Nature of Philosophy In a few years, you will gain new experiences in life that you may have dreamed of. Such experiences may excite or challenge you, while some can make you rethink your life and decisions. At your age, you may have already asked yourself important questions about your life that cannot be directly answered through research or education, such as “What I want” or what make me happy”. If you asked those big questions you engage in Philosophy The original meaning of philosophy based on its etymologically love of wisdom. The term “philosophy is an English translation of the Greek word “Philosophia” which is the combination of the two Greek words namely, “Philo” which means love, and “Sophia” which means wisdom. Where Love is the strong desire of a particular object and wisdom is the correct application of knowledge. A philosopher consequently is lover of wisdom or one who loves wisdom. The term philosopher is used by Pythagoras, the Ancient Greek thinker popularly known for Great Job! Later as you continue reading this learning materials we will see if your answers are correct. 3 mathematical formula the Pythagorean Theorem. Pythagoras preferred to be called a philosopher rather than sophist which literally means wise man or one who knows. Doing Philosophy in Obtaining Broad Perspective in Life Socrates believed that philosophy should achieve practical results for the greater wellbeing of society. He attempted to establish an ethical system based on human reason rather than theological doctrine. Socrates pointed out that human choice was motivated by the desire for happiness. Russell holds that the primary value of philosophy is not in any kind of definite answer but exists in the questions themselves. He concludes that, "through the greatness of the universe which philosophy contemplates, the mind also is rendered great." Doing philosophy means engaging oneself in matters of utility and methodologies to eliminate any practical problem or abstract idea. Before engaging in philosophical inquiry, one must be able to distinguish between a holistic and partial point of view. This is critical for anyone doing philosophy because it sets a limit in coming up with conclusions about a given situation. What do you think? Is doing philosophy possible without engaging in philosophical reflection? Philosophical Reflection as a Way of Doing Philosophy Jay and Ryan proceeded to articulate the specificity of the approaches to doing philosophy. They start with the discussion on the nature and dynamics of philosophical reflection. 12 According to Jay and Ryan, philosophical reflection is one of the important skills that one needs in doing philosophy. To drive their point, Jay and Ryan appropriated Gabriel Marcel’s notion of philosophical reflection, which is deeply personal and is intimately anchored on day-to-day existence. For Marcel, as Jay and Ryan argue, philosophical reflection is first and foremost the act of giving time to think about the meaning and purpose of life. There are two types of philosophical reflection according to Marcel, namely, primary reflection and secondary reflection. Primary reflection is a kind of thinking that calculates, analyzes, or recounts past events. In this way, primary reflection is a fragmented and compartmentalized thinking. Thus, for Marcel, according to Jay and Ryan, primary reflection cannot be a genuine thinking because it failed to make sense of the whole, of the mystery of life. In other words, primary reflection is selfish thinking because it is instrumental thinking. As we already know, instrumental thinking is a “means-end” kind of thinking. Applied to human relations, instrumental thinking thinks only of what it can practically get in a relationship. For example, one may establish a relationship or friendship with somebody who is rich so that she may be able to borrow money in times of need. Secondary reflection, on the other hand, is characterized by the act recapturing the unity of the original experience by gathering back together what has been separated by primary reflection. Thus, secondary reflection allows us to think holistically. In this way, secondary reflection enables us to integrate our fragmented and compartmentalized experience into a coherent whole. This gives us the impression that secondary reflection for Marcel is genuine or unselfish thinking. Applied to human relations, secondary reflection does not think of what it can practically get in a relationship. Here, the human person establishes a relationship with the other not because of what she can get but is premised on the idea that the other is a human person that deserves respect, care, and love. Understanding Truth and Opinion Truth in metaphysics and the philosophy of language is the property of sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions that are said, in ordinary discourse, to agree with the facts or to state what the case is. It is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard. Truth is also sometimes defined in modern contexts as an idea of “truth to self”, or authenticity. Propositions is a statement about the world or reality. Propositions may or not carry truth. Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of something. It is product of questions that allow for clear answers provided by facts. Facts are propositions or statement which are observed to be real or truthful. Claim is a statement that is not evidently or immediately known to be true. This means that any claim can be proven by verification and experimentation. Therefore, truthful statements can be considered as based on facts. There are several views regarding truth. Philosophers emphasize the importance of belief as a basis for determining truth. But as a philosopher, we do not assume that every statemen is true. Remember the famous French philosopher, Rene Descartes traced the need to philosophize to doubt. In philosophy, systematic doubt is employed to help determine the truth. This means that every statement, claim, evidence, and experience is scrutinized and analyzed. Philosophers always engaged with the concept of truth. Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality or value. Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of something, since it is true knowing that we can determine what is true. Doubt has a very important purpose in philosophy as it drives our desire to discover the truth. In philosophy, systematic doubt is employed to help determine the truth. A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses. Another basis for determining truth us a belief or statement is true if it is based on facts. Getting consensus or having people agree on a common belief is another way of determining what is true. Although this approach has certain limitations. Getting everyone to agree on something may not take that belief is true. Philosophers also believe that claims and belief should be subjected to test to determine truth. In determining truth requires also that a person can prove a statement through an action. Distinguishing Truth and Opinion The methods of philosophizing will help us learn the process of doing philosophy in a systematic way. On the other hand, philosophizing is to think or express oneself in a philosophical manner. Although philosophy is an organized body of knowledge, the subject matter of philosophy is questions, which have three major characteristics: 1. Philosophical questions have answers, but the answers remain in dispute. 2. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common sense, or faith; and 3. Philosophical questions are of perennial intellectual interest to human beings. Conclusion is a statement based on a certain fact. Beliefs are statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts. For example, if your mother states “God created everything that is present in this entire world”, proving that this statement is considered as truth, you need other person’s views and experiences. Explanations are statements claiming to be true and provides reasons to make the statements true. An understanding of opinions and facts and the mean to distinguish one from the other can further improve our understanding and appreciation of varied views and ideas. The ability to determine truth goes hand in hand with the holistic perspective and enables us to make wiser decisions, especially in choosing the ideas and views which we find acceptable. A critical mind aided by philosophy can help us from our own personal point of view that can guide us in making decisions and actions when we faced with a problem. Philosophy can help us determine ideas that are truthful and acceptable, which we can use form our own views regarding certain matters. Difference Between Fallacy and Bias Both the Socratic and dialectic method are based on a discussion between two or more people who carry differing views but wish to pursue truth by seeking an agreement with one another. Meanwhile, the scientific method is a process of determining truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing. The scientific method, also called empirical method, is a process of determining truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing. Logic is the truth based on reasoning and critical thinking, it includes analysis and construction of arguments. It serves as path to freedom from half-truths and deception. The Union of Body and Soul The philosopher Aristotle in his book De Anima II, stated the union of body and soul, “The soul is the source of these phenomena and is characterized by them, viz. by the power of self- nutrition, sensation, thinking and movement; further, since it is the soul by which primarily we live, perceive and think- it follows that the soul must be an account and essence, not matter or subject… it is the soul which is the quality of a certain kind of body.” In De Anima II, Aristotle explains that the primary principle of what animates man- from nourishment to understanding-is the soul, which is united with the body as its form. The soul is said to be essentially the form of the body, but for Aristotle, it is not because the soul is merged with the body. The soul has the power of communicating its existence to the body not just through movement (locomotion) but also through understanding or thinking (knowledge). Hence, the existence of man is viewed as a whole body and soul are distinct from each other. On the other hand, St. Thomas of Aquinas addressed the mind-body problem by characterizing human nature as body and soul: “Man is composed of spiritual and corporeal substance.” In Summa Theologica, he also addressed the following concerns about the nature of the soul as a body: (1) it is the body’s moving principle; (2) knowledge of corporeal things is caused by likeness; hence to know of the body is to be like it in nature; and (3) the soul moves the body, and movement happens through contact; hence the soul must be a body because contact happens between bodies The Biblical God and Humanity For St. Augustine (354-430 CE), philosophy is amor sapiential, the love of wisdom; it aims to produce happiness. For Augustine, wisdom is not just an abstract logical construction; but it is substantially existent as the Divine Logos. Hence philosophy, is the love of God: it is then, religious. Teachings of Christianity are based on the love of God, which Augustine’s, Aquinas’, and Anselm’s arguments are basically rooted. For Augustine, Christianity, as presenting the full revelation of the true God, is the only full and true philosophy. However, we can love only that which we know. When comes this knowledge of God? It begins with faith and is made perfect by understanding. All knowledge leads to God, so that faith supplements and enlightens reason that it may proceed to ever richer and fuller understanding. Indeed, without this enlightenment of faith, reason invariably sooner or later, goes astray. As a French poetry laments: Philosophie: I have everything. I have seen all. I knew all. I have heard all. I have it all. I had lost… I am a bit lost. It should be taken as a humble acceptance of the fact that human beings alone, without God, are bound to fail. As stated in John 5:5, I am the vine; you are the branches. If you remain in me and I in you, you will bear much fruit; apart from me, you can do nothing. Further to quote Psalms 4: The thoughts are very deep! The dull man cannot know. The stupid cannot understand this. For St. Thomas of Aquinas, a medieval philosopher, of all creatures, human beings have the unique power to change themselves and things for the better. His philosophy is best grasped in his treatises Summa Contra Gentiles and Summa Theologica. St. Thomas considers the human being as moral agent. We are both spiritual and body elements, the spiritual and material. The unity between both elements indeed helps us to understand our complexity as human beings. Our spirituality separates us from animals; it differentiates moral dimension of our fulfillment in action. Through our spirituality we have a conscience. Thus, whether we choose to be “good” or “evil” becomes our responsibility. Anthropocentric and Ecocentric Framework A human person is a living being that contains a real and existing to direct its own development toward fulfillment through perfect, unconditional, infinite love, goodness, beauty, and unity and will do so if all the proper conditions are met. Environment, the sum of all surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces and other living things which provide conditional development and growth as well as danger and damage. What is the world made of? How did the world come into being? How can we explain the process of change? Those are philosophical questions brought up approximately 600 B.C.E in the Western Ionian seaport town of Miletus across the Aegan Sea from Athens, Greece. The speculation of the pre-Socratic philosophers represents a paradigm shift- a change from mythical explanation of the origins of the cosmos to a more rational explanation. Eastern sages probed nature’s depths intuitively through the eyes of spiritual sages which Greek thinkers viewed nature through cognitive and scientific eyes (Prince 2000). These thinkers were looking for the underlying laws of nature. They wanted to understand the process of the nature by studying nature itself, not by listening to the stories about gods. According to Payne (2010) there are two frameworks where humans can be related. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 (RA 9003) This law aims for the reduction of solid waste through source reduction and waste minimization measures, treatment, and disposal of solid waste in accordance with ecologically sustainable development principle. It also aims to ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment, and disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best environmental practice in ecological waste management excluding incineration. RA 9003 considers: waste as resource that can be recovered”, emphasizing on recycling, reuse and composting as methods to minimize waste problems. The Six R’s of RA 9003 Reduce, the first 'R' is all about creating less waste. Here are some of the ways you can do this: 1. Only buy what you need 2. Choose products with less packaging 3. Buy in bulk 4. Look for items that you can re-use Reducing the amount of waste, we all generate is a great way to benefit the environment. Recover is sometimes added to the end of the list. It refers to the act of putting waste products to use. For example, decomposing garbage produces methane gas, which can be recovered and burnt to produce energy. Recycle, the third 'R' is about making sure you separate items that can be recycled, meaning they can be used for a new purpose. Repurpose, for every item that can't be refused, reduced, or reused, try repurposing it. Many people in the green community refer to this method as upcycling. You may be surprised to learn how many common office products serve more than one purpose. Sometimes it requires using some creativity, but the possibilities are endless. Try using wasted printer paper for scrap paper, cardboard boxes for storing supplies, binder clips to hold power cords and chargers in place, and even mason jars, coffee mugs, and tin cans for holding pens and pencils. Designate an area of your office as an Upcycle Station for collecting and storing supplies. Encourage your colleagues to add items to the station they no longer need and to check there before purchasing new supplies. We'd love to hear what products your business repurposes! Refuse, the fourth element of the 5 R's hierarchy. Learning to refuse waste can take some practice but incorporating this step into your business' strategy is the most effective way to minimize waste. Talk to your procurement team about refusing to buy wasteful or non-recyclable products. When working with vendors, refuse unnecessary product packaging and request reusable or returnable containers. Making smarter purchasing decisions and setting standards and expectations early in the process makes it easier for organizations to “refuse” waste in the first place. Rethink can be added to the start of the list. It means we should think about the way our actions impact the environment Prudence and Frugality Prudence is the capacity to direct and discipline one’s activities and behavior using reason. It is a behavior that is cautious and, as much as possible, keeps four cardinal virtues, which include justice, fortitude, and temperance. According to Adams Smith’s The theory of moral sentiments (1959), a truly righteous person embodies the value of prudence since it controls one’s overindulgences and as such is a vital for a certain society. On the other hand, frugality is the quality of being thrifty. It is the careful supervision of one’s resources. Frugality, aside from prudence, is another fundamental value that can help us develop a sense of right and wrong and attain whatever we want in life. Moreover, it is a virtue that can guide us in making choices in life and receiving the most value out of those decisions. Commonly, when we talk about frugality, we are talking about the cautious management of material resources, especially money. A frugal person always invests time to think carefully just to save a lot of money and, therefore, uses far less money compared to an affluent person. However, frugality can be used in a wider way to practically everything in our lives. One of the best ways to practice prudent and frugality without compensating the environment is through backyard garden, that can also be useful in times like what we have now. Through backyard garden we can really save a lot of money. Backyard gardens are relatively small areas around homes we use to grow food for ourselves and the family. The practice has been going on for ages, but this practice is declining in our region for obvious reasons. We often presume food can always be obtained from the open market, so why waste time grow our own in a garden? or “… don’t have the time to work on a garden”, and several other reasons. Here is importance of backyard gardening. Prudence in Choices Freedom involves choice. It is man’s capacity to do otherwise. As Sartre said, it is through choice that man lives an authentic human life. If human beings have no capacity to choose, which means that they are determined, then this seems to reduce the value and dignity of man, because it shows that man cannot control the situations around him. Humanity without the capacity to choose is a pawn to whoever or whatever nature allows to happen. When man cannot choose, he tends to believe that he cannot be made responsible for the choices he makes because his actions are not from a deliberate act of choosing but a causal connection between events beyond his control. If human beings are determined, life seems to be futile or even absurd, because they live to simply go with the flow, with that the law of nature dictates. Whatever action they “choose” is not really a choice, but it is what nature dictates. This is fatalism, a view that states that one is powerless to do anything than what he wants to do. The act of choosing or the ability to choose is valuable because it gives the human person the reason to make deliberate actions out of motives that reveal his autonomy as an agent or as an individual. As what Sartre said? “To act in bad faith is to allow others to choose for you or for chance to take its lead.” Chance and choosing are not incommensurable. If a person has the capacity to choose, then that person can be held responsible over the consequences of his actions. If the choice lies in his own hands, he will take considerable time before acting on something because he knows that if the consequence is not what he intends to happen, he gets the blame. Hence, the person becomes prudent with the choices he makes. In the spirituality of imperfection, we learn to accept that life, our environment, is both "evil" and ' 'good." B.F. Skinner believes that morality is a conditioned response impressed on the child by society. To be responsible is when one feels responsible. There must be added awareness that humans did it "independently," "of his own initiative “, having knowledge about acting on one's own desires - consciousness of freedom Freedom of Choice and the Consequences If you have understood the importance of being prudent in making choices, you will realize in this section that any deliberate act of choosing involves evaluating alternatives. Robert Nozick – renowned American philosopher explains in his 1981 book, Philosophical Explanations, that making a choice seems to feel like there are various reasons for and against doing each of the alternative actions or courses of action one is considering, and it seems, and it feels as if one could do anyone of these alternatives. The act of making a choice involves evaluating the reasons and giving weight to reasons. One alternative is chosen because the reason behind such alternative has more weight than the others. Nozick introduced the concept of weighing the reasons. He explained that when you are choosing, the act involves not only weighing the reasons but giving weight to reasons. After you have chosen each alternative, you will realize that some considerations carry more weight than the others. That is why you choose one alternative and discard the other. Nozick further suggests a theory of values in the act of giving weights. These values are intrinsic, instrumental, originative, and contributory. Intrinsic value is the value that has in itself apart from or independent of its consequences. If intrinsic value is applied to alternatives, you choose this alternative by the weight you give to the alternative because the alternative itself is valuable in its own right. For example, if you will have to choose between studying and going out with your friends, these alternatives ca be both valuable and independent of the consequences the alternative may lead to. Intersubjectivity In one of the past chapters of this subject, we have learned that a human person has self-awareness, self-determination, externality, and dignity. We have explored that a person recognizes what he or she is and what he or she can do. Filipinos in general love to watch drama on TV. Perhaps, you will agree that Ang Probinsyano became so popular not just because it is an action-picked soap opera but also because it is filled with a lot of discussions about relationships or interpersonal relations that all of us can easily relate to. So, we laughed, cried felt threatened, grieves, loved, hoped, rejoiced, etc. together with Lola Flora, Cardo, Alyana and the rest of the characters. The word intrapersonal is made from the combination of the following: a. Inter – a prefix which means between b. Person – which means “human” or “individual” c. -al – a suffix which means ‘pertaining to’ or having the ‘character of’ Intrapersonal thus, is a word we used in describing interactions between people. In philosophy however, when we say interpersonal relations, we are referring to interactions that exist between the Self and the Other. The interaction between the Self and the Other is related to the philosophical concept of intersubjectivity. Like the word interpersonal, the word intersubjectivity also comprises of three groups of letters and/or words, namely: a. Inter – again this is a prefix which means ‘between’ b. Person – this refers to a person or thing that is being discussed with. c. -al – a suffix used to form a noun which expresses state or condition From this, we can conclude that intersubjectivity means a condition of relationship between subjects or persons. If I relate with a friend for example, and he or she relates back to me, intersubjectivity occurs. Philosophically, this means that when the Self recognizes the Other and the Other recognizes the Self, intersubjectivity happens. Authentic Dialogue and Interaction with the Disadvantaged human drives us to uphold dignity and goodness, our interactions with others are also geared toward what is good and beneficial. This led humans to strive to achieve deeper and more substantial interactions and relations with other people. This deeper and more genuine interactions is called a dialogue – and this is made possible when the self realizes that the other is genuine and unique individual. A dialogue is an interaction between two persons that happens through speech or the use of words, speech or the use of words, expressions, and body language. The person is a being who is open to other that can receive others in a dialogue. Ordinarily, we think of it as a kind of communication that usually occurs through a conversation. However, it must be noted that dialogue is not confined to words. Actions, gestures, and other expressions maybe used to convey a person’s inner life. Because persons are beings with inner lives, the words uttered during a dialogue are rooted in each person’s inner life. Whenever a person speaks, he or she expresses a personal interiority and communicates this part of himself or herself to another person. This is the reason why it is not possible to have a dialogue with the materials, object, a plan, or even a pet. Only beings with interiority or an inner life can engage in a dialogue. A dialogue occurs when two persons “open up” to each other and give and receive one another in this encounter. Genuine dialogue occurs when persons are willing to share themselves with one another period, the awareness of each other’s presence as a true person defined by the acceptance of each other’s uniqueness and differences. When an individual enters a dialogue with the mindset, then it is truly a dialogue between equals. Embracing Differences In this lesson, we will learn that he best way to have a more holistic perspective is to learn from other who see things differently from us. In short, we must learn to silence our minds that tend to totalize things and persons and wait for the other to teach us something new. The people who need this most are those in society whom we have already trapped within our prejudices. For example, we readily assume that persons with special needs have such a pitiable and difficult life. Young points out a survey conducted in one city in which people were asked how they would perceive their lives if they were in the shoes of a person with special need. Majority of the respondents said that they would find their lives worthless and that they would lose the drive to live. Statistics in the city, however, showed that actual PWDs “usually think that their lives are quite worth living, and strongly wish to have discriminatory implements removed so they can live those lives as well as possible” (Young, 1997:344-345). In other words, it is totally unfair and insulting for us to imagine that PWDs think that their lives are not worth living. They are, as studies show, generally happy and would rather not feel being pitied for their situation. Many of us cannot seem understand this because we project our own definition of a happy life on them; but they are different, and it is important for us to recognize and respect that. It does not mean however, that we should treat them as lesser human beings. They deserve respect just as much as any other human subject does. To recognize this is to appreciate the meaning of intersubjectivity. The other subject is different from me but deserves respect as much as I do. Society A society, or a human society, is a group of people involved with each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum of such relationships among its constituent members. In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification and/or dominance patterns in subgroups. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant, larger society. More broadly, a society may be illustrated as an economic, social, or industrial infrastructure, made up of a varied collection of individuals. Members of a society may be from different ethnic groups. A society can be a particular ethnic group, such as the Saxons; a nation state, such as Bhutan; or a broader cultural group, such as a Western society. The word society may also refer to an organized voluntary association of people for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purposes. A "society" may even, though more by means of metaphor, refer to a social organism such as an ant colony or any cooperative aggregate such as, for example, in some formulations of artificial intelligence. What does it mean to be a member of a community, to “belong” to the society in which you live? The information superhighway that we know today gives more focus on computer hardware, software, and systems in terms of contribution to society as the basic tools enabling fast and efficient transfer of information. Before personal computers were mainly used for word processing. Nowadays the emergence of portable computers enables many people to transact business everywhere. Societies and Characteristics Society can be understood, following the German sociologist Franz Oppenheirmer (1992, xiv) as referring to the totality of all natural relations and institutions between man and man. The size and scope of a society differs. A small group of academic scholars, for instance, can be called a society; while we also speak of society, classified according to geographical location, culture, ethnicity, belief system or religion, political ideology, and type of economy, among others. The basis of classification usually corresponds to the common features of the members in a society. Consequently, societies can overlap, such as when religious societies and ethnic societies exist in one geographical society, which explains why it is natural for a human individual to be a member of a different societies at the same time. in each kind of society that he/she is a part of, the human person plays a set of roles, the totality of which defines his//her social identity. In what follows, we shall examine the kinds of society based on the primary means of subsistence of resources of life’s necessities. How Human Relations are Transformed by Social Systems. human related aspects are influenced by our society and social system. Social transformation refers to the process of change in institutionalized relationships, norms, values, and hierarchies over time. It is the way society changes due to economic growth, science, technological innovations, and war or political upheavals. Social transformation affects people’s interactions and lifestyle. Regarding individuals, social transformation refers to the process of altering the social status of one’s parents to resemble their status. Technology affects the way individuals communicate, learn, and think. It helps society and determines how people interact with each other daily. Technology plays an important role in society today. It has positive and negative effects on the world, and it impacts daily lives. Technology plays an essential and important role in industrial and developing countries. Technology has affected almost all walk of human life such as education and social life. It has drastically changed the cultural norms and behavior of individuals. The more society is influenced by technology the more we need to consider the social, ethical, and technological and scientific aspects of each decision and choice (German 2000). Traditional and Legal Definition of Death Traditional Definition Death was a simply equated to the stopping of heartbeat and breathing. Legal Definition: Section 2, paragraph (j) of the Organ Donation Act of 1991 (Republic Act 7170): “Death”- the irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions or the irreversible cessation of all the functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem. A person shall be medically and legally dead if either: (1) In the opinion of the attending physician, based on the acceptable standards of medical practice, there is an absence of natural respiratory and cardiac functions and, attempts at resuscitation would not be successful in restoring those functions. In this case, death shall be deemed to have occurred at the time these functions ceased; or (2) In the opinion of the consulting physician, concurred in by the attending physician, that based on acceptable standards of medical practice, there is an irreversible cessation of all brain functions; and considering the absence of such functions, further attempts at resuscitation or continued supportive maintenance would not be successful in restoring such natural functions. In the case, death shall be deemed to have occurred at the time when these conditions first appeared. What happens to the human person after death? Concepts of life after death in Christianity The Christian end-time expectation is directed not only at the future of the church but also at the future of the individual believer. It includes definite conceptions of the personal continuance of life after death. Many baptized early Christians were convinced they would not die at all but would still experience the advent of Christ in their lifetimes and would go directly into the Kingdom of God without death. Others were convinced they would go through the air to meet Christ returning upon the clouds of the sky: “Then we who are alive, who are left, shall be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air; and so, we shall always be with the Lord” (1 Thessalonians 4:17). In the early imminent expectation, the period between death and the coming of the Kingdom still constituted no object of concern. Finding One’s Purpose The noumenon cannot cause the phenomenon –– so Schopenhauer concludes: the noumenon and phenomenon are the same reality apprehended in two different ways: the noumenon is the inner significance, the true but hidden and inaccessible being, of what we perceive outwardly as the phenomenal world. Schopenhauer's ethics: humans are separate physical objects in space and time, temporary manifestations in the phenomenal world, of something noumenal –– this implies that in the ultimate ground of our being we are the same something –– so the wrongdoer and the wronged are in the last analysis the same –– this explains compassion. to one's essential beings, for the "unfree man" is "a disgrace to nature'.' The free human being still must draw a sharp conflict between the higher self and the lower self, between the ideal aspired to and the contemptibly imperfect present. • Unless we do "become ourselves," life is meaningless. • total reality = phenomenal realm (highly differentiated world of material objects in space and time) + noumenal realm (single, undifferentiated something that is space less, timeless, non-material, beyond the reach of causality) which is inaccessible to experience Tragedy, according to Nietzsche, grew from his unflinching recognition and the beautification, even the idealization, of the inevitability of human suffering (Johnston 2010) Our true existence is not our individual lives but our participation in the drama of life and history Realizing ones "higher self” means fulfilling one’s loftiest vision, noblest ideal. On his way to the goal of self-fulfillment.
