific statements such as ‘you should…’ and have the patient repeat
the instructions in their own words
• use written instructions, breaking down complex instructions into simpler
ones
• use a combination of oral and visual information (such as diagrams).
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Lewin et al. (1992) looked at how effective providing information in an
instruction manual would be when the patients were discharged from
hospital after a heart attack. Patients who received the Heart Health Manual
adhered more to medical advice. They were judged to have better
psychological adjustment, visited the doctors less, and were less likely to be
readmitted to hospital than the control group (less than 10% readmission
compared with 25%). This also applies to the topic of health promotion.
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30 Suggest three ways in which medical practitioners can improve
their communications with patients in order to improve
adherence.
Answer on p.198
Behavioural techniques: behavioural methods (e.g. Burke et al., 1997) are
also effective in enhancing patients’ motivation to adhere, and include:
• customising the treatment, where the treatment programme is designed to
be compatible with the patient’s habits and daily routine, for example
taking a pill at breakfast
• providing prompts and reminders by telephone, text or email to take
medicine or attend appointments
• behavioural contracting, whereby the practitioner and patient negotiate
treatment activities and goals in writing and specify the rewards the patient
will receive for adhering, such as being healthy again.
On the other hand, punishments can be used. Wesch et al. (1987) introduced
a service charge for missed appointments, which significantly increased
adherence.
Yokley and Glenwick (1984) investigated applied community
interventions, using a field experiment, with 1,133 randomly assigned
participants. Six different interventions were used (independent measures):
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1 The general prompt group (n = 195) received a mailed prompt
containing general inoculation information and instructions that ‘your
child’ needs inoculations.
2 The specific prompt group (n = 190) received a mailing naming the
target child and the particular inoculations that the child needed and giving
the clinic’s location and hours.
3 The increased access group (n = 185) received the same as the specific
prompt plus a second page giving additional clinic opening hours.
4 The monetary incentive group (n = 183) received the same as the
specific prompt plus a second page with a statement about ‘giving away
$175 in cash prizes’ for those attending the clinic.
5 The contact control group (n = 189) received telephone contact (but no
mailing) requesting basic inoculation demographic information from the
parents but no explicit prompt (i.e. information that their child was
immunisation deficient).
6 The no-contact control group (n = 191) received no contact at all during
the study.
Findings: the most effective intervention was group 4 ‘monetary incentive’
followed by group 3 ‘increased access’. All the experimental groups were
more effective than the two control groups.
Watt et al. (2003) invented the Funhaler which teaches children how to
inhale their asthma medication properly while having fun (created with
breath-driven spinning toys and whistles). The stronger the child breathes, the
faster the toys spin and the louder the sound of the whistles, so the greater the
reward enjoyed.
Watt et al. tested the Funhaler on 32 children (ages 1.5–6 years, 10 male and
22 female) for 2 weeks. When surveyed at random using a questionnaire,
38% more parents were found to have medicated their children the previous
day when using the Funhaler, compared to their existing device (Breath-aTech) (22/27 versus 16/27, respectively), and 60% more children took the
recommended four or more cycles (24/30 versus 15/30) when using the
Funhaler compared with the old inhaler.
Evaluation
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• The studies by Yokley and Glenwick (1984) and Watt et al. (2003)
are field experiments (strengths and weaknesses) with IV, DV
and controls. Each has an independent measures design. The
Watt et al. study uses a questionnaire (strengths and
weaknesses).
• Each improvement in this section is based on the learning
approach (strengths and weaknesses) with the reward of a cash
prize, spinning toys and whistles (positive reinforcement) or a fine
(‘service charge’ for a missed appointment) (positive punishment).
The principles of all these studies can be generalised (strength),
but not necessarily the specifics (weakness).
Field experiments, page 44
Questionnaires, page 49
The learning approach, page 71
Generalisations, page 67
Usefulness, page 73
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on adherence to medical advice. For
part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and
exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part
(b).
Pain
Types and theories of pain
There are different types of pain:
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• Acute pain is when, after a relatively brief time period, the pain subsides,
the damage heals and the individual returns to a pre-damage state.
• Chronic pain is when the pain does not subside even though the damage is
apparently healed, and may continue for many months or years.
• Psychogenic pain describes episodes of pain that occur as the result of
some underlying psychological disorder, rather than in response to some
immediate physical injury.
• Phantom limb pain is the feeling that a missing (amputated) body part is
still there. Many amputees describe it as a burning, tingling or itching
feeling that may or may not be painful. Most amputees have at least some
phantom limb pain after limb loss.
Now test yourself
31 Give one similarity and one difference between acute and
chronic pain.
Answer on p.199
Specificity theory of pain: this was proposed by Descartes (1644) and his
analogy of bell ringing is a good one: ‘pull the rope at the bottom and the bell
will ring in the belfry’. The theory proposes that there are four sensory
receptors (warmth, cold, pressure and pain) in bodily tissue that connect to a
pain centre in the brain. Evidence from many sources – clinical evidence (e.g.
phantom limb pain), physiological evidence and psychological evidence –
show that this theory is wrong.
In 1965, Melzack and Wall proposed the gate control theory – the idea that
physical pain is not a direct result of activation of pain receptors, but rather
that the spinal cord contains a neurological ‘gate’ that either blocks pain
signals or allows them to continue on to the brain. Crucially, pain is seen as a
combination of both physiological and psychological factors. This explains
how the sensation of pain can be dampened or manipulated by thoughts, and
explains all the clinical, physiological and psychological evidence that
specificity theory could not.
Measuring pain
Self-report measures: it is logical to ask a person in pain (in a clinical
interview conducted by a practitioner) to describe their pain and find out all
about it to help diagnose the cause of the pain. However, this subjective selfreport method is notoriously unreliable, particularly when many people do
not know where the liver, kidneys or stomach, for example, are located in
their body.
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Psychometric measures: a quantitative alternative is a visual rating scale.
The visual analogue scale, for example, has a 10 cm line with the descriptors
‘no pain’ at one end to ‘pain as bad as it could be’ at the other. An alternative
is the box scale (Figure 18), which is the same as the visual analogue but
with numbers, while the category (verbal) scale (Figure 19) uses a line with
descriptors.
For people with chronic pain, Melzack (1975) developed the McGill pain
questionnaire (MPQ). This is a psychometric measure including words and
drawings and consisting of four parts:
1 ‘Where is your pain?’ Patients mark on a drawing where their pain is.
2 ‘What does your pain feel like?’ Patients use descriptor words in 20
categories: for example, Category 2: jumping/flashing/shooting; Category
8: tingling/itchy/smarting/stinging.
3 ‘How does your pain change with time?’ Is the pain
continuous/steady/constant or, rhythmic/periodic/intermittent or
brief/momentary/transient?
4 ‘How strong is your pain?’ This includes a visual analogue type scale
using six questions with five descriptors: 1 mild, 2 discomforting, 3
distressing, 4 horrible, 5 excruciating. Questions include: ‘Which word
describes your pain right now?’ ‘Which word describes it at its worst?’
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32 Suggest three behaviours people may display when they are in
pain.
Behavioural/observational measures of pain: when in pain we display
characteristic pain behaviour. According to Turk et al. (1985), these are:
•
•
•
•
facial/audible expression of distress, e.g. grimace, groan
distorted ambulation or posture, e.g. limping, rubbing and holding
negative affect, e.g. being irritable, in a bad mood
avoidance of activity, e.g. staying at home, resting, opting out.
The UAB pain behaviour scale outlined by Richards et al. (1982) is for use
by nurses (for example) who observe people in hospital for a week or more.
Nurses observe each patient daily and rate each of 10 behaviours, such as
mobility and down-time, on a 3-point scale, scoring 0/0.5/1 for each. Ratings
are totalled so that pain behaviour over a period can be recorded.
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The paediatric pain questionnaire (Varni and Thompson, 1976) gets
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Pain measures for children: the children’s comprehensive pain
questionnaire (McGrath, 1987) uses pictures of smiley and sad faces and a
child’s body on which the site of the pain can be drawn/pointed to. The
Wong–Baker scale is similar. Figure 20 shows a typical example.
children to pick colours and then colour a box – ‘no hurt’, ‘a little hurt’,
‘more hurt’ and ‘a lot of hurt’ – with a coloured pencil or crayon. The child
then chooses the colour from the ‘hurt boxes’ to colour the part of the body
that is hurting.
Evaluation
• This section includes measuring pain by a clinical interview (facetoface) but the qualitative data (strength and weakness) are
subjective (weakness). Psychometric measures also assess
pain quantitatively (strength) and these are claimed to be reliable
and valid (strengths). the MPQ includes a questionnaire
(strengths and weaknesses).
• Pain can be assessed using observations (structured and
quantitative). Pain in children is assessed using visual displays of
faces with quantitative rating scales. There are specific pain
scales for children. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
Cross check
Interviews, page 50
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Psychometric measures, page 89
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Questionnaires, page 49
Observations, page 51
Managing and controlling pain
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Children, page 75
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Medical techniques: pain can be managed by medical techniques. Surgery
such as amputation is possible but can lead to phantom limb pain. Pain can be
managed with chemicals (medicines or drugs):
• Peripherally acting analgesics act on the peripheral nervous system (e.g.
aspirin, ibuprofen, paracetamol).
• Centrally acting analgesics work directly on the central nervous system
(e.g. morphine).
• Local anaesthetics can work when ‘rubbed in’ but are more effective when
injected into a site (e.g. tooth extraction, epidural).
Psychological techniques: psychological techniques can be used to help
manage pain, all based on ‘controlling the gate’. These include:
• Attention diversion where a person focuses on a non-related stimulus in
order to be distracted from the discomfort. It can be passive (e.g. looking at
a picture) or active (e.g. singing a song). Even watching television can
distract the patient.
• Non-pain imagery, where a person tries to alleviate discomfort by creating
or imagining a mental scene that is unrelated to or incompatible with the
pain.
• Cognitive redefinition, where a person replaces negative thoughts about
pain with constructive (positive) thoughts. For example, a person can think
‘it’s not the worst thing that could happen to me’.
Evaluation
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Alternative techniques: one alternative technique to manage pain is a
stimulation therapy based on the principle ‘fight pain with pain’, or using
counter-irritation that directs attention away from the stronger pain to the
milder pain. One example is transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
(TENS) which is self-administered. Electrodes are placed on the skin near
where the patient feels pain and mild electric shocks are given, causing
distraction. Acupuncture involves inserting between 5 and 25 very fine
stainless steel needles to stimulate the body’s 14 major meridians (through
which life energy or ‘qi’ is said to flow) to increase the release of
neurotransmitters called endorphins, which block pain.
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• Reference can be made to different approaches, the cognitive
approach, (attention diversion, etc.) and the learning and
biochemical approaches (strengths and weaknesses of each).
• There are many aspects to compare and contrast. Medical
techniques are reductionist (strengths and weaknesses).
Cross check
The cognitive approach, page 71
The learning approach, page 71
Reductionism, page 89
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on pain. For part (a), the ‘describe’
part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam,
you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b),
the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a
range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You
should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
Stress
Sources of stress
Physiology of stress: stress involves an interaction of cognitive and
physiological factors. Each can be assessed through questions such as ‘When
you are stressed or pressured, do you: notice your heart rate or breathing
change?; feel knots in your stomach or feel nauseous?; think first of the
negative things that may happen?; after an event is over do you replay it in
your mind?
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A potentially stressful event triggers a series of interactions between the
brain, neurotransmitters and hormones. For example, the pituitary gland
secretes hormones that stimulate the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex.
The adrenal cortex produces corticosteroids (one of which is cortisol) and the
adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines (one of which is adrenaline). The
effect is to increase breathing to increase the intake of oxygen. This
consequently increases blood pressure and the heart rate increases to pump
oxygenated blood to muscles. A person is then in a state of heightened
physiological arousal to ‘fight’ or take ‘flight’. Which of these two is acted
on is determined by a person making a (cognitive) decision to take flight or
not.
Selye (1956), following laboratory studies on rats, proposed the general
adaptation syndrome (GAS), with three stages to explain the above
processes:
1 An alarm reaction, such as the flight-or-fight response: this mobilises the
body’s resources and increases physiological arousal.
2 Resistance: an attempt is made to counteract the earlier effects and reduce
the higher state of arousal.
3 Exhaustion: if the high levels of arousal are prolonged, eventually some
part of the physiological system will break down.
Selye’s third stage is crucial for health. The body cannot remain in a
heightened state of physiological arousal forever, and at some point one or
more parts of the system will become exhausted and break down. Major
effects include high blood pressure, which may cause a blood vessel in the
brain to burst (a hemorrhagic stroke); it might cause a myocardial infarction
(‘heart attack’) and minor effects might be a stomach ulcer.
Causes of stress: stress can be caused by work, life events or personality.
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• Work: work can be stressful and certain types more than others. Chandola
et al. (2008) studied 10,308 male and female civil servants (working for
the government) in London. Starting in 1985, the longitudinal study was
completed in 2004. Data were gathered using self-report postal
questionnaires and a clinical examination assessing biological risk factors
(coronary heart disease (CHD), blood pressure, cortisol levels and waist
circumference) and behavioural factors (diet, exercise, alcohol
consumption and smoking). Results showed that work stress was
associated with lack of exercise and poor diet; work stress was more
common in those under 50 years of age; and the more stress that was
reported, the more likely there was to be a report of CHD.
• Life events: it is believed that changes in the routine of life cause stress.
Holmes and Rahe (1967) devised the social readjustment rating scale
(SRRS) to examine the life events and experiences (both positive and
negative) that cause stress. The scale included 43 life events ranging from
‘death of spouse’ to minor violations of the law. They found that people
scoring 300 life change units (in the last 12 months) or more were more
susceptible to illnesses ranging from sudden cardiac death to sports injuries
(see also below for SRRS).
• Personality: it is believed that people who have a particular type of
personality are more prone to stress and consequently are more likely to
suffer illnesses. Friedman and Rosenman (1974) originally observed that
some behaviours shown by their patients suffering from coronary heart
disease were different from other people. These behaviours they called
Type A and people without these behaviours were labelled a Type B
personality. Type As are:
– Aggressive and assertive. Type As tend to be easily aroused to anger or
hostility, which they may or may not express overtly.
– Competitive. Type As tend to be very self-critical and to strive towards
goals without feeling a sense of joy in their efforts or accomplishments.
– Time conscious. Type As tend to be in a constant struggle against the
clock. Often they quickly become impatient with delays and
unproductive time, schedule commitments too tightly, and try to do more
than one thing at a time, such as reading while eating or watching
television (see also below for Type A test).
Evaluation
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• The physiology of stress is the biological approach which by its
nature is biologically determinist and reductionist. It is nature
rather than nurture. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
• Stress is located in the individual and Type A personality is
individual, but work stress is situational. Life events have many
weaknesses including cultural bias. (Strengths and weaknesses
for all.)
Cross check
The biological approach, page 70
Determinism, page 90
Reductionism, page 89
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Cultural bias, page 88
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Measures of stress
Physiological measures: these include recording devices and sample tests.
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• Blood pressure tests. Goldstein et al. (1992) found that paramedics’ blood
pressure (obtained using a sphygmomanometer) was higher during
ambulance runs or when at the hospital, compared with other work
situations or when at home.
• Galvanic skin response (GSR). This calculates the electrical resistance of
the skin, an indicator of arousal in the autonomic nervous system.
• Sample tests of blood, urine and salivary cortisol. Lundberg (1976)
collected urine samples to measure the levels of stress caused by
commuting to work. Evans and Wener (2007) also measured commuting
to work. They studied 139 men and women travelling from home to work
on a train journey taking an average of 83 minutes. They measured
physiological arousal using a salivette to measure cortisol (which appears
in saliva) and they took psychological measures in the form of a
proofreading task, and also mood (measured using a 5-point semantic
differential (e.g. contented–frustrated). Like Lundberg, they found
crowding on the train was stressful for commuters.
• Recording devices. Wang et al. (2005) used an MRI scanner to investigate
the source of activation of the stress response in the brain. Wang et al.
created a ‘low’ and a ‘high’ stress task and found that performing these
tasks was associated with increased activity in the ventral right pre-frontal
cortex (RPFC). To determine whether the stress tasks were valid, Wang et
al. used physiological measures of heart rate and salivary cortisol, and
self-report psychological measures of stress and anxiety (1–9 scale) and
the amount of effort, task difficulty and frustration (1–9 scale). Compared
with baseline, all measures showed an increase for the low stress task and
an even higher increase for the high stress task before all returned to
‘normal’ levels at the post-task baseline, showing the stress tasks were
valid.
Psychological measures include self-report questionnaires:
• Holmes and Rahe (1967) devised the social readjustment rating scale
(SRRS) in order to examine the events and experiences that cause stress.
They compiled a list of major and minor events and gave each a rank and a
mean value. At the top of the list (rank 1 with a mean value of 100) was
‘death of spouse’; at the bottom of the list (rank 43 and a mean value of 11)
was ‘minor violations of the law’. They believed that both positive as well
as negative events cause stress, if these events were a change from normal
routine. They thus listed Christmas and vacation/holiday as stressful, with
12 points with 13 points, respectively. A person’s total SRRS is calculated
by adding the mean value of any event that has happened in the previous
12 months. Holmes and Rahe found that people scoring 300 life change
units or more were more susceptible to both physical and mental illness,
ranging from sudden cardiac death to athletics injuries.
• Friedman and Rosenman (1974) devised the Type A personality
questionnaire. There are short and long versions, some requiring yes/no
answers and others scoring on a 1–4 scale. A typical ‘yes/no’ questionnaire
assesses these behaviours with questions being:
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– ‘Do you find it intolerable to watch others perform tasks you know that
you can do faster?’
– ‘Do you feel guilty when you relax when there is work to be done?’
– ‘Do you always move, walk and eat rapidly?’
– ‘Do you feel there are not enough hours in the day to do all the things
you must do?’
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According to Friedman and Rosenman, people with high scores are more
likely to suffer from coronary heart disease and other stress-related illnesses.
Now test yourself
33 Describe two studies in which stress has been measured using a
questionnaire.
34 Using examples, give two ways in which stress can be measured
physiologically.
Answer on p.199
Evaluation
• Physiological measures using recording devices are objective,
reliable and can be generalised because all people function
physiologically (strengths). Such devices produce quantitative
data (strength). The measures are valid (strength) such as using a
sphygmomanometer to measure blood pressure, but the cause of
(high) blood pressure can only be assumed (weakness).
• Questionnaires have strengths and weaknesses and although
they produce quantitative data (strength), the data are subjective
(weakness) as a person may not be truthful. Questionnaires unlike
physiological measures have cultural bias (weakness). The SRRS
is based on middle-aged males from the USA in the 1960s. It
includes Christmas but not other religious or cultural festivals.
Cross check
Physiological measures, page 151
Objective and subjective measures, page 69
Quantitative data, page 60
Generalisations, page 68
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Reliability, page 66
Cultural bias, page 88
Use of drugs, page 96
Management of stress
Medical techniques: there are a number of different ways in which stress can
be managed. Those adhering to the medical approach would opt for drug
treatment. Two common drugs are benzodiazepines (e.g. Valium, Librium)
and beta-blockers (e.g. Inderal), which both reduce physiological arousal and
feelings of anxiety by blocking neurones stimulated by adrenaline. Drugs like
these are addictive, so are for short-term use only.
Psychological techniques: stress can be managed using biofeedback. For
example, we can slow down our heartbeat just by thinking about it.
Budzynski and Stoyva (1969) conducted an experiment using biofeedback
on 15 people suffering headaches in their frontalis (forehead muscle). The
biofeedback device could provide auditory feedback with the pitch of the
tone determined by the level of muscle tension.
Participants were divided into three groups:
1 The experimental group were told the tone reflected the level of muscle
tension and they were told to relax as much as possible.
2 The ‘constant low tone irrelevant feedback’ group were told to relax (and
the low tone would not change).
3 The silent group were told to relax (and there was no tone feedback).
Over the 20 trials there was a significant difference between the three groups,
particularly in the percentage decline. The feedback group showed a 50%
decrease, the no feedback group a 24% decline and the irrelevant feedback
group a 28% increase in forehead muscle tension.
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There were three groups:
1 Control (encouraged to talk about themselves).
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Imagery: stress can also be managed using imagery. The aim of the study by
Bridge et al. (1988) was to see whether stress could be alleviated in 154
patients being treated for early breast cancer.
2 Relaxation only (taught concentration on individual muscle groups).
3 Relaxation and imagery (taught relaxation and also taught to imagine a
peaceful scene of their own choice to enhance relaxation).
The relaxation and relaxation plus imagery groups were given a taperecording repeating the instructions and told to practise at least 15 minutes a
day. Initial stress levels were measured by profile of mood states and the
Leeds general scales for depression and anxiety, and initial scores were the
same in all groups. After 6 weeks of intervention these measures of mood
states were taken again.
Findings showed that mood disturbance scores were significantly less in the
intervention groups; women in the imagery and relaxation group were more
relaxed than those receiving relaxation training only; mood in the control
group was worse. Bridge et al. concluded that patients with early breast
cancer benefit from imagery and relaxation training.
Preventing stress: Meichenbaum (1985) prevented stress with selfinstructional training and stress inoculation therapy. He believed stress
was caused by thinking about events in catastrophising ways. Stress
inoculation training focuses on replacing maladaptive statements with
positive, coping statements and relaxation, which leads the person to respond
to stress in more positive ways.
Stress inoculation training has three stages:
Evaluation
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• Conceptualisation: the trainer talks to the person about their stress
experiences, such as how they would normally cope with stress. Negative
thought patterns are identified.
• Skill acquisition: the person is educated about the physiological and
cognitive aspects of stress and techniques used to manage stress, e.g.
replacement of negative thought patterns with positive ones.
• Application and follow-through: the application of the new skills through
a series of progressively more threatening situations to prepare the person
for real-life situations.
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• Medical techniques (drugs) are short term only and have many
strengths and weaknesses. Biofeedback links biological functions
with cognitive processes (see the Schachter and Singer study,
page 15).
• The studies by Budzynski and Stoyva and by Bridge et al. are
experiments (strengths and weaknesses). The techniques in
these studies can be generalised as can the model by
Meichenbaum.
Cross check
Biochemical treatments, page 96
Field experiments, page 44
Generalisations, page 68
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on stress. For part (a), the ‘describe’
part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam,
you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b),
the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a
range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You
should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
Health promotion
Strategies for promoting health
Fear arousal: the idea behind fear arousal is that if an appeal is very
upsetting it scares people into changing their behaviour.
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Janis and Feshbach (1953) conducted a laboratory experiment on
oral/dental hygiene. There were four groups: a minimal fear group, a
moderate fear group, a strong fear group and a control group. They assessed
the effectiveness of each level of fear through self-report questionnaires
given before, immediately after, and 1 week after the fear presentations. It
was found that although the strong fear group did arouse most fear, the
minimal fear presentation was most effective in conformity to oral hygiene
behaviour. The minimal fear presentation group showed 36% agreement with
the advice but agreement was just 8% with the strong (scary) presentation,
suggesting that low levels of fear are best.
Linking fear arousal and providing information strategies: a successful
television media campaign was on the dangers of chip-pan fires. Cowpe
(1989) reported on how two television regions in the UK received the 12week campaign. The strength of the campaign lay in the use of both
providing information and fear arousal. One television advert was presented
by a woman who told of the dangers of a chip-pan fire and then, in three
simple steps, what to do should a fire break out. However, in her case, she
had not followed these steps and had been burned in a chip-pan fire; the
advert showed a close-up of her disfigurement. The success of the campaign
was then measured through actual fire brigade statistics. During the campaign
one television region saw a 32% reduction in the number of fires, and in the
25 weeks after the campaign, although the reduction in the number of fires
did decrease, it was still 17% less than before the start of the campaign. Up to
a year after the campaign had started, there was still an 8% reduction from
baseline. This study recorded objective data in the form of fire brigade
statistics. Its effectiveness over time could be assessed and it showed the need
for any health-promotion campaign to be repeated periodically.
Yale model of communication: Hovland et al.’s (1953) Yale model of
communication looked at persuasive communications:
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• The source of the message – is the presenter of the message credible, an
expert, trustworthy?
• The message itself – is it clear and direct; colourful and vivid; is it onesided or two-sided?
• The medium – is the message personal; done via television, radio or
printed?
• The target audience – who is the target audience? School children;
communities?
• The situation – where will the message be presented? In the home; a
medical surgery?
Expert tip
This model of communication also applies to advertising. See page
135 if you study consumer behaviour.
All of these features contribute to the success (or failure) of persuasive
communication.
Providing information: if people want to live healthier lives, they need to
know what to do; they need to be provided with information. Posters placed
in medical settings can be a major source of information. Better still is when
a practitioner provides information to a patient, but studies have shown (e.g.
Ley, 1988) that patients do not remember most of what they are told. Written
information is better.
The Heart Health Manual was devised by Lewin et al. (1992) and is ‘the
UK’s leading home-based cardiac rehabilitation programme, providing a
standardised approach and contributing to the recovery of more than 10,000
heart attack patients every year’.
Does this providing information approach work? In a field experiment, using
a double-blind, 176 patients were randomly allocated either to the Heart
Health Manual group or to a control group. Patients were assessed at 6
months and 1 year. Key findings: patients with the manual were judged to
have better psychological adjustment, visited the doctors less, and were less
likely to be readmitted to hospital in the first 6 months compared with the
control group (less than 10% readmission compared with 25%).
Evaluation
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• The fear arousal and providing information strategies both have
strengths and weaknesses and can be compared and contrasted.
Too much fear may be unethical (weakness).
• Supporting studies are experimental: Janis and Feshbach (1953)
is laboratory and Lewin et al. (1992) is a field experiment, so both
have many strengths and weaknesses. Both are useful.
• There may be cultural differences (weakness) in the way in which
coronary heart disease is prevented and treated in different
countries.
• The Lewin et al. study is longitudinal (strengths and weaknesses).
Cross check
Ethics, page 57
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Field experiments, page 44
Longitudinal studies, page 91
Health promotion in schools, worksites and
communities
Schools: children in schools can be targeted before bad health habits begin.
In the UK, Tapper et al. (2000) used role models called the ‘Food Dudes’
and devised a programme aimed at promoting the eating of fruit and
vegetables in schools. This field experiment was longitudinal. It included:
a Food Dude adventure video with six 6-minute adventure episodes
a set of Food Dude rewards
a set of letters from the Food Dudes (for praise and encouragement)
a Food Dude home-pack (to encourage children to eat fruit and vegetables
in the home context as well as at school)
• a teacher handbook and support materials.
•
•
•
•
Cross check
Children, page 75
The learning approach, page 71
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Over a 5-month period, children in an experimental and a control school were
presented with fruit and vegetables at lunchtime. Levels of fruit and vegetable
consumption were measured at baseline, intervention and a 4-month followup.
Results: lunchtime and home consumption in the experimental school was
substantially higher than in the control group, so the programme was
effective.
Compared to the control school, lunchtime consumption in the experimental
school was substantially higher. There were also significant increases in fruit
and vegetable consumption at home and the programme was effective in
bringing about substantial increases in children’s consumption of fruit and
vegetables.
Now test yourself
35 Briefly describe one health promotion campaign that has been
conducted in a school.
Answer on p.199
Worksites: to promote healthy worksite behaviour, Fox et al. (1987) studied
the use of a token economy system at two open-cast mines (one coal and one
uranium ore). Employees could earn stamps/tokens (to gain rewards) for
working without time lost for injury; not being involved in accidental damage
to equipment; and behaviour that prevented accidents or injuries. Stamps
were lost for unsafe behaviour that could cause accidents.
Expert tip
Token economy can also be used to help people with schizophrenia.
See page 96, if you study the Abnormality option.
Result: there was a dramatic decrease in days lost through injury and the
number of accidents was reduced. The system continued to be used at one
mine for 12 years (until it closed) and was used at the other for at least 11
years. The token economy is based on the learning approach and Skinner’s
positive reinforcement.
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Communities: in a follow-up to a 1976 three-community study, Farquhar et
al. (1985) undertook the Stanford five-city project. The premise was that a
community-wide education programme could reduce cardiovascular disease.
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This longitudinal programme lasted for 6 years, with five cities in northern
California, USA being studied. The experimental group (122,800
participants) and control group (197,500 participants) each had a wide age
range of participants. The programme provided information on television
and radio, and in newspapers, books and pamphlets. Behavioural measures
included a questionnaire about health beliefs and several physiological
measures were taken, including weight and blood pressure. Urine samples
were also taken to assess cholesterol levels. Results showed reductions in
cholesterol levels (2%), blood pressure (4%), resting pulse rate (3%) and
smoking (13%).
Evaluation
• All three studies used field experiments (strengths and
weaknesses). the Tapper et al. and Fox et al. studies gathered
quantitative data (strengths and weaknesses) and the five-city
project gathered both quantitative and qualitative data. This study
had both objective measures (e.g. the urine samples) and
subjective measures (health belief questionnaires).
• All three studies gathered data over a period of time, so they were
longitudinal (strengths and weaknesses).
• The Tapper et al. study used children (strengths and
weaknesses).
Cross check
Field experiments, page 44
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Longitudinal studies, page 91
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Use of children, page 75
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Individual factors in changing health beliefs
Unrealistic optimism: unrealistic optimism or optimistic bias is a reason
why many people continue to smoke cigarettes even though they cause lung
and many other cancers – people falsely believe that it won’t happen to them.
Another term for this is ‘illusion of invulnerability’ and it is the reason why
the Titanic sank in 1912. The captain thought that the ship would never sink.
Weinstein (1980) tested the main hypothesis that people believe that
negative events are less likely to happen to them than to others, and they
believe that positive events are more likely to happen to them than to others.
In Study 1, 258 college students estimated what their own chances were of
experiencing 42 events (18 positive and 24 negative events). Positive events
included ‘owning your own home’ and negative events ‘developing cancer’.
The events were scored ‘compared to other students studying here and the
same sex as you’ on the following scale: 100% less, 80% less, 60% less, 40%
less, 20% less, 10% less, average, 10% more, 20% more, 40% more, 60%
more, 80% more, and 100% more.
Overall, the participants rated their own chances to be above average for
positive events and below average for negative events, supporting the main
hypothesis.
Study 2, using 120 female college students, tested the idea that people are
unrealistically optimistic because they focus on factors that improve their
own chances but fail to realise that other people are just the same. When
these participants realised they were the same, unrealistic optimism
decreased, but was not eliminated altogether.
Transtheoretical model: this model of behaviour change (Prochaska et al.,
1997) assesses, through a series of six stages, whether a person is ready to
change to a new, healthier behaviour.
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• Stage 1 pre-contemplation: where a person is not intending to change
their behaviour in the next 6 months.
• Stage 2 contemplation: where a person is intending to change their
behaviour in the next 6 months. They are aware of the benefits of changing
but are also mindful of the costs.
• Stage 3 preparation: people are intending to change behaviour in the near
future and have a plan of action.
• Stage 4 action: people have taken action, however for health benefits the
next stage is needed.
• Stage 5 maintenance: the action continues without relapse and hopefully
this stage will continue for at least 6 months and maybe up to 5 years.
• Stage 6 termination: at this point the person has 100% changed with no
chance at all of relapse.
Health change in adolescents: Lau et al. (1990) studied the stability and
change of health beliefs and behaviour in young adults/students (97% were
aged 17–19 years).
Baseline questionnaires, returned by 1,029 students, focused on six
behaviours: alcohol consumption, eating habits, exercise, sleeping, smoking
and wearing seatbelts. This longitudinal study required the questionnaires to
be completed again after 1, 2 and 3 years. Those responding dropped
significantly (from 1,029 to 879 in year 2, and from 635 to 532 in year 3).
Lau et al. (1990) outlined three models:
• Lifelong openness model: people are always open to persuasion from
influential socialising agents; parents have no status.
• Windows of vulnerability model: parental influence persists unless the
child is exposed to important social models (e.g. other students) who have
different and more influential views.
• Enduring family socialisation model: where preventive health beliefs and
behaviour are learned from the family during childhood and remain fairly
stable throughout life because parents are the primary socialising agents.
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on health promotion. For part (a), the
‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the
exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For
part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include
(three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue.
You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
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Analysis of the results showed substantial change in health behaviour while
at college, but that parents are much more important, providing support for
the third model.
Evaluation
• The studies by Weinstein and Lau et al. used questionnaires and
gathered quantitative data. Both studies used students in their
sample and Weinstein only used female participants in Study 2.
(Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
• Both studies used participants from the USA only, so there could
be cultural bias. The Lau et al. study gathered data over a period
of time, so it is longitudinal. (Strengths and weaknesses for both.)
• The model by Prochaska et al. could be generalised to all people
and all health behaviour change (strength).
Cross check
Questionnaires, page 50
Quantitative data, page 60
Samples, page 56
Longitudinal studies, page 91
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Generalisations, page 68
5.5 Psychology and organisations
Motivation to work
Need theories of motivation
All people have needs (e.g. to eat and drink) and we are motivated to satisfy
them. We also have needs as people in a society and the need for
achievement.
Hierarchy of needs: Maslow’s (1954) needs theory proposed a five-tier
hierarchy:
1
2
3
4
5
Physiological: food, drink, warmth, etc.
Safety: protection from harm, need for law and order.
Social: need for affection, relationships and family.
Esteem: need for achievement, mastery of skills, status.
Self-actualisation: realising potential; fulfilment.
Maslow believed that lower-level or basic needs had to be satisfied before
progressing to higher levels. Maslow added two additional needs in 1970,
and an eighth later on:
6 Cognitive: having knowledge and understanding.
7 Aesthetic: the appreciation and search for beauty.
8 Transcendent: helping others to achieve self-actualisation.
Expert tip
Every student knows Maslow’s five needs. But there is much more to
it than this. Go beyond the basics – Maslow has eight needs not just
five, and there are other needs theories in addition to Maslow’s.
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ERG theory: Aldefer (1972) re-categorised Maslow’s hierarchy into three
‘simpler’ categories, or ERG (see figure 21):
E Existence needs (physiological and safety needs) – the need for the basic
material necessities of life.
R Relatedness needs (social and self-esteem needs) – the need to have and
maintain interpersonal relationships both at work and at home.
G Growth needs (self-actualisation) – the need for self-development and
advancement.
Achievement motivation: McClelland’s achievement–motivation theory
(1961) suggests that we have three work-related needs:
• Need for achievement – the need to get a job done, to master a task, to be
successful. People want to achieve on the basis of their hard work and
effort rather than on the basis of luck.
• Need for affiliation – the need to be liked and accepted by other people;
effort is applied to creating and maintaining social relationships and
friendships.
• Need for power – this concerns being influential in the lives of others and
also in the control of others; the need for discipline is important.
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Now test yourself
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36 What are the three work-related needs outlined by McClelland?
Answer on p.199
McClelland believed that a good manager should have the need for power,
not necessarily the need for achievement and certainly not the need for
affiliation. McClelland used thematic apperception tests (TAT), involving
looking at pictures followed by a description of the story they suggest. It is a
projective test, so it does not have the reliability of a psychometric test.
Evaluation
• All three theories have strengths and weaknesses. For example,
does a theory have any evidence to support it? To what extent can
the theory be generalised from one person to another and does it
apply in all cultures?
• Theories were often based on people in organisations in the USA
and this is another source of cultural bias. Theories were also
based on industrial life in the 1970s and 1980s and these theories
may not be useful in today’s society.
• Is motivation individual or situational? (strengths and
weaknesses).
• Need theories can be compared and contrasted with
cognitive/rational theories.
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Cognitive theories of motivation
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Goal-setting theory: a person can be motivated by setting a goal and when it
is achieved a sense of achievement and success follows. This is the basic
principle underlying the application of management by objectives. One of
the best ways of setting effective goals is to make them ‘SMART’: goals
should be specific, measurable, attainable/agreed, realistic/relevant and timebased.
In the 1960s, Locke suggested that working toward a goal provided a major
source of motivation to reach the goal and with appropriate feedback
improved performance. Latham proposed similar ideas and the combined
goal-setting theory by Latham and Locke became popular. They believe
goal-setting has five principles:
1 Clarity: when a goal is clear and specific it is unambiguous and
measurable.
2 Challenge: goals that are relevant and linked to rewards are good
motivators.
3 Commitment: goals must be understood and agreed to be effective.
4 Effectiveness: goal-setting must involve feedback on progress and
achievement.
5 Task complexity: tasks must be achievable and in a particular time period.
Expert tip
If a question asks you to explain ‘a theory of’, ensure you refer to
what a theory is in your answer.
VIE (or expectancy) theory: in this theory (Vroom, 1964) workers are
rational and decision-making is guided by potential costs (negative outcomes)
and rewards (positive outcomes). The theory is summarised by the equation:
M = E × I × V or motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence
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M (motivation) is the amount a person will be motivated by the situation in
which they find themselves, which is determined by E (expectancy), which is
the person’s perception of the extent to which the amount of effort correlates
with performance. I (instrumentality) is the person’s perception of how
performance will be rewarded. It is the extent to which the amount of reward
matches the amount of effort required. V (valence) is the perceived strength of
the reward or punishment. If the reward is small then so will be the
motivation, even if I and E are high.
Equity theory: equity theory (Adams, 1963) assumes that workers expect to
achieve pay, status and recognition according to what they bring to a job.
When people feel fairly treated they are more likely to be motivated.
However, when workers feel unfairly treated they are prone to feelings of
disaffection and demotivation. Equity is where employees seek to balance the
inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it
against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others. If there is perceived
inequality, the worker will become de-motivated.
Evaluation
• All three theories have strengths and weaknesses. For example,
does a theory have any evidence to support it? To what extent can
the theory be generalised from one person to another and does it
apply in all cultures?
• Theories were often based on people in organisations in the USA
and this is another source of cultural bias. Theories were also
based on industrial life in the 1970s and 1980s and these theories
may not be useful in today’s society.
• Is motivation individual or situational? (strengths and
weaknesses).
• Need theories can be compared and contrasted with
cognitive/rational theories.
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Individual–situational debate, page 74
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Motivators at work
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Intrinsic motivation is an internal desire to perform a particular task because
it gives pleasure or develops a particular skill. Motivation comes from the
actual performance of the job or task and gives a sense of achievement and
satisfaction. Praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of
belonging are said to be far more powerful motivators than money.
Extrinsic motivation is the desire to do something because of an external
reward such as money. Extrinsic rewards include: pay, promotion and fringe
benefits such as commission and bonuses. Promotions and
competitions/incentive schemes can be used against sales objectives such as
volume, profitability and new account development. Extrinsic motivation can
also include merchandise incentives such as a company car.
Now test yourself
37 Using examples, what is the difference between intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation?
Answer on p.199
Reward systems: types of reward systems include:
• Pay (money) – many people are motivated by money, and the more money
they can earn, the better. All other factors are unimportant, with job
satisfaction irrelevant.
• Bonuses can be given in various ways, such as an end-of-year monetary
payment, or in the form of a gift or other non-monetary reward. Bonuses
can be given for meeting sales targets, for example.
• Profit-sharing is where workers share a percentage of the company profit
if productivity or sales have exceeded annual (or monthly) targets. For
example, workers could receive 1%, in the form of a cash payment, of
above target profit.
• Performance-related pay – this motivates workers to work harder to meet
a target if the target is reasonable and achievable. If the target can never be
achieved then the worker will be demotivated.
Non-monetary rewards: these include:
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• Praise – a simple ‘well done’ can often be all a worker needs to keep them
happy and motivated. Praise needs to be done fairly and consistently to be
effective.
• Respect – gaining the respect (‘respect is earned’) of managers is a good
psychological/intrinsic motivator.
• Recognition – respect and recognition both come from working hard and
showing responsibility, leadership, organisation and other skills the
organisation values.
• Empowerment – this is where a worker becomes stronger and more
confident in what they do. It may come about as a result of completing a
task or achieving a target. It motivates intrinsically because the worker
knows they are competent have mastered a task or skill and can look
toward achieving more.
• Sense of belonging – this is linked to organisational commitment and is
where a worker, because they are valued, recognised and have respect,
feels part of the organisation; they feel proud to part of it.
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on motivation to work. For part (a), the
‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the
exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For
part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include
(three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue.
You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
Evaluation
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Cross check
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• It would be reductionist (strengths and weaknesses) to suggest
that there is one thing that motivates all workers. There are
individual differences. Indeed there are a number of factors that
motivate each person.
• Workers’ motivation can be determined (strengths and
weaknesses) by the culture in which they work (comparing
individualistic and collectivist cultures).
Reductionism, page 89
Determinism, page 90
Cultural bias, page 88
Leadership and management
Traditional and modern theories of leadership
Leadership can be said to be a form of social influence, where a person gains
the aid or support of others to achieve a goal or task. This can apply to many
different things in addition to an organisation. A manager works in an
organisation and is concerned with the day-to-day planning, organising,
controlling and coordinating of those for whom he or she is responsible. A
manager may not be the leader, instead implementing the ideas and
instructions of a leader. A leader can be a ‘great person’ or be charismatic,
but a manager need not be.
Universalist theories: these look at the major characteristics that are
common among effective leaders. The great man–woman theory (e.g.
Wood, 1913) argues that ‘great leaders are born, not made’ because they
possess the personal qualities and abilities to make them great. Charismatic
(or transformational) leaders are said to have the determination, energy,
confidence and ability to inspire followers.
McGregor (1960) outlined two types of leader belief: theory X is where
workers are seen as unmotivated and will avoid work; theory Y is where
workers are perceived as being self-motivated, will work hard and have
organisational commitment.
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Behavioural theories: these look at the actual behaviour shown by leaders to
determine which behaviours are successful and which are not. Researchers at
Ohio State University (e.g. Halpin and Winer, 1957) developed the leader
behaviour description questionnaire (LBDQ) with 1,800 statements.
Analysis suggested two types of leader:
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• Leaders with initiating structure – the degree to which they define and
structure their role. They initiate, organise, clarify and gather information.
• Leaders with consideration – the degree to which they act in a friendly and
supportive manner to workers. They encourage, observe and listen, as
coaches and mentors.
These two dimensions determine four styles, dependent on whether structure
is high or low and whether consideration is high or low.
Researchers at the University of Michigan identified task-oriented
behaviours (similar to ‘initiating structure’) where the main concern is
production rather than workers, and relationship-oriented behaviour
(similar to ‘consideration’) where the concern is for people. This extended
into Blake and Moulton’s (1985) managerial grid where the two styles
resulted in five types of leader: country-club, team, impoverished, authoritycompliant and middle-of-the-road.
Adaptive leadership: this looks at whether individuals and organisations can
adapt to changing conditions or not. These changing conditions may result
from changing markets, rising costs, environmental changes – in fact
anything internal or external that challenges the existence of the organisation.
Heifetz (1997) believes ‘adaptive leadership is the practice of mobilising
people to tackle tough challenges and thrive’.
The process of adaptive leadership involves observing events and patterns;
interpreting what is observed; and designing interventions to address the
challenge. To design interventions, Heifetz suggests ‘getting on the balcony’;
stepping back and looking at the whole picture rather than individual
components.
His leadership model is based on a number of principles:
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Three levels of leadership: this model (Scouller, 2011) is a tool for
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• Successful adaptation builds on the past.
• Adaptive leadership is specifically about change that enables the capacity
to thrive.
• Adaptation occurs through experimentation.
• Adaptation relies on diversity.
• New adaptations significantly displace, reregulate and rearrange.
• Adaptation takes time.
developing leadership presence, awareness and skills, i.e. what leaders must
do in order to bring leadership to their group, and how to develop themselves
technically and psychologically as leaders. Leadership is not something given
(inherited); it is a skill that can be learned. There are three levels of
leadership: public, private and personal (Figure 22).
Public – when a leader interacts with a group of people. Thirty-four
behaviours must be addressed, organised into five categories:
•
•
•
•
•
setting the vision
organising and delegating tasks (or power) to others
problem solving, decision-making and idea creation
execution
group building and maintenance.
Private – handling individuals on a one-to-one basis. Each person should be
treated with respect because they have different knowledge, experience,
motivation and confidence. There are 14 private leadership behaviours in two
categories:
• individual purpose and task, such as appraising, disciplining, setting goals
• individual building and maintenance, e.g. building relationships,
recognising talent.
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• technical know-how and skill, e.g. having emotional intelligence,
assertiveness, time management skills, etc.
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Personal – the personal characteristics of the leader. This has three elements:
• attitudes towards others, e.g. having appreciation, showing caring, etc.
• self-mastery, e.g. self-awareness.
Now test yourself
38 What is the difference between a leader and a manager?
Answer on p.199
Evaluation
• Traditional theories that ‘leaders are born not made’ are nature,
not nurture, whereas other theories are nurture (strengths and
weaknesses).
• Behavioural theories focus on the behaviour of individuals rather
than features of the situation (see situational theories, page 163).
• Most leadership theories are based on Western industry and so
there may be cultural bias (weakness).
• Models break each aspect of leadership into individual
components, which is reductionist (strengths and weaknesses).
Cross check
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Cultural bias, page 88
Reductionism, page 89
Leadership style
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Effectiveness (contingency theory): Fiedler (1976) assumed that a leader’s
ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including, for
example, the leader’s preferred style, and the capabilities and behaviours of
followers (workers). This means that the same person can behave differently
in different situations.
Fielder used the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) scale, a questionnaire
with 16 items, where leaders were asked about the person with whom they
least prefer to work. This determines whether the leader is relationshiporiented (high LPC score) or task-oriented (low LPC score). Situational
factors are dependent on:
• Leader–member relations – the extent to which the leader is trusted and
liked by workers, and their willingness to follow the leader’s guidance.
• Task structure – the extent to which the group’s task has been defined and
the extent to which it can be carried out.
• Position power – the power of the leader and the degree to which the
leader can exercise authority over workers.
The effectiveness of a leader is determined by the interaction of the leader’s
style of behaviour and the favourableness of the situational characteristics.
Situational leadership: this approach argues that no single leadership style
best fits all situations. Instead, successful leaders are those who can adapt
their leadership style to the group they are attempting to lead. In the 1980s,
the theories by Hersey and by Blanchard were merged and their combined
theory has two main components: leadership styles and maturity levels.
Leadership styles – telling, selling, participating and delegating. These four
styles result from variations in task behaviour and relationship behaviour:
• Telling (directing): high task (giving specific direction), low relationship.
• Selling (coaching): high task (explaining task direction), high relationship.
• Participating (supporting): low task, high relationship (sharing task
decisions).
• Delegating: low task, low relationship (workers make task decisions).
Which style is used depends on the maturity levels of the followers/workers.
Maturity levels (readiness) of workers – high, moderate (2 levels) or low:
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High: workers capable and willing (= delegating style).
Moderate: workers capable but unwilling/insecure (= participating style).
Moderate to low: workers lack capability but are willing (= selling style).
Low: workers lack capability and are unwilling (= telling style).
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•
•
•
Now test yourself
39 What is meant by a ‘situational theory of leadership’?
Answer on p.199
Styles of leader behaviour: Muczyk and Reimann (1987) argue for four
‘pure’ patterns or styles of leader behaviour. They believe that leaders can
differ in the extent to which they:
• involve others in decision-making, so the degree of employee participation
can be either high or low
• are involved in the execution of the decision, which again can either be
high or low
Combinations of these two dimensions produce four styles of leader
behaviour as shown in Figure 23.
Evaluation
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• Situational theories focus on adapting styles to the situation rather
than focusing on the behaviour of individuals (see behavioural
theories, page 161).
• Most leadership theories are based on Western industry and so
there may be cultural bias (weakness).
• Models break each aspect of leadership into individual
components, which is reductionist (strengths and weaknesses).
• The research by Fielder used a questionnaire (strengths and
weaknesses).
Cross check
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Cultural bias, page 88
Reductionism, page 89
Questionnaires, page 49
Leaders and followers
In any organisation there are managers (or leaders) and there are workers.
Often the satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) experienced by workers is
determined by the relationship with management. A number of models,
mostly based on leader–member exchange or LMX, have been proposed to
explain the manager–worker relationship.
Leader–member exchange model: Dansereau et al. (1975) proposed the
vertical dyad linkage theory (VDL theory). The model suggested that
leaders treat followers differently with respect to mutual trust, respect and
obligation, creating an in-group (a small number of trusted followers) and an
out-group (a larger number where the relationship remains a formal one).
Since then research has gone in two directions. VDL theory became the
leader–member exchange model and an alternative individualised
leadership model by Danserau et al. (1995) was proposed where each
follower is considered to be independent from others and each leader is
viewed as unique.
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Followership: what makes a good follower? According to Kelley (1988)
there are two key features of good followers:
• independent critical thinking contrasted with dependent, uncritical thinking
• whether the individual has active or passive participation
These two dimensions result in five different followership styles (see Figure
24):
• Exemplary (‘star’) followers are people who think for themselves, have
positive energy, and are actively engaged. They agree with and challenge
their leaders.
• Alienated followers are predominantly negative, think for themselves but
do not contribute to the positive direction of the organisation.
• Passive followers (‘the sheep’) are passive in their thinking and
engagement and are motivated by their leader rather than themselves.
• Conformist followers (‘the yes people’) allow their leader to do the
thinking and acting for them but are generally positive and always on the
leader’s side.
• Pragmatist followers exhibit a minimal level of independent thinking and
engagement; they change to suit the situation and get involved when they
see the direction in which the situation is heading.
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Measuring leadership: according to Kouses and Posner (1987), ‘After
conducting hundreds of interviews, reviewing thousands of case studies, and
analysing more than 2 million survey questionnaires there emerged five
practices of exemplary leadership’. The five are:
• Model the way: leaders establish principles, create standards of excellence
and then set an example for others to follow.
• Inspire a shared vision: leaders believe that they can make a difference,
see the future and enlist others in their dreams.
• Challenge the process: leaders seek change, looking for innovative ways
to improve things in an organisation.
• Enable others to act: leaders foster collaboration and build teams. They
actively involve others. They strengthen others, making each person feel
needed and a part of a team.
• Encourage the heart: leaders keep hope and determination alive, and
recognise the contribution that each individual makes. Rewards are shared.
The leadership practices inventory (LPI) is a questionnaire that contains
30 behavioural statements (six for each of the five practices). Individuals
complete the LPI Self, rating themselves on the frequency with which they
believe they engage in each of the 30 behaviours. Five to ten other people
complete the LPI Observer, indicating the frequency with which they think
the leader engages in each behaviour. Each person can then see their own
score compared with the average rating from the other participants.
Ratings are done on a 10-point scale: 1 almost never, 2 rarely, 3 seldom, 4
once in a while, 5 occasionally, 6 sometimes, 7 fairly often, 8 usually, 9 very
frequently, 10 almost always.
Typical statements include:
27 Speaks with genuine conviction about the higher meaning and purpose of
work (inspire).
25 Finds ways to celebrate accomplishments (encourage).
19 Supports the decisions that people make on their own (enable).
Expert tip
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Prepare an exam-style essay on leadership and management. For
part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and
exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part
(b).
Evaluation
• Both Kelley and Kouses and Posner break aspects of leadership
down into a number of types which is reductionist (strengths and
weaknesses).
• Kouses and Posner (the LPI) use questionnaires and gather
quantitative data. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
• A debate could be had as to whether these models are useful and
the extent to which they can be generalised. (Strengths and
weaknesses of both.)
Cross check
Reductionism, page 89
Questionnaires, page 49
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Generalisations, page 68
Group behaviour in organisations
Group development and roles
Group development: Tuckman (1965) outlines four stages of group
development:
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• Forming – where individuals begin to come together, get to know each
other and agree on tasks and goals.
• Storming – where individuals will present ideas and sometimes these will
be accepted and sometimes they will cause conflict.
• Norming – when members of the group agree a strategy, some members
realising that for the good of the group their ideas are not accepted.
• Performing – when the group functions as a coherent unit, working
effectively and efficiently without conflict.
A fifth stage (adjourning), where the group has completed a task and breaks
up, was added in 1977.
Team roles: according to Belbin (1981) ‘What is needed is not wellbalanced individuals, but individuals who balance well with each other.’ A
successful team with group cohesiveness will be promoted by the extent to
which members correctly recognise and adjust themselves to the relative
strengths of the team, both in expertise and in ability to engage in specific
team roles.
Now test yourself
40 Identify the four stages of team development proposed by
Tuckman.
Answer on p.199
The nine team roles identified by Belbin are:
• Thought-related roles:
– the plant, the creative innovator who proposes new ideas and approaches
– the monitor-evaluator, who is a critical thinker, analyses and evaluates
ideas, sees all options
– the specialist, who has the specialised knowledge needed to get the job
done.
• People-related roles:
• Action-related roles:
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– the shaper, who challenges the team to improve, sees obstacles as
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– the co-ordinator, who is mature, confident and a good chair-person
– the resource investigator, who explores options and outside
opportunities, develops contacts
– the team worker, who encourages co-operation among team members,
diplomatic and good negotiator.
challenges, thrives on pressure
– the implementer, who gets things done, works systematically and
efficiently and is well organised
– the completer-finisher, who ensures a project is completed, and is good
at meeting deadlines, a perfectionist
Belbin believes that an ideal team would include: one coordinator (or shaper);
one innovator; one monitor-evaluator; and one or more implementer, team
worker, resource investigator and finisher-completer.
Measuring team roles: the Belbin team-role self-perception inventory
(BTRSPI) uses observer assessments to examine how people behave in
teams. Belbin states that it is not a psychometric test because observation is
used to assess the team role rather than it being a self-report measure of
personality. He prefers observation because it is objective rather than
subjective, and it is based on the observations of people who work with the
person in question.
The BTRSPI measures the nine team roles and has one scale known as
‘dropped points’ which measures claims about oneself (giving 360º
feedback). The inventory includes eight sections, and each section has ten
statements, one per team role and a tenth item representing ‘dropped points’.
Ten points are allocated to each section and if one statement applies, all 10
points are allocated to that statement. If two statements apply equally then
each receives 5 points.
A typical section would include statements like:
• I enjoy solving problems
• My work is always delivered on time
• I am a team player
Evaluation
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• The BTRSPI uses observation, gathering objective rather than
subjective data which are quantitative rather than qualitative.
(Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
• Team roles are said to apply to all teams, i.e. they can generalise
(strengths and weaknesses) but there may be cultural differences
in the way teams operate (weakness).
Cross check
Observations, page 51
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Decision-making
Decision-making is said to be one of the most important and frequent tasks
among managers and employees in an organisation. The entire process is
dependent upon the right information being available to the right people at
the right time.
The decision-making process: Wedley and Field (1984) examined the
decision-making process and suggested that pre-planning for decisionmaking leads to solutions of high quality, acceptability and originality. Preplanning involves choosing a style of leadership, whether to involve others,
how to gather information, who is to contact, and how to generate alternative
solutions.
There are different views (going back as far as Lewin et al., 1939) about
which decision-making style the leader (or manager) will use. The main
ones are as follows:
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• Autocratic (directive or authoritarian) – the leader gives clear expectations
of what needs to be done, when and how. There is little or no input from
the group.
• Consultative – the leader consults, gathers information and then makes the
decision.
• Participative (democratic or collaborative) – the problem is explained,
with everyone being encouraged to participate, including the leader.
• Delegative (or laissez-faire) – the leader gives the responsibility for the
decision to the group/team, with no structure or guidance.
Groupthink: this is when the adoption of group norms unintentionally
erodes the ability of an individual to evaluate independently. Groupthink
means that discussion is limited, and that there is an absence of alternatives,
support for confirming information, and a failure to plan for when things
might go wrong. It has three main causes: high cohesiveness of the decisionmaking group; specific structural characteristics; and stressful internal and
external characteristics of the situation.
Janis (1972) suggested that groupthink has eight features, including:
• an illusion of invulnerability – the belief that nothing can go wrong
• an illusion of unanimity – the belief that group members who respect each
other will automatically agree.
The six additional features are: unquestioned beliefs, stereotyping, direct
pressure to conform, ‘mindguards’, self-censorship and rationalising.
Strategies to avoid groupthink include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
encouraging individual evaluation
promoting open enquiry
breaking a full group into sub-groups
admitting shortcomings
holding second-chance meetings
not rushing to a quick solution.
Cognitive limitations and errors: Forsyth (2006) focused on cognitive
limitations and errors. Group decision-making often puts group members
under substantial cognitive demands. As a result, cognitive errors and
motivational biases can adversely affect group decision-making. Forsyth
outlined three categories of potential biases that a group can fall victim to
when engaging in decision-making:
• Sins of commission – errors in the use of information, including:
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– Belief perseverance: a group continues to use information in their
decision-making that has previously been dismissed.
– Sunk cost bias: a group remains committed to a decision because of the
time and effort that has already gone into that plan, even though the plan
may have become inappropriate.
– Extra-evidentiary bias: a group uses information despite having been
told it should be ignored.
– Hindsight bias: the group falsely over-estimates the accuracy of their
past knowledge.
• Sins of omission – ignoring useful information. This can include:
– Base rate bias: group members ignore information about basic
trends/tendencies.
– Fundamental attribution error: group members base decisions on
inaccurate appraisals, such as overestimating internal factors (e.g.
personality) and underestimating external or situational factors.
• Sins of imprecision – relying on rules that over-simplify complex
decisions, for example:
– Availability heuristic: group members rely on information that is
readily available.
– Representativeness heuristic: group members rely too heavily on
decision-making factors that seem meaningful but are, in fact, more or
less misleading.
Evaluation
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• All three studies break decision-making into component parts,
which is reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). This is good
because it provides a full analysis of each component and covers a
range of different aspects.
• The extent to which these features can be generalised is worth
debate, as is the extent to which each is useful. (Strengths and
weaknesses of both.)
• Another useful debate is whether individuals determine decisionmaking or whether they are influenced by the group situation that
they are in. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
Reductionism, page 89
Generalisations, page 68
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Group conflict
Levels and causes of group conflict: conflict can occur on four levels,
ranging from interpersonal to organisational:
• Intra-individual – conflict occurs when an individual is faced with a
choice and must make a decision.
• Inter-individual – conflict between two people.
• Intra-group – conflict between a person and a group.
• Inter-group – conflict between two groups.
There are different causes of conflict:
• Distrust – lack of trust among individuals; lack of trust of another
company/organisation.
• Helplessness – because views and decisions are never accepted; the
organisation is too powerful.
• Injustice – mistreatment by another individual or mistreatment by an
organisation.
• Superiority – one person thinks that he or she is better than others; one
organisation thinks it is better than another.
• Vulnerability – a position or job is under threat and needs defending; there
is uncertainty and fear about the future.
To these can be added:
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• Task conflict – when group members disagree over shared tasks.
• Process conflict – when members disagree over the way in which
something should be done.
• Personal conflict – this can happen when two people simply do not like
each other.
41 Outline two ways in which conflict can be positive and two ways
in which it can be negative.
Answer on p.199
Positive and negative effects of conflict: conflict can be negative – it can
harm group cohesiveness; it can inhibit effective communication and even
lead to rumour and distrust; and it can lead to more ‘fighting’ and less
productivity and goal achievement.
Conflict can be positive: it might energise the group, reducing complacency;
it might stimulate creativity and innovation; it can increase the quality of
decision-making as each member contributes more.
Managing group conflict: Thomas (1976) suggests five strategies to resolve
conflict:
1
2
3
4
5
Competition (continue until one wins and the other loses).
Accommodation (one side ‘gives in’).
Compromise (both sides give up something).
Collaboration (co-operation to reach an agreed solution).
Avoidance (withdrawing or backing down from the conflict).
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on group behaviour in organisations.
For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and
exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part
(b).
Organisational work conditions
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Physical and psychological work conditions
The conditions of the physical and psychological working environment
should make people feel safe and comfortable and they should not experience
any negative effects, whether physical or mental. By the nature of the work,
many environments are very aversive.
Physical conditions:
• Illumination – lighting levels need to be appropriate to the task; not too
dim or too bright. The type of light and glare, even from computer screens,
can cause eyesight problems. Some workers must wear protective glasses.
Grandjean (1988) makes recommendations for reducing glare.
• Temperature – some jobs require workers to experience very high or very
low temperatures, but in an office, for example, temperature should be
neither too high nor too low. Fanger (1970) found that raising the humidity
of a room significantly decreases worker performance.
• Loud noise might be unavoidable for some, and ear protectors have to be
worn. For most people, loud noise is aversive and noise should be within
acceptable levels.
• Some workers experience extreme motion. For example, those working
with heavy, vibrating machinery can experience long-term effects on their
ability to hold things.
The ‘Hawthorne effect’ is a common term in psychology referring to the
potential confounding of a study when participants become aware of being
observed and change their behaviour. The term results from research
conducted by lead researcher Mayo in 1924 at the Hawthorne plant of the
General Electric Company. Wickstrom and Bendix (also researchers in the
original study) reviewed the study in 2000.
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F.W. Taylor (1911) outlined ‘scientific management’ and conducted ‘time
and motion’ studies to investigate scientifically the best conditions for
optimal work. In a field experiment at the Hawthorne plant, the effect of
illumination (lighting) was studied. Productivity levels were recorded (the
DV) at baseline lighting levels (the IV). Lighting for the control group
remained constant. In the experimental group, lighting levels were decreased
and productivity levels were recorded. After one week production had
increased. In the second week, levels were reduced further and productivity
increased again. Finally, lighting levels were decreased to ‘moonlight’ but
productivity didn’t change. The researchers concluded that lighting levels
were irrelevant; other factors were more important and top was the personal
relations between workers and management. The workers knew they were
being observed, feared for their jobs so worked harder, and the longer the
study went on, the harder they worked!
Psychological conditions: psychological work conditions include feelings of
a lack of privacy or crowding, which can be experienced if too many people
work in a small space (where social density is high). The opposite occurs
where a worker may have an absence of social interaction, being unable to
talk to another person for large parts of their working day. For some workers,
a sense of status is important to them (and so they wear badges identifying
their role, e.g. ‘Supervisor’), while for others being anonymous is important.
Bullying can also occur at work. Einarsen (1999) has reviewed the nature and
causes of bullying at work. He believes there are five types of bullying
behaviour:
1 Work-related bullying, which may involve a change of work tasks or
making them difficult to perform.
2 Social isolation.
3 Personal attacks (or attacks on private life) by ridicule, insulting remarks or
gossip.
4 Verbal threats including criticism, being yelled at or humiliated in public.
5 Physical violence (or threats of violence).
Bullying has four phases:
1 Aggressive behaviour: subtle aggression is directed against one or more
people.
2 The aggression becomes more open, direct and frequent. Here the victim
has problems in defending him/herself for various reasons.
3 Stigmatisation and victimisation.
4 Severe trauma likened to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
There are three causes of bullying: competition concerning status and job
positions, envy, and the aggressor being uncertain about his/her self.
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• overachievers with an unrealistic view both of their own abilities and
resources and the demands of their work tasks
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Victims have been described as:
• highly rigid
• viewing themselves as more accurate, honest and punctual
• those who are perceived as annoying.
To help categorise future investigations, Einarsen suggests the following
concepts:
• Dispute-related bullying due to highly escalated interpersonal conflict. It
develops out of grievances and involves social control reactions to
perceived wrong-doing.
• Predatory bullying where the victim personally has done nothing
provocative that may reasonably justify the behaviour of the bully.
Expert tip
A question could ask you to suggest how you would investigate
bullying at work. Think about what method you would use and the
strengths and weaknesses of your chosen method.
Open plan offices: the physical work environment (environmental
determinism) can have a significant effect on both productivity and the
psychological well-being of workers. The study by Oldham and Brass
(1979) investigated the effects of 128 newspaper employees moving from
conventional multi-room offices to an open plan office (an office with no
interior walls or partitions; just partitions between desks). Three time-point
measures were taken: 8 weeks before the move, 9 weeks after the move, and
18 weeks after the move. There were three groups of participants: the
experimental group (76) who moved offices; the control group (5) who
stayed in the original building; a group (26) who moved but did not complete
the baseline measure before the move.
At each time point, all workers completed the same questionnaire (using a 7point scale) which included job characteristics of autonomy, skill variety,
task identity, task significance and task feedback. Specific measures taken
were:
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• Work satisfaction: the degree to which an employee is satisfied and happy
with the job.
• Interpersonal satisfaction: the degree to which an employee is satisfied
with co-workers and supervisors at work.
• Internal work motivation: the degree to which an individual experiences
positive internal feelings when performing effectively on the job.
Findings: although there was very little change on a number of factors, there
was a decrease in many others, such as work satisfaction (means of 5.37,
5.19 and 5.11 – taken at the three time points). Similarly, interpersonal
satisfaction decreased from 5.22 to 4.95 to 4.90, and internal work motivation
decreased from 6.05 to 5.89 to 5.86.
In addition, participants were interviewed to gather qualitative data. Many
employees described the new office space as a ‘fishbowl’, ‘cage’ or
‘warehouse’, reflecting on an inability to concentrate, to develop close
friendships and to complete a job. It was impossible in the open office to
engage in a private conversation either with co-workers or with supervisors.
Evaluation
• The Hawthorne study was conducted in 1924 and while aspects
may not generalise to today, the ‘Hawthorne effect’ can generalise
to any situation where people are observed. Jobs are very varied,
so physical and psychological working conditions may or may not
generalise and their effects may depend more on an individual
than or the situation. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
• The study by Einarsen on bullying is a review paper, but bullying is
more problematic in some cultures than others, so there is cultural
bias. the Oldham and Brass study was conducted in the USA (so
cultural bias agian) but it was real-life so has ecological validity.
Workers in other cultures may experience different levels of job
satisfaction because of the environment in which they work
(environmental determinism). (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
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Cross check
Cultural bias, page 88
Environmental Determinism, page 90
Temporal conditions of work environments
The number of hours people work varies significantly and how those hours
are organised is important:
• Many people work for 8 hours per day for 5 days per week (a 40-hour
week).
• Those who are self-employed often work more hours than people who are
employed. Some businesses (e.g. a shop) might open for 12 hours per day,
for 7 days per week.
• A compressed working week might mean working 12 hours per day, for 3
days per week.
• People such as doctors work an on-call system, where they work as needed
or all the time over a 36-hour period, for example.
• A flexi-time system means people work the same hours per week but can
work whenever they choose (e.g. 7 am to 3 pm or 11 am to 7 pm).
• Many workers work shifts and usually there are three 8-hour shifts in a 24hour period: 6 am until 2pm, 2pm until 10pm and 10pm until 6am (the
‘graveyard’ shift). A common type is rapid rotation theory, which
involves frequent shift changes (e.g. once per week) and is preferred by
workers doing the same shift for a short time. There are two types (and the
rota continues, giving an equal balance of working all 7 days per week over
time):
– Metropolitan rota: work two early (6 am to 2 pm), two late (2 pm to 10
pm), two night (10 pm to 6 am), two rest.
– Continental rota: work two early, two late, three night, two rest, then
two early, three late, two night, three rest.
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Expert tip
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A question could ask you to suggest how you would organise a
shiftwork pattern if you were manager. You could also be asked to
explain why you have chosen the theory you have.
Shiftwork causes sleep disturbances, and physical and mental fatigue.
Pheasant (1991) suggests it causes primary chronic fatigue. More extreme is
the view that shiftworkers die younger compared with non-shiftworkers.
Shiftwork is also associated with an increased likelihood of an accident.
Pheasant suggests that shift patterns can be organised to minimise negative
health effects.
Now test yourself
42 a What is meant by the ‘rapid rotation theory’ of shiftwork.
b Describe two examples of rapid rotation theory.
Answer on p.199
Slow rotation theory suggests shift change as infrequently as possible (the
same shift for a least a month). This minimises health effects but is not
popular for social reasons (workers want time with their families).
Effects of shiftwork on health: Knutsson (2003) reviewed the effects of
shiftwork on health and found that shift work is associated with specific
pathological disorders, particularly peptic ulcer disease, coronary heart
disease and compromised pregnancy outcome. Other findings include:
• There is no evidence to suggest that shiftwork affects mortality or cancer.
• Gastrointestinal disorders (peptic ulcer disease) are more common in
shiftworkers than in day workers.
• There is strong evidence in favour of an association between shiftwork and
coronary heart disease.
• There is strong evidence of an association between shiftwork and
pregnancy in terms of miscarriage, low birth weight and pre-term birth.
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1 Day/evening (but no nights)
2 Night (8 night shifts in a month with no day or evening)
3 Rotator (4 day/evening and 4 night shifts)
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Shiftwork and accidents: Gold et al. (1992) investigated the effect of
shiftwork on the number of accidents in nurses. There were six different
types of shift:
4 Day/evening with occasional night
5 Night with occasional day/evening
6 Part-time rotator (4–7 night shifts and up to 3 day/evening shifts
Pheasant would predict the rotator shift to be worst (for health/accidents)
because of the rapid rotation. A total of 878 workers were given the
questionnaire: 687 (78%) returned it, 36 refused to participate and 155 failed
to return it. It was found that:
• Rotating shift work is associated with frequent lapses of attention and
increased reaction time, both leading to increased error rates on
performance tasks.
• Rotators had twice the odds of nodding off while driving to and from work;
compared to day/evening nurses, rotators had 3.9 times the odds and night
nurses had 3.6 times the odds of nodding off while driving to or from work
in the preceding year.
• Rotators had more sleep/wake cycle disruption and nodded off more at
work. Nodding off on the night shift occurred at least once per week in
35.3% of rotators, 32.4% of night nurses and 20.7% of day/evening nurses
who worked occasional nights.
Evaluation
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• Types of work (flexi, compressed, etc.) will generalise (strengths
and weaknesses) to some organisations but not others. Shiftwork
can be generalised to jobs that must involve work for 24 hours
(hospital workers, police, etc.) but not to others (e.g. teaching).
Similarly, research on shiftwork health and accidents will be useful
in some instances but be useless in others.
• The study by Gold et al. may have cultural bias and may
generalise to other nurses. This study used questionnaires
gathering quantitative, subjective data. (Strengths and
weaknesses of all.)
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Questionnaires, page 49
Subjective and objective data, page 69
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Health and safety
Accidents at work: should we fit the person to the job, or fit the job to the
person? We do not want a person to experience stress or make an error.
Instead, a happy, efficient, healthy and productive worker is highly desirable!
When operating a machine, Chapanis (1976) outlined the operator–machine
system, comprising: the operator (his or her senses, informationprocessing/decision-making ability and ability to control) and the machine
system (its controls, the way it is operated and its displays – feeding back to
the senses).
Regarding the machine:
• Controls (such as knobs, switches, buttons, pedals and levers) should
match the operator’s body, be clearly marked and mirror the machine
actions they produce.
• Displays can be visual (e.g. clock, speedometer) and need to be appropriate
and legible, with optimal luminance, and not cause eye strain. Auditory
displays (e.g. bell, buzzer, alarm) must have an appropriate tone and
volume. Studies of visual displays focus on legibility, positioning, accuracy
and speed (of reading).
Human decision-making when operating a machine is just as important as
the machine. Riggio (1990) suggests that when operating machines there can
be:
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• errors of omission – failing to do something, such as forgetting to turn
something off
• errors of commission – performing an act incorrectly, i.e. doing something
wrong
• sequence errors – doing something out of order
• timing errors – doing something too quickly, or too slowly.
Errors can be due to tiredness/fatigue, the use of alcohol and or drugs
(including medications for illnesses), or accident proneness. When something
does go wrong it is often because people apply what are known as motion
stereotypes: a behaviour that is familiar, and done without thinking about it.
People make substitution errors – where one instrument is confused with
another. With shiftwork there are more errors during an 8 pm to 6 am shift
than at any other time.
Now test yourself
43 Describe two types of error in operator-machine systems.
Answer on p.199
Reason (2000) made the distinction between two causes of accident:
• Theory A – accidents are caused by the unsafe behaviour of people.
• Theory B – accidents are caused by unsafe (poorly designed) systems of
work.
Errors such as these can be rectified either by:
• changing the design of the machine – fitting the job to the person
• selecting people who can operate the machine system that is being used –
fitting the person to the job.
Reducing accidents at work: Fox et al. (1987) studied the use of a token
economy system at two open-cast mines (one coal and one uranium ore).
Employees could earn stamps/tokens (to gain rewards) for working without
time lost for injury; not being involved in accidental damage to equipment;
and behaviour that prevented accidents or injuries. Stamps were lost for
unsafe behaviour that could cause accidents.
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Result: there was a dramatic decrease in days lost through injury and the
number of accidents was reduced. The system continued to be used at one
mine for 12 years (until it closed) and was used at the other for at least 11
years. The token economy is based on the learning approach and Skinner’s
positive reinforcement.
Reorganising shiftwork can also reduce accidents at work. Using slow
rotation rather than a rapid rotation might also be effective (page 172).
Expert tip
There is a cross-over here with the topic of health promotion (page
154). This isn’t a problem; there is minor overlap with other syllabus
sub-topics.
The study reported by Cowpe also applies to health promotion. See
page 154.
Safety promotion campaigns: a successful television media campaign was
on the dangers of chip-pan fires. Cowpe (1989) reported on how two
television regions in the UK received the 12-week campaign. The strength of
the campaign lay in the use of both providing information and fear arousal.
One television advert was presented by a woman who told of the dangers of a
chip-pan fire and then, in three simple steps, what to do should a fire break
out. However, in her case, she had not followed these steps and had been
burned in a chip-pan fire; the advert showed a close-up of her disfigurement.
The success of the campaign was then measured through actual fire brigade
statistics. During the campaign one television region saw a 32% reduction in
the number of fires, and in the 25 weeks after the campaign, although the
reduction in the number of fires did decrease, it was still 17% less than before
the start of the campaign. Up to a year after the campaign had started, there
was still an 8% reduction from baseline. This study recorded objective data in
the form of fire brigade statistics. Its effectiveness over time could be
assessed and it showed the need for any health-promotion campaign to be
repeated periodically.
Evaluation
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• Errors and accidents can be due to individual factors or
situational factors (or systems) and both have strengths and
weaknesses.
• The study by Fox et al. is based on the learning approach. Both
Fox et al. and Cowpe are longitudinal. Both these studies are
useful. There may be cultural differences because ‘chip-pan
fires’ (overheating of hot oil) may not happen in other countries.
Both studies gathered quantitative data that are objective
(Cowpe used official statistics). (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
• The ‘fear arousal’ and ‘providing information’ strategies in Cowpe
have strengths and weaknesses and can be compared and
contrasted.
Cross check
Individual–situational debate, page 74
The learning approach, page 71
Longitudinal studies, page 91
Cultural bias, page 88
Ecological validity, page 67
Quantitative data, page 60
Objective data, page 69
Expert tip
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Satisfaction at work
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Prepare an exam-style essay on organisational work conditions. For
part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and
exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part
(b).
Theories of job satisfaction
Two-factor theory: Herzberg proposed a two-factor theory (1959),
believing that the factors causing job satisfaction and factors causing job
dissatisfaction are separate. Herzberg distinguished between:
• Hygiene factors (dis-satisfiers) – company policy, supervision, work
conditions, salary, relationships with peers and job security.
• Motivational factors (satisfiers) – achievement, recognition,
responsibility, advancement and growth.
Hygiene factors include:
• Salary – the pay should be appropriate and reasonable. It should be equal
and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.
• Company policies – company policies should be fair and clear, and
include flexible working hours, dress code, breaks, vacation, etc.
• Fringe benefits – employees should be offered healthcare plans, benefits
for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.
• Physical working conditions – these should be safe, clean and hygienic.
Work machinery/equipment should be well maintained.
• Interpersonal relations – the relationship of the employees with peers,
superiors and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There
should be no conflict or bullying.
Motivational factors include:
• Recognition – employees should be praised and recognised for their
accomplishments by managers.
• Sense of achievement – employees should have a sense of achievement.
• Growth and promotional opportunities – employees should have
opportunities for advancement.
• Responsibility – employees should be responsible and accountable for
their work.
• Meaningfulness of the work – the work itself should be meaningful,
interesting and challenging for the employee.
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Job characteristics theory: the Hackman and Oldham (1976) job
characteristics model looks at the outcomes resulting from the characteristics
of a job interacting with the psychological state of workers.
The core job characteristics are skills variety; task identity and task
significance; responsibility (autonomy); and knowledge of outcome
(feedback from the job). These job characteristics lead to the calculation of a
motivating potential score (MPS).
The psychological states are experiencing the work as meaningful;
experiencing personal responsibility; and having knowledge of the actual
result or outcome of the work.
Outcomes can be internal motivation to work, job satisfaction and general
satisfaction. However, if any of the psychological states is absent then both
motivation and job satisfaction are weakened.
Techniques of job design: job satisfaction can also be influenced by job
design.
Job rotation is where workers are moved from one task to another. This
might be done on a daily, weekly or monthly basis, depending on the task.
Job rotation can prevent boredom and monotony. It can enable a worker to
widen his or her range of skills, giving an understanding of the overall work
process. Job rotation does not change the amount of responsibility.
Job enlargement widens jobs and allows workers to take on additional tasks.
This isn’t working harder or repetitively; instead a number of workers may
work together as a team to complete the product. It is working more
holistically rather than in a reductionist way. There can be an increase in
responsibility and there can be an increased feeling of job satisfaction.
Job enrichment is where workers are given more responsibility in the task
they do. This might include redesigning a task (as they are the user, the
expert), or it might involve being responsible for a team of workers
completing a task. Job enlargement is a ‘horizontal’ extension of a person’s
job; job enrichment is a ‘vertical’ extension.
Evaluation
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• The two theories and techniques of job design have strengths and
weaknesses. For example, do the theories have any evidence to
support them? To what extent can the theory be generalised from
one organisation to another and does the theory apply in all
cultures? (potential cultural bias).
• Theories are often based on organisations in the USA and this is
another source of bias. Theories were also based on industrial life
in the 1970s and 1980s and these theories may not be useful in
today’s society.
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Usefulness/application to everyday life, page 73
Measuring job satisfaction
Rating scales and questionnaires: job satisfaction (and dissatisfaction) can
be measured using self-report questionnaires and scales.
The job descriptive index (JDI) devised by Smith et al. (1969) measures
employees’ satisfaction with their jobs. Workers are asked to think about
specific ‘facets’ of their job and rate their satisfaction with those specific
facets. There are five facets: pay, promotions and promotion opportunities,
co-workers, supervision, and the work itself.
Each item is rated using a ‘yes’, ‘no’ and ‘?’ (don’t know) scale. Positively
worded items are scored 3, 1 and 0, and negatively worded item are scored 0,
1 and 3 (for Y, ? and N, respectively). Two example questions are shown in
Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Example questions from the job descriptive index
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Opportunities for promotion
Think of the opportunities for
promotion that you have now. How
well does each of the following
words or phrases describe these?
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Pay
Think of the pay you get now.
How well does each of the
following words or phrases
describe your present pay? In
the blank beside each word or
phrase below, write:
In the blank beside each word or
phrase below, write:
Y for ‘Yes’ if it describes your
pay
Y for ‘Yes’ if it describes your
opportunities for promotion
N for ‘No’ if it does not describe N for ‘No’ if it does not describe
it
them
? for ‘?’ if you cannot decide
? for ‘?’ if you cannot decide
___ Income adequate for
normal expenses[P]
___ Good opportunities for
promotion[P]
___ Fair[P]
___ Opportunities somewhat
limited[N]
___ Barely live on income[N]
___ Bad[N]
___ Comfortable[P]
___ Less than I deserve[N]
___ Well paid[P]
___ Enough to live on[P]
___ Underpaid[N]
___ Promotion on ability[P]
___ Dead-end job[N]
___ Good chance for promotion[P]
___ Very limited[N]
___ Infrequent promotions[N]
___ Regular promotions[P]
___ Fairly good chance for
promotion[P]
Source: Bowling Green State University, owners of the job descriptive index
Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ): some argue that the
Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ) devised by Weiss et al. (1967)
measures the degree to which vocational needs and values are satisfied on a
job. The MSQ long form takes 15 to 20 minutes to complete. The short form
requires about 5 minutes.
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The long form measures 20 aspects using 100 questions, so covering a wide
range of job-related aspects. It uses a 5-point scale as follows:
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Very dissatisfied – Dissatisfied – Neither dissatisfied nor satisfied – Satisfied
– Very satisfied.
Weiss et al. found the MSQ had good reliability (test/re-test) and validity
(construct validity).
Quality of working life questionnaire: Walton (1974) explained quality of
work life (QWL) in terms of eight broad conditions of employment that
constitute desirable quality of work:
1 Adequate and fair compensation (e.g. fair renumeration, wage balance,
extra benefits).
2 Safe and healthy environment.
3 Opportunity to use and develop human capacities.
4 Opportunity for career growth and security.
5 Social integration in the workforce.
6 Constitutionalism in the work organisation.
7 Work and quality of life.
8 Social relevance of work.
Expert tip
A ‘design a study’ question could ask you to suggest how you would
measure job satisfaction other than by a questionnaire. Think about it
now rather than in the examination.
To measure these conditions, Walton devised a questionnaire with 35
questions spread across the eight categories, using a 5-point scale:
Very dissatisfied – Dissatisfied – Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied – Satisfied
– Very satisfied.
Typical questions included:
Regarding a fair and appropriate salary:
Question 1.1 How satisfied are you with your salary (renumeration)?
Regarding your working conditions:
Question 2.2 According to your workload (quantity of work) how do you feel?
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Regarding the social integration at your work:
Question 5.1 Regarding your relationships with your colleagues and bosses
at work, how do you feel?
Evaluation
• All three questionnaires (JDI, MSQ and QWL) gathered
quantitative rather than qualitative data (strengths and
weaknesses).
• All questionnaires claimed that they were reliable and valid
(strengths and weaknesses) because they are psychometric.
• These tests may have cultural bias (weaknesses) and worker
satisfaction may be determined by the situation rather than the
individual.
• The MSQ and QWL used 5-point rating scales (strengths and
weaknesses).
Cross check
Types of data (quantitative data and qualitative), page 60
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Psychometric tests, page 89
Cultural bias, page 88
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Questionnaires/rating scales, page 49
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Workplace sabotage: sabotage can be motivated by:
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Some workers might be happy with their work and show organisational
commitment, remaining with the organisation for a long time, showing
loyalty and support. Alternatively, lack of job satisfaction can cause job
withdrawal, absenteeism and sabotage.
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Attitudes to work
• frustration – spontaneous actions that indicate the powerlessness workers
feel
• attempts to ease the work process – likely in industries where workers are
paid by the hour and wages are dependent on output
• attempts to assert control–that is, to challenge authority.
The first two are ‘demonstrative sabotage’ and the latter is ‘instrumental
sabotage’.
Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987) conducted studies which classified
sabotage into different methods and different reasons.
Methods or ‘forms of sabotage’ include the ways/methods/forms that
workers actually do, the actions they take to express their feelings. Giacalone
and Rosenfeld identified four main types: work slowdown; destruction of
machinery, premises or products; dishonesty; and causing chaos. They then
listed 29 ‘forms’ or examples that action might take including: stealing to
compensate for poor pay; creating work slowdowns; and ‘forgetting’ to turn
on/off a switch.
Reasons: why do people sabotage? In addition to the general reasons above,
Giacalone and Rosenfeld identified 11 reasons including: revenge; release of
frustration; and to protect one’s job.
To measure the methods and reasons, Giacalone and Rosenfeld created a
questionnaire for each. The sabotage methods questionnaire asked
participants to rate each of the 29 ‘forms’ on a 7-point scale. The sabotage
reasons questionnaire asked participants to rate each of the 11 reasons using
the same 7-point scale. The scale was: 1 (not at all justifiable) to 7 (totally
justifiable) with a mid-point (neither/nor).
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Participants could be divided into ‘high reason accepters’ and ‘low reason
accepters’. The highest ‘justifiable’ methods were ‘calling upon the union to
intervene’ (4.68) and ‘carrying out management directives to the letter’
(4.26). The highest two ‘reasons’ were ‘to protect one’s job’ (3.47) and ‘selfdefence’ (3.37).
sabotage.
Answer on p.200
Absenteeism: withdrawal behaviours are when a person becomes physically
and/or psychologically disengaged from the work or the organisation.
Physical withdrawal includes lateness, and while sometimes lateness is
unavoidable, chronic lateness is a sign of job dissatisfaction. Absenteeism
might be involuntary (due to illness) but it can also be voluntary (another
indicator of job dissatisfaction). Psychologically, disengagement can include
minimal effort and passive compliance, and it can result in poor-quality work
and mistakes. Whether these behaviours are genuine or not can be judged
according to their pattern, frequency and duration (Blau, 1994).
Blau and Boal (1987) presented a model to categorise how job involvement
and organisational commitment affect turnover and absenteeism. Their
model categorises involvement and commitment into high and low, creating
four categories:
1
2
3
4
High job involvement – high organisational commitment.
High job involvement – low organisational commitment.
Low job involvement – high organisational commitment.
Low job involvement – low organisational commitment.
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These categories have implications for absenteeism. If a worker has high job
involvement and is committed to the organisation then the reasons for and
types of absence are different from if a worker has low job involvement and
low organisational commitment. According to Blau and Boal, these four
absence categories are:
1 Medical (category 1, high JI and high OC): response to various infrequent
and uncontrollable events such as illness, injury, funeral leave and family
demands (sick spouse or child). For the organisation this is sporadically
occurring, excused absence.
2 Career-enhancing (category 2, high JI and low OC): absence is depicted
as a mechanism that allows the employee to further task- and careerrelated goals.
3 Normative (category 3, low JI and high OC): absence is viewed less as a
motivated behaviour and more as a habitual response. Rather than
absenteeism being random, as with the medical category, definite patterns
will emerge and be predictable.
4 Calculative (category 4, low JI and low OC): absence would be (for the
most apathetic worker) the maximum permitted amount of excused and
unexcused absences by the organisation before sanctions (such as
warnings or termination of employment) are applied.
Now test yourself
45 Describe one type of absence from work.
Answer on p.200
Organisational commitment: Mowday et al. (1979) believed that
organisational commitment can be characterised by at least three related
factors:
• a strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and values
• a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation
• a strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation.
Organisational commitment can be measured using an organisational
commitment questionnaire (OCQ), where self-report questions are
answered using a 7-point scale from 1 = ‘strongly agree’ through to 7 =
‘strongly disagree’.
The questionnaire includes 15 statements that represent feelings an individual
may have about the organisation (that relate to the three factors above).
Sample statements are:
3. I feel very little loyalty to this organisation [R]
6. I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organisation.
15. Deciding to work for this organisation was a definite mistake on my part
[R]
Note that six of the 15 statements are reverse scored [R] items to reduce
response bias.
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Mowday et al. sampled 2,563 employees in nine different organisations
including public employees and employees in universities, hospitals, banks
and telephone companies. It also included scientists and engineers, auto
company managers, psychiatric technicians and retail management trainees.
The study test/re-test reliability showed correlations of up to 0.75 and 0.62.
The study also showed various types of validity, perhaps predictive validity
being the most important.
Evaluation
• All three studes base their findings on workers in the USA in the
1980s. This could be out of date (weakness) and include cultural
bias (weakness) as worker attitudes differ significantly from one
country to another.
• All three questionnaires gathered quantitative data. All claimed
that they were reliable and valid because they were
psychometric. The questionnaires also used rating scales (e.g.
7-point). (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
Cross check
Cultural bias, page 88
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative), page 60
Questionnaires/rating scales, page 49
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Psychometric tests, page 89
Expert tip
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Prepare an exam-style essay on satisfaction at work. For part (a), the
‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the
exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For
part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include
(three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue.
You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
6 A Level examination
guidance/questions and
answers
6.1 A Level examination guidance
The A Level examination consists of two papers: Paper 3 Specialist options:
theory and Paper 4 Specialist options: application. The format of both
examination papers is rather confusing, so make sure you know exactly what
you are doing.
Paper 3 Specialist options: theory
All options appear on the same paper. You have studied only two specialist
options so you only answer questions from those two options. Do not attempt
questions from any other option, however easy you think the question might
be. Look at the specimen paper or look at a past exam question for
clarification.
Common misconception
Do not choose to answer questions from options that you have not
studied simply because you think you have had sufficient life
experience in, say, healthcare or shopping! You need to be able to
apply the appropriate psychological theory and evidence.
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There are two types of question which appear in all four options.
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There are no sections on this paper: you simply answer both the questions in
your first chosen option, and then the two questions in your second chosen
option. Put another way, if you have studied the abnormality and health
options, you answer all the abnormality questions (two questions) and all the
health questions (two questions).
Type 1 questions
These are short-answer questions made up of three parts, (a), (b) and (c):
• Part (a) asks for an explanation/description of a term, or some aspect of the
syllabus. This question carries 2 marks.
• Part (b) asks for a description of the procedure of a study, or a description
of a questionnaire that has been used in a study. It carries 4 marks.
• Part (c) asks for evaluation or discussion where you give a
strength/advantage and a weakness/disadvantage. It requires you to have a
mini-discussion on occasion. It carries 6 marks.
Type 2 questions
These are traditional essays in two parts, (a) and (b):
• Part (a) asks for a description of an option sub-topic. Think about this:
there are 15 different essay questions that could be asked for each option.
• Part (b) asks for evaluation of the same topic area. It will also ask you to
include a discussion about an evaluation issue that is named.
The part (a) question assesses your descriptive skills, and is concerned with
what you know about psychology and whether you understand it. It is the
same for any of the sub-topics you have chosen. You should only spend 10
minutes on part (a), so you can’t describe everything in detail. Instead,
mention some things briefly. The mark scheme is flexible and there is no one
correct answer that everyone writes. You are writing your essay and if you
choose to mention, for example, clinical interviews in detail, that is
acceptable. If someone else describes behavioural/observational measures in
more detail and clinical interviews in less detail then that is also perfectly
acceptable. This applies to every sub-topic area from every option.
To summarise, you need to:
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• describe the topic accurately and coherently using appropriate terminology
• organise your answer logically
• show that you understand what you write.
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The part (b) question assesses your evaluation skills. You can evaluate with
any aspect, whether it is from the AS or A Level syllabus. Think about:
• methodology – experiments, observations, questionnaires, case studies
• methodological issues – ethics, ecological validity, generalisations,
validity, reliability, longitudinal, quantitative data vs qualitative data,
controls, objective and subjective data
• issues – usefulness of research, psychometrics, use of children, use of
animals, cultural bias
• debates – determinism, reductionism, nature–nurture, individual–
situational
• approaches – cognitive, biological, social, learning (or an approach
specific to an option, such as ‘biomedical for abnormality).
Expert tip
Think about what you are going to include in your part (a) answer.
And think about the evaluation issues that clearly relate to your part
(a) answer. Use those issues for part (b).
How to construct an evaluation: the best way to evaluate is through a
number of ‘mini debates’ or ‘mini discussions’. A debate in its simplest form
looks like this (an AS example has been chosen as this is familiar to everyone
whatever A Level options you have chosen):
• Claim – the samples used by Schachter and Singer in their study of
emotion cannot be generalised.
• Reason – this is because Schachter and Singer only used male psychology
students who were paid to carry out the research.
• Conclusion – we should be cautious when applying the findings from male
psychology students who are paid to actual emotion in the ‘real’ world.
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• Claim (as previously)
• Reason (as previously)
• Evidence – Schachter and Singer used participants who were all male
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An answer looking like this would receive some marks because it is
evaluation. But it could be taken to a higher level. Consider how much
stronger your debate would be if you used evidence as well as reason to
support your claim:
college students taking classes in introductory psychology at the University
of Minnesota. Some 90% of students in these classes volunteered and
received two extra points on their final exam for every hour they served as
participants.
• Conclusion (as previously)
Now go one step further. Add evaluative comment to the evidence quoted:
Claim (as previously)
Reason (as previously)
Evidence (as previously)
Evaluative comment – the problem with this is that male psychology
students who are getting credit for their degrees by taking part are likely to
show uncharacteristic behaviour (different from females or non-students or
people not being paid) by perhaps being more willing to give the
researchers the findings they want. This is because they will be familiar
with what is being tested from their own reading and may be tuned in to
any cues the researcher may unconsciously give, and are also more likely
to guess the researcher’s aim. This is called showing demand
characteristics.
• Conclusion (as previously)
•
•
•
•
Using this format you are well on the way to a really impressive evaluative
answer. To be very thorough in demonstrating your understanding, you could
add a counter-comment or argument:
Claim (as previously)
Reason (as previously)
Evidence (as previously)
Evaluative comment (as previously)
Counter-comment/argument – on the other hand, Schachter and Singer
needed to start their research somewhere. They needed the convenience of
an opportunity sample who happened to be their own students to be able to
complete their research in a reasonable time and against a limited budget.
Also, from this initial research other studies could be done using different
participants and a different topic area.
• Conclusion (as previously)
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•
•
•
•
•
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If you repeat this formula three (or more) times, you will have a complete
answer. Crucially, you do not have to follow this format exactly to achieve
the full 12 marks. This format is simply the best way to show a range of highlevel evaluative skills.
To summarise, you need to:
• evaluate comprehensively with a range of evaluation issues (e.g. three)
• include the one named evaluation issue as one of those three issues
• show that you have planned, organised and selected examples to support
the issues
• show that you understand what you write
• use examples from your description in part (a) to support your answer.
Exam technique
Paper 3 lasts for 90 minutes and is worth 60 marks. The questions for each
option are broken down as follows:
Examination preparation
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For type 1 questions: know the definitions of things, explanations of what
things are. Know the essential details of all the studies on the syllabus for
your options. You won’t need a lot of detail because you will be summarising
one part of it. Know the advantages and disadvantages of everything. Do this
as you go along – use the cross checks to help you.
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For type 2 questions: you could, in theory, prepare 30 essays (15 per
option), but this is a lot of work. Instead, make sure you know how much
detail you can write in 10 minutes for part (a) – approximately three-quarters
to one side of examination paper) – and more than this for part (b). Practise
writing answers. For part (b), think about which issues are the best for each
of the 15 sub-topic areas. Use the relevant sections of this book to help you.
The evaluation question part carries the most marks, so make sure you
prepare the issues fully.
Paper 4 Specialist options: application
All options appear on the same paper, and questions from all the options
appear in Sections A, B and C. Look at the specimen paper or look at a past
exam question for clarification.
You have studied only two specialist options, so you only answer questions
from those two options. Do not attempt questions from any other option,
however easy you think the question might be.
Section A
There are four questions in Section A (i.e. one question from each option)
and you answer two questions from the options you have studied. The
questions are short-answer ones in four parts, (a), (b), (c) and (d):
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Section B
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• Part (a) asks for an explanation of a term or method, or of results presented
in the stimulus material appearing at the beginning of the question. Two
marks are allocated to this part and your answer should include enough
detail to score full marks, so a few words or single sentence will be
insufficient.
• Parts (b) and (c) are similar in that they both carry 4 marks and look for
two similarities or two differences plus examples, or for two suggestions
plus examples. Questions will be from a sub-topic (or even a specific
study).
• Part (d) asks for advantages/strengths and disadvantages/weaknesses (note
the plural), so four things are required plus a conclusion. Five marks are
allocated, so some detail is required in your answer.
There are four questions in Section B and you are required to answer one.
Choose one from either option you have studied. The question is a designbased question in two parts, (a) and (b), where you must design a study of
your own and then explain the psychological and methodological evidence
for your design.
The Section B question is not an opportunity to describe research that has
already been conducted; instead it is where you have to think for yourself and
apply your methodological and psychological knowledge. It is an extension
of what you did for Paper 2 at AS.
Part (a): you must design an investigation using the named method if one is
stated, or if no specific method is stated, then it is entirely your choice of
method. Your answer should include the research method and
methodological aspects of the research process (see page 54). So for example,
if you are designing an experiment, it is expected that you will include the
type of experiment (laboratory, field or natural), IV, DV, one or more
controls and the experimental design (repeated or independent). The
methodological aspects will include things like the sample and sampling
technique, type of data (qualitative or quantitative), ethics, reliability or
validity. A comment could also be made about how your data would be
analysed (e.g. using a bar chart).
Expert tip
If the question states ‘design a field experiment’, then you must
design a field experiment. If you design an investigation using a
different method then you will score no marks at all. Answer the
question!
The examiner is not expecting you to include all these features because if you
did the answer would be nothing more than a list with no explanations about
anything. It is better to have five or six features described clearly and
unambiguously. For example, don’t write ‘I would have a random sample’ in
isolation; explain how that random sample would be obtained.
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Part (a) carries 10 marks and you are advised to spend 15 minutes on this
question part.
Part (b): this part invites you to explain the psychological and
methodological evidence on which your study is based. In other words, the
question asks you to say why you did what you did in part (a). The wording
of this question is always the same, whatever the question or option.
Part (b) carries 8 marks with 4 marks allocated to explaining appropriate
psychological evidence and 4 marks for explaining the methodological
evidence. You are advised to spend 10 minutes on this question part.
In addition to knowledge of the topic area, you should know advantages and
disadvantages of each method and methodological aspect. These are what
you covered for the AS course and these appear in Chapter 2. Apply these
advantages and disadvantages. You always have to draw a conclusion, so
think about this ahead of time.
Expert tip
Well ahead of the examination you can set your own questions: ‘Use
a __________ (insert method) to investigate __________ (insert
specific part of a topic area)’ and you can do as many sample
answers as you wish. In designing your study, think about why you
did what you did in psychological and methodological terms because
this question part will always be asked.
Section C
There are four questions in Section C and you are required to answer one.
Choose one from either option you have studied. You can choose the same
option for the Section B and Section C questions, or these can be from
different options.
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The Section C question is a ‘discuss’ question where you must present two
sides of a debate in relation to a named statement from a sub-topic area. You
should present at least two arguments or points in support of the statement
and at least two arguments or points against the statement. These
arguments/points could be what is written in a specific study, they could be
methodological, or they could relate to approaches, issues, or indeed anything
psychological or methodological you wish to throw into the debate. Credit is
given for detail, understanding and drawing a conclusion. Note that there is
no correct or incorrect conclusion. You consider the evidence and then you
draw your own conclusion.
This question carries 12 marks and so you should spend 20 minutes on this
question part.
Expert tip
Examination technique is essential here. Include two points in favour
of the statement and two points against it. If you have fewer, you will
fail to score marks, and if you have three points in favour and one
against, the imbalance will also mean you fail to score marks. Two
plus two points is optimal. Draw a conclusion; if you do not, again
you will fail to score marks.
Exam technique
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Paper 4 lasts for 90 minutes and is worth 60 marks. The questions are broken
down as follows:
6.2 A Level questions and answers
This section contains exam-style questions followed by example answers.
The answers are followed by expert comments (shown by the icon ) that
indicate where credit is due. In the weaker answers, they also point out areas
for improvement, specific problems and common errors such as lack of
clarity, weak or non-existent development, irrelevance, misinterpretation of
the question and mistaken meanings of terms.
Paper 3 Specialist options: theory
Question 1
(a) What is meant by a ‘false memory’?
[2]
(b) Describe the conditions and procedure in Experiment 2.
[4]
(c) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of selfreports as
used in the Braun-LaTour study.
[6]
Answer A
(a) A false memory is where people remember events differently
from the way they happened or they remember events that
never happened at all. Braun-LaTour et al. successfully planted
false memories of Bugs Bunny.
This answer is a spot-on definition and scores full marks. Although
candidates are discouraged from learning precise definitions, in response to
questions like this, a learned definition will score full marks. There is even a
relevant example to support the definition.
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(b) In Experiment 2 the researchers had three conditions: a pictorial
condition with a picture of Bugs Bunny, a verbal condition with a
headline and words, and a ‘both’ condition that combined the
verbal and the pictorial. After reading the advertisement,
participants had to self-report what they could remember about
the advertisement.
This answer has enough detail to score full marks. Both components of
the question are addressed, i.e. the conditions and the procedure. The
‘conditions’ are correct because there were three of them and the answer
correctly describes all three. 2/2 marks for this component. The procedure
was to look at an advert and then describe what could be remembered. There
could be a little more detail here, but this answer has sufficient for 2/2 marks,
giving 4/4 overall.
(c) Self-reports have the advantage of allowing participants to say
what they think and in the study this meant that the participants
would report any false memory. There is also the advantage.
Weaknesses are that participants might give socially desirable
answers, for example they might report false memories to please
the researchers. Another weakness is that the researchers might
not fully understand what the participant is saying and so record
a false memory when it isn’t really there.
This answer has an appropriate strength but is only vaguely related to
the study. The answer does not have a second strength. It looks like the
person answering this question paused for thought, forgot where they were
and continued with the weaknesses. Some candidates do make this error, and
they fail to score marks. If you have ever done this, doodle a simple checklist
where you can write everything needed in the answer and then tick off when
it has been answered. For example S, S, W, W with ticks. There are two
weaknesses and again these are related to the answer, but only vaguely and
with little elaboration. This is a good answer, and scores 4 marks out of 6.
Answer B
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(a) A false memory is a memory that isn’t true.
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This is correct but it is vague, lacking elaboration, understanding or an
example. This answer scores 1 mark, because the statement is correct, but
there isn’t enough for the second available mark to be awarded.
(b) In Experiment 2 there was a number of conditions which
involved some information being given to participants. The
information included just words in some and just pictures in
others. The procedure was to look at the advertisement and then
to see if any of the false information was remembered.
This answer shows a vague understanding of what the conditions
involved, but is very imprecise in knowing exactly what the three conditions
were. The answer scores a generous 1 mark because the answer isn’t entirely
wrong. For the second component of the answer the procedure is again
correct but very vague and basic. As previously, this isn’t wrong so it has to
score 1 mark out of the 2 available. Note that this answer scores 2/4 marks
overall (or 50%), which is sufficient to achieve a pass mark and low grade.
Candidates should aim to score full marks and the addition of a little more
detail would make a significant difference. Look at how this answer
compares with answer A.
(c) Self reports are: (i) good for participants to say what they think,
giving the ‘why’ answers; (ii) data may be both quantitative and
qualitative depending on the self-report. Weaknesses are: (i)
participants may provide socially desirable answers; (ii)
participants may respond to demand characteristics.
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This is a typical answer provided by candidates in examinations. It isn’t
good, so don’t let this be you! This answer simply lists strengths and
weaknesses that have been learned. There is no elaboration to explain what
each means and more importantly there is no clue as to what study is being
written about. This answer shows learning, but that is the only skill on show.
There are many other skills that need to be demonstrated before any more
than basic marks can be awarded. The maximum mark for an answer like this
is 3, but without any elaboration this answer scores 2 marks. The answer
does have both strengths and weaknesses, and they are not incorrect.
Question 2
(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about
measuring pain.
[8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about
measuring pain and include a discussion of psychometric
tests.
[12]
Answer A
(a) According to Mershey and Bogduch (1974), pain is defined as
unpleasant sensory and emotional feelings along with potential
tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage.
Psychologists have discovered many different types of pain.
These include injury without pain, which includes episodic
analgesia and congenital analgesia. The main purpose of pain is
to defend yourself when you know you are hurt, for example
removing your hand once you touch something hot. Secondly,
pain also helps us take remedial actions, once we experience
the feeling. Psychologists have discovered many theories of
pain, which include the ‘specificity’ and the ‘gate-control’
theories. Specificity theory was discovered by Von Frey (1895)
who explained that tissue damage was the only explanation of
pain, whereas the ‘gate-control’ theory by Melzach and Wall
(1988) explained pain in terms of biological as well as
psychological and social factors. It is called the
‘biopsychological’ approach to pain. It explains that there’s a
gate in the body which either stops the pain messages or lets
them travel to the brain.
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Since everyone has the right to ‘no pain’, psychologists first
discovered the techniques for measuring pain, to ensure the
remedies for it. One of the best ways to measure pain is through
self-reported methods, especially clinical interviews, as self-
reports can tell us about the six elements that were defined by
Karoly (1965), which must be present in selfreports — for
example, neurophysiological factors, social factors etc. Although
self-reports provide us with in-depth data, they may not always
be reliable as patients might respond to demand characteristics
through attentionseeking behaviour etc.
Pain can be measured through psychometrics and rating scales
such as one devised by Melzack, known as the ‘McGill pain
questionnaire’, which includes many words that the patient must
choose to describe his pain. It is one of the most widely used
methods for measuring pain. The behavioural method is also
another way for measuring pain and it uses tools such as the
UAB pain behaviour scale, devised by Richards et al. (1987).
Furthermore, psychologists have also discovered painmeasuring methods for children. One such tool was made by
Varni et al, named the ‘Varni- Thompson paediatric pain
questionnaire’, which has visual analogue scales, on which the
children point out their indication or severity of the pain.
However, children who are too young to talk cannot use this
technique, so the best method for them is an observational
method performed by parents or physicians.
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This answer has fallen into the trap of answering everything that is
known about pain, rather than answering the question that is asked,
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Remedial actions have also been taken and psychologists have
discovered techniques for measuring pain. These include
chemical treatments such as different painkillers, for example
analgesics acting at the site of pain. Surgical attempts are also
made but only as a last resort. Behavioural and cognitive
therapies are also used, such as non-pain imagery attention
diversion but these may not be helpful for everyone or every
type of pain. Alternative therapies such as microwave diathermy
and acupuncture are also used. Techniques using electrical
stimulation are also used, which include Pens and Tens, and
must be used as a last resort.
specifically measuring pain. This means that only the second paragraph
beginning ‘since everyone’ is relevant. Here, the candidate has written so
much on measuring pain that for the 8 marks available the mark will be quite
good. However, far too much time has been wasted on parts of an answer
that score no marks at all. Candidates might be frustrated that they can’t
demonstrate their full knowledge, but an examination assesses far more skills
than mere learning. Do not waste time writing what isn’t required! On the
positive side, the answer does mention a number of ways in which pain can
be measured, including the MPQ and other rating scales, behavioural
observations, such as Karoly and the UAB, and mentions measuring pain in
children. There is a reasonable range of different measures here, and overall
this answer scores 4 marks.
(b) One issue is ecological validity which means whether a study is
true to real life. Pain is true to real life because people
experience it, so this is an advantage. Another issue is validity.
Measures of pain are valid because they measure what they
claim, i.e. they measure pain. Another issue is reliability and
measures of pain are reliable because scientific equipment is
reliable. One issue is ethics. Ethics mean that participants
should leave a study in the same way as they entered and if this
is not the case then the study is unethical.
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This sample answer is designed to show all the things not to do. Instead,
you should (i) always include the named issue. If the named issue is not
included, you will automatically fail to score marks. (ii) Always choose issues
carefully. Sometimes the same small number of issues are used whatever the
question is and whether they apply are not. It is as if candidates only know
four issues, which they write about whatever the question is. (iii) Always
evaluate, which means giving strengths and weaknesses, having a debate and
providing evidence/examples to support that debate. Look at the formula on
page 182 to see all the things that make up a decent evaluation. The answer
above identifies a range of issues but does nothing more. There is nothing on
psychometrics, the named issue. This answer scores 2–3 marks, again,
because what is written isn’t incorrect, so some basic marks have to be given.
Answer B
(a) There are a number of ways in which pain can be measured.
One basic way is for a doctor (or nurse) to ask a patient about
their pain. This clinical interview is subjective and the patient can
answer any way they wish because they have no reference
point. Perhaps a better way is to use a quantitative scale such
as a visual analogue scale or a box which has numbers say from
1 to 10 where 1 is no pain and 10 is the worst pain ever. This
gives the practitioner an idea of how bad the pain is compared to
other people using the same scale. A much more detailed
psychometric measure of pain is the MPQ which has four
sections: where is your pain (people draw on a body); what does
your pain feel like (patients choose the words that describe their
pain); how does your pain change with time (to give the doctor
an idea if it is chronic or acute); and how strong is your pain
(using a scale from ‘mild’ to ‘excruciating’). An alternative
measure is simply to watch people and note their expressions
(face screwed up) and the way they behave. Richards et al.
created the UAB originally to observe how the pain of people in
a hospital bed changed over time. By ticking boxes this gave a
quantitative measure. Specific pain measures have been
created for children because of their limited understanding and
inability to express themselves fully. The Wong—Baker scale
provides a number of faces and children simply point to the face
‘like theirs’. Varni and Thompson (1976) created the PPQ, which
is like the MPQ but for children.
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Although it could be better, this answer does everything that is needed to
score full marks. It specifically answers the question set, namely measures of
pain. A full range of different measures is included (subjective/clinical,
psychometric and behavioural) and very good understanding is shown. There
might not be specific details, but that is countered by the candidate
understanding the purpose of the measure (as illustrated by the UAB). The
detail is accurate – the MPQ does have four parts, as the candidate correctly
explains. The answer is a good length, not too short and not too long. It
scores top marks and time isn’t wasted with unnecessary detail (as in answer
A).
(a) One issue is psychometric tests, defined as a measure of the
mind. One advantage of these tests is that they are reliable,
recording the same information every time. For example, the
MPQ records the same information from every participant
completing it. This means that some of the quantitative scores
can be compared to every other person completing the MPQ,
and this ability to generalise is another advantage of
psychometric tests. However, psychometric tests have
disadvantages. One disadvantage is that they are open to bias
by the person completing the test. Whereas for example, blood
pressure is objective, the psychometric test is subjective,
meaning that a person can exaggerate their pain if they wish to.
This means comparisons are not quite as scientific or objective
as first appears. Another disadvantage of psychometric tests is
they require the person to understand the questions and if a
person doesn’t, the score is invalid. This is why the PPQ for
children was invented. This means that a false score might be
obtained by misunderstanding. For example, the MPQ uses
words like ‘lancinating’, whatever that means.
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Another issue is observations. Pain can be measured using
observation and this has a number of advantages. An
observation can be covert and so the person being observed
behaves naturally. This is good for measuring pain because the
person being observed will behave naturally and a true measure
can be taken. Another advantage is that there is no subjectivity
with observations, only objective quantitative data, and if two
nurses observe the same person then their scores can be
compared, checking for inter-rater reliability. With the UAB there
are response categories, an advantage of a structured
observation, so nurses know what they are looking for. However,
observations have weaknesses. There is no involvement from
the person. They behave, but there is no opportunity for them to
explain why they are behaving as they do. With a UAB, a nurse
might record that a person has ‘level 5 pain’ but does not know
why that person is in pain without asking.
Another issue is the biological approach. The strength of this is
that pain involves biological or physiological processes that are
the same in every person across the world, except for a few rare
people who feel no pain. This means that pain measures always
measure the same thing and painkilling drugs work for
everybody. Another advantage is that there are no cultural
differences or cultural bias in pain. There may be minor
individual differences, but pain is pain! However, pain isn’t purely
physiological and cognitive aspects are relevant. This is
confirmed not only by the gate control theory, but when
measuring pain there are cognitive differences, and then
subjective answers on pain questionnaires may be open to
cultural differences with some cultures being more or less likely
to report pain.
This answer does everything that is needed to score full marks. It has a
range of issues (three) and it includes the named issue. The issues are
identified and the three chosen are all relevant to the question. The biological
approach isn’t directly relevant, but the author of the answer is competent
enough to make it relevant to measuring pain. Each advantage/disadvantage
has a supporting example and good understanding is shown of the
relationship between the issues, examples and what is written overall. There
is a good balance across all issues in terms of the amount written and the
answer is a good length for the time allowed in an examination. Overall this
answer scores the full 10 marks out of 10.
Paper 4 Specialist options: application
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Section A
In research conducted recently by psychologists Savage and
Armstrong they found that some people prefer doctors to not
talk to them, instead just to tell them what was wrong and what
their treatment would be. Other people preferred to go along and
have a friendly chat with the doctor and talk about their
illnesses as they went along.
(a) Describe what is meant by a ‘patient-centred style’.
[2]
(b) Outline ‘random allocation’ and explain how it was used in
the study by Savage and Armstrong.
[4]
(c) Suggest two alternative methods that could be used in this
study.
[4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using one of
these alternative methods. You should include a conclusion
in your answer.
[5]
Answer B
(a) A patient-centred style is a patient—practitioner relationship
where the conversation is led by the patient rather than the
doctor.
This answer is correct, but other than stating the obvious there is
nothing more to allow the scoring of more than 1 mark. More detail, a little
elaboration, would score the second available mark.
(b) Random allocation is where the sample is chosen randomly. In
the Savage and Armstrong study people walking in to see the
doctor were just ‘random people’ and so they were studied.
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Random allocation is not the same as a random sample. Random
allocation is when participants in the sample (who have already been chosen)
have a 50/50 chance of being in either condition. Random sampling is a
sampling technique to acquire a sample. It is when all participants in a target
population have an equal chance of participating. This part of the answer is
incorrect and scores 0/2 marks. For the second component, the candidate
incorrectly relates the term to the study, so the for second part of the question
the candidate scores 0/2 marks, and 0/4 marks overall.
(c) A questionnaire could be used which would ask patients
questions about their preferred style. I would have 20 questions,
starting with asking about name, age and occupation and then
going on to ask about preferred styles. My second suggestion
would be an observation. When a patient leaves the doctor’s
room, I could observe their expression and if they are smiling or
look angry, I could ask them which style had been used by the
doctor.
This answer correctly suggests using a questionnaire, but says nothing
about the type of questionnaire. It suggests questions asking for personal
details (and this is quite a common thing that candidates think they should
ask) which are irrelevant to the study and do not maintain confidentiality and
so are unethical. Personal details should never be asked for.
The second suggestion is observation, but with no details of the type, etc.,
followed by the patient being asked about their preferred style. Is the second
method an observation or an interview? This looks like an instance of not
thinking through an answer before starting to write – making it up as it goes
along. A few seconds, thought would make a significant difference.
(d) There are strengths and weaknesses in my second suggestion.
Observations have two strengths. The first is that the participant
doesn’t know they are being observed and so acts naturally. A
second is that observations provide quantitative data.
Weaknesses include the fact that there would be no qualitative
data, so I wouldn’t know the reason ‘why’. I conclude that an
observation is not a good method to use.
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This is a poor answer. The candidate lists two strengths of observations
but they are ‘learned’ strengths, written without any understanding and
without relating them to the study that is being written about. There is only
one weakness when there should be two. There is a conclusion, but this bland
statement says nothing useful. The answer scores 2 marks out of the 5
available (because some strengths and a weakness are present in the
answer).
Answer B
(a) A patient-centred style of consulting is where the doctor chats
with the patient, allowing them to contribute and discuss their
illness. For example, the doctor might ask about how they prefer
to take pills and so prescribe drugs to fit the person’s lifestyle.
This answer tells us what the style is, it elaborates on the basic definition
and it provides an example of the difference that a patient-centred style can
make. This answer scores 2 marks out of 2.
(b) Random allocation is how participants are allocated to conditions
of the independent variable, meaning that they have an equal
chance of being either in one condition or the other. In the
Savage and Armstrong study, randomly allocating meant that
the next participant had a 50/50 chance of being in the doctorcentred or patient-centred conditions.
This answer scores full marks, 4/4. The first component, random
allocation, is clearly and correctly described and scores 2/2. The second
component, relating it to the study, is also done correctly and also scores 2/2.
Both question parts are addressed in a clear style and an appropriate amount
of detail. Enough to score full marks, but not too much to waste time.
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(c) One alternative is to conduct a structured interview with openended questions. This would allow participants to be asked the
same questions but be open ended so they could give their
opinions about each style. Another method would be to conduct
a study using a questionnaire. Rather than patients being
interviewed, where there might be demand characteristics, a
closed questionnaire could be mailed to the home of all the
patients and then their views gained using a Likert-type rating
scale to find out their preferred style.
This is an excellent answer and scores the full 4/4 marks. The first
suggestion shows excellent knowledge of the types of interview, and when the
candidate elaborates, good understanding is shown. The same applies to the
second suggestion with appropriate terminology being used.
(d) There are strengths about conducting a structured interview with
open-ended questions. First, the same questions are asked of
each patient rather than having something different for each
patient, and this means that everyone is treated equally. Even
the same instructions would be said to each patient. Second,
using openended questions would mean that qualitative data
would be gathered, telling the reason for the preference. If
quantitative data were gathered it would tell me which style was
preferred, but not the reason why it was preferred. However,
using this specific method might lead to demand characteristics.
The patient might guess which style they thought the doctor
would wish to hear and so answer following that rather than
giving a true, honest answer. A second problem is that gathering
qualitative data means that a judgement would have to be made
as to which style the person preferred, but a greater problem
would be having no quantitative data. I would know which style
was preferred, but not how much the style would be preferred.
Overall, I think that the strengths of conducting an interview
would outweigh the weaknesses. For example, there might be
no demand characteristics at all and if I asked a closed question,
I could gather both quantitative and qualitative data.
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This is an excellent answer and scores the full 5 marks. The answer has
appropriate examination technique – there are two strengths and two
weaknesses and there is a conclusion. The answer shows very good
understanding because, rather than just listing strengths and weaknesses,
they are related to the method of investigating the doctor–patient relationship
throughout. On the negative side, this answer is too long for just 4 marks.
Avoid spending too much time on one question and then running out of time
on another question.
Section B
Question 4
IKEA stores used a ‘maze’ store layout designed to keep
shoppers for longer so they can see more products.
(a) Design a field experiment to investigate whether this is true
compared to a different type of store design.
[10]
(b) Explain the methodological and psychological evidence on
which your suggestion is based.
[8]
Answer A
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(a) I would use a field experiment and I would have two conditions
to my independent variable: shoppers going around an IKEA
store (maze layout) and shoppers going around a similar type of
store that uses a grid layout. My participants would go around
just one store to eliminate extraneous variables so the
experimental design would be independent measures. My
participants would be typical shoppers at furniture-type stores so
they would be family people aged 25—45. I would place an
advertisement in a local newspaper inviting people to participate
who had never been to either of the stores in my experiment, so
this would be a self-selecting sample of volunteers. They would
be offered a £20 voucher to give them an incentive. I would also
give them a questionnaire to find out the type of shopper they
are and I would only include ‘raiders’, excluding ‘explorers’ to
control for shopper type.
The participants would then enter the store and I would start a
stopwatch. I would then wait at the exit and stop the watch as
they leave. My dependent variable is time taken to go around the
store. My one-tailed hypothesis would be ‘participants going
around a maze layout will take more time (in minutes) than
participants going around a grid layout’. My data would be
quantitative and I could calculate the mean difference between
the two groups and produce a bar chart of the mean scores.
This is an excellent answer because it answers the question – it uses the
stated method; it is coherent throughout and shows very good understanding
of methodological knowledge; and although not needed for maximum marks,
it shows thinking in relation to other studies, that by Gil et al. The number of
appropriate methodological aspects is impressive. In relation to the
experiments there is an IV, a DV, a design and an important control (of
shopper type). There is even a hypothesis, which is correctly stated and tailed
(and this is not an easy thing to do in the pressure of an examination).
Sampling is appropriate in that the sampling technique is identified and
explained, and there are a few details of the sample of participants. There are
a few details of the procedure. There is a comment about the type of data and
how this would be analysed and presented. Overall, this is a superb answer
and scores the maximum marks.
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(b) Two methodological decisions I made were having an
independent measures design and to ask for new shoppers to
the stores. If I had not done this, there may be extraneous
variables which might confound the result. If I had used a
repeated measures design then the participants might
deliberately take more or less time in one type of store. If they go
to only one store then this is eliminated. In my advert I asked for
shoppers who had never been to the store because if they had
been, they might ignore certain products and leave more quickly.
The psychological evidence I used was the study by Gil et al.
who identified different types of shopper. If I had used
‘explorers’, they go to stores for long time periods anyway. I
chose ‘raiders’ because they usually spend less time in stores,
so this is a good way to see if they stay longer. I chose to
compare the maze design with a grid design because
Vrechopoulos et al. say that a grid design with long aisles means
shoppers have to go a long way around, rather than a free-form
where short-cuts could be taken.
This answer is very impressive. The two methodological decisions are
correct and include all the relevant jargon, such as ‘extraneous variables’
and ‘confounding’. The explanations for the decisions (and the question asks
for explanation) are really good, i.e. comments about ‘this is why I did this’.
There is also the psychological evidence because good use is made of the
studies by Gil et al. and Vrechopoulos et al. and this is mentioned in the
answer appropriately. This means that the studies are not described in detail;
instead only what is needed in the answer is included and nothing else. This
is applying information rather than simply describing it, a higher-level skill.
There is evidence that this answer has been thought through before starting
to write, because this part (b) clearly informed what was written about in
part (a). This is a simple thing to do. Think through the whole design of your
study before you start to write the answer. It will give you a significant
advantage because your answer will be coherent throughout.
Answer B
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(a) I would do a field experiment with shoppers in an IKEA store. My
participants would be a random sample taken by asking people
walking past the store to participate. I would ensure that there
was a representative sample of ages, males and females,
people from different cultures, etc. I would attach a tag to them
when they entered the store and this would track their GPS
position as they walked around the store which I could observe. I
could then calculate how long they spend in each section of the
store and compare the different sections. The GPS would tell me
when they are about to leave the store so I could then go along
and interview them about their feelings about the store. I would
then ask them to go with me to a store with a different layout and
I would replicate the study in exactly the same way in that
different store. At the end, I could compare the results and do
some statistics to tell me the difference.
This answer scores some basic marks because the design is based on a
reasonable idea. There are several methodological aspects included, such as
‘random sample’, ‘interview’ and ‘replicate’, although some of these are
ambiguous. The main weakness in this answer is that it hasn’t been thought
through fully, and opportunities to include correct terminology have not been
taken. People walking past is not a random samples, it is an opportunity
sample. There is nothing wrong with an opportunity sample – but the
terminology needs to be correct. There are lots of details about the sample,
but such a balance would be hard to achieve. Tracking via a GPS (global
positioning system) is a good idea, but there is no psychological evidence to
base this on. If tracking via CCTV were used instead, the study by Gil et al.
could be included in part (b). The answer mentions interviews, but there are
no details about the type of interview, and asking about feelings is not what
the question requires. The answer also mentions observation, but there are
no details about the type of observation at all. Two missed opportunities here
for expansion that would score marks. At the end, the answer suggests
repeating the study, but only after an interview, and so the answer shows a
lack of awareness that this would confound the study.
(b) I chose to use three methods, experiment, observation and
interview so I could gather a range of different types of data. I
chose to use GPS because it is up to date and I could record
shopper movements on my smartphone. I chose a random
sample of participants because it avoids bias. For psychological
evidence, there is the grocery store study which looked at
different types of store layout and there are many psychologists
who successfully used experiments, observations and
interviews.
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This is a very poor answer. Using three methods doesn’t automatically
gather different types of data; all three methods could gather quantitative
data, for example. Choosing three methods is usually done by weak
candidates who merely identify the different methods and don’t know very
much about any method (as shown in this answer). Using more than the
named method will not score more marks. However, it is legitimate to use an
experiment and to gather data using another method. This answer does not
show knowledge of what a random sample is. The use of GPS is good, but a
decent psychology student would take the opportunity to say that GPS data
are objective (rather than subjective), and if the person does not know they
are being tracked, even better. The comments about psychological evidence
are weak with a vague reference to the Vrechopoulos et al. study. This
answer scores bottom-band marks, 1 mark overall.
Section C
Question 5
‘Shiftwork is not bad for your health.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples
from research to support your answer.
[12]
Answer A
Shiftwork is bad for people for many reasons, firstly because it
disrupts their lives. For example, if a shift is worked during the day
and then it moves to the evening and then it moves to the night, there
is nothing consistent to help family life. Another reason is that it
disrupts sleep. I would find it hard to keep changing shift and I would
lose sleep. The study by Dement and Kleitman supports this.
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However, shiftwork is good because it pays higher wages than nonshiftwork and pay is a good motivator. Another reason is that
shiftwork is necessary because people who work as police or doctors
have to work shifts. Many doctors live long lives, and if shiftwork was
bad for them, such as making them stressed, they would not do it
because they would know all the negatives in relation to health.
Overall, if it were me, I would not mind working at night because I
could stay in bed each morning, and as it would pay me more, that
would not be a bad thing. I agree with the statement that shiftwork is
not bad for your health.
There are some positives in this answer – there are at least two points
for and two points against the statement and there is an overall conclusion.
In other words, the exam technique is correct. However, what is written is
very basic and anecdotal and shows little evidence of any psychological
knowledge. There is reference to the study by Dement and Kleitman, but what
is written is of little value. This answer is bottom band and scores no more
than 1 mark.
Answer B
Shiftwork is bad for health. There are reasons why this is true. First,
Knutsson (2003) found shiftwork was bad for health as it caused
stomach ulcers and heart disease, although he didn’t find that it
caused cancer. Second, in a study of 878 nurses, Gold et al. (1992)
found that shiftwork caused more accidents (which are bad for
health). This was particularly so on the rotating shift. Third, shiftwork
causes sleep disturbances, and physical and mental fatigue
(Pheasant.) Fourth, studies have shown that people make more
substitution-error accidents when working the graveyard shift.
Accidents and effects on health occur most during rapid rotation
shifts.
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On the other hand, shiftwork can be said not to be bad for health. An
accident might cause a machine to break, but it doesn’t automatically
mean that it is bad for health. Second, if slow-rotation shiftwork is
used, then health isn’t affected as much. If the metropolitan or
continental rota is used, effects on health would be much less. In
conclusion, if people are told of the health effects of rapid rotation
then they may wish to choose slow rotation, and it would be even
better if people worked each shift permanently and have no change
at all.
This answer is good on examination technique in that, like answer A, it
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addresses both sides of the debate and provides more than one reason. The
answer is impressive in the range of studies that are mentioned (Knutsson,
Gold et al., and Pheasant), and also the different types of shifts, such as slow
and rapid rotation and the metropolitan and continental rotas. However,
other than a brief mention, there is no additional detail here, no elaboration.
For 12 marks the answer should have more detail, and explaining more
about the studies would be advantageous. For example, what is a slowrotation shift pattern? What is a metropolitan rota? A little elaboration
would show depth of knowledge and understanding. The conclusion at the
end is rather vague, but there is a conclusion. Overall, this answer does not
score top-band marks, but scores 8–9 out of 12.
Now test yourself answers
1 The core studies
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1 A repeated measures design is where participants perform in all
conditions of the independent variable.
2 Scientific equipment is reliable, which means that it gives consistent
recordings. It is also objective. If a person has an MRI scan, the images
are objective (‘fact’) and the way in which it records what is happening in
the brain will be the same every time for every person.
3 The quantitative data were the self-report percentages of forgotten,
familiar and remembered with certainty; and the functional images of 11
frames per trial resulting in a ‘pixel count’.
4 One assumption is that all humans and animals function physiologically,
and processes such as brain activity (amygdala activation) determine
behaviour (experience of emotional intensity).
5 This would increase the ecological validity of the study. It might have no
effect on the results because people nearly always have REM and NREM
sleep. But there might be more REM and dreaming with more detail.
6 Scientific equipment is reliable, which means that it gives consistent
recordings. It is also objective. For example, if a person is entering REM
sleep, the EEG records it without input from the participant.
7 Any two from: (i) all participants were asked not to drink alcohol (a
depressant) or caffeine (a stimulant). Note alcohol and caffeine are two
aspects of the same variable; (ii) all participants were asked to report to
the laboratory at their normal bedtime; (iii) the way in which participants
were woken (by a bell) and the way in which dreams were recorded
(tape-recorder) were standardised.
8 a Self-reports were used when participants were woken up and asked to
record any dream into the tape-recorder next to the bed.
b Observation was used by the experimenters. They observed the EEG
print-out to determine when REM and NREM sleep began and ended,
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and to determine the direction of eye movements.
Physiological arousal and psychological (or cognitive) interpretation.
The observer can record data covertly, without the participant knowing,
and so the participant behaves as they would normally without
responding to demand characteristics.
a The physiological component was manipulated by placing the
participants into one of four groups: EPI MIS, EPI INF, EPI IGN and
the placebo/control group.
b The psychological component was manipulated by placing the
participants into either a euphoric or an anger-suggesting situation.
a The experiment could not work without the stooge suggesting to the
participant a behaviour (euphoria or anger) to explain the physiological
arousal. Without a stooge, the participants would probably have just
stood and chatted to each other.
b One problem is that the use of any stooge in any research is deception
and is therefore unethical.
The study was looking at whether doodling can improve concentration
levels. As concentration is part of thinking, a cognitive process, this study
is part of the cognitive approach.
Random allocation is where each participant has an equal chance of being
in any of the conditions of the IV.
Drawing a bar chart involves x- and y-axes which should be fully labelled
with the IV and DV. IV is the doodling group and the control group. DV
is mean number of correct names (out of 8). The doodling group should
be 7.8 and the control group 7.1.
Any one from: (i) the sample was restricted: all were from Plymouth (UK)
and all were regular volunteers for research; (ii) participants were told to
‘shade in the squares and circles’ and this may not be their preferred
method of doodling, or the preferred method of people generally.
The first test of theory of mind was the ‘Sally-Anne test’ devised by
Baron-Cohen which looked at whether children could ‘think what Sally
was thinking’.
There were eight different problems. Most people start with the first two,
which are:
– The original involved a forced choice between two alternatives,
meaning that there was a 50/50 guess.
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– The results of the original test did not sufficiently discriminate between
those with AS disorders and those without (such as a parent).
Any two from:
– The AS/HFA (autistics) will score lower on the eyes test than other
groups.
– The AS/HFA (autistics) will score higher on the AQ test than other
groups.
– Females will score higher than males on the eyes test.
– Males in the normal group will score higher than females on the AQ.
– Scores on the AQ and eyes test will be inversely correlated.
Any one from:
– All the photographs were black and white; as real faces are in colour,
coloured photographs could have been used.
– All the photographs were static; moving images (e.g. video clips) could
have been used.
– Females had more positive emotions than negative, and males had more
negative emotions than positive. An equal balance of male/female
positive and negative emotions could be used.
A false memory is where people remember events differently from the
way they happened or they remember events that never happened at all.
A null hypothesis would be ‘There will be no difference between
believers and non-believers in susceptibility to false memory
manipulation.’
Similarity: in Experiments 1 and 2 the participants were
undergraduates/students. Differences: in Experiment 1, 128, 77% were
female, average age 20.8 years; in Experiment 2, 103, 62% were female,
average age 19.9 years.
a A standard deviation is a measure of spread of data around the mean.
b The standard deviations were calculated in relation to photograph
ratings for believers (SD 2.05), non-believers (SD 2.63) and controls
(SD 4.00).
a Inter-rater reliability is where two independent observers record the
same behaviour and compare answers at the end for the similarity
between their records.
b It was used in determining the levels of pre-existing aggression, and it
was used in the test room to check the agreement of the children’s
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behaviours.
a Bandura et al. used time sampling. In this study a record was made
every 5 seconds and, as the test lasted for 20 minutes, 240 instances of
behaviour were recorded.
b This meant that the observer had time to see the behaviour, look down
at the sheet of response categories, find the correct box, tick it and be
looking up and ready for the next behaviour.
The categories were: imitative physical aggression; imitative verbal
aggression; partial imitation – mallet aggression, sits on bobo doll; nonimitative aggression – punches bobo, aggressive gun play. (Be precise –
imitative aggression, for example, is not a category.)
a The children were matched by the experimenter and nursery teacher by
rating each child on four aspects (e.g. physical aggression and verbal
aggression) using a 5-point scale.
b They were matched to achieve a balanced sample in each group to help
prevent the result from being confounded (where it is not known
whether the result is due to the IV or due to come confounding
variable).
Semi-structured interview. There were structured questions because the
boy completed the ‘child-parent anxiety disorder interview schedule’
which includes specific questions. There were also unstructured questions
because Saavedra would ask the boy and his mother to talk about his
problem. This combination makes it a semi-structured interview.
Cognitive restructuring ‘reorganises thoughts’, replacing negative
thoughts with positive thoughts (or realistic thoughts).
a One advantage is that as it is a study in detail, in this case of one
person, then much more information can be found out about the
specific problem.
b One disadvantage is that it is a study of one boy and his specific
problem, so it is not possible to generalise any aspect to another child
with a button phobia. However, although the specifics can’t be
generalised, the treatment programme itself can be useful for others.
Observational learning is where an animal or child (or adult) observes a
model and then will copy/imitate that model. Observational learning also
appears in the study by Bandura et al.
Any two from: (i) Tests on objects (of categories) that were familiar, such
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as another colour or material. These objects meant that the pairings were
always novel. (ii) Transfer tests with novel objects. Alex was presented
with pairs of objects never used in training to find out if Alex could
generalise to new situations. (iii) Probes: to ensure Alex was
concentrating, questions were asked which included a wrong answer in
addition to correct ones.
It is double-blind. Testing was done by ‘secondary trainers’ who had not
trained Alex. This meant that neither Alex not the principal trainer knew
what was going to be asked. Double-blind is where neither the
experimenter nor participant knows the answer to the question (or where
the experimenter does not know which group a participant is in). A
single-blind design is where the participant is unaware of the behaviour
that is expected of them (i.e. they are not told whether they are in the
experimental or the control group, or they are not told what behaviour is
being measured, or why).
a An advert was placed in a newspaper advertising a study on ‘learning
and memory’ and saying that $4 would be paid (plus $0.50 for travel).
Forty males aged 20–50 with various occupations were chosen to
participate. As people volunteered, the sample is self-selecting.
b Any one from: (i) People who volunteer might have personality
characteristics different from those who do not volunteer. (ii) Certain
types of people may not read that newspaper or certain types of people
may choose not to respond to such things.
Three features include: covert (participants did not know they were being
observed); controlled (the study/observations took place in a controlled
environment (the laboratory); non-participant and unstructured (initially
the observers did not know what was going to happen so there were no
response categories).
a The experimenter said that he was in charge and so was responsible;
the ‘stern’ manner of the experimenter; his wearing of a grey lab-coat.
b The study was conducted at the prestigious Yale University; it was a
scientific experiment; it was conducted in a psychology laboratory; the
shock generator and the electrodes and paste all added authenticity.
a Any two from: informed consent; deception; right to withdraw; physical
and psychological harm.
b Confidentiality; debriefing.
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39 In 1964, Catherine ‘Kitty’ Genovese was attacked and murdered by
Winston Moseley in the Queens borough of New York. Although it was
claimed that 38 different witnesses saw or heard the event, not one of
them reported it to the police.
40 If there is one person witnessing an event, he or she is 100% responsible
for helping. If there are more people, responsibility is diffused among
them. If there are 10 people then they are each only 10% responsible.
This means that they are less likely to help.
41 Any two from:
– An individual who appears to be ill is more likely to receive aid than is
one who appears to be drunk, even when the immediate help needed is
of the same kind.
– Given mixed groups of men and women, and a male victim, men are
more likely to help than are women.
– Given mixed racial groups, there is some tendency for same-race
helping to be more frequent. This tendency is increased when the
victim is drunk as compared with apparently ill.
– There is no strong relationship between number of bystanders and
speed of helping.
– The longer the emergency continues without help being offered:
– the less impact a model has on the helping behaviour of observers
– the more likely it is that individuals will leave the immediate area;
that is, they appear to move purposively to another area in order to
avoid the situation
– the more likely it is that observers will discuss the incident and its
implications for their behaviour
42 The two major features of this model are physiological arousal and
cognitive (or psychological) decision-making where we weigh up the
costs and the benefits.
43 It is controlled because it is taking place in an environment where the
experimenters can place specific items (stick, straw, hose, etc.) to be used
in testing. It is structured because the observers are looking for specific
behaviours (response categories).
44 Any two from: (i) data can be observed by two or more observers and
checked for inter-rater reliability; (ii) time sampling can be done because
the videotape can be paused at any point; (iii) the videotape can be
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watched as many times as is necessary to ensure all analysis is 100%
accurate.
45 A repeated measures design is where participants take part in all
conditions of the independent variable. In this study, the chimpanzees
performed in all three phases of the experiment, the ‘can see’, ‘cannot
see’ and ‘can see’ trials.
2 Research methods
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1 One similarity is that both are experiments, having an IV, a DV and
control of variables in common. One difference is that one is conducted
in a laboratory – a potentially artificial situation but where conditions can
be very tightly controlled – and the other is conducted in a relatively
natural environment where control of variables is more difficult.
2 One disadvantage of conducting a study in a laboratory is that it is low in
ecological validity because the setting is artificial as the participants are
travelling there. Another is that the task participants are required to do
may be something they would never normally do in real life; the study
would lack mundane realism.
3 One advantage of conducting a field experiment is that it may be higher
in ecological validity than a laboratory experiment. A second is that it is
an experiment and there is an IV and a DV and a number of controls are
applied.
4 A repeated measures design is where each participant takes part in all
conditions of the independent variable.
5 One way in which order effects can be overcome is to counterbalance.
Participant 1 does condition A then B, participant 2 does condition B then
condition A and the format is repeated for all participants.
6 Random allocation is done by giving each participant a 50/50 chance of
being in either condition. This can be done by tossing a coin. It can only
be done for an independent groups measures design.
7 Psychologists try to control for extraneous variables to try to ensure that
the DV is the result of the IV (i.e. cause and effect) and not some
extraneous variable.
8 Situational variables, experimenter variables and participant variables
9 (i) The victim always wore the same clothes, such as an Eisenhower
jacket; (ii) the victim fell over 70 seconds after leaving the station; (iii)
the same subway line was used for each trial; (iv) the victim was always
male.
10 Open-ended questions are simply questions that ask the participant to
give a response in his or her own words with no pre-determined way to
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answer. Closed questions on the other hand require the participant to
choose from a range of pre-determined answers.
This is where the questionnaire ‘forces’ the respondent to commit
themselves to either a positive or negative response. There is no neutral
or ‘opt-out’ choice. The advantage is that it prevents a respondent from
giving a neutral answer to everything, resulting in data that surround a
mid-point.
In a structured interview each participant is asked exactly the same
questions in the same order. In an unstructured interview the researcher
asks different questions, depending on where the discussion takes him or
her. Semi-structured includes both structured and unstructured questions.
(i) Face-to-face interview between the interviewer and the interviewee;
and (ii) telephone interview where the interviewer and interviewee do not
see each other.
Three disadvantages are:
– Participants may provide socially desirable responses; they may not
give truthful answers; they may respond to demand characteristics.
– Researchers have to be careful about using leading questions, which
can affect the validity of the data collected.
– Answers to open-ended questions may be time-consuming to categorise
and difficult to analyse.
(i) A case study is a detailed study of a single ‘unit’ such as an individual
person. (ii) The study can give in-depth information about the unit using
a range of different methods.
Similarity, any one from: both observations were covert (participants did
not know they were being observed); both observations were nonparticipant; both observations were structured (what was being observed
decided before the study). Difference: the study by Bandura et al. was
controlled (conducted in a laboratory, an artificial environment) whereas
the study by Piliavin et al. was naturalistic (conducted in a natural
environment for a participant).
One advantage of an observation is that the observed behaviour is natural
and can be measured objectively. In the study by Piliavin et al.
participants did not know they were in a study and so responded as they
would have done normally. A disadvantage of an observation is that
participants cannot explain why they behaved in a particular way. In the
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study by Piliavin et al. participants could not say why they behaved as
they did. If they had been asked, they might have been upset when
realising they had been deceived.
With a positive correlation, as one variable increases the other variable
also increases (or both decrease). With a negative correlation, as one
variable increases the other variable decreases (or one decreases while the
other increases).
However strong a relationship might be, all we can conclude is that the
two variables are related. We can never automatically assume that one
variable causes another.
An aim is a more general statement describing the purpose of the study
whereas a hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the outcome of a
study.
The null hypothesis states that the result is due to chance (i.e. that there
will be no difference) unlike the hypothesis which makes a prediction.
The null hypothesis is never directional and if there is no difference we
never need to write that there is no significant difference.
The sample concerns the features of the participants themselves, their age,
gender, whether or not they are students, where they are from, etc. The
sampling technique is how the participants are selected from a population
(opportunity, self-selecting, etc.)
Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test); Milgram (obedience).
A random sample is a sample that has been selected in a way that means
everyone in the target population has an equal opportunity of being
chosen. One way to try to eliminate participant variables is to randomly
allocate participants to conditions. Random allocation is part of an
independent groups design and is done by (for example) tossing a coin
for each participant, giving them a 50/50 chance of doing condition 1 or
condition 2 first.
a Deception is when an experimenter (or stooge) acts or speaks in a way
that induces a false belief in a participant.
b At the end of a study participants are told what was happening, asked if
they have any concerns, and given any explanations they require.
Anything that may have caused stress is smoothed over so that the
participants can leave the study in the same state in which they arrived.
Studies should be ethical because no one should be harmed or deceived in
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the pursuit of knowledge. Something may go wrong with a procedure and
the participants may be harmed for life even though they may claim they
are fine at the time of the study. However, it could be said that unethical
studies are good because deceiving participants keeps them naive and
they respond as they normally would. The ends might justify the means.
An advantage of using a stooge is that it ensures a procedure is
maintained, that the participant behaves naively or naturally. Schachter
and Singer used a stooge as a model to suggest to participants how they
should behave.
A disadvantage of using a stooge is that it is deception and deception is
unethical. Milgram used Mr Wallace as a fake participant who received
the fake electric shocks, and who responded to the different voltages in
ways pre-scripted by Milgram.
One weakness of quantitative data is that they do not give us a reason
why participants behaved as they did. In his study Milgram knew that
63% of participants went to 450 volts but he did not ask them why they
did so; instead he assumed he knew the reason for their continuation with
the study or their early withdrawal.
Two examples are:
– The study by Dement and Kleitman on sleep and dreaming which
gathered qualitative data by asking participants to report the content of
a dream. One participant reported that they had a dream about two
people throwing tomatoes at each other.
– Schachter and Singer who gathered qualitative data through asking two
open-ended questions (on other physical or emotional sensations).
Qualitative data are in the form of words. Examples include descriptions
of events, quotes from participants, or descriptions of participants’
responses to a task. Qualitative data can help us understand why people
behave in a particular way.
Descriptive statistics describe data using tables, summary statistics
(mean, median, mode and range) and in visual formats such as a graph.
Inferential statistics infer, and this is where a statistical test is calculated
in order to draw conclusions about hypotheses.
Nominal data simply name; they put data into named categories. Ordinal
data organise data into order or ranks. First place is different from second
place, etc.
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34 The x-axis (horizontal); the y-axis (vertical); axes should be fully labelled
(with descriptors and scales); a full title to show exactly what the bar
chart shows.
35 Reliability is how consistent something is. Think about the example of a
car always starting or never starting. For example, the reliability of a
questionnaire could be tested using test/re-test and if the results are the
same then the test is said to be reliable.
36 Checking the reliability of a questionnaire involves administering the
same test to the same person on two different occasions, such as at
intervals 3 weeks apart, and comparing the results. The results can then
be correlated. This is test/re-test. The split-half method can also be used,
which involves splitting the test into two and administering each half of
the test to the same person.
37 The reliability of an observation can be checked using inter-rater
reliability. This is where two or more observers watch the same
behaviour and score it independently. The study by Bandura et al. had
two observers and their agreement, measured by using a correlation test,
was over 0.9.
38 Validity is whether an experiment or procedure for collecting data
actually measures or tests what it claims to measure or test. Concurrent
validity can be checked by comparing the result of a test with an
alternative that is known to measure what it claims to measure.
39 Construct validity shows how the measure matches up with theoretical
ideas about what it is supposed to be measuring. Predictive validity is
whether a measure can predict a future outcome. Can IGCSE results
accurately predict A Level results?
40 Ecological validity refers to how true the location of where a study is
conducted is to real life. Mundane realism refers to how true the task that
participants are required to do is to real life
41 A generalisation is when a finding is said to apply to people who did not
participate in the study.
42 Schachter and Singer claim that emotion results from physiological
arousal and cognitive (or psychological) interpretation. Perhaps this does
apply to everyone rather than being just a generalisation.
43 Any example that uses observation (if it is seen, it is believed) or any
example that uses physiological data (brain scans, sample tests, salivary
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cortisol). Think of two examples to which these comments apply.
44 Any example that uses self-report such as questionnaires. While the data
gathered may be numbers, the source of the numbers isn’t objective: a
person can lie, give socially desirable answers, etc. Think of two
examples to which these comments apply.
3 Approaches and issues and debates
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1 One assumption is that all humans and animals function physiologically
and that processes, such as hormone release and brain activity, determine
behaviour (i.e. biological determinism). This ‘biology’ is the same for all
people in all cultures; a cultural universal.
2 The study by Canli et al. looks at the regions of the brain that are
activated, specifically the amygdala, when presented with emotionally
intense stimuli. This region of the brain should be the same in every
person in the world.
3 Cognitive psychology concerns the mind – thinking (rationally and
irrationally), solving problems, perceiving, making sense of and
understanding the world, using and making sense of language; and
remembering and forgetting.
4 Some psychologists say that the cognitive approach is less scientific, as
we cannot observe the subject matter directly – we are just inferring or
guessing how people think and process information.
5 Everyone goes for the ‘all behaviour is learned’ assumption, so instead
use another assumption: the subject matter of psychology should have
standardised procedures, with an emphasis on the study of observable
behaviour (why people advocating this view are behaviourists) that can
be measured objectively, rather than a focus on the mind or
consciousness.
6 The learning approach explains how mental illnesses, such as phobias,
can be learned. This was first shown in 1920 by Watson who conditioned
Little Albert to be afraid of a white rat (and this generalised to other
similar things).
7 An assumption is that we can only understand people in the context of
how they operate in their interactions and perceptions of others. Why
does someone behave in a particular way in a particular situation? We
only know by looking at the context of the people around them.
8 Social behaviour is bound by culture, meaning that what happens in one
culture cannot be assumed to happen in another culture. If we made this
assumption, we would be ethnocentric. Some things might be universal
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but many more things will not be. Think about what might be common to
all cultures.
If research is useful:
– It can be of benefit to society. It can improve the world in which we
live, for example in understanding crime, mental illness and how
students can learn more effectively.
– It helps us to understand social behaviour, our interactions with others,
obedience, etc.
– It enhances the value and status of psychology as a subject.
Any three from:
– Useful studies should be ethical – participants should give informed
consent and not be deceived. However, a study may need to be
unethical to be really useful.
– Studies conducted in a laboratory may not be useful as they are low in
ecological validity.
– Studies should use a representative sample and be generalisable. Useful
research should apply worldwide so there is no ethnocentrism.
An individual or dispositional explanation for behaviour will look to
some feature or characteristic within the person rather than situational
causes.
The study by Milgram showed that some participants obeyed the
authority in the laboratory situation. The study by Yamamoto et al. could
not have been conducted in ‘real life’. Only the situation of the
environment led to the behaviour of the chimpanzees.
The nature view believes that all behaviour is genetically (biologically)
determined. The nurture view believes that behaviour is mainly, or
entirely, acquired through experience and that the influence of the
environment is crucial. This is environmental determinism. As you can
see, determinism isn’t anything complicated.
The nature view believes that all behaviour is genetically (biologically)
determined and so this is reductionist (it reduces behaviour to just one
factor). The nurture view believes that behaviour is learned, determined
by the environment, and so this too is reductionist. Again, not
complicated at all.
It is important to study children because:
– They represent the most important and formative period of human
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development. What happens in early life can determine many things in
adult life.
– By understanding children’s thoughts and behaviour, it might help us to
understand adult thought and behaviour.
– In some ways, children are better participants than adults as they are
naive and can be more open and truthful.
16 There is no right or wrong answer to this one; it is asking you what you
think. In a laboratory the experimenter has more control, but on the other
hand, such control is low in ecological validity and does not enable us to
observe the behaviour of an animal in its natural environment. Which
method is best? It depends on what is being studied.
17 Yet another one to ponder. What do you think? Again the answer is a
matter of opinion and it is just a matter of weighing up the advantages
and disadvantages and making a judgement. For example, Yamamoto et
al. studied helping in animals in a laboratory. Piliavin et al. took their
study into the ‘real world’ and their findings were different from those
found in laboratory experiments.
5 Specialist options
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1 Cultural bias is when people make assumptions about another culture
based on their own culture.
2 Reductionism is the process of explaining complex psychological
phenomena by reducing them to their component parts. This is the
opposite of holism, where the total is more than the sum of the parts.
3 In support of reductionism:
– It helps us to understand the world because a fundamental way of
understanding is to analyse, break things down into component parts,
test them and then build them back up again. This is important in
studying the natural world and humans in a scientific way.
– In theory it is easier to study one component rather than several
interacting components. If one component is isolated and others are
controlled then the study is more objective and scientifically
acceptable.
4 Two definitions:
– ‘Metrics’ refers to measurement and ‘psycho’ refers to psychological
abilities, so psychometrics is the measurement of the mind.
– Psychometrics is the science of psychological assessment.
5 a One study that shows environmental determinism is that by Oldham
and Brass (1979) because moving from one type of office to another
resulted in a reduction in job satisfaction.
b One study of biological determinism is that by Oruc et al. (1998) who
found that first-degree relatives of people diagnosed with depression
are significantly more likely to be diagnosed with depression than nonfirst-degree relatives.
6 a A longitudinal study takes place over a period of time, usually
following one or more participants throughout the period (or visiting
them at regular intervals) to monitor changes.
b The development of an individual (or number of participants) is
tracked. A baseline is recorded at the start, and changes that occur over
time (e.g. 5 years) in attitudes and behaviour can be measured.
c One problem is that it can be difficult to track participants over a long
–
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period of time – for example, they may move house or may not want to
continue participating. Thus, longitudinal studies tend to lose
participants as they go along. This is called ‘participant attrition’.
Any three from:
– Hallucinations – hearing, smelling, feeling or seeing something that is
not there.
– Delusions – believing something completely even though others do not
believe it.
– Disorganised thinking – finding it hard to concentrate and drifting from
one idea to another.
– Feeling controlled – that thoughts are vanishing, or that they are not
your own, or being taken over by someone else.
– Catatonic behaviour, involving impairment of motor activity, where the
person often holds the same position, or performs repetitive
movements for hours.
Any two from:
Persecutory – being watched, followed, drugged, etc. by others who
intend harm.
Grandiose – belief they have an unrecognised skill, talent, knowledge or
status.
Erotomatic – belief that another person, usually of higher social status, is
in love with him or her.
Frith (1992) argues that schizophrenics have faulty information
processing, particularly with ‘mentalising’, which is impairment in
attributing mental states (thoughts, beliefs and intentions) to other people.
They apparently have an impaired ‘theory of mind’.
Be careful here. The question refers to ‘drug’ and not ‘medical’
treatments, so ECT cannot be included.
There are three types of drug used: MAOIs, SSRIs and SNRIs. Antidepressants work by affecting neurotransmitters. Those most involved in
depression are thought to be serotonin and noradrenaline. SRRIs inhibit
serotonin and SNRIs inhibit both serotonin and noradrenaline. MAOIs
inhibit a wider range of neurotransmitters, such as adrenaline and
melatonin, in addition to serotonin and noradrenaline.
REBT focuses on how illogical beliefs are maintained such as
musterbating (I must be perfect at all times), and I-can’t-stand-it-itis (the
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belief that when something goes wrong it is a major disaster). The A, B,
C, D and E are: A for the activating event, B for the belief held about A,
and C for the consequences – thoughts, feelings or behaviours – resulting
from A. To change to rational beliefs, Ellis suggests we must: D, dispute
the irrational beliefs and E experience the effects of successful disruption
of the irrational beliefs.
(i) Before committing the act there is a growing tension. (ii) During the
act the person feels pleasure from acting, and often feels relief from the
urge. (iii) Afterwards the person may or may not feel guilt, regret or
blame.
DiNardo et al. (1988) found that only half of all people who had a
traumatic experience with an animal, even when pain was inflicted, went
on to develop a phobia of animals. They believe that people who have
any traumatic experience (e.g. with animals) but do not develop a phobia
must interpret the event differently from those who do develop a phobia.
This means that it is the way people think about their experience that
makes the difference. They suggest it is an exaggerated expectation of
harm in some people that leads to the development of a phobia.
When people see blood or a needle, their blood pressure drops sharply,
often leading the person to faint or pass out. The way to counter the drop
in blood pressure is to raise blood pressure. Ost et al. (1989) proposed
using applied tension. This involves tensing the muscles in the arms, legs
and body for about 10–15 seconds, relaxing for 20–30 seconds and then
repeating both these five times.
The Maudsley obsessive–compulsive inventory (MOCI) is a
psychometric test to assess obsessive–compulsive behaviour. It is a selfreport questionnaire using a forced-choice ‘yes’ or ‘no’ format. It has 30
questions/items with four sub-scales: checking, cleaning/washing,
slowness and doubting. When all the items are totalled, a person can have
a score between 0 (no symptoms) and 30 (maximum presence of
symptoms). The extent and severity of the OCD is determined by the
score out of 30. The Yale–Brown obsessive–compulsive scale (Y-BOCS)
is an acceptable alternative.
Cognitive–behavioural therapy changes the way a person thinks (the
cognitive part) and the way a person behaves (the behavioural part). It
may focus on how a person responds to a particular situation. This is
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done not by going back to the cause of the problem, but by focusing on
the present symptoms. It works by looking at how a person thinks about
how an event has affected how he/she felt and what he/she did. If
negative thoughts can be reinterpreted or changed for more positive or
realistic thoughts, then the person will feel better and their behaviour will
change.
The three components of approach-avoidance behaviour when measuring
atmospheric variables are pleasure (the degree to which a person felt
happy or satisfied in a place), arousal (the degree of stimulation caused
by an atmosphere), and dominance (the degree to which a person feels in
control in a situation).
Racetrack/boutique layout: the store is arranged in individual, semiseparate areas, each built around a theme. This creates an unusual,
interesting and entertaining shopping experience. The design leads
customers through specific paths to visit as many sections as possible. It
encourages impulse purchasing.
The PAD model stands for pleasure (the degree to which a person is
contented, happy, satisfied, pleased, relaxed, important, cares, hopeful);
arousal (the degree to which a person is stimulated, excited, jittery,
aroused, frenzied, autonomous, wide-awake, controlling); dominance (the
extent to which a person feels in control of the situation (rather than
being controlled) and is able to act freely).
The ‘square method’, a term coined by Kutlu et al., allows consideration
of how the different variables of the store image and interact with the
product design.
Machleit et al. (2000) hypothesised that: (i) high levels of perceived retail
crowding would lead to lower levels of shopper satisfaction (i.e. an
inverse/negative correlation), and the opposite would also apply; (ii)
people who tolerate crowds (i.e. tend not to perceive crowding) would be
less affected by high crowding levels than others; (iii) the type of store
will affect perceived crowding. In discount-type stores (low cost and high
value), high levels of crowding should not affect shopping satisfaction.
Explorers make long trips, raiders make short trips. Explorers go
everywhere and spend time, raiders are fast shoppers. Explorers are
mainly female, raiders are mainly male.
Multiple unit pricing is done to suggest that buying more items makes the
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overall cost less than when the items are priced individually. For
example, the study by Wansink et al. found that bathroom tissue offered
at ‘buy 4 for $2’ resulted in 45% more sales than ‘buy 1 for $0.50’. The
anchor of ‘4’ resulted in more purchases.
(i) People like wrapped gifts. (ii) Gifts should be wrapped. (iii) Gifts
should look like gifts.
Cialdini suggested six ways but perhaps the best three are:
– Reciprocity: I’ll give you something (a free gift) if you give me
something (the sale). This could include a free-trial.
– Liking: not just the product, but the salesperson, the store and
everything else associated, demonstrated by similarity: people like
people like themselves; humour (done in an appropriate way) can be
effective.
– Scarcity and urgency: if it is in short supply, people are more likely to
buy. Sales with ‘last few days’; ‘when it’s gone its gone’, ‘only two
rooms/seats left at this price’ are typical strategies.
Product placement is an advertising technique used by companies to
subtly promote their products (brands) in a non-traditional way, usually
within the context of film, television, or other media rather than as an
explicit advertisement.
Savage and Armstrong found significantly higher levels of satisfaction
were recorded for the directive style, particularly so for patients with
physical problems, those who had excellent understanding of terms and
patients receiving a prescription.
Safer (1979) suggests: (i) appraisal delay – have I got any symptoms? do
I feel ill? (ii) illness delay – do I need medical help? (iii) utilisation delay
– will the treatment work? can I afford it?
Validity refers to whether a measure actually measures what it intends.
Pill counts should measure adherence. However, the fact that the pill has
left the bottle does not mean it has been taken – a patient may simply
throw away unconsumed medication, supplies are often divided up, pills
may be transferred to other containers.
Ley (for example) suggests (any three from):
– Emphasise key information by stating why it is important and stating it
early in the interaction.
– Simplify instructions and use clear and straightforward language.
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– Use specific statements (‘you should…’) and have the patient repeat
the instructions in their own words.
– Use written instructions, breaking down complex instructions into
simpler ones.
– Use a combination of oral and visual information (such as diagrams).
There is no difference in the intensity of acute and chronic pain. Each can
hurt just as much as the other. The difference is that acute pain is shortlived and does not last for very long, whereas chronic pain goes on for a
longer period of time.
Turk suggests that people will show (any three from):
– facial and/or audible expressions of distress, such as groaning and
pulling a face
– distorted ambulation or posture, meaning that they might limp or hold
the painful area
– irritability/bad mood
– avoidance activity, such as staying at home or resting.
Two studies are:
– Holmes and Rahe (1967) who used the SRRS to measure life events,
giving each a rank and a mean value. At the top of the list is ‘death of
spouse’; at the bottom is ‘minor violations of the law’. Points are added
to give a total score.
– Friedman and Rosenman (1974) who devised the Type A personality
questionnaire to measure the behaviour of people who are said to be
aggressive, assertive, competitive and time conscious.
Any two from:
– Blood pressure tests: Goldstein et al. (1992) found that paramedics’
blood pressure (measured using a sphygmomanometer) was higher
during ambulance runs or when at the hospital, compared with other
work situations or when at home.
– Evans and Wener (2007) collected salivary cortisol from commuters on
a train. People sat in a middle seat (of a row of three) were more
stressed than those not sitting in a middle seat.
– Wang et al. (2005) identified the area of the brain where the ‘stress
response’ is located using an MRI scanner. It is the ventral right prefrontal cortex (RPFC).
In the UK., Tapper et al. (2000) used the ‘Food Dudes’ campaign aimed
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at promoting the eating of fruit and vegetables in schools. Extensive
resources were provided: a Food Dude video; Food Dude rewards; a set
of letters (for praise and encouragement); a home pack; and a teacher
handbook and support materials. Levels of fruit and vegetable
consumption were measured and it was found that lunchtime and home
consumption was higher than in the control group.
(i) The need for achievement is the need to get a job done, to master a
task, to be successful. (ii) The need for affiliation is the need to be liked
and accepted by other people. (iii) The need for power concerns being
influential in the lives of others and also in control of others.
Intrinsic motivation is an internal desire to perform a particular task. It
gives pleasure, achievement and satisfaction or develops a particular
skill. For example, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense
of belonging are said to be far more powerful motivators than money.
Extrinsic motivation is the desire to do something because of an external
reward like money, which can include pay, promotion and fringe benefits
such as commission and bonuses.
A leader may have some charismatic characteristics (be a ‘great’ man or
woman), exerting social influence to gain the aid or support of others in
achieving a goal or task. A manager is concerned with the day-to-day
planning, organising, controlling and coordinating of those in an
organisation for whom he or she is responsible. A manager might not be
the leader, but instead implements the ideas and instructions of a leader.
The situational leadership approach argues that there is no one leadership
style that is best and fits all situations. Instead the most successful leaders
are those who can adapt their leadership style to the individual or group
they are attempting to lead.
The four stages are:
– Forming: where individuals begin to come together, get to know each
other and agree on tasks and goals.
– Storming: where individuals present ideas and sometimes these will be
accepted and sometimes they will cause conflict.
– Norming: when members of the group agree a strategy, some members
realising that for the good of the group their ideas are not accepted.
– Performing: when the group functions as a coherent unit, working
effectively and efficiently without conflict.
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41 Positive (any two from): (i) it might energise the group, reducing
complacency; (ii) it might stimulate creativity and innovation; (iii) it can
increase the quality of decision-making as each member contributes
more. Negative (any two from): (i) it can harm group cohesiveness; (ii) it
can inhibit effective communication and even lead to rumour and distrust;
(iii) it can lead to more ‘fighting’ and less productivity and goal
achievement.
42 a The rapid rotation theory is based on frequent shift change (e.g. once
per week) and so it is preferred by workers who only do same shift for
a short time.
b There are two ways to organise a rapid rotation (and the rota continues,
giving an equal balance of working all 7 days per week over time):
– Metropolitan rota: work two early (6 am to 2 am), two late (2 pm
to 10 pm), two night (10 pm to 6 am), two rest.
– Continental rota: work two early, two late, three night, two rest,
then two early, three late, two night, three rest.
43 Any two from:
– Omission – failing to do something, such as forgetting to turn
something off.
– Commission – performing an act incorrectly (i.e. doing something
wrong).
– Sequence errors – doing something out of order.
– Timing errors – doing something too quickly, or too slowly.
44 Sabotage can be motivated by:
– frustration – spontaneous actions that indicate the powerlessness
workers feel
– attempts to ease the work process – typical of industries where workers
are paid by the hour and wages are dependent on output
– attempts to assert control: that is, to challenge authority.
45 Any one from:
– Medical (high JI and high OC): response to various infrequent and
uncontrollable events such as illness, injury, funeral leave and family
demands (sick spouse or child). For the organisation this is sporadically
occurring, excused absence.
– Career-enhancing (high JI and low OC): absence is depicted as a
mechanism that allows the employee to further task- and career-related
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goals.
– Normative (low JI and high OC): absence is viewed less as a motivated
behaviour and more as a habitual response. Rather than absenteeism
being random, as with the medical category, definite patterns will
emerge and be predictable.
– Calculative (low JI and low OC): absence would be (for the most
apathetic worker) the maximum permitted amount of excused and
unexcused absences by the organisation before sanctions (such as
warnings or termination of employment) are applied.
Glossary
Abnormal affect concerns disorders of mood and emotion, most typically
depression and mania or manic depression (bipolar disorder).
Abnormality is a subjectively defined behavioural characteristic, assigned to
people with ‘non-normal’, rare or dysfunctional conditions.
An accident is an unplanned, unforeseen or uncontrolled event that has
negative consequences (Pheasant, 1991).
An addiction is a condition produced by repeated consumption of a natural
or synthetic substance, in which the person has become physically and
psychologically dependent on the substance.
Advertising media refers to the advertising vehicles such as billboards,
magazines, newspapers, radio, television, direct mail, product placement and
internet/social media by which promotional messages are communicated to
the public using words, speech and pictures.
The term alternative technique is used to describe any intervention that is
not medical or psychological.
Altruism is helping others with no benefit to oneself, or even at a cost to
oneself.
Anchoring is where people tend to rely on (are biased by) the first piece of
information when making a decision.
Anxiety is a general feeling of dread or apprehensiveness accompanied by
various physiological reactions such as increased heart rate, sweating, muscle
tension, and rapid and shallow breathing.
AQ (or autism spectrum quotient) is a test devised by Baron-Cohen et al.
(2001) to assess autistic spectrum conditions.
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A behavioural theory of leadership is an analytic structure designed to
explain the behaviour shown by leaders to determine which behaviours are
successful and which are not.
Biofeedback is the control of physiological functions through cognitive
processing.
The biological approach explores human behaviour and experience by
looking at people as if they were biological machines.
Brand recognition is the consumer’s ability to recognise a firm from its
distinctive logo, motto or artistic symbol.
Bullying occurs when someone at work is systematically subjected to
aggressive behaviour from one or more colleagues or superiors over a long
period of time, in a situation where the target finds it difficult to defend him
or herself or to escape the situation (Einarsen, 1999).
A case study involves a detailed description of a particular individual or
small group under study or treatment.
Choice blindness is where people are blind to their own choices and
preferences.
Cognitive (or rational) theories of motivation view workers as rational,
decision-making beings who cognitively assess (think about) costs and
benefits before acting.
The cognitive approach focuses on mental processes such as remembering,
perceiving, understanding and producing language, solving problems,
thinking and reasoning.
A cognitive map is a pictorial or semantic image in our head of how places
are arranged.
Cognitive restructuring aims to identify irrational or negative thoughts and
replace them with more realistic or positive thoughts.
Common misconception Temporal conditions of whole enviornments relate
to time. ‘Temporal’ has nothing to do with temperature.
A compulsion is a recurring action a person is forced to enact.
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Conspecific is a term used for a member of the same species.
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A confounding variable is when an experimenter does not know whether the
DV is due to the IV or some other extraneous variable.
A control is an action taken by the experimenter to try to ensure that the IV
causes the DV rather than some extraneous variable.
Correlation is a measure of how strongly two, or more, variables are related
to each other.
Crowding is a ‘psychological state determined by perceptions of
restrictiveness when exposed to spatial limitations’ (Stokols, 1972).
Cultural bias is when people make assumptions about another culture based
on their own culture.
A delusion is a false fixed belief that cannot be changed.
Demand characteristics are where the participant responds to the
experiment in a certain way in order to please (or upset) the experimenter.
Determinism is the view that we have no (or very little) control over our
behaviour or our destiny, but are controlled by factors such as our biology or
genetics, or by the environment.
Diffusion of responsibility is based on the idea that if one person witnesses
an event he or she is 100% responsible for helping. If there are more people
then responsibility is diffused among them. If there are 10 people then they
are each only 10% responsible. This means that they are less likely to help.
Disgust is an emotion with a characteristic facial expression, a physiological
response of nausea, feelings of revulsion and avoidance behaviour.
Doodling is commonly a meaningless activity done without purpose when
idle, bored or impatient in a state of diminished attention.
Ecological validity refers to how true the location of where a study is
conducted is to real life.
Ergonomics (or human factors in work design) is the scientific study of
matching the design of tools, machines, work systems and work places to fit
the skills and abilities of workers.
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Ethics are a set of rules designed to distinguish between right and wrong in
the protection of participants in psychological studies.
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An experiment is where the independent variable (IV) is the factor that is
thought to be the cause, and the dependent variable (DV) is the effect.
An experimental design is how participants are allocated to the conditions of
the IV.
False memory is where people remember events differently from the way
they happened, or they remember events that never happened at all.
False memory is where people remember events differently from the way
they happened or they remember events that never happened at all.
Fear arousal involves a message being presented to a target audience with
the aim of scaring or creating fear in them in order to change their
perceptions and motivate them to act.
A field experiment is a form of research that takes place outside a
laboratory, where conditions are controlled and IVs manipulated in order to
discover cause and effect.
Free will is the view that we have a choice over what we do and the ways in
which we behave.
The frustration-aggression hypothesis (Dollard et al., 1938) is the belief
that aggression (whatever type) will always result when a person is frustrated.
Generalisation is the extent to which the findings of one study apply to
others.
Group cohesiveness is the team spirit developed by people working in unity.
Group conflict is when individuals or groups express different or
incompatible ideas.
Group decision-making is a mental process of considering alternatives,
resulting in a choice.
A group in an organisation refers to individuals who combine skills and
resources to achieve a common goal.
Health promotion aims to enhance good health and prevent illness.
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Hypochondriasis is a preoccupation with health involving exaggerated
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Groupthink is a syndrome characterised by a concurrence-seeking tendency
that overrides the ability of a cohesive group to make critical decisions (Janis,
1965).
concerns about having a serious illness.
Imagery is a technique in therapy where a person focuses on pleasant mental
images in order to distract from discomfort and evoke feelings of relaxation.
An impulse control disorder is a failure to resist a temptation, urge or
impulse.
Industrial sabotage is ‘rule-breaking which takes the form of conscious
action or inaction directed towards the mutilation or destruction of the work
environment’ (Taylor and Walton, 1971).
An interview is where questions are asked of a participant and the
interviewer notes the responses.
Job design involves matching the aims of producing a successful product and
having happy, contented and satisfied workers.
Job satisfaction is how content or happy a person is with his or her job of
work.
A laboratory experiment takes place in a laboratory or under ‘controlled
conditions’. It does not happen in a normal environment for the participant.
The learning approach focuses on observable behaviour rather than on
mental concepts, and explains behaviour in terms of learning.
Management style is the way in which a people are directed toward the
attainment of goals.
Munchausen syndrome includes pathologic lying, peregrination (travelling
or wandering), and recurrent, feigned or simulated illness.
Mundane realism refers to how true the task that participants are required to
do is to real life.
A natural experiment is where conditions of the IV are naturally
occurring/happen by themselves and are not manipulated or controlled by an
experimenter.
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Nature in this sense refers to the part of us that is inherited and genetic, as
distinct from nurture, which refers to all influences after our birth (i.e.
experience).
Non-adherence refers to the patients’ tendency not to comply with
prescriptions, appointments or engagement in preventative measures as
advised by medical practitioners.
Non-verbal communication is the process of communication through
sending and receiving wordless (mostly visual) messages.
NREM is the rest of the sleep period, when the eyes do not move rapidly.
Obedience is complying with the orders of an authority figure (compliance is
obeying an order without agreeing with it).
Objective data are not influenced by emotions, opinions, or personal
feelings – they are based on fact.
In an observation, data are collected through observing or watching
participants with the aim of recording the behaviour that is witnessed.
An obsession is a recurring and persistent thought that interferes with normal
behaviour.
Obsessive–compulsive disorder is where irresistible thoughts and actions
must be acted on.
An opportunity sample is one that is selected by ‘opportunity’: the
researcher simply uses the people who are present at the time that he/she is
conducting the research.
Organisational commitment is the relative strength of an individual’s
identification with and involvement in a particular organisation (Mowday et
al.,1979).
A nursing definition of pain is: ‘whatever the experiencing person says it is,
existing whenever he says it does’.
Personal space is an invisible bubble surrounding us.
A phobia is a persistent fear of an object or situation in which the sufferer
does anything possible to avoid the feared object.
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A planogram is a visual diagram or drawing that provides detail of where
every product in a retail store should be placed.
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Product placement is an advertising technique used by companies to subtly
promote their products (brands) through a non-traditional advertising
technique, usually within the context of film, television or other media rather
than as an explicit advertisement.
Psychometrics is the scientific study of psychological assessment.
Qualitative data are data that describe meaning and experience in the form
of words rather than providing numerical values for behaviour.
Quality of working life (QWL) has been defined as ‘a generic phrase that
covers a person’s feelings about every dimension of work including
economic rewards and benefits, security, working conditions, organisational
and interpersonal relationships’ (Guest, 1979).
Quantitative data are data that focus on numbers and frequencies rather than
on meaning or experience.
A questionnaire is where participants read the questions for themselves and
then fill in their answers themselves. This can be done on paper or online.
A random sample is a sample that has been selected in a way that means
everyone in the target population has an equal opportunity of being chosen.
Reductionism is the process of explaining complex psychological
phenomena by reducing them to their component parts. This is the opposite
of holism, where the total is more than the sum of the parts.
Reliability refers to how consistent the measure of something is.
REM is the sleep period when there is rapid eye movement under closed lids.
A retrospective study is one that is based on information that has occurred in
the past.
A review collects and critically analyses multiple research studies or papers.
A reward system consists of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards used by an
organisation to motivate employees.
Safety behaviour is maintaining a healthy existence through safe practices at
work and in the home.
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Schizophrenia can be defined as the disintegration of the process of thinking
and of emotional responsiveness.
Self-monitoring is self-observation and self-control guided by situational
cues to social appropriateness (Snyder, 1974).
Self-reports involve research that uses the participants’ own accounts of their
behaviour or experience. Self-report methods include questionnaires,
interviews, thinking aloud and diaries.
A result is said to be statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred
by chance.
Situational leadership is the view that there is no one ‘best style’. Instead
the best style is that which is appropriate to the task and the group being led;
the specific situation.
The social approach is concerned with how humans and animals interact
with each other.
A stooge (or confederate) is a person who pretends to be a participant but is
actually working for the researcher.
Stress is the condition that results when a person’s environment/transactions
lead them to perceive a discrepancy (whether real or not) between the
demands of a situation and the resources of the person’s biological,
psychological or social systems (Sarafino, 1990).
Subjective data are influenced by emotions, opinions, and personal feelings.
The target population is the group to which research is hoping to generalise.
Team building (or development) is the process of enhancing the
effectiveness of teams.
Temporal conditions of work environments refer to the time workers spend
at work.
A theory of leadership is an analytic structure designed to explain the ability
to guide a group to achieve a goal.
A theory of motivation is an analytic structure designed to explain the force
that energises, directs and sustains behaviour.
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A theory of pain is an analytic structure designed to explain an unpleasant
sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue
damage.
A universalist theory of leadership is an analytic structure designed to
explain the major characteristics that are common among all effective
leaders.
Unrealistic optimism is the mistaken belief that one’s chances of
experiencing a negative event are lower (or a positive event higher) than
those of one’s peers.
Validity is concerned with whether an experiment or procedure for collecting
data actually measures or tests what it claims to measure or test.
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Virtual reality (VR) is an interactive immersive computer environment.