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STANDArrn
l[V[l
HIGHER LEVEL
PEARSON BACCALAUREATE
GlobalPolitics
ROBERTMURPHYWITH CHARLESGLEEK
SERIESEDITOR:CHRISTIANBRYAN
Supporting every learner across the 1Bcontinuum
•
Published by Ptanon Education limited, Edinburgh Gate. Harlow,
Essec,
CM20 2JE.
www.pearsonglobalschools.com
Texte Pearson Education limited 2016
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The rights ol Robert Murphy and Charles Gleek to be identified as
authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
the Copyrigt,it,Oe-s-igns
and Pat•nts Mt 1988,
Fi'1t published2016
19181716
IMP10987654321
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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All rights rese,ved. No part of ttiis publication may be reproduced
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Printed in Slovakiaby Neografia.
Adcnowtedgements
The authors and publisher would like to thank:
Oscar Van Nooijen for his inspiration and expert help in
planning and reviewing,
SylviWirtjes for her contribution and input to the
project's caitfsca&es.
Christian Biya:nfor hi.she\, in writing the Development unit.
Laurene. Ward for his early review and his input to the Global
chalenge presentation ma teria.L
Jo Ke-ntfor her EALreview.
GaryGoodwin for creating the cartoon that appears on page 1.
The author and publisher would like to thank the foUowing
individuJJs and organisations fof'p«mission to reproduce
copyright material:
Rgures
Figures 1.2.1.3 from TIMEconomistPod<etWorld1'nFigures,
2016 Edition, ~onomist Books.
l,.ondon(201S);Figixe 3.4 from
GrHn Economics,London: Eatthsean (Scott U.to, M. 2009)
Fig.3.1,pp.36-37.
Tables
Table on page S from The EoonomistPodft Worldin Rgutes,2016
Edition, Economist Books, London (201S).
Every effort has been made to contad: copyright holders of
materialreproduced in ttvs book. Any omiss,ionswill be rectified in
sub~uent printings if notice is given to the publishers.
Textec-1n1ctst'Nting to the 18syll-.busand assessment haw been
reproduced from 180 documents. Our thanks go to the lntemational
Baccalaureate for permission to reproduce its inteUectualoopyright.
This material h;u been developed independtntl'y by th• publishfi
and the contetnt is in no Wfff connected with or endorsed by the
International Baccalaureate (18).lntemational Baccalaureate• is a
registered tradem.vk of the International Baccalaureate Organization.
Pearson Education limited is not responsible for the content of
any extoma.l inte-rnet sites. tt is IJSS,Cntial
ror tutors to previ<!Weach
website before using it in class so a.sto ensl.ft that the URLis still
accurate, relevant .and appropriatt. We suggitst that ttJtOtS bookma/1<
useful websites and consider enabling students to access them
through the school/college intranet.
O.dlcations
For my parents. And.rt.'W
and Monica.
And with special thanks to ""I students and colleagues at Wellington
College, especially Anthony Seldon,
Contents
Introduction
Key concepts
How to useyour enhanced eBook
Command terms
Discussionactivity
iv
vi
viii
X
1
1. Power,sovereignty and international relations
2
....................................................................................................................
1.1 Power
1.2 Sovereignty
1.3 Interdependence
1.4 Legitimacy
2
12
20
26
2. Human rights
30
2.1 Human rights
2.2Justice
2.3 Liberty
2.4 Equality
30
31
32
33
3. Development
............................................................................
48
·••·•·••-♦••·••· ••••
••••••••••••••••••
.......
.
3.1 Development
3.2 Globalization
3.3 Inequality
3.4 Sustainability
48
53
57
60
4. Peaceand conflict
64
4.1 Peace
64
4.2 Conflict
70
4.3 Violence and non-violence
78
5. Higher Level extension:global political challenges
83
.............................
············
.............................................................................
.
5.1 Security
5.2 Identity
5.3 Borders
5.4 Environment
5.5 Poverty
5.6 Health
85
88
91
95
97
100
6. Engagementactivity
102
.......................................
··············
................................................................
..
7.Examsupport
113
................................................................................................
• Paper1
113
• Paper 2
118
8. Extended Essay
127
....................................................................................................................
Index
133
I
Contents Ill
Introduction
Welcome to your Essentialsguide to Global Politics.This book has been designed to
solve the key problems of many 18 Diploma students. It will:
• relate material you have been taught to the syllabus goals and outcomes
• provide examples and case studies which build your understanding of
the key concepts
• help you demonstrate your understanding of key concepts in an exam situation
within a strict time limit.
Who should use Essentiallsguides?
Essentialsguides serve as highly effective summaries and have been carefully
designed with all I8 students in mind.
However, the guides also deal with the particular interests of 18students whose first
language is not English,and who would like further support. As a result, the content
in all Essentialsguides has been edited by an EAL(Englishas an additional language)
expert to make sure that:
• the language used is clear and accessible
• key terms are explained
•
essentialvocabulary is defined and reinforced.
Key features of an Essentials guide
Reduced content: Essentialsguides are not intended to be comprehensive
textbooks - they contain the essential information you need to understand and
respond to the key concepts in the 1BGlobal Politics Guide. This allows you to
understand material quickly and still be confident you are meeting the essential
aims of the syllabus. We have reduced the number of words as much as possible to
ensure everything you read has clear meaning. Each page is clearly related to the 18
GlobalPoliticsGuideandwill helpyou in the exam.
Format and approach: The content of the book is organized according to the units
and concepts in the 18Global Politics Guide. Each concept is looked at separately so
that you can study each one without having read or understood previous sections.
This allows you to use the book as a first text, or a revision guide, or as a way to help
you understand material you have been given from other sources.
Keyideas: Each sub-topic starts with a key idea, which gives a simple introduction
to the topic and an idea of the main learning point.
Key idea:
Human rights are the indivisible rights which all human beings are
entitled to by virtue of their humanity, without discrimination.
Articulation sentences: Articulation sentences are designed to summarize the
main point within a piece of text to help you with understanding.
Articulation sentences:
Positive human rights are those in which the government must take action to
protect the people; negative rights require the government not to act to allow
certain freedoms.
IV
I Introduction
Vocabulary and synonym boxes:Useful words and phrases are colour-coded
in the text and given matching colour-coded explanations in the margins. There
are three different sets: vocabulary rel 1ated to the topic, synonyms, and general
vocabulary. These are included to help identify and support your understanding
of academic and difficult words. In orciler to make the text more accessible to
students whose first language is not English, we have maintained an academic
tone but removed unnecessary vocabulary. However, at the same time we have
ensured that the complexity of the content is at the level required by successful
18 Diploma students.
SubJect vocabulary
bilateral involvingtwo groups
or nations
Synonyms
pseudo .......... havingthe
appearanceof, but not being,real
General vocabulary
oll fields areaswhere there is
o~ under the land or under the
bottomofthesea
Other features of this guide
Challengeyourself boxes:These contain open
questions that are linked to the IB'sApproaches
To Leaming (ATL) and encourage you to think
about the topic in more depth, or to make
detailed connections with other topics. They are
designed to make you think, work together and
cany out additional research.
Global Politics is a new concept-based course
and assuch,the Keyconceptsshouldbe
constantly referred to throughout the four
core units, the engagement activity and the HL
extension. We include the 16 concepts on
p.vi-vii and regularly refer to these definitions
in order to provide the conceptual frameY11ork
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
LookuptheFairvade
Foundation.
Theyaimtoensofe
wakt::rs
,eee~ fairpay.Ontheir
we,l)sl(eyou <:anreadabout
theworldsugarlrade.Which
countriesan?findmgit ddf,cult
to tradesugar-and
whj? Has
globalivtrionof the sugartrade
benefited
1hosecovntries?
you need to accessand understand the political
issues examined.
We have alsoprovided the Command terms on p.x so that you are thinking about
these for the whole period you use this guide and not just at revision time.
Engagementactivity, Examsupport:and Extended Essaysections:These are
intended to help you design, research and write your own activities, responses
and essays..They provide useful guidarnceand explain what is required to
achieve the top marks.
aText and audio: In the accompanying eText you will find a complete digital
version of the book. There are also links to spoken audio files of the vocabulary
ierms and definitions to help with comprehension and pronunciation. In addition,
all the vocabulary lists are located together as downloadable files.
Above all, we hope this book helps you to understand and consolidate your Global
Politics course more easily,helping you to achieve the highest possible result in your
exams and internally-assessed activities.
Introduction
IV
Key concepts
The following 16 key conceptsweave a conceptual thread through the course. They
should be explored both when worlcing with the four core units, the engagement
activity and the HL extension, in order to equip students with a conceptual
framework with which to access and understand the political issues examined.
'
Concept
Explanation
Power
Poweris a central concept in the study of global poJitjcsand a key foo.,sof the course.Powercan be
seenas ability to effectchangeand, rather than being viewed as a unitary or independentforce,is as
an aspect of relations among people functioning within a social organization. Contested relationships
between people andgroupsof people dominate politics, particularlyin this e<aof increased
globalization,and so understandingthe dynamicsof power playsa prominent role in understanding
global politics.
Sovereignty
Sovereigntycharacterizesa state'sindependence,its control over territory and its ability to govern
itself.How statesusetheir sovereignpower is at the heart of many important issuesin global politics.
Sometheoristsarguethat sovereignpower is increasinglybeing eroded by aspectsof globalization
suchasglobal communicationand trade.which statescannot alwaysfully control. Othersarguethat
sovereignstatesexercisea greatdeal of power when acting in their national interestand that this is
unlikelyto change.
Legitimacy
Legitima.cyrefersto an actor or an action beingcommonly consideredacceptableand providesthe
fundamental basisor rationale for all forms of governance and other ways of exerdsing power over
others.The most acceptedcontemporarysource of legitimacy in a stateis some form of democracy
or constitutionalismwhereby the governedhavea defined and periodicalopportunity to choose
who they wish to exercisepower aver them. Other sources of legitimacy are suggestedin states in
which such an opportunity doesnot exist.Within any proposed overallframeworkof legitimacy.
individual actionsby a statecan be consideredmore or lesslegitimate.Other actorsof global politics
and their actionscanalso be evaluatedfrom the perspectiveof legitimacy.
Interdependence In global politics, the conceptof interdependencemost often refersto the mutual reliancebetween
and among groups,organizations,geographicareasand/or statesfor accessto resourcesthat sustain
living arrangements. Often, this mutual reliance is economic (such as trade), but can also have a
securitydimension (suchas defencearrangements)and, inaeasingly.a sustainabilitydimension (such
as environmentaltreaties).Globalizationhasincreasedinterdependence,while often changingthe
relationships of power among the various actors engaged in global politics.
Human rights
Human rights are basic claims and entitlements that, many argue, one should be able to exercise
simply by virtue of being a human being.Many contemporary thinkersarguethey are essentialfor
living a life of dignity,are inalienable,and should be acceptedas universal The UniversalDeclaration
of Human Rightsadopted by the UN in 1948 is recognizedas the beginningof the formal discussion
of human rights around the world. Criticsarguethat human rights are a Western,or at leastculturally
relative,,concept.
Justice
There are a number of different interpretations of the concept of justice. It is often closely associated
with the idea of fairnessand with individualsgetting what they deserve,although what is meant
by desert is also contested.One avenueis to approachjustice through the idea of rights,and what
individuals can legitimatety expect of one another or of 1heir government. Some theorists also argue
that equality not only in the institutionsand proceduresof a societybut also in capabilitiesor well•
being outcomesis required for justice to be realized.
Liberty
Theconceptof liberty refersto havinglreedomandautonomy,It is often divided into positive
and negativeliberty,with negativelibertydefined as individuals havingthe freedom from external
coercion and posWvelibertydefined as individuals having the autonomy to carry out their own
rationalwill. Some scholarsreject this di.stinctionand argue that in practice,one form of liberty
cannot e><ist
without the other.It is also questionedif such an understandingof liberty is sufficient
for an interdependentworld, in which the seemingfreedom and autonomy of some may depend
on lackof someforms of liberty for others. Hence.debateson equality inform our understandingof
liberty as well.
VI
I Keyconcepts
Concept
Explanation
Equality
Egalitariantheoriesare basedon a concept of equalitythat all people,or groupsof people,are
seenas havingthe sameintrinsicvalue.Equalityis thereforecloselylinkedto justiceand fairness,as
egalitariansargue·thatjustice canonly existif there is equality.Increasingly,with growing polarization
within societies,equality is alsolinked to liberty,asdifferent people havediffering possibilitiesto be
free and autonomous.
Development
Developmentis a sustainedincreasein the standardof living and well-being of a levelof social
organization.Many considerit to invotveincreasedincome:better access to basicgoods and
services;improvementsin education,healthcareand public health:well-functioning institutions:
decreasedinequality; reducedpoverty and unemployment;and more sustainableproduction and
consumptionpatterns.The focusof developmentdebatesin contemporaryglobal politicsis on
is.sues
facedby developingcountries.,
and on the imperativeof shiftingthe focusfrom modernization
(seenasWesternization).However,all societiesand communitiesfacequestionsabout how to best
promote well-being and reduceill-being.
Globalization
Globalizationis a processby which the world's local, nationaland regionaleconomies.societiesand
,ulturesarebe,omingintreasingty
integrated
and,onnec;ted,
Thetermrefersto the reduaionof
barriersand borders,as people,goods,servicesand ideasflow more freelybetweendifferentparts
of the world. Globalizationis a processthat hasbeentakingplace for centuriesbut the pacehas
quickenedin recent decades,facilitatedby developmentsin transportationand communication
technology,and powered by cheapenergy.It is naw widely acknawledgedthat globalizationhas
both benefitsand drawbacksand that its benefitsare not evenly distributed.
Inequality
Inequality refersto a stateof affairswhere equalitybetweenpeople or groupsof people is not
realizedand the consequentpotential compromisesof justice and liberty.Inequalityoften manifests
itselfthrough unequal accessto resourcesthat are neededto sustainlife and develop individuals
and communities.Consequently,
the conceptisclosetyconnectedto discussions
of powerand of
who holds the rights to theseresourcesand their proceeds.Inequality can be examinedboth asa
phenomenonwithin and betweensocieties.
Sustainability
Definitionsof sustainabilitybeginwith the idea that developmentshould meet the needsof the
presentwithout compromisingthe ability of future generationsto meet their needs.Sustainability
today hasthreefields of debate- environmental,sociopolitical and economic.In global politics,
mechanismsand incentivesrequiredfor politicalinstitutions.economic actorsand individualsto take
a longer term and more inclusivewell-being perspectivein their decision-makingare particularly
important.
Peace
Peaceis often defined as both the absenceof conflict and violence aswell asa stateof harmonious
relations.Many also referto peaceasa personalstateof non-conflict, particularlywith oneseW
and
with one'srelationship to others. Peaceis the ultimate goal of many organizationsthat monitor and
regulatesocialrelationships.
Conflict
Conflict is the dynamic processof actualor perceivedopposition betweenindividualsor groups.This
could be opposition OYerpositions,interestsor values.Most theoristswould distinguishbetween
non-violentandviolent conflict.In thisdistinction.non-violentconflictcan be a usefulmechanism
for socialchangeand transformation,while violentconflictisharmfuland requiresconflict
resolution.
Violence
Violenceis often defined asph)"ical or psychologicalforceafflicted upon another being. In the
contextof global politics,it could be seenasanythingsomeonedoesthat preventsothersfrom
reachingtheir runpotential.This broaderdefinition would encompassunequaldistribution of power
that exdudesentire groupsfrom accessingresourcesessentialfor improved living standardsor
well-being,and discriminatorypracticesthat exdudeentire groupsof peoplefrom accessing
certain
resources.
Non-violenc;e
Non-violenceis the practiceof advocatingone'sown or others' rightswithout physicallyharming
the opponent. It often involvesactivelyopposingthe systemthat is deemedto be unjust,through
for exampleboycotts,demonstrations
and civildisobedience.
Theoristsarguethat non•viotencecan
often draw attention to a conflict situation and that it could provide a fertile basisfor post-conflict
transformation.
Keyconcepts
I VII
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1 Power,sovereigntyand international relations
1.1Keyconcept:Power
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What Is power?
ThereiJ no si,.se <1gf9@d
definitionof po,ver-(seepagevi tor'power'ecptanalion}
Butat itssimpl~. poweris aboutachievinttdesiredpis andn',JencingcthM. All
groupsand incwiduakin globalpoliocsh.wedifferentamounts and typesof po,w!I;
Ind-' tht effGi:tSol1htlrpowQr;
or l!Ktof powor,Statti can bod MetedInto~Ul
less powe,fulandfr~le states. Sates maybe po,v«ful in differentways.for~
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butnocmllllrif . ....,,allonal orpnlWlon< such.,.,,. Unbd Nations
andthe EuropeanUnion.hwep:,wer.MultinationaJcompanies
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thanstat:QS
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(NGOs)#Id ttl'1'0r1st groups.
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usepowerto actiENetheirdesiredgoals.
PoNttetn be usedto aChlM materfalgains.ForQW'l'\ple.a Slatt maywant to
useits pow« to a-_gree
a tradedealor defeata terroristsroup.It mayalsobe used
to persuade othorsto conform toa politicalor economicldoa,ForCDCattlPlo.
a
state mayuse its power to peBUadeotherstates to choose a democratic..capitalist
modQI of ptmment
or to 8ghtcorruption.A terrorl1.1
goup mightuse Itspow«
to radicalizeothersto supportanextremistideology.
Po.vetis not IPted.Slatescan btCOmemore powerl\A,whllStotnen sot their pow«
decline.Non•state g,oupscan be powerfuland cause problemsfewestablished
statepow«s.Thloush lnte,eovemmentalorganizations(IGOS),
smalklf'states
can cooperatewilt! otherstatesto becomemorepowerfulthanthe,, would be
alone.Forexample. members of a milituy affiancesuchasN4TOmayrespond
oolloctivolyto socurityttwats bt'launchfngm11Lttty
action.Thokind of respo~
that ilctorsin global politicschoose to UW!
can enableothers to draw concl.rsions.
about thcilrpowQr: Sfflilarly.politic.alandoconomlcunions.,such as tho W'Opoart
Union,mayestablisha singlecurrencyzoneth•t aimsto maximiz.e
their
oconomicpo,.roc.
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I Howto useyour enhancedeBook
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I1
soft povter.
With hard power,a sta.teor sroup tries to .c~
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wantsandwill usuall'fbe km powerfulthanSWeA.
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With soft powQ(. a stateor group lrieSto achieveIUaims througt, persuasion or
if1'luence.Stlte A will penuade State 9 to do what it wants, Mh Of without State
8 beingawwe that this iswhat State A wants.Nyt,deSc:ribes
thlsf.S'the power to
setothe,sto want what yoo want. Statesand groupsthat usesoft powercanuse
culb,ro,lortlgnpolicy(i e1hlc.Jand.. .,,,p1,ry)andpollllcalvaluos
(lorocample
democracy,nAe of law, tolerance, justice)to persuade other states {see pagevi for
)ustlco'"'planaHon( An unpojlVlar o<unethicalforolgn policy(sueh asth&2003
in.'asion ot Iraq or the 2014 annexation of Crimea)or a lack of politic.a)freedomal
home (such as in China) mav
all reduce a state's soft power.
Nyealso identifies a stfateSY
that balanceshard and soft p ewer.smart power,
where bOlhfof'CIQ
and persuulon are IISed108ttl'ler10achlevethe desiredoutcome.
for example,in 201Sthe UnitedStatesand its partnersin the p,s...
1 (the five
permanent membe,softhe UN SecurityCoondl, piusGeunartf) used soft power
and hard poworwhtndNlirigwlth Iran.Thoyusod a o:i,mblnitk>nol OCOl'M)mlc
sanctions, the threat of possiblemilitary action (hatd powier)and a diplomatic
procasstosecu,. a d~wlth Iranto roducoits nuclff~ns
programmt.
0
These types of powercan bethought of as a spectrur~i~icins~
ianglrtgfrom
••••••
very forctlul icdons {suchas rrilltaryforce~to a mixof soft l)OWClfdlplomacy111d
hard powersanctiOffi(smart powe~ to sophisticated soft power communications
campaignsdaslgntd to porwadt 1M au,aa. All of tho forms of pc,MI' • military,
economic.structural,relational. thal are described in this section can be used as
taietla In this spoctl\lm..
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vii for 'development'
l\avesaidthatUN
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e:planation).
wfapons irdpec.tofl
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should have been given use hard power against
China has pledged
thew"aid\leisariQs;,
but also "P lo S1.◄ "1lllon
more lime and lhlt a
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in infrastructure
was possible(combining est.abaishandmaintain
investment in Africa.
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healthctr9fa<litles.
and ln-.ChNhas
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favourableaccessto
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NtUf'II NIISOUl'Cl8S
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African states.
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complete vocabula,y lists.
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I ix
Command terms
Analyse ....·-······-·Breakdown in order to bring out the essential
elements or structure.
Compare ··-·-····Give an account of the similarities between two (or
more) items or situations. referring to both (all) of
them throughout.
Compare and
contrast........- ......Give an accountof similaritiesand differencesbetween
two (or more) items or situations. referring to both (all)
of them throughout.
Contrast ........... Give an account of the differences between two (or
more) items or situations. referring to both (all) of
them throughout.
Define .............. Give the precise meaning of a word. phrase.concept
or physical quantity.
Describe ···-·····-·Give a detailed account.
Discuss................Offer a considered and balanced review that includes
a range of arguments.factors or hypotheses.Opinions
or conclusions should be presented clearly and
supported by appropri,ate evidence.
Dlstinguish ..........Make clear the differences between two or more
conceptsor items.
Evaluate........... Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengthsand
limitations.
Examine.............Consider an argument or concept in a way that
uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the
issue.
Explain ········-····Give a detailed account including reasonsor causes.
Identify ............ Provide an answer from a number of possibilities.
Justify ..................Give valid reasonsor evidence to support an answer or
conclusion.
Outline .........
_M
___
Give a brief account or summary.
Suggest...............
Proposea solution. hypothesis or other possible
answer.
To what extent .. Consider the merits or otherwise of an argument
or concept. Opinions and conclusions should be
presented clearly and supported with appropriate
evidence and sound argument.
X
I Commandtenms
Discussion activity
Thesecartoonsabout interdependence,human rights,development,and
conflict are helpful in startingthe cornversationabout global politics.When
looking at interdependence,you can brainstormabout the differentwaysnations
dependon eachother for survivaland security.Humanrights aresupposedto
be universal:however,can you think of human rights that might beculturally
relative?Developmentis often thought to raisethe standardsof living, but are
there negativeby-productsto the processesof development?When looking at
conflict, can you think of specificexamplesof non-violent and violent conflicts:?
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Discussion
activity
I1
1
Power, sovereignty and international relations
General vocabulary
1.1 Key concept: Power
fragile weak°' uncertain,and
likely to become worseunder
pressur~
Key idea:
terrorist someonewhouse,s
violencesuchasbomb_..gor
Power is the ability to influence other groups in global politics and
achieve outcomes.
shootingto obtainpolitical
demands
materlaJ relatingto yourmoney,
possessions
andlivingconditions,
rather thanthe needs of your
miidorso.J
corruption dilhonest,il~galor
immoralbehaviour,
especially
fromsomeone withpower
r.tdlc.tllte makepeople accept
neN ait1doftene<tttmeideu.
e,pe<iallyKleasabout oomplete
socialmd politicaJ
change
pursue continue doing an
activity or tryingto achieve
something
CNff a longperiodof
time
interests the thingsthat bring
actvanta.gfl
to someone
or
somethjng
tadln.lly related to smatler scale
actions that you do to achWl/e
What is power?
There is no single agreed definition of power (see pagevi for "powe( explanation).
But at its simplest. power is about achieving desired goals and influencing others. All
groups and individuals in global politics have different amounts and types of power.
and feel the effects of their power, ex lack of power. Statescan be divided into powerful.
lesspowerful and fragile states.Statesmay be powerful in different ways, for example
economically but not militarily. International organizations. such as the United Nations
and the European Union, have power. Multinational companies (MNCs)- some
wealthier than states- non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and terrorist groups all
usepower to achieve their desired goals.
Power can be used to achieve material gains. For example, a state may want to
use its power to agree a trade deal or defeat a terrorist group. It mayalso be used
to persuade others to conform to a political or economic idea. For example. a
st.ate may use its power to persuade other states to choose a democratic, capitalist
model of government or to fight corruption. A terrorist group might use its power
to radicalize others to support an extremist ideology.
gOYerrrnent in whid-1the
pop~ion
chooses those who
govem them, through free and fair
Power is not fixed. States can become more powerful, whilst others see their power
decline. Non-state groups can be powerful and cause problems for established
state powers. Through intergovernmental organizations (IGOs). smaller states
can cooperate with other states to become more powerful than they would be
alone, For example, members of a military alliance such as NATO may respond
collectively to security threats by launcning military action, The kind of response
that actors in global politics choose to use can enable others to draw conclusion.s
about their power. Similarly, political and economic unions, such as the European
Union, may establish a single currency z-one that aims to maximize their
eledions
economicpov.,er.
Ideology opinions or beliefs,
Power gives groups involved in world politics the ability to pursue their interests,
whatever these interests may be at any giventime.
wha.tyou want,especiallyas part
of a gameor largeplan
Subject vocabulary
multinational
operating in more
th,n onecou,c,y
demo<ratic a sy1ttmof
often linkedto a particular
political systemor culture
Intergovernmental bet--Neen
or
ffiolving govemm~ntsof diffeuint
Articulation sentences:
countries
There isno agreeddefinitionof power. Howeverthereare economic.military.
lntergovtmmental
organltaUon.sorganizations
political and other forms of power, and it can be used to achieve a state or
group's interests.
eompo$edprinwily of sovereign
states{referredto as member
states)
mifriaryalllanco artfationship
or cooperationbetween states
that are committed to usingtheir
armedforces in supportingsimilar
mirtl,yot>;ectives
Synonyms
conform ........ obey
coercion........ f01ce
2
I1
Typesof power
Hard, soft and smart
Tactically, states and other groups in global politics can choose to force or persuade
others to do what they would like. Joseph Nye, a Harvard professor of international
relations. describes these tactics as hard power and soft power.
With hard power, a state or group tries to achieve its aims through coercion. State A
will force State B to do what it wants. State 8 will be aware that it is being forced to
do what State A wants and will usually be less powerful than State A.
Power,sovereignlyand internationalrelations
With soft power. a state or group tries to achieve its aims through persuasion or
influence. State A will persuade State B to do what it wants. with or without State
B being aware that this iswhat State A wants. Nye describes this as 'the power to
get others to want what you want'. StMes and groups that use soft power can use
culture, foreign policy (if ethical and exemplary) and political values (for example
democracy, rule of law, tolerance, justiice) to persuade other states (see page vi for
Justice' explanation). An unpopular or unethical foreign policy (such as the 2003invasion of Irag or the 2014 annexation of Crimea) or a lack of political freedom at
home (such as in China) may all reduce a state's soft power.
Nye also identifies a strategy that balances hard and soft power. smart power.
where both force and persuasion are UJsedtogether to achieve the desired outcome.
For example, in 201 S the United States and its partners in the PS+1 (the five
permanent members of the UN Securi tf Council. plus Germany) used soft power
and hard power when dealing with Iran. They used a combination of economic
sanctions. the threat of possible military action (hard power) and a diplomatic
process to secure a deal with Iran to reduce its nuclear weapons programme.
These tfpes of power can be thought of as a spectrum of options, ranging from
very forceful actions (such as military force); to a mix of soft power diplomacy and
hard power sanctions (smart power); to sophisticated soft power communications
campaigns designed to persuade and attracl All of the forms of power - military,
economic. structural. relational - that are described in this section can be used as
tactics in this spectrum.
Hard
Militaryforce,Sanctions
Smart
Payment,Diplomacy,Trade/Aid
-
Soft
Outreach,Culturalties
Figure1.1 Hatd to soft powersGaJe
Subject vocabulary
hard power achieYing
aims
thf'Ough
fo«:e
soft power achievingaims
throughpersuasionor influence
smartpower achievingiims
throughforce, persuasionand
influence
sancuo,u officialordersor laws
s.topping
b'adeorcommunic:alio
withanoth-trstate,a.sa wry
of forcingits~rs
to make
pofitkatchanges
General vocabulary
persuasion makingsomeone
decide to do something, especially
bypvingthemn:uonswt,yth"(
shoulddo it, or askingthem many
times to do it
ethical relatingto principlesof
what is rightand wrong
exemplary excellentand
proYiding
a good example for
people10 follow
rule of law a situation in which
everyonein a countryisecpected
to obey the laws,includingthe
government,
powerfulpeople and
militaryleaders
a.nnexaUon ta.Iring
controlof a
countryor a<~ ne,n.to yourown,
especiallybyusirc:force
Hard power
Smart power
Soft power
Military action taken
against IslamicState in
Syria and Iraq by US and
others in 2014. Soft or
The nuclear deal signed
between Iran and PS+1 in
July 2015. The PS+1 used
a combination of tactics:
diplomatic negotiations.
Development aid plays
a huge part in powerful
states trying to achieve
their outcomes through
persuasion. The United
were not possible with
economic sanctionsandan States state aid agency
Islamic State, which
unstated but possible threat (USAID) gives most
was not prepared to
aid to countries where
of military force. Foreign
negotiate.
Affairsmagazine praised
development matters for
this as a'textbook ecample
US security interests. In
Military force against
of success-fullyconceived
201S. Afghanistan and
Saddam Hussein in 2003
and implemented foreign
Pakistan received the
by the US coalition.
policy'.
most US aid (see pageCriticsof the invasion
vii for 'development'
have said that UN
Violent protest groups
explanation).
weapons inspectors
such as Hezbollah not only
should have been given
use hard power against
China has pledged
their adversaries, but also
more time and that a
up to $1.4 trillion
build and run schools,
smart power approach
in infrastructure
was possible (combining establish and maintain
investment in A(rica.
In return, China has
inspections with the
health care facilities. and
threat of military force). participate in democratic
favourable access to
coalition politics in the
naturalresourcesfrom
Lebanese parliament.
African states.
smartpower options
spectrum • complettr1inge
of
opinions,people or situations
goingfromone extremeto its
opposite
aJd help,such as money or
food.giveni,.,,anorg1;nization
« governmentto a countryor
to peoplewhoa,.. in a diffieuh
situation
ne,gotlaUonofficialdiscussions
betweenthe representativesof
opposing groupswhoare tryingto
rt-ad, an agretment,especiallyin
businessor politics
lnfrasb'ucturethe basicsystems
and structures.
thata state or
organiz:.at.On
needsin orderto
workproperty,forec:ampleroads.,
~llwaysor~b
Synonyms
sopl,lstlcated.. advanced,
developed
lnvoslffltnt.... money
1 Power.
sovereignty
andinternational
relations
I3
General vocabulary
Ebol,1 a virusthat causes
bleedingfrommanyparts of the
body a,,d uwally causesd.. 1h
lllegttlmate not alk>w"ed
or
acceptable accordingto rules or
agreements
credlblllty the quality of
-ing
to bebdi<vtd
11td
trusted
comply dowhatyouhavetodo
or are asked to do
Hard power
Smart power
Solt power
Military force was used
against the Gaddafi
regime in Libya in
2011, with a NATOair
campaign authorized by
the UN Security Council
to protect civilians.
However, the Obama
administration was
initially reluctant to use
military force, focusing
instead on withdrawing
troops from Iraq and
President Obama's
speech in Cairo in 2009
pledged to reset relations
with the Musi im world
in the Mid die East.
However, this public
message was combined
with a con•tinuation
of military force in
Iraq and Afghanistan.
The US administration
attempted to achieve a
decisive outcome before
Natural disasters ranging
from the South Asian
tsunami in 2005; the
Haiti earthquake in 2009;
and the West African
Ebola outbreak in
2014-15 have seen huge
donations from states
and even the deployment
of troops to help.
Sporting events such as
the London and Sochi
Olympic Games in 2012
Afghanistan.
During
withdrawingUStroopsin
and 2014 can be used
Obama's presidency, there 2011 and 2014,
to boost a state's global
was reluctance to deploy
image.
soldiers to new conflicts.
Synonyms
reluctant ....... unwilling
Articulation sentences:
troops ...........
Hard power relies on force, whereas soft power involves the use of
persuasion. Smart power is the combination of both of these tactics.
soJdiers
embedded ..... believed s.trongfy
ultfmate ........ best
Challenges of soft power
Supporters of soft power argue that governments that have liberal values and
practices may provide an attractive example to some people in states and societies
that may lack democratic institutions. They may be attracted to democratic politics,
economic systems based on freedom and choice, support for human rights, and
other generally accepted standards and right for individuals (see page vi for 'human
rights' explanation).
However, consistency and patience is needed. Soft power can take years to create,
but may be lost in an instant or in a single image. For ecample, photographs of
US soldiers mistreating prisoners in Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq in 2003 became
synonymous with a military campaign that many people considered illegitimate
and illegal.Trust and credibility are esseotial if states and groups want to use soft
power in order to persuade.
Soft power is also hard to use because oultures and values are embedded in
society, and are therefore outside a government's control. States may also want to
communicate different messages to different audiences through soft power; what
persuades in Paris may not persuade in Damascus.
Articulation sentence:
Soft power is fragile - it can easily be destroyed - and it is often embedded in
societyand not withina government'scontrol.
Military power
Military power is essential when using h.ard power. Military resources (land, air or
sea) are the ultimate means to force another group or state to comply or to change
their behaviour. The most powerful states are often thought to be those with the
largest armies, the most advanced weapons (including nuclear weapons), and the
technology and willingness to use their military power against one or more targets.
4
I1
Power,sovereignty
andinternational
relations
It is possibleto compare and measurethe military resourcesavailableto states.We
can look at the number of soldiers,the amount spenton defence,or the amoun1
spent asa percentageof a state'sGDP.As of 2015,TheEconomistestimatedeach of
theseas follows.
General vocabulary
GDP Gross.
Oome,,ticProduct:
thetotalvalueofall goodsand
services
produ<:ed
i.na country,
Defence spending ($bn)
UnitedKingdom
in one year, eccept for income
receivedfrom abroad
Russia
budgets the money thatis
twa.ilabfe
to an Or'g,,nization
or
person
SaudiArabia
China
UnitedStates
0
150
300
450
■ Defence spending (Sbn)
rIsur• 1.2St4t,,' dt{tltU rptllliing in Sbilli•• grop~
Defencespendingas% of GDP
Iraq
SouthSudan
SaudiArabia
10.4
Oman
Afghanistan
0
■
3,8
7.5
Defence spe,,dlng as 'I(, of GDP
11.3
Figure1.3 States'defencespendingas % of GDPgraph
States
Armed forces (by 1,000)
1.China
2,333
2. United States
1,433
3. India
1,346
4. North Korea
1,190
5. Russia
771
Thesedata allow analyststo makedifferent conclusionsabout military power. Poor
but unstable statessuchasAfghanistan,SouthSudanand Iraq have to spenda
high proportion of their GDPon defence.They remain focusedon their domestic
instability and do not show any military power ambitions beyond reducinginternal
threats.Stateswith largepopulations,such asChina, the United Statesand India,
unsurprisingly,have largenumbersof troops (larger than the populations of some
states).Wealthycountries and those keen to play a global role in securityspendthe
most on defence,with four of the UN SecurityCouncil members(US,China, Russia
and the UK)having the largestdefence budgets in the world.
Synonyms
unstable,....... insecure
firm .............. fixed
But it is dangerousto draw firm conclusionsabout military power from statistics
about resourcesalone.What matters is whether military resourcesare actually
usedand whether they are successfulwhen they are used.Successshould be
measuredby whether the statedobjectives of the useof military power are, in
reality,achieved.
1 Power,sovereignty
andinternational
relations
I5
rsthe War on Terrora successfuluse of military power?
• The United States has impressive military resources but failed to achieve
a decisive victory in Afghanistan and Iraq. These campaigns cost at least
S1.6 trillion and lasted 13 years in Afghanistan and 8 years in Iraq.
•
General vocabulary
counter do something in order
to p.-.wnt something t»d from
happeningor to reduteitsbad
elfect>
Insurgencyanattemptbya
groupof people to take control of
theirgovernmentusingforceand
violence
cfvll war • war in which
opposinggroupsofpt0ple from
In 2013, the United States and its allies resumed military action in Iraq to
counter a new threat from Islamic State. During the 2003-2011 war in Iraq. the
United States' superior military technology was severely tested by insurgency
tactics and the use of far less sophisticated technology by armed opposition
groups. such as roadside bombs.
• Campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan were part of a so-called War on Terror,
launched in 2001. Since then, the number of terrorist attacks has increased
and dangerous insurgencies have spread. From Afghanistan and Iraq they
have spread across the Middle East(to Syria), across North Africa (to Libyaand
Tunisia) and to South Asia. Pakistan has seen the most dramatic rise in terrorist·
related violen,e sin,e 2001.
the same countryfightearl\other
in order to gain polrticalcontrol
Articulation
humanitarian concerned with
mproving bad livingconditions
and preventing human suffering
the period of time
aftersomething
suchas• war,
stormor accidentwhenpeople
arestilldealingwiththe results
sentences:
Military power is often measured by the size of a state's military or its military
spending. It is also useful to assess how effective a state's military is in the
conflicts that it engages in.
aftermath
Is militarypowerdecliningin importance?
Military power less useful
and ,ignificant
Militarypower ,till useful
Military power has been un,uccessful
in many major conflicts since 2001
(Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya). It does not
work against contemporary non-state
actors or armedopposition
groups.
Military power is still important to
check the advance of non-state groups
such as Islamic State who threaten
state sovereignty (see page vi for
'sovereignty'
explanation).
doctrine ........ belief
Inter-state war is decreasing. military
conflict between states is nearly
non-existent (see page vii for 'conflict'
Intra-state war is increasing. The world
faces complex threats from civil war
and insurgencies which pose a global
sought .......... tried
ecplanation). Conventional amiies
security threat. Inter-state war has
deployed against states are outdated.
not disappeared completely. Conflict
between Russiaand Ukraine (2014)
mllltant 9roups noo-statearmed
groupsthat are willingto use
strongOf violentactionin orderto
achievepoliticalor socialchango
rellef money,food,clothesand
soon gNent<>peoplewhoate
pooror hungry
Synonyms
sophlsllc.ated.. ad,anced,
developed
Increasing public and political
reluctance for Western troops to
be deployed, making it difficult
to find support and legitimacy for
....
- ...............-...-...........................
..
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
~
Researdl
Russia's
miita,y
intervention
,n Uknin~in 20l4,
WhatwasRussia
aimingto
acl'IK'Vel
Weretht..y
succcs-sful7
Usengthisora.mple,
andM'rf
othersyoufeelare ~ant,
writean answerto the(l\lestion
'Is militarypc,.verdecliningin
impona1l0e:7'
6
I1
military action.
and •igniflcant
demonstrates a continuing threat.
Military force is still useful to protect
civilians (Libya, 2011) under the
doctrine of Responsibility to Protect.
Military powerand sofepower
Military power is notju,t used to force other groups into action. It is frequently used
for humanitarian objectives and to prevent human ,uffering in the aftermath of
natural disasters. ~or e<ample:
•
In 2014, the United States, France and the United Kingdom sent troops to
Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone to help tackle the Ebola crisis.
• Troops were sent to Haiti in 2009 to lhelp deal with the earthquake, and to South
Asia in 2005 to help deal with the tsunami.
Militant groups often respond to humrunitarian disasters. too. For example, after the
Pakistan floods of 2011. the Pakistani Taliban sought to increase their soft power by
launching their own relief operations.
Power.sovereignty
andinternational
relations
Articulation sentence:
Military power is used less against other states than previously in history. and
is now primarily used against non-state actors or intra-state threats.
Economic power
As with military pO'Ner,there are several Wir'fS to measure a state'seconomic power.
These can also be used to measure its development, as is explained further in Unit 3:
Development (page 48).
Method
Explanation
Gross Domestic
Product
Measures merely the size of domestic output, for example in
billions of dollars. Some analysts ecpect China to overtake
the United States on this measure in the next decade.
Gross Domestic
Product per
person
Measures the size of the economy as a proportion of the
total population. By this measure, analysts expect China
to take much longer to overtake the United States.They
see this as evidence that the benefits of economic grO\Nth
are not spread as widely amongst the population as in the
United States.
Economic growth
percentage
Measures the arnnual or quarterly percentage by which a
state'seconomy has grown (or decreased).
It is possible for states to seek only economic power. Japan and Germany have
large economies. However, since the end of the Second World War they have
chosento pursueeconomicpower only and to not seekto increasetheir military
power. They have small armed forces, which they use rarely, and only as a part of
internationalcoalitions.
But it is unlikely that a state will be a significant military power if it is not also a
significant economic power. All the members of the UN Security Council are large
economicpowers,
especially
the UnitedStatesandChina.Economically
weaker
countries, such as those in Figure 1.3 (page 5), have to spend a higher proportion of
their GDP in order to attempt to build effectivemilitaries.
States can use economic power as a form of hard power. States frequently impose
sanctions on other st.atesto force then, to change their behaviour. For example,
tough sanctions were placed on the Iranian economy by the United States and
European Union in order to force Iran to negotiate a deal to reduce its nuclear
weapons programme. In 2012, Iran's currency collapsed. The Economistestimated
that GDP fell by S.8per cent that year, inflation rose to SOper cent, incomes fell by
40 per cent and SOper cent in the private sector and public sector respectively,
and oil exports decreased by SOper cent.
General vocabulary
overtake develop or increase
morequicldy
thansomeoneor
50fT'lething
elseand becomemore
$UCCC!ssful,
more importantor
more advanced than them
coalitionsgroupsof stata
who join together to achieve
a partia.llarpurpose. usually a
political one
inflation a continuing increase in
priet-:s,
or the rate at which pric.e,
,naea.se
dtpMdtnt needing someone
or something in order to exist, be
successfuI ot be healthy
reserves supply of something
kept to be used if it isneeded
Synonyms
measure ........ way ofjudging
Subject vocabulary
private sector the industries
and services
in a countrytha.t
are owned and run bt'private
companies.and not bythe
government
public sector the industries
and services
in a COLS'lt,Y
theit
ate ownedandrunbf the
government
It is also possible for states to develop .an economic relationship that balances
out each state's economic strengths and weaknesses.China depends on natural
resources from Africa to fuel its large population and territory. In return, African
countries receive much needed investment in infrastructure from China's rich
foreign exchange reserves, earned from its large export market.
Articulation sentences:
Economic power can be measured in different ways. It can be used as a
method of hard power - in the form of sanctions - and is needed if states
wish to be strong military powers.
1
Power.sovereigntyand internationalrelations
I7
Structural power
Structural power is when states influence the political ideas, structure and
frameworksof global politics itself. Forexample,somestatesmay wish to push
others towards a more democratic, capitalist, free market economic model. The
Subjectvocabulary
Ideological relatingto political
principlesand structuresfor
orderinggovemment and society
Synonyms
driven ...........
a,fluenc,d
stronV(
polls ............. su,vey,
diverse .......... different
General vocabulary
struggle t longha.rdfight
authoritarian
strictly forcing
peopleto obeya $et of ruleso,
laws, without consultation or
ideological struggle between capitalistand communist modelsof economic
development is the most powerful example of this in recent history.The dominance
of the capitalistmodel was largelyachieved through a mix of hard power and the
attractiveness of its economic s-uccess.
More recen~y.Westernpowershavetried to remove authoritarian regimes and
build up democratic modelsof government. In Iraq.Afghanistanand Libya.thiswas
attempted through the useof hard military power and regimechange.with mixed
results.The Arab Uprisings.which began in 2011,were driven by largepopular
demonstrationsand the hope of a more democratic Middle Eastand North Africa.
In general.the uprisingshavefailed to achieve this.
Articulation sentence:
Structural power is the meansby which statesaffect global politics.
usually by promoting a model of politics that they favour.suchas
democracy or capitalism.
scopefor democraticchaflengeby
the population
reslme a govemment, especially
one that was not efectedfair+(or
thatyoudisapprove
of forsome
otherf't1l$00
uprisings attempts bf a group of
people to changethe govemment
or laws in a.narea or state
agenda the ideas that a political
party thinksare important and the
thingsthatpartyaimsto achieve
strategic;done u p.tt of a pla,,
Relational power
Relationalpower iswhen a state has a relationship with another stateand uses
this relationshipto influence the other state to chal"\geits behaviour.A statemay
usemilitary. economic, hard, soft. smart power or a combination of all of theseto
achieveits aims.To be successful.the state will need to havean effectivestrategy.It
must know the other state'sstrengthsand weaknessesand know both what would
be a convincing threat and what would Ile an attractive reward.
Nye identifiesthree typesof relational power.
• Threat$andrewards- that arelikely to encourage
the stateto reach
the desiredgoal.
• Controlling the agenda - limiting the choicesof the other state in order to reach
the desiredgoals.
• Establishingpreferences- getting the other state to want the same
goalsasyour state.
Articulation
sentence:
One state can use its influence to change the behaviour of another state, using
hard, soft and smart poY1er; this is called relational power.
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
Social and cultural power
Globalization has made it possible for some countries to export their cultural
Witha paMCI'.discuss
an
ecrunplt
or a farn()Js
brandfrom
you, C:OUl'llry
andM ecample
of a brandt.ha1
hasoomt from
abroad.Whatdo you thinklhc
mfh.ience
of thesebrandshas
been?Do youbt:lieve
either
brandhashadNI effecton your
o.,kureor thew,v it is peroei'led
bythe ,.., of the w<>rldl
8
I1
resourcesacrossthe world (seepagevii for 'globalization'explanation).Global
brandssuchas TheSimpsons.Facebook.the BBC.RealMadrid. Apple and Samsung
havebecomealmost universallyknown and popular. It is difficult to know whether
this brand popularity hasany soft power benefit for the countries from which
the brand originates.Fore.ample. opinion polls in Pakistanshow that the BBC
World Serviceis popular. However.this does not necessarilymean that the United
Kingdom isalso perceivedpositively.Therefore.cultural power connectsdiverse
populations around the world at a more human. rather than statestrategic. level.
Power.sovereignty
andinternational
relations
Cyber power
The cyber revolution has created an entirely new W"'f for political groups to try
to influence others The internet has em powered new groups both at a state and
individual level.These include organizations, such as Wikileaks,which leaked large
volumesof secret UnitedStatesgovernmentdiplomaticinformation.Nationstatesmow
invest in cyber security and have accused each other of launching cyber attacks on
others. Private individualshave also been empowered and have launched cyber attacks
against governments and multinational corporations. Others have launched legitimate
campaigns challenging state power, such as those seen through powerful biogs during
the Arab Uprisingsin 2011. With key infrastructure such as banking. water. transport and
telecommunications dependent on cyber security,a new battleground has opened up.
Articulation sentences:
The relatively new social, cultural and cyber powers have varying
effectiveness. Cultural power may do little for nation states, whereas cyber
power has empowered many groups, states and individuals.
General vocabulary
empowered givingsomeone
mOf"e
controlOYer theirown life
or situation
leaked deliberatety
gavesecret
informationto a mediacompany
suchas a new'Spaper
frustratepreventsomeone's
plans,effortsorattemptsfrom
,ucceed~
order the political,SO<."ial
or
economicsituationat a pal1icular
time
Economic power
Structural power
Relational power
Social, cultural and
cyberpower
Sought by Japan and
Impact on ilheglobal political
frameworkis achieved usually by promoting a
preferred political model
One state influencing
Social and cultural
the behaviour of
po'INerconnects
another state
populations but impacts
less than cyber power
e.g. Wikileaks
Germany since the end
of the Second World
War;necessaryfor
military power
e.g. democ1racy
Measuring power
Taking all of these types of power into account, a judgement can be made about
how powerful or weak a state is. We can also establish whether a state's power is
increasing or declining.
Measuringpoweras resources
Power can be measured bycalculating the $ize of, for example, armie1, economie$
and populations. Critics of this way of rmeasuring power say that this is not helpful
because it does not take into account what states actually do with these resources.
States may be reluctant or unable to use their power resources, even if these
resources are considerable. States may misuse their power resources and make
strategic mistakes. States may face opponents who seem less powerful, but still have
the capacity to frustrate,resist or even defeat their power.
Synonyms
Measuringpoweras behaviouraloutcomes
apodty ........ •t,;lity
Measuring the practical effect that states have when they use their power resources
is another w~ of assessingpower. This involves a judgement about whether,
for example, air strikes or economic sanctions have achieved the desired effect
and whether they have changed the behaviour of the other state in the way
that was intended.
Subject vocabulary
a.Irs.trikesattacksin which
militaryaS'crahdropbombs
unipolar when one stateis more
powerfulthan all the others
Distribution of power
Power can also be understood by looking at world politics as a whole. Is the world
order unipolar, with one state clearly trnore powerful than all of the other$ and
able to achieve its objectives without resistance? Is power spread around equally
between lots of powerful states and non-state groups in a multipolar system where
many states compete with each other? ls there a bipolar system, in which two rr,al
but equally powerful states are in conflict with each other, perhaps making both
reluctant to challenge the other?
1
multlpolar when manystates
are powerfulandcompete with
eachother
bipolar when two statesare
equallypowerful,a.ndthe main
competitionis b.twtctnthesetwo
powersand not others
Power,sovereigntyand internationalrelations
I9
0
00
A
C
0
8
CounlryZ
D
Figure 1.4b Bipolarsymm
F-igure1.4a Unipolarworld order
0
A
8
00
C
D
E
0
F
G
Figure1.4cMutripolar$)'Sttm
Indicator ....... sign
The distribution of power in global politics at any given time is an Indicator of
global stability. An imbalance of power amongst groups can often mean that war or
conflict is more likely.This is because states or other groups may feel that they have
orderly ......... po,ooful. ...ti•
enough power to use force to achieve their aims, or that an adversary is becoming
Synonyms
behaved
tockod .......... stuck
Subject vocabulary
realists those whoview global
politicsas beingdominatedby
statesand inwhid'I stat.esare the
most imporuintactorsin globll
politics,usuallydefendingand
prioritizingtheirown national
S'lterestabove anyother factors
competition seelcingaa..-antage
f:1t/efanothe,,actoror beginninga
p~eu where
one•C10twishesto
achievevictoryoverthe otht:r
offenstvt realismwhenstates
attemptto ecpandtheirpower
d4ftnstvt realism when states
attemptto defend themsetves
apinst extemalthreats
Ubenls those who view global
politicsas benefrting
from
statesandother actorsworking
together,folbwinginternational
law,respectinghumanrights
and ha.viog
a broaderrangeof
coreintereststhanth~irown
core interests
General vocabulary
anarchJcJacking
anyrulesor
order.
or notfolowingrules
of society
status quo the state of a situation
1$ it is
too powerful and thus needs to have their capabilities and influence reduced. It is
possible to achieve a relative balance of power. For example, during the Cold War,
the balance of power between the United States and the Soviet Union prevented
both countries from beginning full-scale military hostilities against each other.
However, the period was extremely volatile: both states increased their military
(especially nuclear weapons) resources and the possibility of conflict remained very
real. A balance of power amongst states and other global groups contributes to the
establishment of an orderly international society.
SeeUnit 4: Peace and conflict (pages 64-82) for an explanation of how the
distribution of power affects peace and stability in the global world order (see page
vii for 'peace' explanation).
Articulation sentences:
Power can be measured by assessingthe size of a state's resources, or by
measuring how effective a state is in achieving its objectives. Distribution of
power between world states can also be used to measure global stability.
Theoriesof power
Realism
Realists explain power politics largely in terms of states' hard power capabilities.
They see states as locked in competition with each other. Each state wants to
protect its national security (both military and economic) against threats from
other states in an anarchic world order. According to realism, states either pursue
offensive realism, where they aim to expandtheir global power; or defensive
realism, where they aim merely to defend themselves against external threats and
maintain the status quo. A key theorist of real ism as it relates to power is John
Mearsheimer. His 2001 book. The Tragedyof GreatP<Jwer
Politics,proposed that
states compete with each other to gain power at the expense of others and to make
sure that they do not lose power.
liberalism
Liberals, in contrast, believe that soft power, co-operation and a rules based
international order are the most effective and safest way of using power in global
10
I1
Power.sovereignlyand internationalrelations
politics. Examplesof soft power include leading by example,consensusbuilding
and the establishmentof opportunities for cooperation. Liberalsseestatesas
more powerful when they work togethler,for examplethrough cooperation
in international organizations.They believe that statesshould use power by
conforming to a world order govemedlby International law and respectinghuman
rights.Theyseepower asdistributed amongst a wide rangeof groupsand processes,
General vocabulary
consensus a.nopinionthat
tveryOl"I•
in a groupagf'ffSwith
or accepts
rtoHslon
a period of susta.ined
negativeeconomicgrowth.when
from international organizations (such as the United Nations) to international trade
and communications.
thereis less tradea.ndbusiness
aclivityin a.countrythanusual
The table below summarizessomeof the different theoretical approachesto power.
Subject vocabulary
lnternatlonal law theset of Nies
generallyregardedand accepted
as binding in relationsbetween
statesandbetween nations. It
servesasa frameworkfor the
Theoretical approach Perspectiveson power
Realism
Military power, economicsanctionsand incentives.
Liberalism
lntemationaJinstitutions,internationallaw.human
pnctic:eof stableMidorganized
internationalrelations
rightsand g{lobaltrade.
Articulation sentence:
Realistsbelieve statesuse hard power to gain and maintain power for
their own ends,whereasliberals believe that soft power,combined with
international cooperation, is the best method of operating in world politics.
Power transition
Poweris not a fixed concept. Statesc.tn becomemore powerful. Forexample,a
successful
economicstrategymay delivera sustainedperiod of economicgrowth,
or a statemay achievemilitary success.This increasesa state'spower and credib'ility,
and alsoother states'fear that it may use military force again.Statescan also
become lesspowerful. For example,an economic crisisor an unsuccessfulconflict
may damagea state'scredibility and the perceivedcompetence of its armed forces.
Synonyms
concept...... , .. idea
sustained ...... continued
compGttnce, .. skiI
vulnerable..... easilyharmed
Risingpowers
Much attention hasbeengiven to the economic riseof Chinaand the so-calledBRIC
countries,comprisingBrazil,Russia,India and China.Allof thesecountriesachieved
remarkableeconomicgrowth between2001and 2011.In 2008,therewasa global
financialcrisis.and growth for thesecountriessloweddramaticallybetween 2010and
2014(seegraph below).The type of power enjoyedby the BRICeconomiesremains
predominandyeconomicand hasbeen vulnerable to economic slowdown.The
Russianeconomy,in particular,suffereda severerecessionand sufferedfurther when
economicsanctionswere imposedon rt in 2014after the Ukrainecrisis.
Average annual growth rates for BRIC'Sand three major developed economies
%growth
S
10
12
Brazil
China
India
Japan
Russia
~outhAfrita
UK
us __
1
2001-2011
....;~
■ 2010-2014
I
Source;calculated
fromIMF Worl<lEconomkOutlook Dat.lbaseOctober2014
Figure1.5Growthrate of BR/CS
graph (indudi"'9 SouthAfrica,whichjoined in 2010)
1 Power,sovereignty
andinternational
relations
I 11
Declining powers
Many askwhether the United Statesis a world superpowerin decline.The global
financial crisisof 2008exposedweaknessesin the US economy and starteda long
economic recession. Militaryfailure in Iraq and Afghanistan made the Obama
administration reluctant to use its military povver in future conflicts. The United
Statesdid not want to usemilitary force againstthe SyrianAssadregime in 2013.
Thiswasdespite the fact that it had previously said lhat any useof chemical
weapons by the Assadregimewould be considereda 'red line', meaningthat force
would be usedagainstthe government.
Regardingthe United Nations SecurityCouncil, many question whether the United
Kingdomand Franceare still powerful enough to deservepermanent member
status.Therehavebeeo debatesin the United Kingdomabout military Intervention
in SyriaagainstIslamic State(in 201S) and whether to upgradethe UK'sTrident
Synonyms
Intervention .. involvem«it
nuclear weapons system. These debates are as much about the willingness and
enduring....... long.lasting
ability to project the UK'spower and influence on the global stageas they are about
the merits of the individual decisions themselves.
Powerdiffusion
A key power changein global politics has been the increasingpower of terrorist
non-stategroups,Violent groupssucha;; IslamicState,Boko Haram,al·Shabaab
and al-Qaedahavegained considerablepower.Theyhave beenable to launch
deadly terrorist attacksagainstNewYorlcand Washingtonon 11 September2001,
They havebeen able to gain control of large amounts of territory from sovereign
statesin Nigeria,Iraq,Afghanistanand Syria.Theyhave recruitedforeign fighters
usingonline networks.Most of thesegroupshaveshovvnno interestin negotiation
with other actors. Consequently, for states whose security is put at risk, hard pawe<
solutionsare the only option to counter the securitythreat posed by thesegroups.
Subject vocabulary
dlttused spreadamongsta
number of differentglobal
politicalactors
To someextent,globalization has put gr,eaterpower in the handsof the individual.
TheArab Uprisingsof 2011 spreadso quickly becauseprotesterswere able to see
on biogsand global televisionnetworks,such asal-Jazeera,what was happening
in other parts of the Middle Eastand North Africa.Theywere inspired to join the
uprisings.However,despitethesepopular uprisings,the power of nation-state
governmentshasproven to be more enduring. Governmentshavebeenable to
resistpopular pressure(for example,in Syria)and take measuresto stop further
rebellion (asseenin the return to military rule in Egypt).
Articulation
sentence:
Power is a fluid concept, with some nations gaining it, some losing it and
others having their power diffused by the rise of militant non-state groups.
1.2 Key concept: Sovereignty
Keyidea:
General vocabulary
States are sovereign when they exercise supreme control over what
supreme havingthe highest
happens inside their borders.
positionof power, importanceor
influence
What is sovereignty?
Sovereigntyis defined asa state'sability to rule itself.Statesare sovereignwhen
they havefull control and authority over what happensinside their borders.
Sovereigntyis an essentialprinciple in global politics. Statesshould respectthe
12
I1
Power,sovereignty
andinternational
relations
sovereigntyof other states,aswell as maintain and defend their own sovereignty.
Internationalorganizations.such as the United Nations,basetheir ruleson respect
for statesovereignty.
Sovereigntycan be thought of as internal and external.
Internal sovereignty is about statesgoverning themselvesindependently,States
havefull responsibilityfor, and power over,what happenswithin their borders.For
eJ<ample,
they can decideand enforce their own laws,collect taices,and spendthe
money raisedon their own priorities and needs.Statescan decidetheir own trade
policies.perhapsby placingtariffs on imports or decidingto join regionalfree trade
areaswith no tariff barriers.
Externalsovereignty is about how statesinteract externallywith other statesand
international organizations. States generally respect each other~ borders and do
not intervene or interfere in what goes on within lhe bordersof thosestates.States
may makerepresentationson other states'intemal actionsby way of established
intergovernmentalbodies,such as the United Nations.
Subjectvocabulary
lnternal sovereignty theability
of a state to e<ert ~itSNte
control(1tlet' itspopulationand
man.age
ru:
affair,indeptf'ldtntty
tariffs taxt-S01t goodscoming
intoor goingout of a c:ountty
txtemaJsov-erelgntywhen
statesare recognized
as
independentand sovereignby
otherstates,and arenot intedered
with;atsotheirexternalborderis
respected
Articulation sentence:
A statewith sovereigntyhascomplete control over its own governmentand
it hasexternalsovereigntywhen it allows other statescontrol over what
happenswithin their borders.
enforce ......... makepeople
obey
Interact ......... work together
Intervene ...... getinvolved
State sovereignty and legitimacy
outlined ........ described
A state'ssovereigntyis dependenton other statesrecognizingthe stateas a state.
The idea of sovereigntycomesfrom classicalRomeand medievalEurope.The Treaty
of Westphaliain 1648can be seenasthe point when the ideasof statehoodwere
formally established.The principle of sovereigntyhasbeensupportedthrough
putting ideassuch asdiplomacy and r>on-interventioninto practice.
defined ......... d~
lnttrforo deliberately
get
involvedin a situationwhereyou
•re not Wlfltedor needed
Groupssuchas IslamicStatemay call themselvesa state,but if no other states
or international organizationsrecognize them, they cannot be considereda
sovereignstate.Internationallegitimacy is essentialin order for a stateto be
r-ea,gnlz.eofficial~acceptthat
an organization,,g~t
or doo.imenthaslegal'>' official
authority
consideredan independentsovereigncountry.That said,organizationsthat are not
sovereignstatescandisplaymany of the featuresoutlined in the 1933Montevideo
Convention. The convention outlined the follO\Ning aspects of a state and is still ;a
useful guide to the features of sovereign nation states. Sovereign states should have:
•
Generalvocabulary
contCHtedwherethereislackof
agreementonwhata c-oncept
or
ideameans
a permanent population;
• a defined territory and borders;
• effectivegovernment;
• the capacityand legitimacyto enter into relationswith other states(seepagevi
for 'legitimacy'explanation).
ForeJ<ample,
the EuropeanUnion has a singlecurrency.a flag, a parliamentand a
central bank.It also hasa defined external border and the internal bordersbetween
its member statesare largelyirrelevant. It hasa foreign policy and is increasingly
entering into relationswith other statesthrough its High Representative
for Foreign
Affairs.The EUis not an independentsingle nation state,but hassuchdeep levels
of cooperation and integrationthat it does have manyof the identifying featuresof
independentstates.
This table includes the key features and indicators of sovereign states. It also
includesthe challengesof identifyingsovereignty.In somestatesthat are still
sovereignindependentstates,someof thesefeaturesmay be contested or in doubt.
1 Power,
sovereignty
andinternational
relations
I 13
Equally,some non-stategroupsthat are not sovereignstatesmay sharesome of the
featuresand functionsof nation states,challengingstates'sovereignty,
Feature
Indicator
Problems of identifying
Permanent
population
Identifyingwhether
peoplelive in a
permanentplace,or
whether the population
is lessfixed,suchas
refugees.
Refugees.
A sovereignstate maysuffer
an insurgency,suchas in Iraq and
Syria,leadingto refugeesfleeing the
country. In this sense,the population
is no longer permanent,but it is still a
sovereignstate.
Defined
territory
Identifyingterritorial
bordersthrough
maps:decisionsof
the International
Court of Justiceand
internationallaw which
agreestateborders,or
saywhen theseborders
are In dispute.
Many bordersaredisputed between
nation states.Forexample,between
Israeland the PalestinianTerritoriesor
in the Kashmirregion betweenIndia
and Pakistan.
Identifyingwhether
a governmentexists
and whether it hasfull
authority and control
over the state'sterritory.
Fragilestates.suchasSomaliaand
the DemocraticRepublicof Congo,
do not haveeffectivegovernments
that haveauthority acrossthe whole
of the country. However,they are still
recognizedsovereignstates.
Generalvocabulary
fleefng leavingsomewhere
Vef'f
quickly,inordetto escapefrom
danger
retugoespeoplewhohavebeen
forcedto leavetheir country.
especial>(duringa war,or !for
politicalOr'rcfiglOtJs
reasOO$
In dl,puteiflomelhing
is in
dispute.peopledisagreeaboulit
c::allphitea singleIslamicsta,•.
unitingmanycountrieswith
Muslimpopulationsi,._oone
much largerstateunifiedby
politicalandreligious
auoci.ttion
with ldam
oil field$ areaswherethereis
oil underthe landor underthe
bottom of the sea
summits important meeting-s
betweenthe leadersof several
gcweff'W'l"lents
Effective
government
Non-stategroupsare increasingly
taking control of territory from nation
states.In 2014,IslamicStatedeclared
that it had establisheda caliphate
acrossboth Syriaand Iraq.The border
betweenthe twocountriesbecame
increasingty
irrelevantevenif, in
internationallaw, the border still exists.
The EuropeanUnion isoften criticized
for acting like a state,with the power
to create laws and force member states
to comply,even though it is not a
sovereignstate.
In 2015, IslamicStatewascalled a
pseudo-stateby some analysts.They
addedthat it had an effective- if
illegitimate- form of government,able
to collect revenue,manageoil fields
and control territory.
pseudo .......... havil'tlthe
appearance
of.butnot.,beingre.J
Capacity
to enter
relationswith
other states
Trackingdiplomatic
relationsbetweenstates
through international
summits,membership
of international
Subjectvocabulary
bilateral involvin,g
two groups:
or nations
organizations,
or bilateral and
multilateral
partnerships
muttUateralinvolving
several
differentcountriesor groups
14
I1
Power,sovereignty
andinternational
relations
Regions(suchasKosovoandthe
Palestinian
Territories)that are trying
to gainindependenceareoften given
a form of membefshipof intemational
organizations,knownas observerstatus.
The EuropeanUnion hasits own High
Representative
for ForeignAffairsand
its own overseas aid budget,which
allowsit to havean increasingly
significantand independentvoice on
theworld stage.
Articulation sentence:
The Montevideo Conventionis used to determine whether a nation isa
sovereignstate,howeverthere are many challengesto this method because
some non-state groupsconform to somefeaturesof statehood.
Gaining recognized statehood
In modern global politics,the United Nations is the key international body which
agreesthe legitimacyof statebordersand makesrulings on bordersthat are
contested.Beingrecognizedas a full member stateof the United Nationsis the
ultimate confirmation of independent statehood.Sincethe United Nationswas
founded in 1947,the numberof nation stateshasgrown from 52 to 193 states.
Most recently.South Sudangained independencein 2011and becamea full
member of the UN.
At an international level,where bordersor sovereigntyare disputed,the resolutions
of the UN SecurityCounciland the de<cisions
of the InternationalCourt of Justice
(ICJ)are important statementsof international law.However,rulingsfrom both
institutions are still sometimes ignored or questioned by states.
At a national level, statesand regionsseeking independenceoften hold a
referendum, in which the population votes directly on whether it should
become independent. This is seen as the most legitimate way for new states to
be recognized.In a referendumin 2014, Scotlandvoted againstbecomingan
independentstate,separatefrom the United Kingdom.
In the table are further examplesof claims of. and disputesover,sovereignty,
Example
Disputes over/ justifications for sovereignty
Kosovo
In 2008,Kosovodeclar•edits independencefrom the Republicof
Serbia.Therewas not a referendumto askthe Kosovanpopulation
directlywhether they wanted Kosovoto be an independentstate.
The United Statesand other Westernstatessupported Kosovo's
desirefor independence.The ICJstatedthat Kosovo'sdeclaration
of independence'did not violate international law', but the UN has
not declared Kosovoa full independentmember stateof the UN.
Crimea/
Ukraine
In 2014,the RussianFederationanneoced
the regionof Crimeain
Ukraine.A referendumwas held,but the UN declaredthe referendum
illegitimate,due to the presenceof Russiantroops. Russia
justified its
actionsusingtheexampleof Kosovo',;
claimsfor independence.
The
UN SecurityCouncilattemptedto passa resolutiondeclaringthe
referendumillegitimate.but Russiavetoed this.
Synonyms
rullnp .......... decisions
Generalvocabulary
resofutfons fomial decisionsor
statements agreedon by a group
of peopJe,
especi-1",aftera vote
vetoed r•fusedto alow
50mtthingto happen.by having
the right to special powen which
aUow an actor to &egitimat~ stop
what otherac:tots~
navigation when someonesais
a shipalonga riveror otherarea
of water
patrols M¢Vingmiliwy forces
throughan areaat regulartimes
to check that there is no trouble
ord.anger
Subjectvocabulary
referendum whenpeoptevote
in o«fer to makea dtcisionabout
a p;a,tiwlarsubject,rather than
votingfor an individualor political
party
lnternatfonalwaters waters
surrounding the gJobe
that are
notpart of the te«itoriJIseaor a
state'sWltemalwaters
South China Chinawants to expand its territorial watersin tile South China
Sea.China hassaid that it does not recognizethe authority of the
Sea
ICJand will not comply with its decisions,In response,the United
StatesNavyhassent warships to carry out regular'freedom of
navigation' patrols through watersthat China claimsas its own,
but that the United Statesconsidersto be international waters,
Kashmir
(India and
Pakistan)
The so-calledLine of Control between India and Pakistanin the
contestedregion of Kashmiris a UN-agreedtemporary border,It is
designedto keep Pakistaniand Indian troops apart. Both India and
Pakistanclaim sovereigntyover the region,The Line of Control was
agreedin 1972and is monitored by UN peacekeepers,
Thisis the
UN'slongest peacekeepingoperation anywherein the world.
1 Power,
sovereignty
andinternational
relations
I 15
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
~
lookal intetnational
rte'W1-
websitcsto findoutaboutSouth
Sudangainmgind~nct-.
Whatprocessdid theytJW! in
Ofderto gainindependence?
What ,ole d.i:Ithe UN pl..yin that
p,oces$I
Generalvocabulary
occupied enter a place in a large
groupand keepcontrol of it,
e,pe<ially
by milita,y force
settlements groupsof houses
and bufldingswherepeople five
Example
Disputes over/ justifications for sovereignty
Israeland
UN SecurityCouncil Resolution242was passedin 1967.It requires
Palestinian Israelto withdraw to the-bordersthat existedbefore the 1967Six
Territories
DayWar,when Israeloccupied the West Bank,GolanHeights
and GazaStrip. UN SecurityCouncil resolutionsare binding in
international law,yet Israelhasnot withdrawn to the pre-1967
borders.Furthermore,it hasbuilt a securitywall around,and
settlementswithin. territory that is beyond the pre-1967borders
asagreedby the UN SecurityCouncil.Israelsaysthat the pre-1%7
bordersare no longer relevant and that the securitywall is needed
to protect the stateof Israelfrom terrorist attacksfrom Palestine.
Articulation sentences:
It is possibleto gain independentstatehood, usuallyby holding a referendum,
and to become recognizedby the UN. However,there are many contested
statesand bordersaround the world.
prosperity when Nites are
economically
succ.essful.
generatingincomeand managing
their affairs in a waythat allaws
ridividual$,businessesand the
govenvnent
togener1:te
wetlth
poolIng sacrificing
sovereignty
bysharingpowerwith other
actorsinglobalpo11tic:s,
most
ofte-nothernationstatts.for
eKample
bysharing
a currency
(t.g. the Euro)
unll.iteraRydonebyonly°""ol
the statesor groupsinvolvedin a
situation
Is state sovereignty being eroded?
A common argument in global politics is that statesovereigntyis being weakened
by political,economicand cultural globalization.Someargue that other aspectsof
global politics,such asinternational organizations,international trade, multinational
corporationsand global terrorist networks.are challengingstate sovereignty.
Theseargumentsgenerallyreflecteithera liberalor a realistview of theworld.
Forrealists,statesarestill the most important actorin globalpolitics,able to act
independentlyand protect their borders.For liberals,statesstill e,cistbut cooperatewith
eachother on both economicand political matters.Liberalsbelievethat statesmaximize
their securityand prosperity by pooling, rather than defending,their sovereignty.
balllngout doingsomethin.g
to h@lpf<)lll@On@
out
oftroublo.
especia.lty
financial
pl'obferns
last resort the only solutionafter
tryingeverythingelse to solve a
problem
Synonyms
blndlnt ......... to be obeyed
Claim: State sovereignty becoming
lesssignificant
Counterclaim: State sovereignty
still significant
Bordersare decreasingin significance.
Borderchecksbetweenstatesare
disappearing,particularly in the
EuropeanUnion (due to the Schengen
Agreement).Statesare affectedby
issues that cross borders, for example
Bordersstill define independentstates.
Statesstill decidetheir own economic
and political policies,within their
borders.Somestill maintain border
checks.Othersstill act independently
or unilaterally. National identity
climate change,global terrorism and
still matters,and remainsa unique
migration.
identifyingand unifying force.
Economicglobalizationis reducing
Economicpolicy (e.g.import and export
tax, tradepartnerships)isstill decided by
the economic importance of
states. Many states are reducing
16
I1
nation states. Multinational corporations
barriers to trade and are joining
are undoubtedly powerful, but resolving
tradeagreements(e.g.Trans-Pacific
Partnership,EuropeanUnion). There
is increasingfreedom of movement
for people and goods.Multinational
corporationsalsohavea lot of power
(someare wealthier than small states).
and can force statesto changetheir
economicpoliciesin return for
investment.
majoreconomiccrisesrequiresactionby
Power,sovereignty
andinternational
relations
nation states.Forexample,the financial
crisisof 2008was resolvedby nation
statesand intemationalorganizations
(G20,G8,lntemational Monetary Fund).
Bailing out failing multinational banks
wasfunded by nation statesas'lendersof
last resort'.
Claim: State sovereignty becoming
less significant
Counterclaim: State sovereignty
still significant
Intergovernmental organizations
States choose to join IGOs and are the
key contributors to IGOs.There is no
world governing body with the power
to act above the nation-state level. Many
IGOsallow states the right to veto and
protect core national interests. Most
IGOsare intergovernmental. where
decisions are reached by consensus of
the member states.
(IGOs)are becoming more numerous
and more powe<ful.One of the most
powerful organizations, the European
Union, has supranational powers
and can make laws and enforce them
on its member states. Other IGOs
recognize that states face shared
challenges and try to resolve these
through collective action.
International conventions such as the
Responsibility to Protect no longer
regard state sovere;gnty as absolute.
Instead it is conditional on states
behaving responsibly. For example,
external inte,vention by states acting
unilaterally or through IGOshas been
used against Afghanistan (2001), Iraq
(2003), Pakistan (the operation to
capture or killOsama bin Laden, 2011),
Libya(2011) and Ukraine (2014).
States can still abuse human rights or
break international law with impunity.
Decisionsabout external intervention are
taken very carefully,and are clepenclent on
intemationalagreement.Interventionwas
possible in Libya(2011). However,when
the Syriangovernment used chemical
weapons (2013), there was no intervention.
The majority of borders are respected by
nation states Violations by other nation
Non-state actors, such asterrorist
groups, are frequendy challenging state
sovereignty and attempting lo define
new borders. For example, large parls of
Syriaand Iraq came under the control of
lslamicState(201S) and in Nigeria, Boko
Haram took over parls of the country
(201S).
While it is true that non-state actors are
challenging state sovereignty in a number
of states. this is not widespread, there
remainsbroad internationalconsensus
about what makes a state legitimate in
international law. Attempts by militant
groupsto seize territory are widely seen
as illegitimate and often military action is
launched to reassert sovereignty.
states have decreased and are very rare.
Synonyms
numerous...... many
absolute ........ unlimited
General vocabulary
govemlngbody an official
orga.niutionthat is responsible
for ma.kingthe rulesfor an
organization,
andformakingsure
that peoplefolk>wthe rules
collKtfvGsharedor madeby
everymemberof a groupor
society
with Impunitywithno riskof
beingpunished
violations actionsthatbrftk a
law.~reementor ptinc.,le
ruthless so determinedto get
what you wantthat you do not
care if you have to hurt other
peoplein order to do it
dlcta.tor1hJpa countrythatis
ruledbyone personwho has
comp'etepower
br.aches M\ .:tion thatbreaksa
law,ruleor agreement
Subject vocabulary
supranationalwhere decisions
can be takenabove nationstate
level,usuallyby an organization
th.atka.sthe poi.Yffto for.::en.1tion
states to conformto lawsor
pol ides
Articulation sentences:
Realists argue that despite globalization eroding state sovereignty, states
are still the most powerful factors in international politics. However, liberals
believe that the rise of intergovernmental organizations is becoming as
important. and sometimes more important. than the role of states in
the global order.
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
Theories of sovereignty
Realists
Realistsare prepared both to defend sovereignty as an absolute, inviolable principle
and to breach the sovereignty of other states if their own national interest requires it.
In the first case, realists believe that state sovereignty should be protected and that
the most significant actors in global politics are defined bystates within sovereign
state boundaries. For example, a regime in one part of the world may be run by
a ruthless dictatorship that breaches the human rights of its citizens. However,
the realist principle of sovereignty limits the use of force by other states to bring
this dictatorship under control. This would most likely be the case ~ there were no
national interest at stake for the realist state when considering whether or not to
Researchthe count,ywhe<eyou
1;,e. Usingd,e headings'bo<der<'.
'«onomy: 1GOs'.'inte,vention·
and'noo-sta« g,oup(. write
a report on the sovo«l!"'Y
ol ycurS1ate. Docidewhelher
you bel~ycursute
has
maintained
it$ so.-ereignry
CNer
thepast20ye.ais orwhetherit is
l,e;ng eroded
..............................
,....___ ..............
_,
1 Power,sovereigntyand internationalrelations
I 17
Subject vocabulary
genocidethedeliberat•m....der
of a whole group°'" race of people
democracy a systemof
government in which the
poplAation elects a government
andrepresent1.tives
to holdth•
gO\'efl'W'nent to ;t,CCOU"lt
intervene. For example, the United States was reluctant to intervene in Rwanda in
1994 despite clear evidence that a genocide was taking place. On the contrary, in
2003 the United States felt it was in its national interest to launch military action
against the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hus•ein without international approval through
the United Nations.
liberal.s
liberals argue that sovereignty is an important but not exclusive principle in
international political relations. Other st.atescan be punished (for example, by
the UN) if they commit crimes within their borders. For example. NATOs military
intervention in Libya in 2011 was based on UN Security Council Resolution of 1973.
The intervention was based in part on the principle of Responsibility to Protect
(known as R2P).The Libyan government was failing in its obligation to protect
civilian citizensfrom massviolenceduring the civilwar in Libya(see page vii for
'violence'explanation).
Theoretical
viewpoint
Perspective on sovereignty
Realism
Sees sovereignty as an essential feature of global politics. States are the only legitimate
bodies in global politics. The interests and right of states to act independenlly and defend
their core interests is prioritized over most other principles and ideas.
liberalism
Sees sovereignty as one of several principles in world politics. It is important. but not
always at the expense of other groups or ideas. Sovereignty is not absolute and can be
pooled (with states acting together to resolve shared challenges) and challenged (when
other states fail to exercise their sovereignty responsibly~
General vocabulary
mus involving
a verylarge
numberof people
electedchos,nf0t anofficial
position 1:,/voting
deSegatewhen the ~tral
goveo-wnentin a mte gives the
power of decision~malcflgto
regionaJor locargovernments
chamber oneofthepartsofa
parliament
electorateall the peopleina
oount,ywhohaved'Mt~tovote
Synonyms
lnUmidation .. u.-....
accountability responsibility
Articulation sentence:
liberals believe that state sovereignty is not exclusive and therefore believe in
the necessityof intervention in statesabusingtheir powers,whereas realists
would argue the opposite.
How states organize themselves
Statesmanage their internal sovereignly in different w.<fS.Democracy is the most
common model of state government. This means that state governments are elected by
a free and fair process. Everymember of the adult population is able to vote freely for
the government or representative that theychoose, without intimidation. interference
and with every vote counting equally. Some democratic state governments delegate
power to regions,which themselveshave democratic electiol'IS.bringing decisionmaking closer to the people affectedby those decisions. Some states run the whole
country from a very powerful central government, usually in the state'scapital city.
There is no single model of a democratic state. Each has its own strengths and
weaknesses,each distributespower and ensuresaccountability within the state in
different ways. For example, one chamber of the United Kingdom's Parliament, the
House of Lords,is unelected. In other systems,such as the United States,the costof
running an election campaign is extremely expensive.This meansthat only those
who can raiseenough money for advertizing and campaigningstandfor election. In
other states, there may be a lack of political choice and very fewpolitical parties for
the electorate to vote for.
In states that are not democracies, the governments generally need to use
authoritarian means to control their territory. This means that the government is
not elected or accountable to the population, and the people have no means of
influencingor removing the government.
18
I1
Power,sovereigntyand internationalrelations
Federalstates
In federal states.there is a government. usually in the capital city,which hascentral
power over somepolicy,such asforeign policy. Beyondthis, there are governments
at sub-national level which have the power to make and enforce the law. For
example,the United Statesis a federal systemof government. Individual stateshave
the power to decide and enforce their own, different laws. Some states have chosen
to havethe death penalty, whereasothers do not.
Unitary states
In unitary states,the central government hasgreatercontrol and authority over
what happenswithin its territory. Most decisionsand lawsare decided by a national
legislature suchas a national elected parliament or assembly.In the United
Kingdom, Scotland has itsown parliament and can make its own laws in certain
areas.Thesepowersare delegatedby the legislatureand might, in theory,be
restored back to the national parliament if necessary.
Fragilestates
Fragilestatesmay be democraticor urndemocratic.but the defining feature is
that the state'sinternal sovereigntyand power is weak.The government may be
non-existent,illegitimate or just too weak to haveauthority over its territory, For
example.the civil war and insurgencyin Somaliameant that the central government
had no power over largepartsof the country. Thewar preventedelectionsfrom
being held and there wasan almost total collapseof the government'spower to
keeplaw and order or provide public services,suchas healthcareand education.
Authoritarian states
In stateswhere there is no democracy,the government is not electedand governs
with authority that cannot be challenged.held to account or influencedby the
population. Leadersremain in power for as long as they wish, or until they are
removedby meanssuch asa military coup, foreign intervention (suchasthe
removal of SaddamHusseinin Iraq in 2003) or popular uprising (suchas the
removal of Egypt'sPresidentMubarak in 2011). In thesestates,human rights abuses
are likely to be widespreadand the rule of law is not respected.
Monarchy
Many statesin Europe,Asiaand the Middle Eastare governedby a hereditary
monarchy or a royal family,which is unelected but hasgained its authority through
generationsof rule by the family. Monarchiesdiffer greatly.Somehavelittle more
than a symbolic role (suchas in the UrnitedKingdom,Swedenand Norway),while
others havegreater political control (suchas the powerful ruling royal family in
SaudiArabia).Somemonarchieshave actively tried to reducetheir power and to
General vocabulary
ftdoraJ a federal coootry or
systemof goverrwnent
consistsof
a groupof stateswhich controt
theirown affairs,butwhich
are al$0controlledby a singl•
nationalgovernmentwhich makes
decisionson foreignaffairsand
defence
death penllty legal punishment
bydealh
public services se,vic:e,.such
as transportor healthcare,that•
governmmtprovides
hetd to account whtf\ a
governmentor pefSOnin a
positionof power is required
to explaintheiractions.legalor
illegal,and checkthatthey are
doing theirjob effectively
mllltary coup a suddtn and
violentattempt by the armyto
take control of the government
heredltary passedfroman older
to a youngerpersonin the same
1am;1y,
us..aly tlvoogh the lawor
ingenos
monarchy the '(Sltm in which
a countryi.sruledbJa kingor
queen
Subject vocabulary
unitary relatingtoor existingas
a singleunit
k!gl$1a.turean institutionthathas
the powerto makeor changelaw$
theoaacy a socialsvstemor
statecontrolledbyreligious
INden
give more power to electedciviliangovernments.suchasMorocco and the United
Arab Emiratesin responseto the Arab Uprisingsin 2011.
Theocracy
Meaning literally 'rule or government by religion', theocracy i.swherepower isheld
by religiousgroups.rather than non-religious political parties.For example,the
IslamicRepublicof Iran is ruled by its Islamic SupremeLeader,who has the power
to decide which non-religious candidatesstand for election to the state'spresident.
In SaudiArabia.the ruling ShuraCouncil has the power to makeand enforce Saudi
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
Articulation sentence:
Statescan be organizedin a number of different ways,ranging from
WhatmodelorSt.a1.cg<J'-'Cmmt.docs yourcountryuse?ln eroups
d1SCUSS
whcthe..you thinkthis
modeloelfeaive VvllalAAOthe
advantagesand dis~3M~£e$
democracyto autocracyand wit!ha varietyof governmentstructures,such as
ol it?
Arabia's
Shariaor Islamiclaw.alongside
thecountry's
rulingmonarchy.
federal and unitary.
1 Power.sovereignty
andinternational
relations
I 19
1.3 Key concept: Interdependence
Key idea:
Interdependence is when groups in global politics rely on each other,
have shared interests or have an impact on each other.
What is interdependence?
Interdependence is a key feature of a globalized world in which all groups in global
politics are increasingly reliant on each other and influenced by each other (see
page vi for 'interdependence' explanation).
This can be seen in a number of different ways.
•
Economic interdependence. States are linked together economically because
they trade with each other and the success or failure of their economies are
linked, A recession in one state is likely to have an impact on that state's ability
to trade with another. This can lead to the recession spreading from one state to
others. as seen in the global financial crisis of 2008.
•
Political interdependence. States' political decisions are likely to have an impact
on other states. For example, the civil war in Syria has had a wide political
impact across the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. A high number of
Syrian refugees are seeking asylum in Europe and the regional reach of Islamic
State'sterroristactivitiesisgrowing in North Africa and mainland Europe
(as seen in the terrorist attacks in Paris of 2015).Political instability in fragile
states such as Somalia has an impact on neighbouring states, both politically
and economically.
•
There are a number of challenges that many states have in common, and that
cannot be solved by one state on its own, For example, climate change affects
General vocabulary
asylum protectiongivento
SOrMone by a govel'nmtnt
becaUSt:1
theyhave escaped
from
fightingor politicaltroublein their
owncountry
all states•richandpoor• andcanonlyberesolved
throughcollectiveaction.
through international summits such as the Kyoto (1997).Copenhagen (2009)
and the Paris climate change talks (201SJ.
Articulation sentence:
Statesare becomingmore interdependent- economicaltyand politically.
among other ways - due to the globalization of world issues.
Intergovernmental organizations
As the world has become more globalized and states have become more
interdependent,so therehasbeen a growth in intergovernmental
organizations
(IGOs). These allow states to act together. Statesjoin intergovernmental
organizationsfor a number of reasons.
•
Powerful states can join IGOs in order to force or persuade other states to adopt
policiesor agreements
thatmeettheir nationalinterests.
20
I1
•
less powerful states can join IGOs to group together with other states. This gives
them more influence than they would have if they acted alone,
•
States use IGOs so that they can wo~ together to resolve issues where acting
alone is insufficient. where they need the positive actions of other states as
well as theirown.
•
States use IGOs to increase or protect their economic or military power. They
can do this through membership of a common currency (for example, the euro).
Power,sovereigntyand internationalrelations
by contributing to an economic IGO(suchasthe InternationalMonetary Fund)
or by joining a securitydecision-makingalliance (suchas NATOand the UN
SecurityCouncil).
• Statesalsojoin IGOswithin regions.RegionalIGOshavemore united power
and influence on the wortd stage than states in the region that act alone.
Examplesincludethe African Union, and the Associationof SoutheastAsian
Nations(ASEAN).
aJllanceanu,angementinwhich
two or mort counvie$or gtOUps
agreeto work togetherto try to
change or achievesomething
ag~des
organizationsor
departments,
especia.lly
withina
government,
thatdo a specific
job
in rotation the ptaaice of
regula,ty
changingthe penon or
Articulation sentence:
Intergovernmentalorganizationsprovide memberstateswith a number of
benefits,suchas economicstrength and more influence in global politics,
Key international organizations (IGOs)
country who does a particularjob
the tacts.tbouthow
successfulsomeone or something
hasbettnin the past
NKOn:IS
Subjectvocabulary
The United Nations
The United Nations(UN) is the leading internationalorganizationthat is truly
'international'in nature.It has193member states,representingmost of the
world'ssovereignstates.Its policiesare wide-ranging.Foundedin 1945,it has
many objectivesand many different agencies, which it usesto achieve its four
main objectives.
Objectives
Generalvocabulary
sustainabledeYelopment the
conceptthat the devtfopment
needs of today'spopulation
shouldnot resultin activitythat
putsat riskthe development
needsof futlxegtnffltions.to,
e,wnple.througl, damageto the
environment
Agencies and activities of the UN
Promotingand
UN SecurityCouncil - passesResolutionsand authorizespeacekeepingand other
protectingglobal
military action to protect global security.under ChapterVI I of the United Nations
peaceand security Charter.Some Resolutionsauthorizemilitary action led by other international
organizations.suchas NATO.UN peacekeepers
are sentacrossthe world. In 2015.
therewere 16 UN peacekeepingoperations,mostly in Africa and the Middle East,
International Court of Justice - makes rulings in international law when states disagree
over sovereignty.
Protectingand
UN Human RightsCouncil - consistsof a selectionof UN memberstates.worl<ingin
promoting human rotation, to investigateand makeother member statesac:countablefor protecting
rights
human rights
UN High Commissionerfor Human Rights- a UN agencythat operatesindependently
from memberstates,It scrutinizesmemberstates•human rights'records.
Advancing
world human
and economic
development
Millennium DevelopmentGoals(M DGs)- until 2015,agreedinternationalaction to
promote human developmentacrossthe poorest regionsof the world. Thesewere
replacedby the SustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)in 2015,which continued
the work of the MDGsand developedthem further to focus more on sustainable
development (seepagevii for 'sustainability'explanation),
Economicand SocialCouncil (ECOSOC)
- made up of 54 member states,servingoneyear terms, ECOS0C coordinates UN action on economic. social and environmental
issues.It alsooverseesthe work of the MDGsand SDGs.
United Nations DevelopmentProgramme(UNOP)- works on UN-agreed
developmentpriorities acrossthe world. funded by UN member states,
Synonyms
scrutlnlzes..... ecamines
carefully
1 Power,
sovereignty
andinternational
relations
I 21
Objectives
Agencies and activities of the UN
Tackling shared
challenges such as
The United Nations has led many important international summits on climate change.
climate change
For example, the Kyoto Protocol (1997) was ratified by 59 UN member states who
committed to reducinggreenhousegasemissions.SubsequentUN summits include
the less successful Copenhagen Accord (signed at the 2009 UN Climate Change
Conference) and the ParisAgreement (2015), which sets a path towards a legally
binding global agreement on reducing climate change.
Articulation sentence:
The United Nations is the most significant IGO, with objectives ranging from
peacekeeping, to human rights protection, to economic development and
climate change reduction.
EconomicIGOs
Other intergovernmental organizations focus on one area. for e><ampleeconomic
issues.The existence of economic IGOs reflects the economic interdependence of
global politics and the need to:
•
spread economic development and trade across the world, agreeing rules
between states;
•
help states when they are in financial difficulty (for example by giving loans), to
avoid their economic situationgettingworse and harming the world economy;
•
help states with 'technical'assistance-,
for example advisingstateson how to
develop their economies.
There are three main economic IGOs.
General vocabulary
stalemate a situationinwhich
it seemsimpossibleto settlean
argumentor disag,eement.and
neithersidec:anget anadil•n~
The World Trade Organization (WTO) decides and enforces the rules of
international trade, and resolves traded isputes between states through negotiation.
The WTO is made up of member states and is therefore an intergovernmental
organization. There has to be agreement amongst all members before policy is
officially adopted; everything and everyone must be in agreement. The WTO has
been criticized for failing to make progress in helping developing countries to join
global markets through its Ooha Development Agenda. The negotiations for this
began in 2001 and, as of 2015, remain in stalemate.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF] works to improve global cooperation on
financial stability and to promote economic growth and reduce poverty across the
world. Since the 1980s, the I MF has been known for forcing states to implement
economic reforms in return for loans. The IMF continues to offer both financial
assistance (loans) and technical advice to help states' economic development.
The World Bank focuses on states' economic development and on reducing
poverty. It does this through analysing and publishing data on global economic
development, and by funding development projects in less economically
developed states.
Articulation sentence:
There are a number of economic l•GOswhose purpose is to prevent
poverty, manage international trade regulations and promote global
economic developmenl
22
I1
Power,sovereignty
andinternational
relations
Collective security
States join IGOs to improve their security.Joining together in a formal collective
security alliance means that smaller states are protected by larger states, with all
states pledging that an attack on one state would be treated as an attack on all
member st.ates.States agree to pool their military resources and protect each other.
Synonyms
coUecUve ...... shJred
deficit ........... shol'ta6e
Acting collectively brings greater security than if states acted alone.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was founded in 1949 by the United
States and its western European allies in response to the Cold War threat from the
Soviet Union. It is the most significant ,example of a formal security alliance. After
the 11 September 2001 attacks. NATO used Article 5 and declared that the attacks
on the United States, led by al-Qaeda, were an attack on all its member states.
Subsequently, NATO led the military operations in Afghanistan against the Taliban
government and al-Qaeda. NATO has expanded its membership to include many
former Soviet states in Eastern Europe. Prior to the Russianannexation of Crimea
in 2014, Ukraine had been in discussions about potential membership of NATO. In
l015, President Putin identified NATO as a key threat to the RussianFederatign's
national security.
Articulation sentence:
An IGO such as NATO exists to provide states with collective security - all
member states offer one another military protection in the event of an attack.
Hybrid lGOs
As well as the United Nations, some regional IGOs have a number of different
functions, ranging from economic matters (for example, shared currency or free
trade agreements) to political cooperation (for example, on organized crime,
climate change or migration). These are called hybrid IGOs.
The EuropeanUnion (EU)
The European Union is a complex regional hybrid IGO that has a very wide range
of responsibilities and supporting institutions. It has supranational powers. It was
foundedafterthe SecondWorldWarto uniteformerenemies.principallyFrance
and Germany. The idea was that member states would become politically and
economically unified, and would become so interdependent that any future conflict
would be not merely unlikely. but impossible.
Membership has grown throughout the EU'shistory. Most recently, a large number
of former Soviet states in Eastern Europe have joined, taking the EU'smembership
to 28 member states. It remains an economic and political union. In 1999, the EU
launched a single European currency, the euro, encouraging further integration. Not
all member states use the euro, but all participate in the EUs free trade area, which
allows for free movement of people, goods and services across the EU.
The EU is perhaps the world's most advanced and integrated international
organization. It is sometimes criticized for acting like a nation state and for
challenging state sovereignty, with the power to force member states to comply
with EU law. It is made up of several key institutions, including:
•
•
European Commission - acts as the European Union's executive, with the power
to propose new EU laws. This part of the EU is unusual because it has the power
to set the agenda of the European Union independently of the member states
and to defend the core interests of the Union in its own right.
General vocabulary
••ecutlve thepanof•
g¢ver'nmtntthat makesdecisions.
and laws
European Parliament - the European Union is frequently criticized for having a
'democratic deficit' because its Parliament has weaker powers than the national
parliaments of sovereign states.
1
Power,sovereigntyand internationalrelations
I 23
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
~
_,,_
• European Court of Justice - has the power to force member states to
comply with EU law.
• European Central Bank - the ECBhas the power to set monetary policy for
the member states of the EUthat are in the Eurozone and have adopted the
Research
theAfrican
Union
and ,t>eEuropeanUnion.
Whatruethestienst.hs
oreach
IGOlWhat an, lhc d ifl'erenoos
betweenhow theyoperate?Find
out a bitaboutthe proposed
Centra.l
~ Union.Ifthis
unionwas formed,whatdo
you recommendtheiraaMties
EU'ssingle currency. Eurozone members do not have their own, independent
monetary policies. Member states in the Eurozone are also required to manage
their national budgets carefully and not get into debt, which could put the
economic security and prosperity of the wider Eurozone at risk.
African Union (AUJ
The Arrican Union was founded in 2002, but there had previously been African
regional organizations dating back to 1962. The African Union is made up of every
African nation state, except Morocco, and mainly deals with security, and political
and economic development. Since 2007, the AU has become more involved in
should bel
peacekeeping missions in Africa,notably in Somalia,and has had considerable
Subject vocabulary
AftlcanUnion a regKlnal
!GO
of which most Africanstatesare
members,focusingprimatity
on
success.It also allows African countries to speak withone voice on the international
stage. For example, in 2013, the AU threatened to withdraw from the International
Criminal Court. It complained that the ICC was biased against African leaders.
securityand economic prosperity
pandemics dis:e3ses
thataffect
people aver a verylargearea or
Articulation sentence:
Hybrid IGOs. such as the European Union and the African Union, have
military, political and economic power, providing member states with a
range of benefits.
the whole world
General vocabulary
biased unfairlypreferringone
personorgroup'1Ve<anoth«
governance the act of making
all the decisions abouttaxes,laws
and publicservk-es
gridlock a situationinwhich
nothingcan happen,usually
because people disagreestrongly
Globalgovernance
Global governance is the way states organize themselves. make agreements
and tackle shared challenges above national level, usually through international
organizations with clear rules. From a liberal perspective. global governance is a
key priority. It allows states to react to - and solve - problems that they have in
commonandthat,if left unresolved,
would impacton morethanonestate.
The growth of IGOs in recent decades might suggest that the liberal ideal of global
governance is progressing well. However, international organizations are frequently
limited in what they are able to agree. Often IGOs or international summits cannot
agree a joint agenda for action. Realism takes over, with states protecting their
national interests. Indeed, some states use their membership of IGOs precisely
in order to protect their national interests. This can be seen when permanent
members of the UN Security Council use their veto.
The reasons why effective global governance is difficult in modem global politics
have been identified by Hale. Held and Young (2013) as:
Reason
Explanation
Multipolarity
Today's multipolarworld has an effect on key global governance
institutions. For example, the UN Security Council is more divided than
it has been for many decades. Russia and China are becoming more and
more powerful and are increasingly willing to use their veto power.
and institutional
gridloc;k
The Doha Development Round at the WTO has been blocked by states'
increasing defence of their core economic inte<ests.
Harder problems The key challenges for modem global politics require action from more
than one nation state. Global te<rorism, climate change, fragile states and
and lack of
their impact on entire regions, cyber security and global pandemics require
consensus
multi-state action and global consensus on what the solutions are.
24
I1
Power,sovereignty
andinternational
relations
Articulation sentence:
The effectivenessof global governanceis being challengedby states'
increasingprioritization of their own interestsabove that of global issues.
suchas climatechange.
Generalvocabulary
Cooperation
treatlts formalwritten
agreementsbetween two or more
countriesor governments
Treaties
Statesdo not just cooperatewith each other through IGOs.A more flexibleway of
cooperatingwith other statesis through bilateraland multilateraltreaties.
• Theseare agreedbetweenasmany or as few statesas desired.
• Theymay be agreedby statesthat group togetheron a particularissue,rather
than by region.
•
If in treaty form, they represent formal international law.
opt out not join a system or
acceptant,greement
nudea.rdlsannamont the
p,-oussof gettingridof nudihr
weapons
constitutiona set of btsi,claws
and principlesthata oountryOr
organiz.a.tion
is governedby
• Sometreatiesare used to establish,or changethe rulesof,
international organiz:ations.
Subjectvocabulary
Stateshaveto complete two stagesto lbe fully coveredby,and obliged to comply
with, treaties.First,statesmust sign treaties.Second,most democraticstates
must ratify treatiesthat they havesigned,through their national legislaturesor
parliaments.Somehold nationalreferendumsto givegreaterlegitimacyto the
signingof treaties.
raUfted whenan 1nd1vidual
state's
decisionto signM
international
treatyor oorwtntion
hasbeenlegally•Pl'f<>'l«i
Examplesof treaties
amendments . changes
Synonyms
Treaty
Objectives
Signatories
Successesand challenges
NuclearNonProliferation
Treaty(ratified
1970;extended
indefinitely 1995)
Aimed to prevent the spread
of nuclearweapons.
190signatories,except
India. Israel,North Korea,
South Sudanand Pakistan.
All exceptSouthSudanhave
successfullyacquirednuclear
weaponscapability,
Little progresson
disarmament.
Recognizedthe US,UK,
France, China and Russiaas
nuclear weapons states.
Stateswishing to opt out and
develop nudear weapons
have done so.
Nuclear disarmamenl
Treatyof Lisbon
(2007)
Amendedthe European
Union constitution. Created
new powersfor the European
Parliament.Createda
long•term Presidentof the
EuropeanCournciland a High
Representativefor Foreign
Affairs.
All EUmemberstates.
Negotiationsover the
LisbonTreatybeganin 2001.
Somememberstateschose
Significantamendments
to hold a referendum(France,
were neededafter voters in
Netherlands)as part of the
Franceand the Netherlands
ratification process.
voted againstthe Treatyin
referendums.
Minsk Protocol
(2014)
Agreeda ceasefirein
EasternUkrainewith a
monitoring missionfrom the
Organizationfor Security
and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE)anda programme of
ongoing peacetalks.
Ukraine,RussianFederation
and two unrecognizedstate
groupsrepresentingrebel
groups in EasternUkraine.
The ceasefirehasbeen
broken severaltimes sincethe
Protocolwassigned,meaning
a new peaceagreementwas
neededjust months later.
Articulation sentence:
Statescan cooperatewith one another by signinginternationaltreaties,
however some have been more successful than others.
1 Power,
sovereignty
andinternational
relations
I 25
Strategicalliances
States frequently cooperate more informa.lly, without the need for treaties or
internationalorganizations.Choosingreliable and profitable alliesand working
together on matters of security, trade or development is important if states want to
achieve their goals and protect their interests.
Prominentalliancesinclude the so-called'SpecialRelationship'betweenthe United
Statesand the United Kingdom.Thispeakedafter the attacksof 11 September
2001in the US,and the subsequ..,t military campaignsin Afghanistanand Iraq,
when the relationshipbetween PresidentGeorgeW Bushand Prime Minister
Tony Blairbecamecloser,and both stateswere involved in military action in Iraq
and Afghanistan.
Generalvocabulary
mutual the samefor two or more
people
Powerfulstatesmaydecide to form new allianceswith lesspowerful statesfor
mutual benefit. Forexample,China has increasedtieswith manyAfrican statesin
recentyears.China hasinvestedheavily in infrastructurein return for favourable
accessto the naturalresourceswhich China itself lacks.Equally,powerful states
mayseekcloser relationswith emergingpowers.Forexample.the United
Statesand Chinaare building economic tieswith India and Brazil.both rising
economic powers.
Articulation sentence:
Somestateschooseto form informal strategicallianceswith others for mutual
gain,suchas China'sinvestmentir, Africa in exchangefor dealson Africa's
natural resources.
1.4 Key concept: Legitimacy
Key idea:
Legitimacy refers to groups or actions that are considered to be
acceptable, usually by conforming
to agreed laws or democratic
principles.
Sourcesof legitimacy
If groupsor actionsin global politics are to be consideredlegitimate,they must be
tracedback to an agreedsourceof legitimacy.
Democracy
At a nationallevel,democracybringslegitimacy to governmentsthat wish to
exercisecontrol over a particularregion. Leadersaredemocraticallyelected
by popular vote and servefor limited periods. For example.the United States
Constitutionlimits Presidentsof the Uni'tedStatesto two four-year termsof office.
ManystateshavedifferentWitfS of electingtheirleaders.
Manydo not specify
a maximumterm for Presidentsor Prime Ministers.Theserulesare legitimately
agreed,usuallyin a constitution.
Subjectvocabulary
manifesto a written statement by
a polfticalparty,saying
what they
believe in and what they intend to
do ifelected
26
I1
Politicalpartiesseekingelectedoffice must presenttheir proposalsfor govemm..,t
in a manifesto. In the first instance,an electedlegislatureof representatives
checks
that they deliveredwhat the manifestopromised.Beyondthis,the electorate
can chooseto reward the governmentwith re-electionor chooseanother at
the nextelection.
Power.sovereignty
andinternational
relations
In global politics. democracies are enhanced by:
Synonyms
•
the ability of the electorate to participate in elections freely and
without intimidation;
enh•nced ...... S'nproved
•
the electorate being able to choose from a wide range of political parties and
alternative governments;
•
the extent of checks and balances on the government. For example, an
independent judiciary and an effectivelegislature.
Balance of power
At a national level, states are often organized so that power is balanced amongst
three key branches of government.
-Executive
Legislature
upheld .......... supported
exceed .......... go beyond
sta.ka ............
interest
General vocabulary
che-dct and b•lances ways of
makingsurethat $0meQM or
somethingis under controland
doingwhatit should
a.bovt the 11.walSowedto not
obey the law
Purpose
The elected government, which produces policy ideas and
Subj~ct vocabulary
implements them.
Judtct.uythe branchof
Scrutinizes the proposals of the elected government, votes on
whether these proposals should become law and holds the
lawand malce-sjudgementson
whetherindWiduals
andthe
governmentare actinglawfully
governmentthat interpretsthe
executive to account.
Judiciary
Ensures that the laws proposed by the executive, and agreed by
the legislature, are upheld fairly according to the rule of law. The
judiciary also ensuresthat the executivecomplieswith the law and
does not exceed its powers.
Constitutions
Many democratic states have a constitution, This clearly sets out and limits the
powers of the state, and particularly the branches of government within the state
(the executive, judiciary and legislature). Powers that are set out in a constitution are
said to be 'fundamental' or 'entrenched', meaning that they are fixed and cannot be
changed without going through a lengthy process.
Manystatesthat are rebuildingafterconflict go througha processof agreeinga new
constitution. The constitution frequently agrees the human rights that citizens of
the state will be entitled to. This is central to ensuring that every citizen has an equal
stake in society and that the powers of the government are clearly described.
However, some democratic and legitimate states do not have constitutions. The
United Kingdom has no written constitution. Instead, its constitutional conventions
have beenestablished over time and are contained within many different
individual laws.
The rule of law
The rule of law is a key source of legitimacy. This is particularly important for a fair
system of justice and human rights. The key principles are that the law is always
applied equally to all citizens: that neither citizens nor the government are above
the law; and that every citizen has the right to a fair and legitimate trial.
International law
Sovereigntycan be confirmed and legitimized in severalways in internationallaw,
including through judgements of the International Court of justice and the UN
Security Council.
1 Power.
sovereignty
andinternational
relations
I 27
Subject vocabulary
customuy lntemattonal
law int·«national
tawthathas
becomeacceptedas lawthrough
generalpraticeratherthan by
statesagreeingthroughtreaties.
All si..tesmusta.bidebythislaw
regardlessof whetheror l'Kllthey
haveagreedto it
Beyond this, breaches of customary international law such as the Geneva
Conventions would be seen as illegitimate actions, and may result in intervention
from other states or groups.
Legitimacy is a keyconcept relating to peace and conflict Military action gets its
legitimacy from UN Security Council Resolutions that authorize the use of force. For
example, UN Security Council Resolution 1973authorized 'all necessary measures'
to protect civilians in Libya in 2011,meaning NATO'smilitary action was widely
seen as legitimate. In contrast, the lack of a UN Security Council Resolution directly
authorizing the use of force in Iraq in 2003 prompted questions about the legality
and legitimacy of the US-led military action.
The following act as other important sources of legitimacy at an international level
on mattersof internationalsecurity.
•
If a state requests the help of others to defend itself against a threat.
•
If a state feels that its national security would be at risk if it did not act, it
can invoke Article 51of the United Nations Charter, which preserves the
right of states to individual or collective self-defence. This was used by the
United Kingdom asjustification for air strikes against Islamic State militants
in Syria in 2015.
Articulation sentences:
States and their actions may be considered legitimate in a variety of ways. A
state is legitimate if its government is democratically elected, and its actions
are legitimate if it adheres to international law.
Legitimacyof non-stategroups
NGOs
Non-governmental organizations frequently offer an independent perspective
on the legitimacy of government actions. For example, Human Rights Watch and
Amnesty International put pressure on governments to improve their codification
and protection of human rights laws. NGOs themselves gain legitimacy through
both their actions - being seen to be fair and transparent - and through the
recognition and status that some IGOs give them. such as the United Nations and
the European Union.
IGOs
International organizations gain legitimacy from the treaties and agreements on
Generalvocabulary
austerity when a govemment
hasa deliberatepolicyof trying
to reducetheamountof money
tt spends
28
I1
which they are founded, such as the Treaty of Rome (European Union) and the
United Nations Charter (United Nations). IGOs usually have clear procedures and
rules stating what their powers and areas of interest are. Some very powerful IGOs,
such as the European Union and its European Central Bank, can clash with nation
states. In these cases,deciding which side has the greater legitimacy- the elected
government of a state or the IGO - can only be done by examining whether the
JGOis acting within its powers and whether the state has complied fully with
the rules and procedures of the IGO. This tension was seen during the Eurozone
crisis. The IMF and the European Central Bank imposed austerity measures on a
Eurozone member state, Greece, even though the Greek people had elected an
anti-austerity government.
Power,sovereignty
andinternational
relations
Violent extremist groups
A frequent debate in global politics is whether violent extremist and terrorist groups
are fighting a legitimate cause. Often this is summarized as whether'one person's
terrorist is another person's freedom fighter'. There is no internationally agreed
definition of what terrorism is Attempts. including by the UN, to agree one have
not yet been successful.
General vocabulary
There have been many peace negotiations where states have decided not to
begin negotiations with groups considered to be acting illegitimately, Confidencebuilding measures, such as a commitment to non-violence and to peaceful dispute
resolution, may give violent extremist groups legitimacy to take part in negotiations
(see page vii for 'non-violence' explanation).
dishonest govemment or 3ffl'Y'f
Other violent extremist groups may try to justify their violent actions by saying that
they have no other option than violent struggle. Where civil and political rights
are denied to opposition groups there is a risk that they may resort to violence or
civil disobedience.
frHdom ffghttr someone who
fightsin a waragainstan unfairor
resort to do some1hing bad,
extre-me
or diffiOJtt
becauseyou
cannotthinkof ll'i otherwayto
deal witha problem
dvll disobedience a formof
politicalprotestin whichlarge
numb«sof peoplerefuseto obey
.....
Frequently, states and international organizations make public declarations about
the illegitimacy and illegality of violent extremist groups. For example, Hamas, the
main lslamist movement in Palestine, has been referred to as a terrorist group by
the United States, the European Union and many other states. Changing the way
they are referred to, in contrast, gives groups greater legitimacy.
Articulation sentence:
NGOs and extremist groups often gain legitimacy through the recognition
of states or IGOs,whereas an IGO is usually legitimized by a treaty or formal
international agreement
1 Power.sovereigntyand internationalrelations
I 29
2
Human rights
2.1 Key concept: Human rights
Key idea:
Subject vocabulary
lndfvlslble different elements
cannotbeseparatedor divided
from one another
untvorsaJequ,illyapplicable
to
Human rights are the indivisible rights which all human beings are
entitled to by virtue of their humanity, without discrimination.
What are human rights?
all people or countries
The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights setsout the global
lnterdep•ndenl all elementsrely
consensuson human rights.It was agreed in 1948. According to the Universal
on all other elements to make the
whole thing wor1( pcoperiy
Inalienable i right or power that
Declaration, human rights follow four key principles. They are universal,
interdependent, indivisible and inalienable.
cannotbetlkenfromyou
Universal
judicial connected to or
g\'atanteed by 11,elegalparts ol a
goveo,ment system
Universal human rights means that human rights are inherent to human beings
and not dependent on other aspects of identity such as nationality, location.
age, gender,faith. colour,religion or language.The concept of unWersalityis a
key principle in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and places a duty on
all member states. regardless of political, cultural or religious beliefs, to respect
fundamental human rights.
Interdependent
humanity the state of being
human
discrimination drfferences
betweffl thew1.tf$inwhich
hurNns or groups are treated
s.etsout too.plainideas,racu
or opinionsin a clearlyorganized
Human rightsare said to be interdependent becausesuccessfulprotectionof
one human right helps with the protection of others. Similarly,the denia.lof one
human right will act as a barrier to the effective protection of other human rights.
For example, a strongjudicial system is likely to universally protect the right to a
fair and effective hearing. This then protects other rights, such as freedom from
arbitrary detention and arrest. Ifa government allows arbitrary detention (for
way
examplein the caseof terroristsuspects)the followingrightsare at risk:
Inherent a qualitythat is
inherentin somethingisa natural
part of it andca.nnoc:
be separated
• Human right to freedom from arbitrary detention;
• Equality before the law (see page vii for'equality' explanation):
• Right to a fair and effective hearing.
fromit
°'
hearing a meetingof a cx:,ul'l
specralcommittee to find out the
factsabout a case
arbitrary decidedorarranged
withoutIN'freasonor plan,often
unfairly
Indivisible
Indivisibilitymeans that all human rights are of equal importance and cannot be
arranged into a hierarchy. All human rights must be protected for all human beings.
Governments are not permitted to pick and choose some rights over others and
may not decide that some rights do not apply to certain individuals or groups.
For example, freedom of religion cannot be said to be unimportant and not
applied. Human rights in the Universal Declaration come as a full package. to be
protected equally.
Inalienable
Closely related to the concept of indivisibility. human rights are considered to be
inalienable. This means that they cannot be taken away from (or given away by)
human beings, and all human beings are entitled to the full package of rights.
Articulation sentences:
The four featuresof human rightsare that they are universal,interdependent,
indivisible and inalienable. They apply to everyone; all of them must be
applied; they cannot be placed in a hierarchy and they cannot be removed.
30
I2
Humanrights
Positiveand negative rights
Human rightscan alsobe thought of as either 'positive'or 'negative'.
Negativerights require those in power to stepbackand let human beingsbe free
from interference.Thisincludesfreedom from torture and from arbitrary arrest
or detention by the state.All of theserights are protectedthrough the inaction of
those in power.Protectingnegativerights should be feasibleregardlessof financial
constraints,though they may be particularlyat riskwhen governmentsfeel they face
a security threat.
Positiverights require positiveaction lby thosein power.For example,the right
to free educationcannot be protected without the governmentactivelyproviding
adequateschools,teachers.classroomsand materials.The samepositiveaction
from governmentis neededto provide an adequatejudicial system.which allows
individualsto enjoy the human right to a fair and effectivepublic hearingby a
tribunal. Without governmentintervention theserightswould be not be delivered
and would be meaningless.Protectingpositiverights is thereforemore challenging
for governmentsin lesseconomicallydevelopedcountries,though the conceptof
'progressiverealization'recognizesthat not all governmentsor stateswill be able to
provide suchinterventionsas quickly.
Articulation sentence:
Positivehuman rights are those in which the governmentmust takeaction to
protect the people;negativerights require the governmentnot to act to allow
certain freedoms.
Subjectvocabulary
netatrve l'lghb rightsthat
requireindNidlals to be left akme
and not intederedwith by the
governmentor other powers(e.g.
freedomfrom torture)
security threat a threatto the
peaceand safetyol a stateor
groupof people
rightsthat require
the goyemmmt to take action
poSitJve rights
and to provideservtte'S
(e.g.health
or education) that allcw,,certain
rightsto be enjoyedby indMduals
tribunal a legallyestablished
pane1with judicialpow-ersto
settlea criminalose or other
dispute
codlfitcl writtm downina lepl
form andagreed upon by a state
or international organisation
rule of law the conceptthat no
one,,includingthe govemment,
isabove the lawand lhat • mte
is ultimatelyruledonly by what
is lawfi.A
Generalvocabulary
2.2 Key concept: Justice
torture the detibt'rate
we of
extreme physical violence to fot-ce
S,OmeQneto
sa,ordo someching
~•inst theirw~es
Key idea:
Justice is the concept of fair treatment,
usually based on an agreed
and accepted set of laws that are applied equally; universally and with
the right to a fair trial.
Human rights,when properly codified and protected,arean essentialpart of an
effectiveand fairjustice system.Although there is no fixeddefinition.justice implies
fairnessand equalityof treatment delivered through a conceptknown as the rule
of law. One of the earliestinterpretationscomesfrom Aristotle,who saidthat 'it is
better for the law to rule than one of the citizens.so eventhe guardiansof the laws
are obeyingthe laws'.
Intervention the ad of
becominginvolvedin an
argument,cooffidor other
diffiaJhsituationin 01der to
changewh.ath~«is
above the law allowed to not
obeyt~•'-
Synonyms
feasible ......... possible
The rule of law is commonly agreedto comprisethe following principles.which
makeup the centralfeaturesof an effectiveand fair justice system:
• No one is above the law, especiallythose in positionsof power.Presidents,
prime ministersand governmentsmust all comply with the law, including
human rights laws.Accordinglo the conceptof the rule of law,it is literally the
law that rulessupreme.
• The right to a fair trial. The law must be applied and interpreted fairly by
independentcourtsandjudges.Thelaw should not beenforcedarbitrarily
by governments.Thoseaccusedof offencesshould havethe right to defend
themselvesin a court of law.
• All are subject to the samelaw, applied to all citizensequally.The law is not
applied inconsistently,with some allowed to escapejustice and others not. The
law must be consistentin its content; new lawscannot be inventedarbitrarily.
2 Humanrights
I 31
Synonyms
upheld .......... wpported
liberty .......... freedom
predominantly
core ..............
mainly
main
For human rightsto be properly upheldl,the governmentor thosein power
must be subjectto the rule of law.Thisis a particularlyimportant principle,since
governmentsare the most dangerouspotential violatorsof human rights.This
is becausethose in power alsohavethe possibilityof evadinginvestigationand
prosecution,perhapsby intimidating judges or simply ignoring and blocking
effectiveprotection of human rights.
Generalvocabulary
Articulation sentence:
Intimidating frighteningor
An effectivejustice systemmust be governedby the rule of law and not by
those in power,meaningthat: everyoneis subject to the samelaw; no one is
abovethe law; everyonehasthe right to a fair trial.
thrute:nir'\g
$()(1'1eoM
into,mking
them dowhat you want
progressJvety
haPf)fflingor
developing gra~al ly over a
periodof time
degrading tre.ttment an
unpleasant ecperience or event
thatmakesyou loserespectfor
2.3 Key concept: Liberty
yow-self
Key idea:
Liberty is about the freedom of individuals to live a life without
excessiveinterference from those in power, and with the freedom to
flourish and make the most of opportunities.
Human rightshavedevelopedprogressivelyover many centuries,e,cistingin
some form as early as the MagnaCartain 13th•centuryEngland.In the 17th
century,EuropeanphilosophersincludingJohn Locke,Hugo GrotiusandJean•
JacquesRousseauattempted to define the relationship,or socialcontract, between
individualsand the authority of the state,
Despite these discussions many centuries earlier, the first expression of human
rightsas a global frameworlcagreedby nation statesfor nation statesto follow
camewith the foundation of the United Nations.The UN agreedthe Universal
Declarationof Human Rightsin 1948.
Subjectvocabulary
civil rljht> rigt,t>thot belong
toa citiz.tnbyvirtu•of beinga
c:ititenof a particularcountry,
Wlduding
protection
fromracial
discrimination
pollUc:alright> rights that allow
citizensto participatea, politics,
for e,cample byvoting and having
the freedomto demonstrateand
join politic.JpMties
First-generationrightsfocuson the civ;1and political rights that protect
individuals'liberty from the state(seepagevi for 1iberty' e,cplanation),
Theyare
predominantly negativerights,where the statestepsbackfrom the privatesphere
of an individual'slife andallows the individual to enjoy basicrights suchas the right
to life, liberty and property.Suchrightsare alsocalled natural rights,meaningthat
they arecentral to what it meansto be a human and therefore are inalienableand
cannot be taken away.
Articles3 to 21 of the UniversalDeclarationand the 1966InternationalCovenant
on Civiland PoliticalRightsarethe core first-generation.or civil and political, rights.
They include the rightsto:
• life, liberty and property
• freedom from torture, and cruel and degrading treatment
• freedom of thought, conscienceand religion
• equality for everyonebefore the law
•
freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention.
Articulation sentences:
First-generationhuman rights cover civil and political rights,suchas the right
to life, freedom of thought and religion,and freedom from arbitrary arrest
They are mostly negativerights.
32
I2
Humanrights
2.4 Key concept: Equality
Key idea:
Equality is the idea that people are treated the same, without
discrimination, and are allowed to enjoy the same opportunities.
SE>Cond-generationrights focus on the economic, social and cultural rights that
allow citizens to flourish within the state. They are predominantly positive rights.
This means the state actively provides public services in order to deliver rights to
which every human being is entitled. This generation of rights is aimed at delivering
equality of opportunity for each citizen.
Articles 22 to 27 of the Universal Declaration and the 1966 International Covenant
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights set out the core second-generation, or
economic, social and cultural, rights. They include the rights to:
•
free education up to secondary level
•
work and to equal pay for equal work
•
a standard of living adequate to the health and well-being of the individual
and his or her family (including food, healthcare, clothing, housing and
social services)
•
adequate rest and leisure.
Clearly, lesseconomically developed countries may protest that it is not possible
to guarantee second-generation rights due to limited resources, both human and
financial. The United Nations takes this into account, and places an obligation of
progressive realization upon states. Tmis means that the United Nations recognizes
that realization of these rights 'can be hampered by a lack of resources and can be
achieved only over a period of time'. Consequently, states' compliance with second·
generation rights takes into account the resources available and the progress that
states are making towards full protection of the rights.
General vocabulary
flourish devetopwelland be
successful
adequate enoogh in quantity
or of a good enoughqualltyfora
particl.larpurpose
obligation • foffl'\IJ,l~g•lly
:s.tated
requirementto do
M>mething
reallz:aUonthe processof
achievWlg
some1hing
Subject vocabulary
pubUcse,vlces the services,.
suchas educatK>fl
and healthcare,
which a govemmentmightchose
to p,ovidt oollec1ivtly to, people
in a state
economic rights rightsthat
enableindividualsto enjoy
economicprosperityand freedom
sodal r'8hts rightsthatenable
citizensto enjoyaccess to basic
socialservicessuchas healthand
education
adtural rights rightsthate~
Articulationsentence:
dti2msto~ dieirculture•nd
Second-generation human rights are mostly positive and require
governments to provide free education. adequate healthcare and to protect
the right of equal pay.
collectlvt human rights rights
held by groupson the basisof
identifiedgroupcharaderistic:s
Third-generation rights are less clearly defined than the previous two generations.
They are broadly seen to apply primar,ily to communities at global, international,
regional, national and local levels, rather than to individuals. Theyfocus on
identityreccgnizedand celebrated
Synonyms
hampered ..... madedifficutt
protection of the environment, on peace and on development, making each a
matter of collective human rights, as well as a policy goal to be achieved in its
own right. Frequently, they attempt to codify the rights and responsibilities that
states and communities have in protecting the environment that they share.
Key documents said to express third-generation rights are the 1'172Stockholm
Declaration on the Human Environment and the Declaration at the 1992UN Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro, which agreed that:
•
human beings are entitled to a healthy I ife in harmony with nature;
•
the right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet
developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations
(sustainable development);
•
peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent
and indivisible.
2 Humanrights
I 33
Politka.land civ~rights
Predominantly n~gative rights
Economic and social rights
Predominantly' positive rights
Cultural and collective rights
Figure 2.1 C>evelopmtnt of human rights timeline
Articulation sentence:
Third•generation human rights are aimed at protecting the environment;
peace and development are therefore seen as collective rights.
Violationsof human rights
The primary responsibility for upholding and protecting human rights lies with
thCJ§e
in power,andwith nationstatesin particular.If powerisspreadbeyond
nation-state level, other groups - for example, rebel forces in a civil war or leaders
of ethnic or tribal groups - also have a responsibility to uphold and protect human
rights. Abuses of human rights are usually systemic. This means that abuses are
committed against numerous victims within a society. or that abuses have become
part of the society's system of government and how the society operates.
systemic e<tending beyond
Examplesof human rights abuses include:
one singleoccurrenct,U$Vlllly
referri"!: to poficies0t practiot:S
embedded within a whok! syskffl
ofgo.,emment
Abuse
Human rights violated
Human
trafficking
The right to freedomof movement; to I ife; to liberty and security;
to not be subject to torture or cruel and degrading treatment; to
just and favourable conditions of work
Use of child
soldiers
The right to I ife, survival and development; protection of best
interests of the child; protection from all forms of violence, abuse,
neglect and ill treatment. (These rights are underpinned by the
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, agreed in 1989, which
set out the specific duties owed to children to ensure that all
children can enjoy all their rights.)
Female
genital
The right to I ife; to not be subject to torture or cruel or
mutilation
(FGM)
degrading treatment; protection from all fonns of violence and
abuse; full and equal participation of women in political, civil,
economic, social and cultural life;the eradication of all forms of
discrimination on the grounds of gender.
Articulation
sentences:
Leaders of tribal groups and rebel forces also have a duty to uphold human
rights. Some examples of violation of these rights include human trafficking,
the use of child soldiers, and female genital mutilation.
Relationshipsbetween the generations
The three generations of human rights provide a useful means of tracking how
human rights have developed internationally since 1948. At first sight, there is a
clear division between the largely negative civil and political rights and the positive
economic, social and cultural rights that followed. However, the relationships
between the generations should not be overlooked, given the important principle
of interdependence that the Universal Declaration emphasizes. There is strong
evidence of this interdependence. For example, a lack of education, employment or
34
I2
Humanrights
fair pay(second-generation,economic, social and cultural rights) is likely to imJ)',ede
an individual from fully exercisinghis or her political freedoms(first-generation,
political and civil rights).Similarly,diseaseor hungeris lesslikely to occur where
all individualshavean equal political voice and a stake in societyand are able to
challengeInjustice.
Thereare relationshipstoo betweenthe third-generationof collectivehuman
rightsand first- and second-generationrights.Peaceand development(thirdgeneration,collectiverights) are lesslikely to flourish in statesthat offer no political
empowerment or meansof dispute resolution (first-generation,civil and political
rights).Clashesover resourcesmay be resolvedviolently rather than peacefully,
leadingto poverty and instability,
Articulation sentence:
First-,second-and third-generabionhuman rights are interconnected and
where somerights are lackingth;s may prevent other rights being fulfilled.
Sincethe end of the SecondWorld War, new human rights lawsand conventions
have been created at international, regional and national levels. Human
rights lawshavedevelopedboth in content (seethe generationsof human
rights)and jurisdiction. Keydocuments(and their strengthsand weaknesses)
includethe following.
-
1948
Impede ......... prevtnt
Generalvocabulary
sta.keln ifyouhavea.sl'ake
insomething.you wmget
advantagesif it issuccessful,
and you feel thatyou havean
import.ant
connectionwithit
fnstablllty when a situationis
notcertainbecausethereisthe
possibilityof suddenchange
binding a promiseOf .tgrtiement
thatmustbe obeyed
Subjectvocabulary
Injustice a situationinwhich
peoplearetreatedunfairly
and
notgiventheirrights
Keyhuman rightslaws
•
Synonyms
Human rights
law
Strengths
Weaknesses
Universal
Declaration of
Human Rights
Firstirnternational
Non-binding in
consensuson universal international law.Critics
human rights.
of a universalapproach
saythat it imposes
An aspirational
a Westernor Judeodocument that has
Christianviewpoint of
influenced binding
human rights.
empowerment theabilityfor
citizensof• .st-ate
to be invotvtdri
decisi,on,making
disputeresolt.rtlonmec:haniwn
and systemsforre:solv;ng
djsagreements
European Court or Human
Rlghu regionalcourtwhich
upholdsthe EuropeanConvention
on HumanRights.
established
in 19S9
SOVGNlgnty the power that
an independentcoootryhasto
governiuelf
international
covenants,regional
conventionsand the
human rights lawsof
nation states.
1950
European
Convention on
Human Rights
Decisionsof the
EuropeanCourt are
binding, but there
isstill no meansof
A binding legaltext,
enforcement,asnation
which member states
statescan still ignore
are committed to act in
decisionsof the Court if
accordance with.
they choseto.
The European Court of
Sovereignty may come
Human Rightsactsas
under pressureif the
a final court of appeal
EuropeanCourt of
of last resort once
Human Rightsjudges
Europeancitizenshave
disagreewith national
exhaustedtheir own
governmentsand
state'slegalprocess.
legislatures.
The first regional
agreementon human
rights.
2 Humanrights
I 35
-
1966
1984
Subject vocabulary
rattnect when an indN'iduat
state'sdecisionto signan
•
Human rights
law
Strengths
Weaknesses
International
Covenants on
Economic and
Social Rights;
and Civil and
Political Rights
First leg.allybinding
Economic and social
internal ional human
rights are more difficult
for lessdeveloped
nations to deliver,
although it is accepted
that such rights may be
realized progressively.
Convention
against Torture
and Other
Cruel, Inhuman
and Degrading
Treatment
internationaltre.tlyor convention
has beenleg,,llyapproved.
African Union a regional!GO
orwhichmostAfricanstatesare
members,focusing
primarilyon
Clarified rights set
out in the Universal
Declaration.
Prohibition of slavery
and torture is one of
several Articles set out
in much greater detail.
Builds on the Universal
Declaration and the
International Covenant
on Civil and Political
Rights. Offers specific
definitions of torture
and the responsibilities
for preventing torture.
Prohibits nation
s1atesfrom relying
on evidence gained
through torture by
other nation states
Includes the duty to
protect .all human
beings (not just a state's
securityand economicprosperity
General vocabulary
.aftermath theperiodoftirne
aft..-somethingsuchasa.war,
stOfm accidentwhen people
are stillde.Jingwith the rewlts
°'
1986
African Charter
on Human and
People's Rights
The Charter has
For example, President
Obama confirmed
in 2015 that 'in the
immediate aftermath of
9/11, we did some things
that were wrong. We
did a whole lot of things
that were right, but we
tortured some folks.
We did things that were
contrary to our values-'
for African Union
Commission on Human
states to agree on
Rights on member
states, because the
Commission does
not have any formal
enforcement powers and
its recommendations are
not legally binding on
member s1ates.
rights. a,s well as
individual rights.
Humanrights
can stiJIcarry out torture.
provided a process
Re.;ognizes
,olle,tive
I2
The Convention cannot
be enforced and states
that have signed and
ratified the Convention
Difficult to enforce
decisionsof the African
new human rights. For
example. a Protocol
on Women's Rights in
2003 addressed issues
relating to FGM.
36
No international
enforcement body.
States cannot be forced
to uphold these rights.
Civil and political rights
in particular are still
violated worldwide.
own citizens) from
torture.
Synonyms
folks ............. people
rights la>Vs-
-
1997
'
Human rights
law
Strengths
Weaknesses
Constitution of
South Africa
One e><ampleof human
rights 1protection at
nation-state level
(many more exist).
The Billof Rights allows
for judges to interpret
certain rights as having
limits, rather than being
absolute.
The BiII of Rights.
enshrined into Chapter
2 of the South African
Constitution, mirrors
closely the Universal
Synonyms
absolute ........ unlimited
Dedaration of Human
Rights. Most of these
rights were denied
during South Africa's
apartheid rule which
divided the white and
black communities.
1998
Rome Statute
relating to breachesof
Not all member states
have signed and ratified
the Rome Statute. The.se
states cannot be held
international criminal
accountable to the
law,includingcrimes
International Criminal
against humanity.
Court. In particular,
three of the permanent
members of the UN
Security Council (China.
Russia and the US) have
not ratified the Rome
Statute.
Creates an
international court
for hearing cases
Powers to issue arrest
warrants.
Powers to launch
specialinvestigations
into alleged breaches
of international
criminal law.
Countries that have
not signed the
Rome Statute can be
investigated if the
UN Se,curfty Council
agrees to it.
General vocabulary
brtaches an action that breaks a
law', rule or a,reement
biased unfa.typ,eferringone
pel'$Ol"I or group<'Net another
As of 2015, only two
breaches of international
criminallaw have
resulted in convictions.
Both related to African
conflicts, prompting
accusations from the
African Union that the
ICC is biased against
Africa. In 2014, the
African Union member
states narrowly voted
against withdrawing
from the Rome Statute.
Subject vocabulary
UNSe<urttyCoundl themost
powerfuldecisionmakingbody
in the UnitedNations..made up
of""• pe-rmanent
members(US.
Chine,R\.lssi.a.
Franceand1heUK)
and ten rotatingnon-perma.rw:n
members
2 Humanrights
I 37
Upholding human rights
Ensuring that individuals' human rights are upheld depends on the relationship
between four core responsibilities
can-iedout by internationalorganizations,states,
civil society and others.
Codification
Human rights need to be formalized in law. This can be done
at international level (for example, the International Covenant
on Civiland Political Rights); at regional level (for example, the
European Convention on Human Rights);or at national level
(for example, the UK Human Rights Act 1998). Codification is no
guarantee of effective-protection, but can provide a legal basis
for protection to take place.
Protection
Once set out in law, h·uman rights need to be actively protected.
The most effective way is for independent courts to adjudicate
on breaches ol human rights law. National courts are usually
the only option for judicial protection, except in the case of the
European Court of Human Rights which acts as a court of appeal
for cases in member states of the Council of Europe.
Promotion
Human rights need to be actively promoted both before and
after they have been effectively codified. This involves a wide
range of groups from governments, international organizations
and civil society championing specific human rights. Nation
states may promote l>uman rights and encourage other states
to follow their example through a positive track record of
codification and enforcement. NGOs such as Human Rights
Watch and Amnesty are high-profile promoters of human rights,
frequently highlightin,g gaps in codification and protection. For
example, the United States has advanced gay rights within their
country and is now seeking to promote the same rights in Africa.
Monitoring
Human rights need to be actively monitored by independent
bodies to ensure that governments are complying with
General vocabulary
adjudkate officially
decidewho
is rightin a disagreementand
decidewhatshouldbe done
bodies agroupofpeopfewho
worktogetherto do a particular
job or who are togetherfor a
partkularpurpose
Subject vocabulary
Councilof Europeregional
organisationof 47 European
states,established in 1949 (notto
be confusedwith the European
Union)
NGOs nono-gowmmtnt
organizations
UNHumanRightsCouncilpart
ofthe UnitedNatioosresponsible
for monitoringand upholding
Wlterna.tionaJ
human rights,
establishedtn2006
UN HighCommlsslontrfor
HumanRlghU appointedofficial
of the UnitedNationswho leads
effortsto uphold intemational
humM rights
their own national laws, commitments they have made in
international law, and international norms and standards more
generally. The UN Human Rights Council and the UN High
Commissioner for Human Rights, along with human rights
NGOs, are the principal actors in this area.
Articulation sentence:
Human rights must be codified in law, protected by courts, promoted by
governments and key groups, and monitored by independent bodies.
38
I2
Humanrights
Challengesin upholdinghuman rights
All four of theseresponsibilitiespreserntmajor challenges.
International
The UniversalDeclarationof Human Rights(1948)is a statement
of guiding principles.It hashad a powerful influenceon global
human rights,but was not binding for member states.The
InternationalCovenantsof 1966on Economic,Socialand
CulturalRights,and Civil and PoliticalRightswere introduced
to formallycodify the UniversalDeclarationinto international
law. However.unlike national laws- which have nationalcourts
to enforcethem - there is no internationalcourt to enforcethe
rights that stateshave signedup to. Member statesmayalso
simply not sign up to or ratify internationaltreatiesand laws
governinghuman rights. Forexample,in 2015,SaudiArabia
eameunderinternational
pressure
to ratifythelntemational
Covenanton Civil and PoliticalRights.Furthermore,three
membersof the UN SecurityCouncil(China,Russiaand the US)
haveeither not ratified or signedthe 1998RomeStatutethat
createdthe InternationalCriminalCourt.
Regional
Regionalattemptsat codificationcan be prone to modification.
The EuropeanConventionof HumanRightsis a powerful,
binding law that closely follows the UniversalDeclaration.It
isa usefulsafeguardand is the basisfor a court of appealfor
Europeanmember states.Clashesbetweennation statesand
the EuropeanCourt do occur on mattersof interpretation,with
nation statescomplaining that their sovereigntyischallengedby
regionalinterpretationsof human rights law.
Sometimes.statesomit or modify human rights set out in
the UniversalDeclarationbecauseof cultural relativism. For
example,the Cairo Declarationon Human Rightsin Islam
neglectsfreedomof religion.The African Charterof Human
Rightsemphasizeshuman rightsas collective,rather than
individual.
Synonyms
prone ...........
likety
modification .. change
Subjectvocabulary
relattvlsm the argument that
rightsshouklbe modifiedto take
aocount of differencesbetween
stalesand cultures
National
Potentially.national codification is the most powerful meansof
codification.Thisis becausenation statesoften possessnational
courtswhich can actually adjudicateand takeaction in cases
where human rights areabused.However,national human
rights lawsmaybe prone to cultural relativismand selective
interpretation,maylbemodified in responseto events,or may
not existat all.
Articulation
sentence:
Codification of human rights is more effective at the national level
than the international or regional level where there are feYttercourts to
enforce the law.
2 Humanrights
I 39
International
Generalvocabulary
genocld• the delibffl'tem...-der
of• wholegroupor raceof people
The internationalcommunity lacksany meaningfulprotection
body.The exceptionsare rare casesof internationalcriminal law
for the most seriouscrimes againsthumanity.The International
CriminalCourt or internationalcriminal tribunals have
jurisdiction over suchcases(for example.after the Rwanda
genocideand the civil warsin the former Yugoslavia).
The
InternationalCriminal Court iscriticized for its low level of
convictions.In over 30 casesbrought to the court. so far only
three have beenconvicted.
Regional
The EuropeanCourt of Human Rightshas the power to make
bindingdecisionson nation states.Suchdecisionsarefrequently
disputedor ignoredby nationstates.whichcomplainthat
Subjectvocabulary
courtoflastresort thecourt
Slwhicha finalappealagainsta
decision
ofa lowercourtmaybe
made
nationalsovereigntyis beingchallenged.Forexample,the
United Kingdomresisteda EuropeanCourtjudgement requiring
prisonersto be giventhe vote. Regionalcourtsfor the Americas
and Africa(createdin 1979and 2004 respectively)area court of
last resort. with greater emphasisplacedon resolvingmatters
diplomaticallythroug:hregionalhuman rightscommissions.
perhapsrecognizing~ensionswith nationalsovereignty.
National
The keydilemma at the nationallevel is that the stateis both
the most likely violator of human rights and hasthe principal
responsibilityfor protecting and enforcinghuman rights.Nation
states may therefore choose to ignore human rights abuses that
it is itselfcarryingout (for example,human rightsabusesin Syria
under PresidentBasharal-Assad).
Articulation sentences:
Protectionof human rights at the international and regionallevel is
challengedby the inability of courts to enforcethe law on member states.
Nationalcourts cannotalwaysbe .dependedon to protect human rights
becausethey are often the violators of those rights.
40
I2
Humanrights
International
Internationalorgani:zationssuchas the United Nationsand
itsassociatedbodies,the UN Human RightsCouncil and the
UN High Commissionerfor Human Rights,can be powerful
advocatesfor human rights.However,the UN Human Rights
Council is often criticized for defendingthe interestsof its
memberstates,some of which themselveshavequestionable
human rightsrecords.
Internationalhuman rights NGOsarevery powerful promoters
of human rights.They produceregularrights-specificreportson,
for example,LGBT,and lobby both nationalgovernmentsand
international organi:zations to take action. However, their power
to publicizehuman rights issues(muchenhancedby social
media and the internet) is not alwaysmatchedby their power to
changethe behaviourof human rightsabusers.
Regional
Generalvocabulary
advocates peop~ whopublicly
wpportM)ffleOneor something
dlutnt r~usaJto a,rttwith
an officialdecisionor accepted
opinion
Subjectvocabulary
LGBT lesbian,gay,bisexual
and
transgenderpeople
lobby t,y to pers"'-"e the
government
or someonewilh
polrtical
powC!I'that a ta.wor
situationshoukl be changed
TheAfrican Commissionfor HumanRightsis much more heavily
usedthan its Court for Human Rights.It hasplayeda successful
role in promoting better treatment of prisoners.However.the
Commissionis prone to selectiveinvestigationand hasdone
little to promote LGBTrights.which are deniedby manyAfrican
states,
National
Effectivenationalpromotion of human rights suffersthe same
constraintsas protection. In other words,statesthat grossly
abusehuman rights arethe most likely to prevent public debate
about or challengesto their human rights record.For example,
under SaddamHus.sein,Iraq severelyrestrictedpublic gatherings
and dissent
Articulation sentence:
The promotion of human rights suffersin nationswho do not uphold them,
and at regional and international levelswhere it is not alwaysunbiased.
2 Humanrights
I 41
International
The UN Human RightsCounciland the UN High Commissioner
for HumanRightshave the power to conduct in-depth reviews
of both individualstates'human rightsrecordsand the global
protectionof specific human rights.The effectivenessof such
monitoring dependson the receptiveness
of the nation state to
any criticism.
Regional
TheAfrican HumanRightsCommissionplacesgreatemphasis
on monitoring African states' human rights arrangements.
Similarly,the Inter-AmericanCommissionon Human Rightshas
a primary role in monitoring its memberstates'protection of
human rights.Frequently.however,member statesthat abuse
human rights maybe unstableor in eonfliet.makingit unsafe
to conductthorough investigations.Humanrights NGOs,such
asAmnestyand Human RightsWatch,areoften able to expose
abusesbecausethey sourceevidencefrom localcivil society
activists.Suchevidenceis frequentlyfilmed usingcheapmobile
phonesand is broadcaston the internet.
National
Generalvocabulary
enshrine preseNe and proted a
traditionor rightsothat people
will rememberand respectit
In disarray the stateof being
untidy or not organized
Stateswith well-developedhuman rights arrangementsoften
createand enshrine in law a specificmonitoring agencyat
nationallevel.For example.the UK'sEqualityand Human
RightsCommissionis a high-profile and independentvoice
that challengesthe UKgovernment'shuman rights record.
Once again,the most likely abusersof human rightsare unlikely
to create or empower such bodies and responsibility for
monitoring will be left to civil society activistsor NGOs.
Articulation sentence:
The role of monitoring often falls to objective NGOsor other organizations.
particularly in statesabusinghuman rightswho are unwilling to monitor
their own record.
Human rightsand power
Humanrights are inextricablylinked with power dynamicsthat existin global
politics.Thesecan be seenmost obviouslyat nationaland internationallevel.
At the national level.it isclear that the nation statehasconsiderablepower over the
effectiveor ineffectiveprotectionof human rights within its territory. Stateswith too
much internal power and stateswith too little internal power are both likely to be
poor protectorsof human rights.
A statewith too little internalpowerwill haveweakinternalsovereignty,
suchas
fragilestateslike Somaliaand Libya.Here. the centralgovernmentmay have lost
political control of largeparts of its territory and will thereforeprobably not be able
to uphold human rightseffectively.The state'sjudicial system- its courtsandjudges
- is likely to be in disarray.Statesor regions in conflict find little opportunity to
uphold human rights amid the instability of conflict.
42
I2
Humanrights
A state with too much internal power will have a dominant central authority which
may decide either to actively abuse or suspend human rights for its own political
purposes. For example, the Syrian government's use of chemica.Iweapons in 2014
against its own citizens is a conscious abuse of human rights. Equally,a powerful
state may decide to suspend human rights for some of its citizens. The United
States was criticized for
its use of
torture against terrorist suspects in the aftermath
of the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks and for holding suspectswithout
charge at Guantanamo Bay in Cuba (outside the official national jurisdiction of
the United States). Even states that helped to develop the foundational documents
of international human rights law can sometimes fail in their responsibility to
protect human rights.
At the national level, the best chance for effective protection of human rights is
when power is in balance.Crucially, this involves a separation of powers between
the government (executive), parliamernt (legislature) and the courts (judiciary).
Problems arise in particular when the executive branch of government becomes
either too weak or too powerful.
General vocabulary
charge an officialstatement
madeby the police s.wying
that
theybelieve someone maybe
guiltyof a crime
forfeit giveup orlose a right.
positionor posses.sionot haveit
takentNJayfromyoubecau,•you
havebr'ok:tn
a lawol' l'ule
Subject vocabulary
$~a.ration of pow on a syst<!m
Articulation sentence:
For human rights to be protected effectively a nation's power must be in
balance between the government. the parliament and the courts.
of governmentin whichthere
isdear separationbetween the
exerutive,legislatureand judiciary
enMXingthatnonebecomes
too
powerfuland thatall are subject
to checksVld balances
prfnclpalvlolator most likelyto
abuse rnxnan
rights
EXECUTIVE
pmposeslaws
enforces
laws
essent.. l protector most
responsibleforprotectinghuman
rights
responsible-sovereignty the
id" thatstatesshould govem
their populatKH\S
in aw~ that
looksafterand respectstheir
populatk>n's
best interests,
respectinghumanrights
JUDICIARY
l£GISlATURE
decides/ votes on/
amendslaws
provideslawsfor the
Judiciaryto interpret
responsibtlftyto protect al•gal
defini1ionof the circumstances
undtrwhicha state can intervt-ne
in anotherstate to protectpeople
interpretsthe law/
at riskof ham,
ensures
the lawIs
appliedequally
sandk>ns officialordersor laws
s.toppingb'A<le
or communication
Figure2.2 s~parationof pOtWrSdiagram
The unique role played by nation states in protecting human rights is summarized in
the dilemma that the nation state is the most likely or principal violator of human
rights, whilst being the essential protector of human rights.
withanotherttate,a.sa way
of forcingitsleadersto make
potiticalchanges
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
If nation states fail to protect human rights, the international community may be
expected to step in. There are severalways it can do this.
Responsible sovereignty is the notion, endorsed by the UN General Assembly in
2004, that nation states forfeit their sovereignty if they fail in their duty to protect
Ingroups,discussa humanrtghts
IM Otvideintotwo sub-g<oups.
Take,tin turnto prej)a(eyour
their citizens. If a state fails to exercise responsible sovereignty, other nation states
a,gumentson the follow,nS
have a responsibility to protect. They may call upon the UN Security Council to
authorize military intervention or non-military actions. such as sanctions.
For example, when Muammar Gaddafi threatened to kill civilians who opposed
him in the Arab Uprisings in 2011, the UN Security Council agreed to intervene and
launched air strikes to stop the advance of government forces. The UN Security
Council did not agree to respond with military force to President Basharal-Assad's
Suor,gdwpo,owe
e<amplos
ol
lhelaw;
Weaknesses/negative
examples
of chelaw;
What conclusionsam your
groupdey.vabovtthislaw?
2 Humanrights
I 43
useof chemicalweaponsin Syriain 2013. However,it did agreeto a non-military
solution to disarm the Syriangovernment of its chemicalweapons.
However, the international community could be criticized for failing to agree on
intervention when nation states are committing human rights abuses. For example:
General vocabulary
fmpuntty freedomfromfearor
pn>St<Ution
or punishment
• Therewas no international intervention to prevent genocide in Darfur,Sudanin
2004,despitethe widespreadinternational condemnation for failing to prevent
genocide in Rwandaa decadeearlier.
• In the Syriancivil war, non-military action wasapproved by the UN Security
Council to deal with chemicalweapons. However,widespreadhuman rights
abusescommitted by governmentand rebel forcesbefore and sincehave not
beenchallengedand continue without impunity.
Pressure may be exerted in the form of sanctions and trade bans, such as those
imposed on Myanmar for the military government's imprisonment of pro-
democracyleaderAung SanSuu Kyi.But sanctionssuch as this do not produce
quick results.Sanctionsmay not havemuch effect on thosein power - unlike lhe
wider population - and so M.tion statesmay decide to resistthe pressure.
Frequendy,governmentsare accusedof not putting enough pressureon
economically powerful nation stateswith questionablehuman rights records:
• China'seconomicpower meansthat manygovernmentspursuefriendly trade
relationswith China,at the expenseof challengingChina'shuman rights record,
• TheWest'srelationshipwith oil-rich SaudiArabia is frequently the sourceof
similar accusations.
Discussionsof power and human rights can return to the dilemma that nation states
remain hugely powerful in both committing and preventing human rights abuses,
As long as nation statesretain sovereigntyand control of their own affairs in global
politics, the options open to the intemaltionalcommunity will remain limited.
Articulation
sentence:
When a nation does not protect its citizens' human rights, other nations can
request the UN Security Council to take military or non-military action to
prevent the abuseof rights.
Culturalrelativism
Subjectvocabulary
cultural relativism thetheory
that ideasand other normsshould
reflectculturalpracticesand
traditions,ratherthan universal
principles:
cultural, ethnic or religious values.
unlversallsmthe ideathat rights
shouldi,. equallyapp1;c,,1,te
to all
peopleor countries.
and do not
varyaccording
to localcultixesor
religiousbeliefs
values widely acceptedideas
aboutwhat isrigt'ltand wrong,or
what isimportantin life
44
I2
Somearguethat the desirefor a singleset of universaland global human rights
clasheswith cultural,ethnic or religiousvalues.Nation statesoften saythat their
unique cultural or religiousidentitiesare not compatible with the rightsset out
in the UniversalDeclarationof Human Rights.This notion of cultural relatlvism
challengesuniversalism by suggestingtlhat human rightsare defined by the
immediate local culture and values, rather than by a global setof universalvalues.
Criticsof relativismarguethat thesestatesare guilty of picking and choosing
their human rights to suit political circumstances,or failing to challengeoutdated
Humanrights
Relativismmay be driven both by government policiesand at community
level (as in the exampleof community practice of femalegenital mutilation).
Frequendy,government policy and community traditions reinforce eachother,
For example,governmentsmay not challengecultural practicessufficiendy
through effectiveinvestigation,prosecution and conviction, allowing thesecultural
practicesto continue.
Example
Claim: Cultural
relativism IsJustified
Counterclaim: Cultural
relativism is not justified
Women's rights - Saudi
Responding to a UN
Amnesty I ntemational
Human Rights Council
reported that women have
report in 2013, the Saudi subordinate status to men
Saudi Arabia has a male
government said that the under the law and remajn
guardianship system
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia subject to discrimination,
wherewomenare
is governed by Sharia
'particularly in relation
subject to different rights
law. under which Muslim to family matters such as
to men.
rulers have to promote
marriage. divorce, child
Women are not
custody and inheritance'.
and protect human
permitted to obtain a
rights. as prescribed in
Women and girls
passport, marry, travel or the Holy Qur'an. They
remained 'inadequately
accesshighereducation argued, 'S.harialaw
protected against sexual
without the approval of a guarantees equality of
and other violence'.
male guardian.
thesexe$
,onthe ba$i$
withdomestic violence
of the principle of the
Women are banned
'endemic' despite efforts
complementarity of
from driving and are not
by the government to raise
rights and duties.'
allowed to expose parts
awarenessof the problem.
of their bodies except in In spite of the male
A 2013 law criminalizing
a medical emergency.
domesticviolencewas'not
guardianship system,
the Saudi government
implemented due to a lack
claimed that the
of competent authorities
number of women
to enforce it'.
enrolled in higher
Prominent women's
education exceeds the
rights activists had been
number of men. The
detained, some under
Saudi government also
'terrorism-related' charges.
confirmed that the ruling
Shura Council had been
amended to ensure
that women occupy
20 per cent of the seats.
30 women joined the
Council irn2013.
Arabia
General vocabulary
complementarity a relationship
where two or more different
thingsimproveeachother's
qualities
tndemlc a problemwhichis
alwayspresentin a particular
place,or amonga partktilargroup
of people
2 Humanrights
I 45
Example
Claim: Cultural
relativism isJustified
Femalegenital
mutilation is particularly
prevalentin Africa and
Despitebeing illegal
some Middle Eastern
since2008,the UN
countries.It is not linked
estimatesthat Egypthas
to any single religionand
the highestrateof FGM
occursin both Christian
in the world. In 2014,
and Muslim societies.
Egyptiangovernment
Justificationis therefore
figuresestimatedthat as
cultural,not religious.
many as 90 per cent of
It is usedto control
women under 50 have
women'ssecualityand
experiencedit. Most
fertilityby mutilating
victims of FGMare aged
their sexorgansto
between7 and 10years
ensurechastity.
old.
In 2007,Egypt'sGrand
Mufti issueda statement
sayingthat 'the harmful
traditionof circumcision
that is practisedin Egypt
in our era is forbidden' in
Islam.
LGBT
rights - Uganda
Human RightsWatch
reported in 2014,that
'with the passageof the
Anti-Homosexuality
Act, some LGBTpeople
reported increased
arbitrary arrests,police
abuseand extortion,
lossof employment,and
evictions.'
Femalegenital
mutilation - Egypt
Generalvocabulary
chastity theprincipleorstateof
not having sexwith anyone
uqulttal an official statement
;, , court of lavJthat someone is
not guilty
manslaughter the crime ol
killing someone illegally
but not
deliberately
extortlon illqaUy forcesomeone
to give you something, especialty
money, by threatening them
Uganda'sparliament
passedan AntiHomosexualityAct
in 2013,increasing
prison sentences for
same-sex conduct
and criminalizing
the 'promotion of
homosexuality'.
Uganda'sPresident.
YoweriMuseveni,
defendedthe law in
2015,telling CNN,'I am
actingon behalf of the
society.I would like to
advisethe Europeans
andWestem groupsthat
this should be a no-go
area.Thisis one area
they are not going to
makeour p<!Oplebudge.
The law wasdeemed
unconstitutionalby
We cannot accept that
Uganda'sSupremeCourt living unnaturallyis a
in 2015.However,the
human right.'
Court challengedthe
proceduresbehind
the parliamentary
vote, rather than the
contentof the law.The
governmentresponded
by proposingnew
legislation.
46
I2
Humanrights
Counterclaim: Cultural
relativism is not justified
In 2014,Human Rights
Watch criticizedthe lack
of effectiveenforcement
of lawsprotectinggirls
from FGM,following the
initial acquittal of a doctor
accused of carrying out
the procedurein Egypt's
first FGMtrial. Human
RightsWatch said,'FGM
is banned in Egyptbut
the practicecontinues
possiblybecausethere is
a lack of investigations,
prosecutionsand
convictions.'In January
2015,the doctor
wasconvictedof the
manslaughterof a
13-year-oldgirl.
PresidentObama,visiting
Kenyaand Ugandain
2015,said,'I believein
the principleof treating
peopleequallyunder
the law,and that they
are deservingof equal
protection under the law
and that the state should
not discriminateagainst
peoplebasedon their
sexualorientation. And I
saythat, recognizingthat
Example
Claim: Cultural
relativism IsJustified
Counterclaim: Cultural
relativism is not justified
there may be people who
have different religious or
cultural belief>.The state
does not need to give
an opinion on religious
doctrine. The state just has
to say W<tregoing to treat
everybody equally under
the law.'
Synonyms
doctriM ........ betid
Articulation sentence:
Cultural relativism states that values are defined by local culture as opposed
to global ideology, however it has been criticized as a means for nations to
pick and choose which rights they are willing to uphold.
Subje~vocabulary
kSeology opinions
Of
beliefs,
often linlcedto a particular
Politicizationof human rights
There is a general lack of consistency regarding which states are challenged
about their human rights records by olther states and by the United Nations. This
lack of consistency is a further challenge when it comes to protecting human
rights globally.
political system or culture
polftlclu,tlon when decision·
makingis•ffected bt'political
fac.tOf'S
The UN Human Rights Council has faoed particular criticism. Critics accuse the
Council of a disproportionate focus om Israel at the expense of other human rights
violations. Furthermore, the membership of the Human Rights Council includes
many member states whose own human rights records are questionable. Critics
say this makes the Council an ineffective protector of glob.11human rights, with
member states reluctant to condemn other states for human rights abuses of which
they themselves are also guilty.
In 2013,the African Union claimed that the decisions of the International Criminal
Court were biased against African states. As of 201S, the only successful convictions
have been of Africans (Thomas lubanga. Germain Katanga and Jean-Pierre Bemba,
for crimes committed in the Democratic Republic of Congo). The majority of cases
investigated and arrest warrants issued are in relation to African states.
General vocabulary
biased unfairty preferring one
pel'$0n
or groupo,,,eranother
The UN Security Council has the power to authorize military action in states
which fail lo protect human rights and exercise sovereignty responsibly. Critics
see politicization here loo, with a failure lo compel Israel to comply with UN
Security Council resolutions. Whereas other states - notably Iraq, under Saddam
Hussein - are the target of sanctions, weapons inspections and other Security
Council-approved measures, in order to force them to comply with UN Security
Council resolutions.
Articulation sentence:
A major challenge to human rights protection is the lack of consistency in
treatment of rights violations in different states. caused by political issues.
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
Ooyou think rultural relativism is
juS1:ified7
Oisa.issyour thoughts
in gro1Jp$ then write a t11blewlth
argymet1ts fof and against.
2 Humanrights
I 47
3
Development
3.1 Key concept: Development
Key idea:
Synonyms
sustained ...... continued
shelter .......... a pla~ to IN'e
dignified ....... with self-respect
capabllitles .... ctiaracteristia
Most simply, development means a sustained increase in the
standard of Iiv ing in a society.
What is development?
The exact definition of development is debated
Development is often measured by economic growth. There is no doubt that a well•
managed economy is necessaryfor an increased standard of living. However. many
would argue that development involves more than just economic growth. Critics
of the purely economic viM argue that :Socialand political factors, such as human
rights and democracy, are equally important in development.
General vocabulary
hlen.rchy a system of
organization
in whichpeopleor
things are divided into levels of
importance
self-actwJtzat:ton
when
someone actlieveswhat they want
throughWOtkor in theirper'$0nal
life
People often refer to Maslow\; hierarchy of needs in the context of development.
It shows a progression from basic human needs such as food and shelter at the
bottom of the hierarchy, to higher needs such relationships and self-esteem further
up the hierarchy. The goal is self-actualization. or the fulfillment of a person's
potential and wishes in life. The pyramid structure shows that if the bottom levels
are not secure, it will be difficult to achieve the upper levels. Development can
thus be defined as the struggle to fulfill human needs. from basic biological needs
to higher goals.
Kholan p«>plewhoarehighly
educatedor havean aptitude
lor srudy
Fig3.1 MasJow\hitrarehyofnuds
However, other scholars have criticized this hierarchical outlook on development.
They argue that for a dignified life, all basic needs are equally important.
Human development
Human development refers to the process of enlarging people's freedoms and
opportunities, and improving their well-being (Haq, 1990). It is more individual
focused than socio-political development. Human development focuses on the
freedom of ordinary people and how this impacts who they want to be and how
they want to live their I ives.There is a focus on capabilities which refers to the
necessaryequipment people have to pursue a life of value. Examplesof basic
capabilities include good health. access10 knowledge, the level of control over
living environment and freedom from violence.
48
I3
Development
Economic development
Economic development refers to economic growth. The aim of economic
development is to increaseproductivity and revenue, to establishnew industries
and innovate, and to diversify the economy into many different sectors, rather than
relying on one main resource for trade.
Synonyms
revenue ........ income
Impartial....... unbiased
Socio-political development
Indicator....... sign
Socio-political development refers to social developments, for example gender
equality and education levels. Scholars also emphasize the political aspects of
dlstrlbutod.... shared
spectrum....... range
development, suchas democratic and responsiblegovernments,low corruption
levels, and an independent and impartial legal system.
General vocabulary
Development as freedom
lnnonte start to use nt?W
ideas.
methodsor inventions
Development as freedom refers to people's access to choice. The economist
Amartya Sen argues that development is a W"'fto increase people's ability to live a
free, fulfilled and happy life. He emphasizes the goals of development, rather than
dtvtNlfy changesomethingor
makeit change so that thereis
rn«e variety
the methods. He observes that a lot of academic debates revolve around details of
gender equality a situationin
whichmenandwomenhavethe
samerightsandadvantages
policiesand their implementation,and lose sightof the overall aim of development.
Economic growth does not automatically lead to development. Notions of freedom
must be included in the debate.
Articulation sentence:
Scholars disagree on the correct definition of development, as it can be
defined in economic, social, political or other terms.
corruption dishonest,illegalcw
immoralbehaviour,
especially
fromsomeonewithpoorer
measures wzysof assessing
something
(omplement makea good
combination
with IOf'MOneOf'
something
else
How is development measured?
Income-based measures of development
The simplest measures of development are income-based. Examplesof incomebased measures are GDP per capita, as well as the Ginl coefficient. To calculate GDP
percapita, the overall income of a country is divided by the number of its inhabitants.
Thisgivesus the averageincomeper person,or whateach personwouldearn if
everybody earned exactly the same salary. When GDP per capita is increasing, this
means that the economy is growing, and it is an indicator of development. If there
is no growth, or a downward trend, this means that there is negative development.
A major advantage of this measure is that it is simple - data on national GDP and the
number of inhabitants is easy to get for most countries. A weakness is that GDP per
capita does not consider how the income in a country is distributed, as it looks ornly
at the average. In very unequal societies, GDP percapita can be a misleading measure
- if the rich are getting richer, this may show in an increase in GOP per capita, even
though the situation of the poor did not change at all.
Subject vocabulary
GOPper aplta the totalvaiueof
all goodsand servicesproduced
in• country,in oneyear,e:xcept
for incomtreceivedfr<>rn
abroad:
divided1:7,thenumberof peoph,
inacOl#ltry
Glnl<Mffldent a statistical
methodof modeflingand
gr~hing the ecte,it of wealth
inequalityi, a society
The Gini coefficient isused to measure how equal or unequal societies are. It
considers the distribution of income, rather than assuming that it is distributed evenly.
It measures the difference between the incomes of the richest and of the poorest,
and how many people earn how much on this spectrum. The Gini coefficient is given
as a number between Oand 1. The more equal a societyis, the closerto O itsGini
coefficient. A high Gini coefficient indicates that there is a lot of inequality in society
and great difference between the incomes of the wealthiest and the poorest (see
page vii for 'inequality' explanation). The Gini coeff,cient can be used as an indicator
for development, assuming that high inequality is bad for development. It is used to
complement the overall picture provided by GDP per capita.
I 49
3 Development
100
betterequalityof inc.ome,
not spreadequally,but
morewealthheldIn
poorerpart of the
populationthan lnA
80
very poor incomeequality
'A
(wealthheld overwhelmingly
bythe richest 1% of the
population)
20
o¼~;:::::::::::=;;:::_~-~-~
0
20
40
60
80
100
percentaseof populationfrom poore,stto richest{%)
l=ig3.2 Gin;coefficient
Articulation sentence:
The Gini coefficient and GDPper capita aretwo different waysof measuringa
country'sdevelopmentbasedon their economicstrength.
More complex measuresof development
Generalvocabulary
hollstk consideringa person or
thingas a whole, ratherthan as
separate
pans
subsistencethe conditionof
onlyjusthavingtnough mon(!IJ
or
foodto stayalive
Synonyms
lndkes .......... standards
Imitating ....... mpying
agrkutture.... farming
The debateabout the economicand more holistic viewsof developmentalso
raisesthe questionof how to best measuredevelopmentif we do not use
economicindicators.
More complexmeasuresof developmentattempt to capture aspectsof
developmentother than just economicdata. Forexample,the HumanDevelopment
Index(HDI) combinesdata on life expectancy,educationand income,while the
Happy PlanetIndex(HPI)isan attempt to include more variablesthat measurethe
long-term impact on the environment.lrhereare many different indices. However,
the HDI is the most commonly used.
Articulation sentences:
It is difficult to measure non-economic indicators of development. However.
the Human Development Index is a popular method of measurement.
Theories and models of development
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
~
Resea,ch
lhet-1D1
andHPLWhat
arethedifferences
bctwttn
them?Whatarethe~tages
anddisaO/antages
of eileh?
Whichdo you{hlnlcis more
u,efl,I •nd wtt,,1
50
I3
Development
Modernization theory
Modemization theory is the oldest theory of development.It is basedon the
study of the economichistory of industrializedWesternnations,suchas the
United Kingdom,Germanyand the United States.Modernization theory states
that there is a singleWlrf for countriesto modernizeand develop- by imitating
what the industrial countriesdid, Walt Whitman Rostowis the mostwell-known
modernizationtheorist and describedfrve distinct stagesof development.
1 Traditionalsocieties:Societiesthat are basedon subsistenceagriculture, with
low levelsof technologyand pre-scientificvalues.
2 Preconditions for take-off: Societiesthat havestarted to introduce money
and bankinginto their economy,and havea new classof entrepreneurs with
scientificvalues.
Subject vocabulary
3 Take-off:Societiesin which valuesthat encourageeconomic growth are
widespreadand growth of certain economic sectorshas becomecommon.
somethingelse can happen
4
Drive to maturity: Societieswith ameconomy that is diversifyingand
producing an increasinglylargevariety of goods.Standardsare risingand
poverty is decreasing.
S High massconsumption: Societiesin which wealth and the production and
consumption of modern consumergoods arewidespread.
When governmentsfollowed theseideasof development, they generallyintroduced
policies that focusedon the building of big infrastructure. the nurturing of new
industriesthrough national subsidiesand investments,and the developmentof
new trade relationships.The focuson industrializationalso led to a seriouscity bias
in somecountries.with agriculturalproduction being made ascheap aspossible in
order to feed growing city populations.
preconditlons somethingthat
musthappenor existbefore
massconsumptionwhenmany
people in a soctetybuyand use
p<odu<U
infrastructure the basicsystems
and structuresthat a stateor
organizationneeds in orderto
workproperly,forecampleroads.
railwaysor banks
subsidies money that
is paid by
a governmentor organization
to
makepricesloweror reducethe
costof p<oducing
goods
tariffs taxes on goods coming
into or goingout of a oount,y
General vocabulary
Articulation sentence:
take--off when progressstarts
Modernization theory is basedon the exampleof industrializedWestern
countries and suggeststhere is o.nly one way for a country to develop.
entrtpreneun peoplewho
starta new businessor arrange
bu1inessdWs ino«Setto m,ke
Dependency theory
Dependencytheory,also calledWorld Systemstheory,was popular during the
1960sand 1970s.It criticizesthe assumptionsof Modernization theory, the idea that
underdevelopedcountriessimply need to copy what developed countriesdid in
order to 'catch up'. Dependencytheory has its roots in Mancismand focuseson the
money,
oftenina WI!( that
involwsfinancialrisks
consumptiontheactofbuying
and usingproducts
bias b.vouringonesideor group
catch up improvein orderto
reachthe samestandardor rate as
structure of the world economy as a whole. rather than on individual states. Here
someoneor something
are the assumptionsof dependencytheory:
• Underdevelopedand newly independent statesare locked into an unequal
systemof global trade, in which the already rich countries are set to benefit
more. at the cost of poorer countries.
• The world isdivided into a centre and a periphery. The centre consistsof
the former colonial powersand other Westernindustrializedcountries.The
periphery consistsof the newly independent developing countries.
• The centre becamerich by exploiting the periphery and has an Interest in
maintaining this unequal relationship in order to remaindominant in the world.
• It isdifficult for all underdevelopedcountries to simply 'catch up', as
colonial relating to a country
that controls
andrulesother
development of the industrializedWest was based on the exploitationof others.
•
The West has an interest in keeping exploited countries poorer.
The theory isa critique of the lack of development manycountries experienced
in the post-independenceyears.This is a typical model of what occurred.
Governmentsin developing countries:
• placed high tariffs on imported consumergoods in order to protect their
•
countries,.
usu,illyone-sthatare
1ar,..,,..,
u:ploldng treating someone
unfairty by askingthem to do
thingsfor you.but ping them
verylittlein ret\.rn
interes'l a connedion with
somethingthit influencesyour
attitudeor behaviourbec.auseyou
can gainan advantagefrom it
attiquo a detailedexplanation of
the problems ofsomething such
as• Ht of politicalideas
Synonyms
d rtve.. .. .. ... .... effort
nurturing...... enCO\l"agemen
own industries;
petlpt,ery ...... edge
overvalued their currencies in order to make the import of production
dominant ...... the most
inputscheaper:
powerful
• subsidizedindustriesaswell asagriculture in the interestof self-sufficiency.
I 51
3 Development
Synonyms
tlos ............... li<>l<s
crtses............ ~mergencie1:
roster............ encourage
Interference ... involvement
ente-rprise ..... business
In turn .......... as a result
General vocabulary
Institutions largeorganizations
thathavea particularkindofwork.
orpurpo$,e
sustai11.bf1ab&e
to continutf,or
along time
The consequences of self-sufficiency and of cutting economic ties with former
colonial powers were that it:
•
led governments to borrow lots of money;
•
led to corruption and money wasting as the state had a lot of power in
regulating the economy;
•
led to serious pressure by Western governments and international financial
institutions (I Fis) on developing countries to change their development
strategies, asdebt crises of the 1970s had an impact on global economies.
Articulation
sentences:
Dependency theory explained that underdeveloped nations could not copy
Western nations in order to develop, because
theywere
being exploited
by them. This led underdeveloped countries to adopt expensive policies to
protect their economies.
Neoliberalism
Neoliberalism replaced Dependency theory in the 1980s as the dominant world
economic policy. It assumesthat the free market is the most fair and efficient way to
foster economic growth and development According to this theory, government
interference almost always has negative long-term consequences on development.
This is because it can create sudden economic
growththat does not last, and because
corrupt officials have a lot of opportunities to take money for themselves illegally.A
better solution would be to encourage free enterprise by intervening in theeconomy
as little as possible.This would lead to healthy competition, meaning that only the
strongest companies survive and grow, which in turn leads to sustainable long-term
growth and development. Development should grow from Foreign Direct Investment,
rather than government investment. Furthermore, the amount the state spends
on public servicessuch as healthcare and pensions should become smaller, so that
people are encouraged to work and contribute to the economy. Two of the biggest
supporters of these policies in the 1980s were Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in
the UKand President Ronald Reagan in the US.
c,;ticism
prtvatf:z.adon
the saleof a
blninmor ind•slly,
lllil!W11S
a.vned and mana,ecl by the
govenvnent.
to a privatecomparYf
or individual
trickle down a belief that
additionalwealthgainedby therichestpeoplein societywill have
a good economiceffecton the
I ivesof everyonebecausethe
richwill put the extramoney into
busin6Se'Sand irw~tments
52
I3
Development
Richusemoneyto payfor
Many people say that neoliberalism removed
goodsandservkes
the state from the development process - a
lesson learned from the debt crises of the
1970s. The social cost of reducing government
services would become the responsibility of
Good• and serviceprovider,employ
private groups, such ascharities and nonmore people ID ITlfft demand
governmental organizations (NGOs). or would
be lessened by paying private companies
for servicesonce provided by the state, for
example in the health and education sectors.
Unemploymentdecreases
asmore
Thus. neoliberalism led to the beginning
and more peoplo MM!il from the
growingeconomy
of privatization. Neoliberalism argues that
healthy competition between social welfare
rig 3.2Economy lrickl,-downdia9ram
providers leads to lesscorruption and more
efficient use of resources. Neoliberalism also believes that newly created economic
wealth will eventually 'trickle down' thro:ugh all classesof society- as the rich get
richer, they spend more money, which in turn helps various industries that employ
more people to produce the consumer g,oods.
Consequences
In terms of policy, neoliberalism led to structural adjustment programmes (SAPs).
These were negotiated between the IFls, specifically the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) and the Wortd Bank on the one hand, and the governments of
underdeveloped and indebted nations on the other hand. SAPstypically involved
the lowering and eventual removal of llrade barriers such as import tariffs, the
devaluation of currencies, the cutting of public spending, such as subsidies, and the
partial privatization of many public services, such as healthcare, education. waste
management and sanitation. The results were mixed. Some countries emerged
stronger after taking this bitter pill', while others found themselves in a cycle of
stagnation and inflation that crippled ·their national development further. SAPs
were widely criticized for their harsh policies and the pressure that was put on
governments to sign up to them, as a refusal to participate would often result in a
cutting of any further aid or credit.
Articulation sentences:
Neoliberalism suggested that gOYernments should not intervene in the
economy, as the free market would allow for more competition and growth.
SAPswere introduced to help indebted nations to grow, but they were only
beneficial for some countries.
The Washington Consensus
In the 1990s. a lighter version of the neoliberalist ideology emerged, often referred
to as the Washington Consensus. It has a stronger emphasis on free market
non-interventionism, strong institutions and 'good policies'. This ideology tries
to find a balance between complete deregulation and a strong and accountable
government that manage the negative effects of liberalization. The Washington
Consensus is pro-democracy and argues that free martcetscan only function
effectively and efficiently in an environment where the rule of law is respected and
citizens are able to express their opinions.
The Washington Consensus has influenced global development strategies such as
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Sustainable Development
Goal.s(SDGs).It alsoguides the work of major players in the development field, such
as the United Nations Development Programme, USAID and the World Bank.
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
Inpairs.findecamples
done
coonuywhichprospered
underthe SAPs
andonewhkh
struggled,
Get togetherwith
anal.herpatfand.usingyour
ecamples,discuss
whether
youbelte\l'e
SI\Ps
werefairand
effective.
General vocabulary
negotiated discussed
something
in otder to reach an agreement,
e$peciallyin business
or polrtiQ.
bltterplll an unpleasantfactor
situationthat isdifficultto accept
globallutlon the ideathat
the WOl'ldis<Wleloping
a singte
economyand cultureas a
resultol improvedtechnology
and communications
and
the influenceof ve<ylarge
muttinationaJ
companies
entitles thingsthatt-,Ost
assingle
and completeunits
norms the usualor normal
situation;waysof doing
something
Synonyms
indebted ....... owing mooey
a edit. ........... loans
beneficial ...... positive
lntetactk>n .... workingtogether
Articulation sentence:
Integration .... greater
COMeCtivity
The Washington Consensus attempts to balance deregulation with an
accountable government who oversee the martcet.
by•ptoduct ... consequence
Subject vocabulary
3.2 Key concept: Globalization
Key idea:
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration. It occurs
between people, trading entities and governments of different nations.
The historyof globalization
stagnation a situationin whicha
state'seconomyis not growing
or
wcc:eeding
kfeology opinionsor beliefs,
oftenlinkedto a parbt\llar
political
system or culture
deregulation remCNlng
governmentrutesand controls
from sometypesof business
actiYity
Globalization is a by-product of human movement and interaction. It first began
when humans moved out of Africa into other parts of theworld. When people travel
and interact they take their ways of thinking, cultural norms. products and practices
with them. Theseare borrowed, used and adapted by people they interact with.
3 Development
I 53
Modem globalization is usuallyseenas being driven by international trade.
However,it is also aided by other factors,as shown in Figure33.
Increasing
useof Engtish
asglobal language
International
trade
lnfonnaUontechnology
andsocialmedla
Globalizatiolfl
Cheapair travel
Re4a.xation
ol visarules
and bordercontrols
l=igure3.3 Factors
in{rwndn9 globalization
Thesedevelopmentsallow modern people to interact and shareideas,goods and
serviceson a larger scale,more easilyand more frequently than in the past.
Typesof globalization
Economicglobalization
Generalvocabulary
lntenk!pendence a situationin
wilich people or thingsrely on
eachother
governancethe a.ctof maki"8
all the decisions
abouttaxf1..~
and publicservices
foundadom o,pnizations that
gNe or collectmoney to be used
for specialpurposes
Economicglobalizationrefersto the significantincreasein the integrationand
Interdependence of global economies.In practicethis meansa cross-border
movement of services.products, money and technologies.
For example,the Worfd Tradenegotiations(Doha process)aimed to reducetariffs
and other barriers to trade between countries.
Political globalization
Politicalglobalizationrefersto the increaseof globalgovernancebeyond nation
states.In practicethis means a rise in influence for IGOsand NGOs.Theseare groups
with specificaimsand methodsto tackleglobal problemssuchasdi matechange.
Intergovernmentalorganizations(IGOs)are organizationswhich are composed of
nation states.£:xamplesinclude the Uni~edNationsand the International labour
Organization.Non-governmentalorganizations(NGOs)are organizationswhich
are neither part of a government nor a for-profit business.Theycan be funded by
governments,foundations, businesses
or individuals.Examplesinclude Greenpeace
and the World Wildlife Fund.
Cultural globalization
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
CutturaJ
and political
gtobalization
01(1 belinked
Look
fora.tecentincident
inwhicha
pressure
pp. suchasAmnesty
International,
use:!I.heir
inffuen:e
10 c~
state.
~ bo,ha,iou, of a
Klf c:xarfl)lc, youcould
research
pnsonCJS
who haw
beenreleased
fromGuantanamo
8ay.Prepare
a ftve.minute
~~ <J'f('#.Jr
research
and
pres,entit to the class.
54
I3
Development
Culturalglobalization refersto the increasedsharingof ideas,meaningsand values
acrossthe worfd. In practicethis meansa cross-borderflow of cultural norms,
valuesand media products (films, music, books,magazinesand newspapers).
Examplesinclude the increasingavailability of video games,the popularity of
Hollywood films, the influenceof womeo's rightscampaigns,children'srights
campaigns,animal rightscampaignsand global human rights,aswell as the
increasedglobal useof English.
Articulation sentence:
There are different types of globalization: economic,political and
cultural globalization.
The impact of globalization
The impact on states
The impact of economicglobalizationhas beenthe freer movementof capital,
productsand businessideas,and a greateraccessto cheaperlabour. Forexample,
Americanbusinessideashavebeen imported to Chinaasthe country movedtowards
a capitalist model; Germancarsare now built in Mexico(for example,Audi) because
labour ischeaper there than in Germany.
The impact of political globalization has been to give citizensgreater accessto
powerful groupsoutside of their own nation. Thesegroups may have influenceCNe<
nation states.Forexample.human rights abusescan be documented by the United
Nations or the RedCrossand can be acted upon. Togetherwith new technology,
political globalization hasalso encouraged'citizen journalism', which allows news
stories to be reportedworldwide by interest groups.
Synonyms
capital ..........
money and
property
labour .......... worker1
documented .. recorded
a.spireto ........ wa.nt
Subject vocabulary
capitalistmo<kll anc<:onomic:
and politicalsysteminwhich
a state'stradeand industryare
The impact of cultural globalization has been to give citizais accessto rights. norms,
primarilycontrofledbyprivate
ownersfor profitwithout
beliefs,rolesand expectations
they would not ordinarily haveaccessto in such
governmfflt
interft':rel\Cll,
large numbers.For example,American notions of 'individualism',femininity and
dtlz.enjoumaHsm • process
the role and expectationsof women have all reacheda wide audiencethrough the
dominance of Hollywood films. The Hollywood film industry has also influenced
the global notion, and appearance,of cityscapes and suburbia. Theycan become
establishedas the norm and an ideal to aspire to, influencing the debatesand
future direction of other countries.
wherebyevents,storiesand
Articulation sentence:
Economicglobalization has affected statesby allowing the freer movement of
capital, products and businessideas,and a greateraccessto cheaper labour.
investigations
are reportedby
peoplewho are not professional
journalists
suburbla rel31,ting
to the suburbs:
an outlyingdistrictof a city,
especially
a residential
one
General vocabulary
abuses auel or violenttrea.tment
interestgroups groupsor
The impact on private groups
Economicglobalization and cultural globalization have had an impact on national
and multinational corporations by increasingtrade and investmentopportunities
and 5Preadingbusinessideasbeyond a nation'sborders.For example,aftervisiting
the US,ChineseentrepreneurJackMa founded Alibaba.Alibaba is a China-based
online marketplacewhich currently servespeople in more than 240 countriesand
territories. It provides electronic payment services,a shopping searchengineand
cloud computing services.Alibaba provides consumer-to-consumer,business·to·
consumerand business·to·business
salesservicesthrough the internet. Ma has
becomeone of the world's richest individuals.
Politicalglobalizationhas had an impact on private groups by giving them accessto
internationalaid servicesand pressure groups. For example.the World Economic
Forum (WEF)isa Swissnon-profit foundation. Aung SanSuu Kyi announcedon
the World EconomicForum'swebsite that shewanted to run for the presidency
in Myanmar's2015 elections.Aung SanSuu Kyi is a politician from Myanmarand
chairpersonof lhe National Leaguefor Democracy(NLO)in Myanmar.Shehas used
the WEFto promote awarenessof the abusestaking place in Myanmar.
people who join together to tty to
influence the government in order
to protecttheir own particular
rights« advantages
upt<Ution$ feelingsor befiffl
about the Wirfsomethingshould
beor howsomeoneshould
behave
dtyscapes the Witf citieslook
doudcomputingtheuseof
(Ompute,p«>grarns
thatareon
theintemet!'ltherthanon your
owncomputer
pressuf"I
groupsgroupsor
organizationsthat tiy to influence
the opinionsof ordinarypeople
and persuadethe governmentto
do something
Articulation sentence:
Economicglobalization and cultural globalization havehad an impact on
national and multinational corporations by increasing trade and investment
opportunities, and spreadingbusinessideasbeyond a nation'sborders.
I 55
3 Development
The impact on culture
Economicglobalizationhashad an impact on culture by giving peopleof different
cultures accessto ide~
products and services from other cultures, for example,
restaurantchains,films and music,social media, and technologythat allowsaccess
Generalvocabulary
rHtaurant chains a numberof
restaurantsowned or managedby
the same company°' person
social media new technology
platformssvch a.sFaceboolc
andTwitterthatallowpeopleto
interacton the internetor using
mobile phones
platform an opportl.Wlity
to
e<pressYOVI iON.S
tOf; large
numberof people
refug•.. pe<l!lle
whohavebeen
forcedto leave theircountry,
especialtyduringa war,or for
politic.alor religiousreasons
empower give son-.eonemore
c:orw.rol
overtheirownIi<. or
situation
territory land that isowned or
core.roUed
by a particularcountry,
to social media.
Politicalglobalizationhashadan impact on culture by requiringthe promotion
of cultural normson a global platform, IForeocample,
the United Nations Human
RightsCouncil (UNHRC)promotesand protects human rightsaround the world.
The United Nations RefugeeAgency.wllich protectsrefugees,encourageswomen
to empower themselvesin their communitiesand to participatefully in all decisions
that affecttheir lives.Thisobjective- empoweringwomen to makekey decisions
- can cause misunderstanding or conflict in cultures where women are not
considered to have equal status to men.
The impact of culturalglobalizationon culture is that world culturesare becoming
more and more homogenized. Homogenizationrefersto an increasein
Westernizedculture around the world, such as the prevalenceof Westernmusic,
films,consumerculture.Westerncultural norms and the increaseduseof the
Englishlanguage.However,an alternativeargumentstatesthat there is greater
hybridization than is immediatelyapparent. Hybridization refersto the mixing of
religiousideasand cultural nonns and assumesthere islesshomogenization.
ruleror milituy force
Articulation sentence:
transmissionr1tts how qu1ddy
somethingspreads
Globalizationhashad an impact on culture by giving membersof different
culturesaccessto ideas,products and servicesfrom other cultures,
further help somethingprogress
or be successful
The impact on global poHtlcal interaction
Synonyms
Economicglobalizationhashad an impact on global political interactionby
status ............ importance
reducing the potential for armed conflict. This is because national economies have
prevaJence
.... commonness
becomeincreasinglydependenton other nation states.For example,China is one of
Japan'smain export partners.The two countriessometimeshavetense diplomatic
relations concerningterritory, and in thlepastthey havebeen enemies.However,
the,jrtrading relationsare increasinglyinterlinked,and eachcountry hassignificant
salesand interestsin the other.Any armed conflict would result in massive
economic problemsfor both countries.
hybrkll?atfon . mixing
tense ............ amious.worried
diverse .......... different
accountabllltyresponsibility
Subjectvocabulary
homogeoltedchanged.sothat
somethingbecomes sim~ar
°'
the.same
dipk>maticrelations the
arran~mentbetweentwo
statesthat Nd, shouldkeep
representativesat an embassyin
the othel"scountry
Politicalglobalizationhashadan impact on global political interactionby forcing
statesto cooperatemore on issuesraise<!by IGOsandNGOs.For example,among
others, the lastUN High Commissionerfor Refugees.
Ant6nio Guterres,hasargued
that women'srights shouldbe a centralpolicy for countrieswishing to improve
the,jrdevelopment(Guterres,2014).Improving women'srightshas beenshown to
addressissuesasdiverse as controlling birth rate,decreasingcorruption, improving
healthcare(especiallyfor children).decreasingsexuallytransmitteddisease
transmission rates,reducingarmed conflict and increasingthe wealth of countries.
Increasedglobal political interactionraisesan issueof accountability. Thisis
especiallyso in stateswhere the issuesraisedby IGOsand NGOsare not necessarily
being raisedby their own citizens.O~en thesepowerful IGOsand NGOsbecome
skilful at using the forcesof globalization to further their own interestsand agendas.
For example,improvingwomen'srightsmay havemany benefitsto women and
societiesat large,but it canconflict with the cultural normsof many cultures.
Articulation sentence:
Economicglobalizationhashad an impact on global political interaction by
reducingthe potential for armed conflict, as nationaleconomiesbecome
56
I3
Development
increasingly dependent on other nation states.
3.3 Key concept: Inequality
Key idea:
It is now widely acknowledged that globalization has both
Synonyms
advantages and disadvantages, and that its benefits are not evenly
distributed. Inequality exists between countries and between various
groups within countries as a result of globalization.
adcnowl•dged accepted
embrace ........ welcome
Va.st.............. ertremelylarge
wage . .. ... .. .. .. salary
Advantagesof globalization
•
Increased economic growth: economies that have access to more markets,
workers and resources are more likelyto grow. This can mean more wealth
for more people.
• Improvedstandards
of living:workerswhoworkwithin growingeconomies
have more purchasing power and can accessa wider variety of ideas.
products and services.
•
•
Globalized countries can become more democratic: economies that become
more financially open usually have to become more politically open. Greater
freedoms are enjoyed by people I iving in politically open states.
Cultural development: globalized cultures tend to embrace modern ideas, for
example, with regards to women's rights,children's rights, worker rights and the
rights of other minority groups, such as LGBTand racial minorities.
Articulation sentence:
Globalization leads to access to a wider variety of ideas. products and services.
reau1auo"..... officialn-'es
SubJect vocabulary
LGBTlesbian.gay.bisexualand
transgenderpeople
energy ma.rktU: martets that
dealspecificallywiththetn.de
and s...-,ptyo( ene,gy such u oil.
gas and coal
General vocabulary
conc.ntrated presentin large
numbersor a.mountssomewhere
elltt a groupof peopl~wllo
havea Jotof powerandinfluence
becausethey havemoney,
knowledgeor special
skills
reloc.ate move to a new place
bankrupt withoutenough
moneyto paywhat youowe
Disadvantagesof globalization
•
Growing wealth gap: in a gfobalized marlcet place, wealth can become
concentrated within an elite. for example, as Russiaopened its energy markets,
a small group of politically connected individuals (known as oligarchs) benefited,
while the vast majority of Russiansdid not.
•
Wage competition: workers have to compete with workers in other countries
and this places pressure on wages. The result is potentially lower wages, as
multinational corporations can threaten to relocate their factories to places with
lower worlcer wages. This is good for corporate profits, but not for workers.
•
Price competition: there is global price competition, meaning prices are
sometimes lowered. However, the option to buy abroad is usually only of benefit
to large corporations and not individuals (due to the cost of transporting goods
from overseas).
•
Regulation avoidance: corporations can locate factories in countries where
regulations are lessstrict. Regulations might cover workers' rights, fire safety,
health and safety, or child labour.
•
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
lack of cultural diversity: globalization does not always lead to an equal
exchange of ideas, products and services. For example, English is becoming
a dominant language. At the same ilime, Western corporations are dominant
within many market places, while non-Western corporations go bankrupt as
they find it difficult to compete.
lookuplht Fairuade
Foundation.
Theyaimto ensure
wo,kefs,c:ceivefanpay.Onthei,
web-sate
youcan readabout
theworldsugartrade.Whd,
countriesareflndmgit diffia.1ll
to tradesugar
andwhy? Has
globalilationof rhesugartrade
benefitedthosecountries?
3 Development
I 57
Articulation sentences:
Globalizationdoesnot alwayslead to an equaldistribution of benefits.For
example,workershaveto competewith workersin other countriesand this
placespressureon wages.This isgood for corporate profits, but not for workers.
Example:The standard of living In rural India
Subject vocabulary
materla.lgoods physical
possessions
suchas cars,TVsand
air oonditionin.g
units
food security en0t.1gh
foodand
themeansto producefoodto
avoidhungerand famine
General vocabulary
n,raJ in the oountrySide.
not the
city
Standardof living refersto the level of wealth, comfort, servicesand material goods
that are availableto a certain group in a certain geographicarea.
• 65 per cent of India'spopulation is rwral.and 58 per cent of the rural labour
forceworks in agriculture.
• More than 85 per cent of farmersown lessthan two hectaresof land and are
classedassmall-scalefarmers(Sunejja,2015).
• Small-scalefarmersproduce around 70 per cent of all vegetables,55 per cent
of fruits, 52 per cent of cereal and 69 per cent of milk (Dev,2012).Yetthey have
only 44 per cent of the land area(Birthal, 2011).
Thus,small-scalefarmersare essentialto Indian food security and to the
hectares a mit of measurement
for land
..
small-scale invo..,ingoriya
smal number ol thingsor a small
.,
fvrtillnr a sub$tance
that isput
on the soil to makeplantsgrow
equity group a groupthat ra.ises
largeamountsof fundsfrom
investorsfor direct investmentin
companiesand marketsfor the
Indian economy.
India beganto open its economy to global economic forces in the 1970s.It has
removedgovemment restrictions and allowed foreign investment.Forexample:
• The fertilizer cooperativeJFFCOlaunched a joint venture with the Japanesefirm
Mitsubishi Corp.Togetherthey manufactureagrochemicalsin India.
• A Dutch-basedprivate equity group, RaboEquityAdvisors,raised $100million
for a fund called India Agri BusinessFund II. The fund plans to invest
$15-17 million in 10 to 12 Indian agricultural companies.
purposes
of makingptofu
urban refa.ting
to townsMd
cities
poverty llne the amountof
money considered necessary
to live.Someonewho isbelow
the povertyline does not have
Articulation sentences:
Globalizationopened up the Indian rural economy.This meant Indian
farmers,which were mostly small-scale,could accessforeign technology and
credit to improve their businesses.It also meant they could sell their products
to more markets.
enough money
wkkle
lhe.aofkillingyourself
overwhelm Ing verylargeor
gtNt, mQre importantthan •"Y
other
Synonyms
restrictions.... limiu
credit ............
58
I3
loans
Development
As the Indian economy grew,the GDPper personin India doubled from $260 in
1980 to $538 in 2003 (Pandeyand Dixit, 2008).However,economic growth has not
beenevenly distributed among India'spopulation:
• Eventhough India relieson small-scalefarmers,41.9 per cent of agricultural
labour householdsare still categorizedas poor (Singh,2012).
• Thereis a significantdifferencebetween rural and urban areas:25 per cent of
the rural population is below the poverty line, while only 13.7percent of the
urban population is below the poverty line (ReserveBankof India, 2012).
• Ruralwagesdo not grow as fast as urban wages. Ruralwagesare also more likely
to changedue to weather and changesin global pricesfor agriculturalgoods
(Surabhi,2015).
• In India in 2004-2005.women working on farms earned only 70 per cent of
what men earned.Over 80 per cent of women did not get the minimum wage,
compared with 41 per cent of men.
• The suicide rate among farmers is47 per cent higher than the Indian national
average(Indian census,2011). The overwhelming majority of suicide
victimsare men.
Articulation sentences:
Globalization has placed pressur,eon small-scalefarmers.There have
been negativeeffects for the rural population, which are different
for men and women.
In what waysdoes gtoballzatlon cause inequalities In standardsof living?
Lessgovernmentprotectionfor poorer people
Economicglobalizationplacesan emphasison lessgovernmentregulation.Thisled
to Indian rural wageseither falling or not keepingpacewith the rest of the economy.
The Indian governmenthad to increaseregulationin order to guaranteewages.This
led to wageincreasesin agriculture,although only in someregions(Singh,2012).
Influenceoflarge-scalebusinesses
General vocabulary
keepln8pace changingor
.,..
increasingas fastas something
else,or mO\ling
,s fastassomeot1
anals: a longpcm.,.ge
dugi~o
Articulation sentences;
thegroundind fille<I
wilhWll<r,
Small-scale farmers are forced to compete with large-scale farming
either for boatsto travelalong. or
to tab wate, to a pla.ce
corpora·tions in a more open market with lessgovernment protection. This
negativelyaffects wages.
Small-scalefarmershave:
•
less access to capital;
• lessaccessto public-funded servicessuch as canals;
• lesseducation.and so are at a disadvantagewhen it comes to negotiating
favourablecontractsand solving disagreements.
settle end an argument or sofvea
disagreement
informationand
communication
technology
(ICT} the studyor useor
electronicprocesses
and
equipmentforstoringrlfonnation
andmakingit availab4e
predict saythatsomethingwill
happen.beforeit happens
Large-scalefarmers can:
• buy more fertile land and land near canals;
• use more machinery and hire fewer workers,which increasesoutput and lowers
production costs;
• have more accessto expensivetechnology.such as fertilizerand
refrigeration
units;
• use lawyersto settle land disputes in their favour,and negotiatewith
foreigninvestors;
•
access good quality credit, and then invest the money in their business;
Synonyms
dlsputfH........ disagreements
absorb .......... dff)with
• use information and communication technology (ICT) to predict market
changesand communicatewith su,ppliersand buyers;
• absorb pricechangesmore easily;
• absorb the effectsof climate changeand other environmentalchallenges.
Articulation sentence:
Large-scalefarmers havemore accessto credit and technology to overcome
problemsand expandtheir market share.
I 59
3 Development
3.4 Key concept: Sustainability
Key idea:
Sustainability refers to the capacity of countries and groups to
Synonyms
maintain themselves by reducing factors that threaten well-being.
well befng ..... strength,success
Sustainability can be seen in terms of the Three Pillars of Sustainability, adopted by
the 2005 World Summit on Social Development. They are economic sustainability.
social sustainability and environmental sustainability. Cato (2009) has argued that
the economy and society should be constrained by the environment. Therefore,
the model can appear as in Figure 3.4.
0
constrained ... controUed,
.-ided
General vocabulary
pillan veryimportantparuof a
systemof btliefsor ideas
freight the tr1insport
s.ystemthat
carriesgoods
entrepreneurial involved
in startinga new business or
arrangingbusinessdealsinorder
to makemoney,oftenin a W1Jt/
that invotvesfinancialrisks
workforce allthe ptoplewho
Sodety
woricin a particularh:lustryor
comp,a.ny.or are available to work
in I particul1r
countryor area
Environment
Rgure3.4 Cato~modelofth~ ThteePillars
of Sustainabiliry
Articulation sentences:
Economic sustainability aims to re.duce factors that threaten economic
well-being. Social sustainability aims to reduce factors that threaten human
social well-being. Environmental siustainability aims to reduce factors that
threaten environmental well-being.
Economic sustainability
Economic sustainability aims to reduce factors that threaten economic well-being.
Strategies to address this may include:
• establishing sustainable transportation and infrastructure (e.g. roads,
railways, air freight);
• investing in education, research, technology, entrepreneurial and
workforce skills;
• increasing jobs and incomes through business development:
• reducing corruption.
Globalization can influence economic sustainability by:
Subject vocabulary
tooling the machirMeS
th.,,tmake
products,
forexampled'lerobots.
presses.tndpaintshopsthal
produce ca.rs
monetaryftow the ftaniof
money throughan economy
60
I3
Development
•
introducing new ideas that can improve the well-being of businesses;
•
creating new opportunities which were not previousty available (such
as new markets):
• introducing new technologies (such as software applications, tooling for
manufacwring and communication technologies):
• reducing tariffs betweeo countries and establishing systems to ease monetary
flow a.nd access to market places.
Example:Addressingthe North-South divide
The North-South divide refersto an economic and political divide between
General vocabulary
countries in the Northern Hemisphere and countries in the Southern Hemisphere.
hemisphere a half of the earth,
The Global North includesthe United States,Canada,Westem Europeand
developedpartsof EastAsia.The Global South includesAfrica, LatinAmericaand
developingAsia,including the Middle East.Countriesin the Global North are all
membersof the GSand makeup four of the five permanent membersof the United
Nations SecurityCouncil. It ischaracterizedby:
•
technology.urban and manufacturiing-based
economies:
• low birth and death rates;
• relativelyhigh levelsof empowerment for women;
• low population density.
The Global South ischaracterizedby:
• agrarian-basedeconomies;
empowermentMv'ingeontrol
OV1?"r
your <1Wnlife or situation
aa:rartanrelatingto farmingor
farmers
mchedullng arrangingfOf
somethingto happenat a
different1imefromthe one tha1
was previously
planned
tnhlbit preventsometnng from
growingor developingwell
Subject vocabulary
• high birth and death rates;
•
e:s;peciaJly
oneof the halves&bove
or below the equator
relatively low levels of empowerment for women;
• high population density;
• economic and political dependenceon the Global North (Odeh,201OJ;
• low productivity,low income (Dasguptaand Ray,1987).
Addressingthe North-South Divide can be achievedby:
• allowing the easiertransferof new technology and ideasfrom North to South;
• cancellingor rescheduling debts of the Global South;
• increasingthe Global South'srepresentationwithin global institutions.such as
the World Bank,GSand the UN Security Council;
• addressingthe food crisesof the Global Southquicker and with more emphasis
on sustainability;
• empoweringwomen in the Global South.
GS TheGfO<lp
of Eight(GS)
refen to the groupof eight
highlyindustrializednations:
France,Germany,Italy,the United
Kingdom,Japan.
the Unhed
States.Canadaand Russia,with
reptesentationfor the European
Union
population density the numbe-r
of peoplelivingina geographiQI
,pac.
Articulation sentences:
Countries in the Northern Hemisphereare consideredmore prosperous and
powerful. Countriesin the Southern Hemispherehaveto obey rulesset by
those in the North and this can inhibit their development.
Synonyms
pro.sporous
., .. wealthy
Socialsustainability
Socialsustainabilityaims to reducefactors that threaten humansocialwell-being.
Figure3.5 showssomeof the strategiesused to addressthis.
Empowennent
of women
Improvededucation
Addressing
poverty
Social sustainability
Improvedhealthcare
Reducingcor-rupUon
Emphasis
on
socialJustice
Figure3,5 Socio/sust4Inobilif'y
diagram
I 61
3 Development
Example: The empowerment of women
Synonyms
gencktr.......... sex
Gender is an important part of identity. It is partially socially constructed and
partially biologically determined. Gender roles are the behaviours associated with
being a man or a woman and these are influenced by culture. Globalization can
influence social sustainability by:
•
introducing new ideas about the roles of men and women (such as women
owning and running businesses:men working in the caring professions);
•
creating new opportunities which were not previously available (such as
businessesand services run by and for women):
•
introducingneYJtechnologies,medical servicesand cultural norms(suchas
contraception).
General vocabulary
carfngprofessionsjobsthat
involvehelpingothers,suchas
nursing
contraception the practKe
of preventing a woman from
becomingpregnantwhenshe has
sec, or the methodsfordoingthis
Articulation sentences:
privilege & specialadvantage
that t.Sgivenonly to one ~rson or
Globalization can mean traditional gender roles are questioned. This is
particularly true for the association of masculinity with privilege.
groupof people
lltHacy the state of beingable to
readandwrite
migration when largent.nbers
of people go to live inanother
area0t oount,y,
especilfly
in order
Many key aspects of global politics remain fundamentally affected by gender, for
example human rights and health concerns. Issuessuch as literacy, migration,
sexual violence and disease continue to have a different impact on men, women
and children because of cultural norms associated with men and women.
to findwork
Articulation sentence:
Issues such as literacy, migration. sexual violence and disease continue to
have a different impact on men, women and children because of different
cultural norms.
The empowerment of women is an important part of social sustainability.According
lo Barber Conable, former president of the World Bank, women do 70 per cent
of the world's work but only earn 10 per cent of the world's income. This leads to
greater poverty, slower economic growth and a lower standard of living for the
entire community.
The UN agreed Millennium Development Goals in 2000 to formalize a set of global
targets for development across the world, working to achieve these by 2015.
Millennium Development Goal 3 is to promote gender equality and empower
women. It is assumed the empowerment of women has beneficial effects for all
community members.
Empowerment of women can be achieved by:
•
educating girls:
•
changing cultural stereotypes and ex·pectations for women:
•
challenging social norms regarding women (such as female infanticide and
lack of education);
•
allowing women to own businessesand earn equal wages;
•
allowing women to have accessto cultural, social, economic and political
positions of power.
Subject vocabulary
fem.altInfanticide the crimeof
killinga femalechild
l'elnvffled when moneyyou
have earnedis used as a wa-,of
earningmoremoney
The empowerment of women has a significant effect on social sustainability.
Empowering women leads to:
•
a higher proportion of earnings reinvested in the family (OECD,2012):
•
a 20 per cent increase in children'ssurvival rate when the mother controls
household income (Zoellick, 2010);
•
62
I3
Development
lesscorruption;
•
women taking control of their bodies which:
• reduces the birth rate;
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
•
reduces the early marriage rate;
•
reduces the HIV infection rate (as women insist on more use
of contraception);
•
results in more girls finishing school and becoming economically active,
rather than becoming young mothers (OECD.2012).
Environmentalsustainability
Malala You$afzaifrom Pakistanis
the youn~ personto recei-..e
a
NobelPriz~.She has campaignt.-d
agamstlhe Taliban'sprevenbon
of women's education in
Pakistan.Find out about. the
work Mat.alahas done.
EnvironmentaJ sustainability aims to reduce factors that threaten environmental
well-being. It usually focuses on land use, atmosphere, food production and energy
use. Figure 3.6 shows some strategies to address this.
Minimize eneqn,
Minimiz:ewater
consumption
Minimize environmental
Impactof lndustiy
consumption
Environmental
sustainability
Minimize waste
Subject vocabulary
HIV atypeofvirus(averysmall
INingthing that causes diseas.)
that enters the body through
blood or sexual activity, and can
develop into AIDS
degrades the processbywhkh
something changes to a worse
condition
production
General vocabulary
the mixn.re of gue-s
that surrounds the b.rth
atmosphere
Minimize enviroomental
Impactof uanspoll
~igure3.6 ErNirom11ntoJ
.51.1ffilinabUity
dKilgrom
The economies of the Global North have grown significandy at the expense of the
environment. The Global South wants to copy the economic successof the Global
North. However, this causes tensions because the Global North now wants to
encourage environmental protection, which is often not a priority for the Global
South. The Global North is more powerful economically and politically than the
Global South and it can impose restrictions on the economies of countries that
damage the environment.
Synonyms
tensl-ons ........ arguments
tsolatlon ........ alone
Articulation sentences:
The Three Pillars of Sustainability should not be seen in isolation. They
interact with one another.
Example: Economic growth and environmental
degradation
Economies have a significant effect on environmental sustainability. It is often the
case that as economies grow, the environment degrades (Adams and Jeanrenaud,
2008).It is argued that economic and environmental sustainability is currently
balanced in the developing world, des:pite the high population density. However.
as the economies in the developing wortd grow, more people will adopt a Western
lifestyle. Western lifestyles are characterized by high consumption and high
waste production.
It can also be noted that as developing countries adopt Western cultural norms.
there is greater female empowerment leading to a lower birth rate.
3 Development
I 63
4
Peace and conflict
Generalvocabulary
connlct a st.ateof disagreement
or argument between people,
groups or states
harmony whenp.oplelive or
work togethtr without fighting or
disagreeingwith each other
rts0klt1on when someone solves
a problem, argument or difficult
situation
neutralized prevented from
•nv
h,ving
effect
stake 1n if you have a stake
in somethil\g, you will get
advantages if it is successful,
and you feel that you have an
important connection with it
clans a large group of people
united by family heritage
reintegrate becomepart of
society again
mllftants people who are wiling
to use strong or violent •dion in
order to achieve politial o,r social
change
ordor dw political, social or
economic situation a.t• particular
t.ime
Synonyms
underpinned . strengthened
clashes .......... fighting
Just ............... fair
4.1 Key concept: Peace
Key idea:
Peaceis the absence of violence or conflict, sometimes underpinned
by a level of deeper equity and harmony.
What is peace?
Peace is the absence of violent conflict. However, analysing whether a society, state
or region is in a sustainable state of peace requires deeper examination. It cannot be
determinedsimply by visible evidence.such as the absenceof violent confrontation.
Measuring a state of peace depends on a deeper assessment of the absence of
violence,but alsothe deeperlevelof harmony that a society,stateor region enjoys.
Negativepeace
Negativepeaceinvolvesmerelylhe absenceof active,organizedviolenceby both state
and non-stategroups.Violent conflictmay havebeenabsentfor manyyears(in more
stablestates)or it may haveendedvery recently(for example,in ceasefiresand truces,
suchas theceasefireagreed in Ukraineby the MinskAgreementin 201Sor during
lhe Northern Irelandpeaceprocessin the 1990s).Thisassessment
of peacelooksno
deeper.It doesnot considerthe factorscontributingto non-violence.Thisconceptof
peaceismost usefulat thefirststagein conflict resolution,when theaim is to stop
immediateviolence.It is possibleto analysewhetheran apparentlystablestate,such
as the UnitedStates.is tn.,lyin a stateof n,egativepeace.Racialtensionsand violent
clashes,suchasthe violencein 2014in Ferguson,Missouri,maysuggestotherwise.
Positivepeace
Subjectvocabulary
equity a situation in which all
people are treated equalty and no
one NJ an vnt.ir actvanQge
confront.a ti on a situation in
which there is a lot of angry
disa&reementbetween two
people or groups
CNJ.lfirts ag,etments to
stop fightingfor a period of
time, especiallysothat a more
permanent agreetnent an be made
truces agreemenu betiNeen
enemies to stop f;ghting or
arguing for a short time, or the
period for which this is arranged
peace procffl a series of
discussions to try to find a
peaceful solution to a war or to
political violence
tensions the *ling tN.t exists
when people or states do not trust
each other and may suddenly
attadc each other or start arguing
cori.sdtutlon a setofbasidaws
and pri.nc~les that a country or
organization is governed by
power-sharlnsa.namngement
s\ which different groups, such as
political parties. share the power
to make dee isions
exerutlve the part of a
government that makes sure
decisions and lawswortcwell
64
I4
Peaceandoonflict
Positivepeacelooks more deeplyat what helpssustainpeacebeyond simply
reducingor stopping violence.It is possibleto identify a deeperlevelof harmony
in society,where the causesof conflict themselvesare neutralized, rather than
violence merely absent. Here, there is no visible violence and no deeper social
causesof conflict. Societyisjust and equal. Fonnerenemiesmakepeaceand
each hasan equal stake in society.Forexample,efforts to build sustainablepeace
in Somaliain 2012 ,e.establisheda representativeparliamentand agreeda new
national constitution. The aim was to create political equality in Somaliaby giving
all clans a voice. Effortswere madeto reintegrate former militants, who had
renouncedviolence,back into society.In the Northern Ireland peaceprocess,the
Good FridayAgreementin 1998created a power-sharing executive involving all
political parties,
Articulation sentence:
Peaceisthe absenceof conflict; it can be either positive- with the long-term
causes of conflict resolved sustainably- or negative - meaning there is an
absence of violence.
Theoretical viewpoints
Realistview
Liberalview
Peace~
Negative peace
Positive peace
The more natural state in an
anarchicalworld order. States
existto protect and actvance
their own national interests.
Their priority is nation.alsecurity
<Nerpeacefor its own sake.
An unrealisticaim. It is natural
for statesto competewith
eachother. Equalstatusamong
nation statesis both impossible
and undesirable.
A desirableand realisticfirst
objective,perhapsto be
achievedthrough diplomacy,
negotiationand with the
assistanceof IGOs.A means to
an end, ratherthan an end in
itself.
The desiredfinal state in all
conflict situations,seenas
realisticand achievable.Both
sideswill be willing to makebig
concessionson core interests
and seelcto reconcile and
forgive.
Equity
•
Vtolence •
Harmony
Trauma
Norwegianpeacetheorist,JohanGaltung (b.1930),suggeststhat there are four
key componentsthat influencethe presenceor absenceof peace.He links them
to specifictasksrequired to developpositive peace.Galtung suggeststhat peace
processesshould focuson the dual task of increasingequity and harmony.while
reducingviolenceand trauma
Equity
A societymust operateon the basisof equality in order to havepeace.
There must be political equality.in which all adult citizenshavethe right
to vote and participatein the political system.Theremust be economic
equality,with equalopportunitiesandaccess
to resources.
Finally,
there
V,
~
IX
u
z
a.narchlcal lading any rules°'
order,or not folbw;ng the Mes
of society
c.onctsslons SOl'Ylething
you give
F'lgure4.1 Galtungptt,u formula
w
Subjectvocabulary
or alSowto wmeonein ordtr to
reachan agreement
Truttu..ndReconcllladon
Commissions:a commission
taskedwithdiscoveringand
revealing
past wrongdoing
by
a pemment (orsometimes
non-stategroups):in the hope of
resotvingconflictleft airer from
the pa.st
Generalvocabulary
means to an end a wtry of
gettingorachievingsomething
thatyou want
reconcllo findaw~tomake
ideas.beliefsor needs thatare
opposed to each other capableof
e>Osting
togechet
trauma a bad ecperiencethat
makesyou fef!fve,y upset.afraid
or shocked
resources somethingsuch as
usefulland.or mineraJssuchas
oil or coat,thatexistsin a country
and canbe u~ to increa$eiU
wealth
fnstltutlon a large<><ganiz.ation
thathas .aparticular
kindof work
must be equalitybefore the law - everycitizen is equal before the law and
no citizen or institution isabove the law.
or purpose
Examples
a.bovttht law alJo\wdto not
obey the law
Newly createddemocratic institutions maybe designedso that all political
partiesare involvedin governmentthrough a systemof powersharing.
For examplethe Northe<nIreiandAssemblywas createdin 1998after the
Good FridayAgreement.The main Republicanand Unionist partiesshare
executivepower.This peaceprocessalsoreformed Northern Ireland's
police force,ensuringgreaterrepresentationof Catholicsin a previously
Protestant-dominatedpolice force.
ethnicity the count,y or tribe
someone comes from
Harmony
Harmony is the hardestto measureof all the componentsof a peaceful
society.A harmonioussociety is one in which all individualswithin a
societywork togetherdespitedifferencesof race,ethnicity. classor caste,
religion,gender.sexualorientation or age.After conflict. harmonymay
be increasedthrough national processessuchas Truth and Reconciliation
Commissions,which exposewrongdoing and promote forgivenessand
reconciliation. Harmonycan be measuredthrough opinion polls, which
revealpublic attitudesand toleranceof minorities.
caste oneofthe fixedsociaJ
dasses, which cannotbe changed,
intowhichpeople are bom in
India
sexual orientation the Fact
thatsomeone isheterosexualor
homosexual
re<:ondlladon a situationin
which people,groupsor countries
become friendlywith ~ch other
againafterquarrelling
Synonyms
dual., ............ double
polls ............. surveys
4 Peaceandconflict
I 65
Examples
Truth and Reconciliation Commissions were established in Sierra Leone
(2004), Liberia(2009) and Colombia (2015). Lawsand constitutions may
be created or adapted to protect against discrimination and prejudice. For
example, South Africa'spost-apartheid constitution guarantees equality
before the law and freedom from discrimination.
General vocabulary
prejudice an unreasonable
dWilceand distn,stof peoplewho
are differtnt fromyou in som•
way. especially because of their
race. gender or religion - used to
$how difaf)provaJ
Violence
psycholo9lc;aJrefa tingto thew.;
that your mindworksand the W«'f
that this affectsyour behaviour
Violence is physical or psychological harm. This can be caused either
by physical force by groups in conflict, or by structures within society
or government (such as violence against women under the Taliban in
Afghanistan), causing injury, damage or death.
grlev.tnce a beliefthat you have
been treatedunfairly.or an oofair
situation or event that affects and
upsets you
Examples
<onvl<ledprcvedor officially
announced that someone isguilty
of a crime afttf"a trial in a court
Ifboth sides in a conflict agree to a ceasefire or truce, violence may be
reduced. For example, in 2014, the Minsk Protocol was agreed between
the parties involved in the eastern Ukraine conflict. Both sides agreed to
a ceasefire, which was monitored by independent international observers
from an IGO, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE).The decommissioning of weapons, defined as putting weapons
in a position where they can no longer be used, may also be an aim of a
ceasefire or truce. For example, an independent commission confirmed in
2005 that the Irish Republican Al'mf had decommissioned the 'totality of its
weapons', making a return to violence less likely.
orlaw
Subject vocabulary
apartheid the former political
and social system in South Africa,
i"Iwhich onlywhite people ha.d
full political rigflts and people
of other races.especially black
people, were forced to go to
5ep1,ratesctioolsand livein
sepa,tateareas
retributive jusUce a theoryof
justice that considC":rs
pooishrnent.
if proportionate, to be the
best response to crime. When
an offender breaks the law,
justicerequirt!S that th4'f'forfeit
somethingin return
restorative justice
w
V,
~
"'
i:rl
0
Trauma
Trauma is the emotional shock following the stress of conflict or violence.
This can lead to long-term distr,ess and harm, bitterness and grievance
between parties that were in co:nflicl Grievances left unresolved are likely
to cause a return to conflict.
Examples
a.system of
criminaljusticewhich foe.useson
the rehabilitation of offe.nden:
through reconciliation with
victims and the o:,mmunity at
large
amnesty an officialorder by
a government that allows a
particular group of prisonen to
go free
unlpolarity when one state is
more powerful than all the others
bipolarity when !WOstates are
e,qualtypowemJ,and the main
competitionis bt!tweentMSetwo
powersand not others
Emotional trauma, in terms of the bitterness and resentment that conflict
creates, may be reduced by eitl>er retributive justice or restorative
justice. International courts such as the International Criminal Court have
convicted leaders responsible for crimes against humanity in the conflict in
Democratic Republic of Congo. By 2016, the International Criminal Tribunal
for the Former Yugoslavia,established by the UN Security Council in 1993,
was still hearing evidence for war crimes committed since the late 1990s.
Prisoners from both sides of the conflicts in Northern Ireland (1998) and
Colombia (2015) have been released and granted amnesty.
Articulation sentence:
Galtung suggests that peace processes should focus on increasing equity and
harmony, and reducing violence and trauma.
muttlpolar1ty when manystates
are powerfuland competewith
each other
Peace and power
Synonyms
Power plays an important role in developing peace, notably in the distribution
and balance of power between great powers who might be drawn into conflict
with each other. Power may be used by ,one state alone (unipolarity), or by two
rivals (bipolarity) or distributed among many states (multipolarity) and non-state
groups. Identifying which global order is dominant at any one time is complex, as is
whether one or the other is more or less likely to produce peace.
tota.llty .......... all
dtstre,ss .. ,...... upset
bitterness ...... resentment
unresolved .... unsolved
66
I4
Peace and conflict
Unipolarity
In a unipolarity, one great power or hegemon exists which cannot be challenged
militarily by any other. Realists call this hegemonic stability theory - the absolute
power and dominance of the hegemon makes conflict less likely.Sceptics suggest
that while immediate conflict is unlikely, in the long term conflict may result as
other powers seek to remove power from the hegemon. However, truly global
hegemons are extremely rare and are more Iikely to exist at regional, rather
than global, level.
Bipolarity
In the Cold War, the United States and Soviet Union were in direct bipolar
competition with each other, but never fought each other directly. The appalling
consequences of nuclear war introduced a measure of stability, so-called mutually
assured destruction. However, during the Cold War there was prolonged regional
instability with proxy wars, in which both powers challenged each other by fighting
with or against third parties. For example, there werelong conflicts in Vietnam
and Afghanistan.
Multipolarity
Many analysts agree that the current world order is multipolar. Many powers are
competing with each other and non-state groups (for example, Islamic State in
Syria and Iraq, and Boko Haram in Nigeria) are challenging nation states in armed
conflict. Realists believe there is more 1instability in a multipolar order. Liberals,
meanwhile, are more optimistic. They believe if many states have power, it increases
the possibility of nation states working together in the common interest. For
example. they work together through international organizations such as the United
Nations. whose core goal is international peace.
Subject vocabulary
hegemon a stateso powerful
that it dominateJ•II otherstateJ in
the system,globlf o, regional
hegemonic sbblllty
tlleory when one $1.ateis so
powerfulthatothers areunlikely
to challengeit. andtherefore
thereis no conflict
mutllaltyassured
destruction when bod, $idei in
a conflictwould beable to inflict
terribledamageon eadl other
proxy war a war startedby
a majorpower,wheresmaler
powersor groupsdo the fighting
on behalfof themajorpower
Insurgent one of a groupof
people fightingagainstthe
governmentof theirown country,
or againstauthority
Synonyms
appalling....... terrible
Democratic peace theory
Some theorists believe that democracy itself promotes peace.They note that
conflict between democratic states is rare. It is suggested that in democratic states,
there is a fairer balance of power and distribution of wealth and resources. This
internalstabilityreducespotentialsourcesof grievance.
It alsopromotesdispute
resolution through democratic rather than violent means, because the previous
success of democratic models of conflict resolution makes it clearer to all how
conflict can be avoided in the future. For example, in 2012 the national parliament
was re-established in Somalia. This institution allows members to resolve
disputes through dialogue. in a format that had not existed during the country's
civil war. Therefore, introducing democracy is often a key part of peacebuilding
efforts, though it is no guarantee of stability. The lengthy military campaigns in
Afghanistan (2001-2014) and Iraq (20D3-2011), led by the United States, created
new democratic institutions. HONever,. these were continually threatened by violent
insurgent attacks.
Articulation sentence:
Power can be unipolar (focused in one state), bipolar (divided between two
states) or multipolar (split between several states or organizations).
4 Peace and conflict
I 67
The security dilemma
Realistsbelievethat strong national security and defenceare a priority becausethey
protect a state from potential aggressorsand securepower over its competitors.
Criticsargue that asa state builds up its defences,this may be interpreted by
other statesasaggressive.
Other statesmay then respondby building up their
own military forces.This meansthe military resourcesavailableto both states
increase.The result for both statesis greater insecurity,the opposite of the original
goal. Someanalystsobservedthis dilemma when former Sovietstatesin Eastern
Europejoined NATOafter the Cold War. Forexample.Ukraine- bordering Russia
- planned to join NATO.Russiaconsideredthis a threat to its national security.This
contributed to Russianmilitary intervention in the Crimearegion of Ukrainein
2014,as Russiawanted to secureits BlackSeafleet.
Pathwaysto peace
Generalvocabulary
sequence a sere of related
Thereare threemain waysthat regions,statesand societiesbuild peace.Theyhappen
in sequence,and are thereforestronglylinked to and dependenton eachother.
Peace
War /Violent conflict
events or actions that happen or
are done ina pa.rticul,rorder
stabilliation making something
firm and sttfidy
rebel someone who opposes or
fightsagainst people in authority
armed fore ts a country's mlitary
organizations, includingthe army,
navy and air force
leg1tlmlted made officialor legal
Subjectvocabulary
try to end a quarrel
between people,.groups or states
mediation
Arrlcan Union a regional !GO
of which most Africansta.tesare
members, focusingprimarilyon
securityand economic prosperity
tt$Olution a fotma.Jdecision or
statement agreed on by a groop of
people, especially after a vote
Humanitarian
assistance
(intervondon)
Peacemaking
Peace~eeping
(mediation) (maintainingnegative
peaco)
Peacebuilding
Development
(building positive
poaco)
Flsu,.. 4.2 Keyactivitiesinvotvedin moving towards positivepeace
Peacemaking
Peacemakingisstoppingviolent conflict and creatingnegativepeace.A pauseor end
to immediateviolence is achieved,commonly through negotiation.Pausingviolence
may allow for further mediation or negotiation and the building of trust between
both sidesin a conflict. The original causesof conflict will not yet be resolved,but a
pause in violence enables stabilization, for example through a ceasefire or truce.
Colombia'slargestleft-wing rebel group, the FARC,agreedto a seriesof ceasefires
as it negotiatedwith the Colombian govemment in 201S.Similarly,agreements
betweenpro-Russianrebelsand Ukrainian nationalistforcesresultedin fragile
ceasefiresin easternUkrainein 2014,as they exploreda long-term solution.
Peacekeeping
Synonyms
monitoring, ... d'leckine
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
~
And out about I.heUN's
pe;,c<tkceping
activitliCS
in Cyprus.
t-f<M'
long have there been UN
~keeper$ in the country?
What does 1:histell yc:>U
abovt (he
n3tvre of pe~ing1
68
I4
Peaceandconflict
Peacekeeping
is sustainingnegativepeaceto allow positivepeaceto be built. When
a ceasefireis agreed,independentpeacekeepersmay be sent to the area.They
will ensurethat the peaceholds.allowing positivepeaceto be built. The priority is
monitoring agreementsmadeduring the peacemakingprocess.This may be done
by armed forces from an international or regional body suchas the United Nations
(UN) or African Union (AU),or by unarmed monitors from an organizationsuchas
the Organizationfor Securityand Cooperation in Europe(OSCE).
Peacekeeping
continuesto be a major activity for the United Nations.Since2000,
UN peacekeepershavebeen sent mainly to Africa, including to the Democratic
Republicof Congo(established2010) and Sudan'sDarfur region(established2007).
Thesemissionsare alwayslegitimized by a UN SecurityCouncil resolution. The
number of nations that send troops on these peacekeeping missions has increased
considerablyin recentyears.They include statesthat haverecentlyemergedfrom
conflict themselves, such as Sierra Leone, which in 2012 sent peacekeepers to the
African Union mission to Somalia.
Peacebuilding
Peacebuilding is the building of sustainable, positive peace and long-tenn conflict
resolution. This includes stabilization efforts to build longer-lasting peace and
security,in order to achievepositive peace. Commonly,it involvessignificant
development assistance to improve health and education, address inequality and
rebuild destroyed infrastructure. It may also involve deeper reconciliation efforts,
such as Truthand ReconciliationCommissions.amnestiesor trialsforwarcriminals.
Many peacekeeping missions approved by the UN have a specific mandate to
carry out peacebuilding activities alongside traditional peacekeeping. Recent
interventions in Afghanistan under NATO(2001-2014) and in Iraq under the US-led
coalition (2003-2011) developed into imajor peacebuilding projects (sometimes
known as nation building, where the entire structures of a nation state require
rebuilding from complete destruction). When peacebuilding troops left Afghanistan
in 2014, there had been 9 per cent economic growth. Healthcare provision had
increased to 60 percent from 9 per cent. There were also 2.5 million more girls
in education and the first peaceful tran~er of power since 1901 had taken place.
However,considerablesecurityproblems still remained.
General vocabulary
lnfrasb'ucturt the basic systems
and struc.1urts
that& state or
organizatk>n
needs in orderto
work properly,for exampleroads.
rai"lways
and banks
recrimination when you
blame or critjcizesomeonefor
somethingthat "'-shippened
statusquo the stateof a situation
Mil is
pro$t<Uted
dlarged
wilhacrime
and tried to showthat theyare
guiltyof it in a court of law
Articulation sentences:
Subject vocabulary
There are three stages to creating peace. Peacemaking happens to end
conflict, peacekeeping aims to maintain the established peace and
peacebuilding attempts to create long-lasting peace.
mand.ttean officialinstruction
givento a pe,$0nor orginii:ation
Truth and Reconciliation Commissions
Truth and ReconciliationCommissions(TRCs)aim to expose the wrongdoing of all those
involved in a conflict in a way that promotes forgivenessand understanding. rather
than punishment and recrimination. Th is kind of reconciliationinvolvesaccepting the
status quo, agreeing and publicizingaccounts of the conflict, understanding oppo5ing
views,and ultimately rebuilding relationships. South Africaand Sierra Leoneare
powerful examples of successfulTruth and ReconciliationCommissions.Both achieved
allowingthem todo something
naUon bulldlns rebuildingan
entire staleand all its institutions
hearlng:JmettW'lg:iofa cOIM'tor
sp«ial convnittNto findout th•
factsabouta case
gt-noddt the deliberatemurder
of a whole groupor raceof people
a balancebetweenrestorativejusticeand retributivejustice.In 00th cases,the neYtts
and eventswerehighly publicizedand televised. They published very detailed reports
exposingwrongdoingand makingrecommendationsfor the future.Suchcommissions
are rare. These two ecamples relied on a deeply religiousculture and a strong belief 'in
forgiveness(the South Africancommission was chaired by Archbishop Desmond Tutu
and hearings began with prayers). Both .alsooccurred once the previous government
had left power and both nations were in a conscious process of rebuildin~
Peace through justice
In some conflicts, where there have been war crimes or genocide, war criminals have
been prosecuted in special courts. Before the International Criminal Court opened in
2002, special tribunals were authorized! by the UN Security Council. As of 2015, the
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICn') had sentenced 74
individuals for war crimes committed during the conflicts between 1991 and 2001.
The International Criminal Court (ICC)was established by the Rome Statute in 1998
as a permanent internationalcourt for crimesagainsthumanity.As of 201S, the court
had made two convictions, both from the Democratic Republicof Congo.
Articulation sentence:
Usually after a conflict, intergovernmental organizations will attempt
to build peace through Truth and Reconciliation Commissions and by
prosecuting war criminals.
4 Peaceand conflict
I 69
4.2 Key concept: Conflict
Key idea:
Conflict is when parties disagree or compete with each other over
ideas, resources or territory. Conflict may be violent or non-violent.
What is conflict?
Conflict is fundamentally about disagreement and competition over power, ideas,
identity,resourcesor territory.The broadestdefinition of conflict coversa wide
General vocabulary
sttUCtJ
a period of time when
agr<>Up
of work,rs d•li>Erat<tt
stop work;ingbecalM ol a
spectrum, including peaceful disagreement (for example, strikes) in its mildest form,
to violent conflict involving many state and non-state groups (for example. the
conflict in Syria which began in 2011).
disagreement about pay or
workingconditions
Interstate ...... betweenSU.tes
Subject vocabulary
Insurgency an attempt by a
group orpeople to take controlof
stoppingtradeor 00mmunic-,1.tion
withanotherstate, as a way
of forcingttsleaden to make
poliijcal~
Peaceful demonstrations
Terrorist attacks
Strikes
Civilwar
Civildisobedience
Interstate war
Politicalcampaigns
Insurgency or guerrilla war
Diplomacy
Genocide
Conflict is a disagreement, which can either be peaceful or violent.
violence
sanctions officialordfl"S
« laws
Violent conflict
Articulation sentence:
theirgovernmentusingforceand
guerrllla a member of a small
unofficialmilitarygroupthat fights
., small groups
Non-violent conflict
Non-violentconflict
Not all conflict involvesviolence. In global politics. groups often disagree with each
other in an entirely peaceful way, without violence. These conflicts are non-violent
for a number of reasons.
•
A legitimate structure or process for ,dialogue is in place, and everyone
involved is using this.
• Democratic structures allow the population to be consulted. The results of these
consultations are considered legitimate.
• The parties involved in the dispute are dependent on each other and would be
harmed if the dispute became violent.
• Violent solutions are against the core interests of all parties.
70
I4
Peaceand conflict
Dispute
Non-violent conflict and resolution
Iran nuclear
Conflict of ideas and security interests between nation states
weapons
programme
may be resolved through diplomacy and negotiation. In
2015, Iran and the United States (and the so-called PS+1,
the permanent members of the UN Security Council plus
Germany) disagreed over Iran's nuclear weapons programme.
In 201 S, Iran and the PS+1 used diplomacy and negotiation
to discuss their conflicting interests and priorities. rather than
violent conflict. As a result.,economic sanctions were relaxed
in exchange for weapons inspections. However, at times
during the negotiations the threat of military action by the
United States endangered the progress of the process.
Dispute
Non•vlolenl
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
conflict and resolution
EuropeanUnion The European Unfon was founded with the objective of
and the Eurozone creating a forum where European states could work together
crisis
and resolve differences peacefully. through regional institutions.
Integration reached an even deeper level with the launch of
the euro in 2002. the European Union's single currency. New
institutions. including a European Central Bank, were set up
to manage monetary policy for the new currency. After the
2008 financial crisis. the Greek government requested loans
from other Eurozone countries in order to pay its debts.
Greece and other Eurowne countries frequently disagreed
on the austerity measures Greece should take to stabilize its
economy.All member countriessharecommon institutions
and interests,which means disputes can be resolved nonviolently through discussion.
Scottish
independence
In 2011, the Scottish National Party (SNP)won a majority
in elections to the Scottish Parliament, a regional assembly
with limited autonomy. The SNP had promised to hold a
referendum on Scotland gaining independence from the
United Kingdom and becoming an independent country. The
dispute between pro-independence nationalistsand antiindependence Unioni.stswas resolvedthrough a democratic
referendum of the Scottish people. There was huge interest
in the vote, with many young voters getting involved in the
arguments for and against independence. In September 2014,
a majority rejected independence and Scotland remains part
of the United Kingdom.
Ingroop:s.
find another
erample
ofa recentglobalnon•violent
conftictthat hasnowbeen
~.
Makenoteson the
histOI')'
of the issueandwhatwa&
done to resolvethe problem.
Createa presentation
of your
research
and ecpb.myour
findingsto the rest of the dass..
("
...............................
Subject vocabulary
austerity whena goye,nment
hasa dellberatepolicy of trying
to reducethe amountof money
• spends
Synonyms
assembly....... gQYet'l'V'l"ient
autonomy ..... independence
referendum whenpeoptevote
in 0<derto makea decisionabc>vt
a pattioJlarsubject,ratherthan
votingfor a personor politica.l
party
Articulation sentence:
Conflictscan be non-violent. often becausestatesor groupsare able to
resolve their problems without violence and because they are dependent
on one another.
Violent conflict
Much conflict resultsin violence.The most obviousform of violence in conflict is
direct violence which can be measured by the numbers of people killed or injured,
and by measuring the physical damage to infrastructure. Commonly, this type of
violence takesplace during a war. These conflictscan be violent for severalreasons.
•
Lack of trust between both sides of the conflict.
•
No structure exists for the dispute to be resolved peacefully, through dialogue or
democratic means.
•
Grievanceand trauma are sustainirng,
and deepening, the conflict.
•
Violent approachesare seenas the only way to securecore interests.
4
Peaceand conflict
I 71
General vocabulary
Dispute
Violent conflict
Kurdistan
and Turl<ey
Kurdish separatist forces have been fighting an insurgency against
lhe Turkish Army in south-eastern Turkey. The main rebel group is
lhe Kurdistan Workers' Party (known as the PKK),which wants to
create a separate Kurdish state. Several ceasefires have failed and
violent conflict has restarted. The conflict began in the late 1970s
and since then approximately 45,000 people have been killed.
Ukraine
Violent conflict has been frequent in Ukraine. There are tensions
because the people and its leadership are trying to decide between
closer relations with the European Union and NATO to lhe west,
or Russiato the east. In February 2014, there were violent protests
in Kiev against President Viktor Yanukovych's pro-Russian stance
and reversal of closer ties with the European Union. Security forces
clashed with protesters in Independence Square, Kiev, and close to
100 protesters were killed. President Yanukovych fled to Russiaand
was replaced by pro-EU President Petro Poroshenko. In September
2014, Russian troops invaded eastern Ukraine and annexed the
Crimea region. Protestsin eastern Ukraine then developed into an
armed insurgencybetween pro-Russianrebels,Russianforcesand
Ukrainiannationalistforces.
Syria
Civil war began in Syria in 2011 after initially peaceful protesters
were shot at by government forces. By the end of 201S, 250,000
people had been killed in the conflict and much of Syria's physical
infrastructure was destroyed. The UN has confirmed that in August
2013, governmentforces used chemicalweapons in an attack on
Damascus.One of the insurgent groups, Islamic State. has executed
Western aid workers and journalistsin Syria.
separatist someonewho
belongs
to a groupthat wants
to start a.new state with itsown
gOYef'Mlent.by separatingfrom
the state that theybelong to now
contradictions the act of sayi"I
thatsomeoneelse'$
opinionor
statementiswrong°' nottrue
Synonyms
rled . . . . . . . . .. . . . . left qu ickt,,
reinforces ...... strttlglhens
har~n .......... be<omtlm
symp.1thetk
Subject vocabulary
a.nne,c-ed
tookcontrolof a
stateor areanextto yoyrown,
especialty
by usingforce
Articulation sentence:
Conflict can become violent when statesor groups have no other
meansof resolvingtheir disputesor becausethe conflict has been
progressivelygettingworse.
Causesof conflict
In societies where there is conflict. it is possible to identify both specific causes
and more general conditions that make conflict more likely. There is rarely just one
single cause or condition. By the very nature of conflict, different sides in a conflict
will not agree on the causes.Therefore, political analysts need to take care to
analysethe possiblecausesin a balanced manner.
Galtung (1996) suggeststhat attitudes. behaviours and contradictions act together to
encourage violent conflict. All three factors must be present for a full conflict to exist.
Each factor reinforces the others. All three need to be stopped in order for conflict
to end.If onlyonefactorexists,
thenconflictmaybe likelytodevelopovertime.
For example, violent behaviour will deepen contradiction. This may harden
attitudesand deepen a senseof grievance or injustice.Peacekeepingcan help
reduce behavioursthat encourageconflict. Peacebuildingcan help reduce
contradictions. Peacemaking can change the attitudes that fuel conflict.
72
I4
Peaceandconflict
In Galtung'smodel,violent conflict can be analysedat the manifest and latent
levels.The manifestlevel is the immediatelyobvious evidenceof violent conflict, for
examplethe numberof peoplekilled or injured.The latent level iswhere the deeper
causesand conditionsof conflict can be analysed.It is important to rememberthat
Galtung'sconflict triangle appliesto both violent and non-violent conflict.
Synonyms
mantfest........ obvious
latent ............ h;,td..,
BEHAVIOUR
Violence,genocide,Insurgency
attacks,
discriminatory acts
Reducedlllrough peacekeeping
Manifestlevel:how
peopleactencourages
conflict;immediate
evlcknceof conflict
Liltent level: how
peoplethink encoorages
conflictdeeper
cause,
of conflict
ATTITUDES/ASSUMPTIONS
CONTRADICTION
Racism,
discriminatory
attitudes,
sexism,
vlctlmhood.trauma
Reducedlhroughp<0.cemaking
~igure4.3 Galtungiconfiitttria.nglt
Inequality,
disputeoverterritory
or resources
Reducedthroughptoc,bui/dlng
Conditions making violent conflict
more likely
Conditions making violent conflict
less likely
Democraticinstitutionsexist,with full
disputeresolution;minorities excluded political equalityand participation
rrom political representation
Littleor no democraticmeansof
Wealth,territory or resourcesshared
unequallyand controlled by powerful
Equalsharingof wealth and resources
elites
Poverty
Equalityof opportunity for all
Govemmentis abovethe law,making
arbitraryand illegitimatedecisions
Governmentrespectsthe rule of law
Judicialsystemis absentor interfered
with. not independentor fair
Disputescan be resolvedfairly through
a fair and independentjudicial system
Human rightsare abused
Respectfor human rights (especiallyof
minorities)
4 Peaceandconflict
I 73
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
~
UsingGaltung'smethodology,it is possibleto createa conflict triariglefor
contemporaryconflicts,in order to analysewhat is encouragingconflict. Figure4.4
is an examplefor the violent conflict in Syria.
BEHAVIOUR
Assadgovernment:militarycampaignagainst
Us-"lgGalo.mg\conftictUiangle
forSyrioandthe lableorposs;t,le
insurgefl<Y,
chemicalweaponattacks(August2013)
Sunni rebel force~violent insurgencycampaign
against the Assad government
causesof confhct, tdenlifywhic:h
caUS<Sapply to S,,,,,.,
looti~
at what needs to be presentm
Islamic State:militaly campaign to establish Sunni
ls!amk caliphate.fought againstShlaMuslimsand
Assadgovtmment;ecKUtion of Westem journalists
Ofder to prevent conAKL What
do you think.needs to happen in
S,,riato help end the conflict?
Generalvocabulary
c.allphate a single Islamic state.
Manifest level: how
peopleact encourages
conflJct;immediate
evk:lence
of conflict.
unitingmanycountneswith
Muslimpopulationsi~o one
much larger state unified by
politicaland religiousassociation
wrth lsiam
Latent level: how people
actencouragesconflict:
deeper causesol
conflict.
ATTITUDES/ASSUMPTIONS
Assad government believes it
shouldstay in power,that rebel
forcesare 'terrorists'challenging
the legitimateauthorityor the
state. SUnnirebels feelAssad
govemment Is not legitimate,
demanding greater
representation and political
equalily.Sunnismarginalizedby
Assad's Shia•ledgovernment
CONTRADICTION
Sunni majority is in conflict with the
President's Shia Alawite sect, which
hasdrawn in Sunniand Shiaregional
powers.Sunnisfeel margtnaliz:ed
by
MSad's Shia·led government, Islamic
State betieves it is legitimate to
createa SunniMuslim caliphate
across Iraq and Syria..and does not
accept Internationalbordersas
currentlydefined.
!=igure4.4 GatrungJconflictcrktngle
for Syrki
Articulation sentences:
It is possibleto identify both specificcausesand more generalconditions
that makeconflict more likely,Galtung'striangle is a method for analysingthe
causesof a conflict.
Typesof conflictand groupsinvolvedin conflict
Subjectvocabulary
Ideology opiniOf'ISor beliefs.
often linked to a particular
political .systemor culture
Synonyms
fntrutate
74
...... wi.thrlone state
I4
Peaceandconflict
Different typesof conflict exist,depending on two key factors.
• The natureof the groups involved- for example,nation statesor
non-stategroups.
• The contradictionthat is the causeof the conflict- for example,ideology,
revolution, violent organized crime, or dispute over territory or resources.
Intrastate war has increased since 1946 and now represents the most common
form of violent conflict.
Interstatewar hasdecreasedsteadilysince 1946,Particularlysincethe end of
the ColdWar,someyears(for example,between 2004and 2008)haveseenno
interstatewar, anywherein the world,
Conflict and type
Group Involved
Contradiction causing
conflict
Afghanistan2001-2014 United States,
NATO-mandated
State-led conflict
InternationalSecurity
against state and non• AssistanceForce,
state groups (Taliban
Taliban(ethnically
and al-Qaeda).
Pashtunforces).
al-Qaeda, Northern
Alliance(ethnically
Tajikforces).
Iraq 2003-2011
United States-led
coalitionwithout
lnter$1ateconflict
UN SecurityCouncil
between United
approval, Iraqi Army
States and Iraq under
leadership of President under leadership of
Saddam Hussein,
Saddam Hussein.
later against Sunni
From 2004.
asymmetric conflict
between United States
and Sunni insurgent
non-state groups.
insurgentgroups,
principallyal-Qaeda
in Iraq (AQ:I).
United States began War on
Terror.Talibangovernment
refused to surrender al-Qaeda
leader,Osama bin laden, and
to deny givingal-Qaeda safe
operating space in Afghanistan.
USand its alliesremoved
Talibanfrom power and
sought to degrade and destroy
al-Qaeda, and bring bin Laden
to justice.
Synonyms
degrade ........ breakdown
United States accused Saddam
Husseinof failureto comply
with UNweapons inspections.
USclaims that suspected
weapons of mass destruction
(WMD) represent international
securitythreat, justifying
regime change.
From 2004, Sunni insurgency
developed in opposition to
prolonged presence of US
troops in Iraq.
Subject vocabulary
a.symmetricconflict when two
partiesare fightinge..di other
and one hassuperiorresources
comparedto the other
regime change a changein the
Mexico2006-present
Mexicangovernment
and law enforcement
Conflictbetween
agenci~ Organized
violent organized
drug
cartels. such as
criminalsand Mexican
the Sinaloa Cartel.
government.
the world's largest
drug-trafficking
organization in the
world.
Mexicansecurityforces are
fightingto control drug-related
violence in Medco, where
cartels fight for control of
traffickingroutes
SriLanka1983-2009
The TamilTigersfought
an insurgencyagainst the
Srilankan state for an
Civilwar of secession
between TamilTigers
and Sri L.anl<an
government.
liberation Tigersof
TamilEefamand Sri
L.ankanstate.
government of a countrythat
ha.ppen$
becaU$e
,nother countty
force1
that governmentout of
power
cartels a group of people or
companieswho agreeto sell
somethingat a particularpricein
orderto preventcompetitionand
incrtue pr0fiu
traffic;k1ngthe buyinga.ndselling
of illegalgoods. especialt,,drugs
independent Tamilstate in
$tceS.$IOn
when a countryor
stateoffic.ialty
stops beingpart
of anothercountryand becomes
independent
the north of Sri Lanka.The
government defeated the Tamil
Tigersin a long battle in the
north of Sri Lanka,after which
the Tamilssurrendered.
Articulation sentences:
Interstate war happens between states, but it has been decreasing since 1946.
Intrastatewar happens within one nation and is increasing.
I 75
4 Peaceand conflict
How is conflict changing?
Many analysts have observed important changes in the nature of violent conflict,
particularly since the end of the Cold War. A key method of analysis has been to
observe the differences between 'old wars', based on interstate conflict, and 'new
war'/, based on new globalized conflicts between civilian and non-state groups, as
notably proposed by Mary Kaldor (1999).
General vocabulary
geopolltlcal relatingto the
way that a state'spositionand
popl.Ationaffectits political
developmentand its relationship
wi'thotherst.ates,or the studyof
!his
ctynamla theways in which
thingsor peoplebehave,react•nd
affecteach other
Old wars
New wars
Principalgroups involvedwere
Principal groups now involved are non-state
regular armed forces of nation
states.
groups, rebel groups and independent militia.
Fought for ideology or
Fought for identity - religious, ethnic, tribal.
geopolitical interests.
Violence directed against and
Violence directed against civilians.
between national armed forces.
Financed by states (taxation or
outside support).
Financed by non-state groups exploiting local
economies and by violent organized crime.
Emphasis on battles to capture
territory.
Emphasis on controlling populations,
displacing minorities.
uprisings attemptsbi a groupof
people to change the government
or laws in an area or state
Articulation sentence:
The nature of conflicts has been steadily changing from wars based on
geopolitical interests between states to wars based on identity issues
between non-state groups.
Conflict dynamics
WhilerNeryconflicthasdifferentdynamics.analysts
haveidentifiedsimilarities
Synonyms
escalate . . . . . . . . increase in scale
coexistence .... livirlgtogether
between conflicts. Conflicts typically escalate and de-escalate through several
phases. Ramsbotham and Woodhouse (1999) formulated a model of conflict
dynamics. This helps policymakers to identify the best responses that will help
with conflict resolution at each stageof both the escalation and de-escalation of
violent conflict.
Stage of
Ideal response
Contemporary examples
Difference
Cultural (or
community)
peacebuilding
The Southern Sudan Peace Commi.ssion
was established in 2006 with the objective
of promoting peaceful coexistence among
the people of South Sudan. It also aimed to
dE!'Jelopan early warning system, while trying
to build peace between communities.
Contradiction
Structural
peacebuilding
After the popular uprisings of the Arab
Sp ring in 2011, Egypt struggled to establish
a new order peacefully. There were
few political parties to offer the people
a democratic choice for the greater
representation that many had demanded,
particularly minorities. Western governments
invested aid money in programmes to build
up Egyptian civil society and political parties.
conflict
76
I4
Peace and conflict
Stage of
conflict
Ideal response
Contemporary examples
Polarization
Elite
peacemaking
The Israel-Palestineconflict hasfrequently
been focusedon peacemakingeffortsat elite
level.FormerBritishPrime MinisterTonyBlair
was appointed SpecialEnvoyof the Quartet
(US,UN. EUand Russia)on leavingoffice in
2007.and led elite peacemakingeffortswith
sceniorleaderson behalfof the major world
powers.
Violence
Peacekeeping
UN peacekeepers
were sentto Rwandain
1994 but their rulesof engagementdid not
allow them to intervenedirectly to prevent
genocide.A major activity of the UN remains
peacekeeping,The majority of operationsin
tlhelast 10yearshavebeen in Africa.
War
War limitation
The African Union Missionto Somalia
(AMISOM)wasdispatchedin 2008 under
a UN mandateto conduct peacekeeping
operations.By2012,many analystsagreed
tlhatAMISOMhasin fact conductedpeace
enforcement operationsin Somalia,fighting
againstal-Shabaabto regainterritory for the
Subjectvocabulary
ellte peacemaking attempts to
$topviolencewhictlare ledbf
seniorleadffl,foreumpte prime
ministersor presidents
peacee-nforcome-nt
a contested
term, where militvy force is used
to bringaboutan end to violent
conftic:t
interim Somaligovernment
Ceasefire
Peacekeeping
Colombia'slargestleft-wing rebel group, the
FARC,agreedto a seriesof ceasefiresas it
took part in negotiationswith the Colombian
governmentbetween2012and 2015.
Agreement
Elite
peacemaking
The Good FridayAgreementin Northern
Ireland (1998)agreespowersharingbetween
tihemain political partiesin a new Northem
Ireland Assemblyand the releaseof political
prisoners.The constitutionof the Republicof
Ireland wasamendedto revoke the Republic
of Ireland'sterritorial claim to Northern
Ireland,
Normalization Structural
peacebuilding
' Synonyms
revoke .......... reverse
A key part of the peaceprocessin Somalia
since2012 hasinvolvednegotiations
betweenthe governmentin the capital.
Mogadishu,and regionalpro-government
clans. Discussionshavefocusedon the
sharingof resourcesand incomeacrossthe
whole of Somalia.
Reconciliation Cultural(or
community)
peacebuilding
Truth and Reconciliation Commissions in
SierraLeone(1999)and SouthAfrica (1998).
An International Commission of Inquiry on
Darfur,Sudanwas establishedby the UN in
2004 and reported in 2005,concludingthat
tihegovernmentof Sudanhad not pursueda
policy of genocide.
4 Peaceandconflict
I 77
War
Violence Pe~
Peace Ceasefire
lcl!eplng keeping
Elite
Agreement
Peacemaking
Contradiction
Structural
pcatebuilding
Community peacebuilding
(grassroots)
st ructuraJ Normalization
pcacebuildins
Communitypeacebuilding
{grassroot,)
Difference
RKondllatlon
Conflict+-------------------------+
Peace
Figure4.5 Stag~ of conflictand confiictresolution
Articulation sentence:
Ramsbotham and Woodhouse created a model of conflict dynamics that
helps policymakers understand the stages through which conflict escalates
and de-escalates, and the ideal responses for resolving conflict at each stage.
4.3 Key concept: Violence and non-violence
Key idea:
Violence is when physical, mental or other harm is caused by an
individual or group to another.
Typesof violence
Direct violence
systema.tk organizedarefulty
anddonethorougllly
Direct violence is when an individual or group is physically or mentally harmed,
through direct action. For example, if a bomb attack kills or injures people, then
direct violencehastaken place.Directviolence alsoincludescrimesagainst
humanity, where systematic direct violence is directed at an ethnic group by a
group or individual in a position of power. Genocide,as seen in Rwanda in 1994
and in Srebrenica,former Yugoslavia,in 1995, is the most extreme form of direct
violence. Genocide is defined by the UN as the attempt to destroy, in whole or in
pa.rt,a national. ethnic, raciaJor religiousgroup. In general,direct violence is:
•
often straightforward to identify;
Synonyms
•
possible to investigate and establish who was responsible;
held to account ... madeor
•
possible to measure;
•
possible to identify in such a way that those responsible can be held to account.
shownto be responsible
78
I4
Peaceandconflict
Structural violence
Structuralviolence iswhen a government or other forms of power functionsin a
way that results in physical, mental or other harm to individuals or groups. This may
be through inequalities that deny people fundamental rights, resulting in physical
harm such as illnessor death through hunger or disease.A government commits
this form of violence when it forcibly and consciously limits human development or
undermines well-being, where fairer alternatives are possible.
Violence of any kind must contain some form of intent A government that is
poor and doing its best to provide for all its citizens, but faces a humanitarian
disaster beyond its control in which people die, is not guilty of structural violence.
By contrast, a government that hoards wealth within an elite, and fails to spend
government resources to protect its citizens from preventable diseases,is guilty of
structuralviolence. In general,structuralviolence:
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
In2014,Uglndauearedits
A.n6-Homosavality
Act(which
isnONin dispu(r).
Uncle.this
law,a pe,,on foundguiltyof
commrtting
homosexualacts can
be sentencedto lifein prison.
In groups,
discusswhetheryou
thinkthiscouldbe interpreted
as
suucturafviolence.Does theta.Y
de,,yanyfundamenoal
rig~a and
doesit causephysical
or mental
•
isa consciouschoice - the structureof government causesphysicalor mental
harm to others;
harm?
•
leads to preventable suffering not being prevented;
Synonyms
•
causes people to be harmed through lack of basic necessities,which may be
given to others:
fundamenta.1.. bask
•
is widespread, but often unchallenged and unacknowledged;
Inferior ......... notasimportant
•
is harder to measure and say who is responsible for it.
driven ........... strongly
ho.ards.......... keeps
influenced
Cultural violence
Structural violence is very much the responsibility of governments and those in
power, but responsibility for cultural violence is embedded within all levels of a
society. Cultural violence may be committed in private, in homes and families, as
well as in public.
General vocabulary
undtrmlnos graduallymakes
someone or somethingln.s strong
or effective
weA•belns a feelingof being
Cultural violence can be identified in the mindset, beliefs and values of a society. For
example, in a culture where people believe women are inferior to men and do not
deserve the same human rights, there may be higher levels of direct violence against
women (such as domestic abuse or honour-based violence at home). Equally,
cultural norms that discriminate against women may result in a government failing to
protect women and structural violence taking place. In general, cultural violence:
comfortable,hea.tthy
and happy
embedded put fi!Tr'ly
and deeply
mindset someone'sgeneral
attitude,&ndthe way in which
theythinka.boutthingsand mak~
dedstOM
•
may be government-driven (culture influencing government structures) or
society-driven (grass-roots culture influencing society's behaviour);
gr.us-roots ordina,ypeople,not
the leaders
•
isany aspectof a culture that is used to legitimizeviolence in its director
structuralforms;
Subject vocabulary
•
may be harder to eliminate as it is embedded in the mindset of a society and is
linked to cultural or religious values that become seen as legitimate.
Articulation sentences:
Violence can be direct, structural or cultural. Structural and cultural
violence are forms of violence embedded in either the government or
culture of a society.
lntent the intentionto do
somethingillegal
honour-based vlolenc• a
violentaime or incidentwhich
mayhavebee, committedto
protect or defend the honour of
the familyor community
padflsm thebeliefthatwarand
violence arealwayswrong
Non-violence
Many political causesare pursued through an active policy of non-violence. The
strongestcommitment to non-violenc,eisseen in pacifism.which emphasizes
peacefuland non-violent solutionsto all disputes.Pacifismstatesthat violence
and war are unjustifiable in all contexts. Pacifists place considerable importance
on developing human rights, the rule of law and strengthening the capacity for
international organizations such as the UN to resolve conflict.
4
Peaceand conflict
I 79
It is important to distinguish between groups who use non-violent means and
groups who use violent means to achieve a similar final political objective. Islamism.
for example, is frequently associated with violent extremism, as seen in Islamic State's
violent military campaign to create an Islamic state in Syria and Iraq. However, the
objective of a purely Islamic form of government is also pursued non-violently in
other contexts. For example, the Muslim Brotherhood set up a political party - the
Freedom and Justice Party - and won parliamentary and presidential elections in
2011 and 2012. Some analysts, however, see the potential for non-violent lslamists to
progress to violent lslamism and argue that both strongly influence each other. Nonviolent causes may, for example, inspire violent acts that others carry out.
Articulation sentence:
Some states and groups are pacifist and aim to solve conflicts without the
use of violence.
Terrorism
Terrorism is a form of violence that has gained significant international attention
since the 11 September 2001 attacks on the United States,but it has posed a
General vocabulary
coerce force someone to do
something they do not want to do
by threatening them
Subject vocabulary
freedom fighter J()meone who
security risk to nation states for a long ti me. There is no agreed definition of
terrorism. The United Nations has attempted to define it, but asof 2015 had still not
reached an agreement. One definition is that terrorism is 'the threat of violence and
the use of fear to coerce, persuade and gain public attention' (NACCJSG:1976).
In order to define a particular group as a terrorist organiwtion, the legitimacy of
that group's actions and objectives must be assessed.There is often debate about
whether such groups are terrorists or freedom fighters. Different conclusions may
be drawn depending on viewpoints, loyalties and victimhood. Such debates centre
on a number of questions, including - but not limited to - the following:
fighuina warag-.ins.t
an unfaifor
dishonest
government
or anny
•
Does the violent group have any non-violent alternatives to violence (for
example, a democratic process)?
vlctlmhood the stateof suffering
•
Is there a legitimate grievance that makes the threat and use of violence
necessary?Morally, is this everjustifiable?
•
Are civilians deliberately targeted to create a climate of fear, so that governments
will feel obliged to respond?
because someone has treated you
very badly
State terrorism
Nation states that abuse their powers may terrorize their populations through
violence and the threat of violence. For example, Saddam Hussein'sBa'ath Party in
Iraq attacked Kurdish and Shia minorities with chemical weapons.
Sub-state terrorism
Non-state terrorist groups, such asal-Qaeda and Boko Haram, have carried out
attacks against national governments and civilians. In both cases,their operations
represent an insurgency which challenged the legitimacy of those in power.
Internationalized
terrorism
Since 11 September 2001, terrorist groups have become increasingly gfobalized.
For example, al-Qaeda began to grow into an international network with recruits
and activists in many countries, able to carry out terrorist acts across the world. The
Synonyms
mobilize ........
80
I4
encourage
Peaceand conflict
Paris attacks of November 2015 were seen to be the most significant terrorist act by
Islamic State-inspired militants. A key objective of such attacks is to mobilize other
militants to carry out similar acts and to terrorize communities through attacks on
public places, which attract high-profile international attention.
Articulation sentence:
Since 11 September 2001, terrorism as a form of violence has been increasing
and becoming more gfobalized,
Justifyingviolence
While pacifists believe that violence can never bejustified, others believe that
violence can be both morally and legally justified,
Just war theory
Originating as early as 300 ce.Christian, religious thinkers including St Augustine
and St Thomas Aquinas attempted to identify criteria by which violence could be
justified. Consensus emerged around the following key themes of just war theory.
•
Right authority. Those starting violent conflict should have legitimate authority
to do so. In modem global politics, nation states have a responsibility to follow
international law, In matters of international security, the UN Security Counc'il
plays a key role, For example, some question the legality of the Iraq War in 2003
since it was launched without a UN Security Resolution specifically authorizing
military action, In contrast, military action against Libya in 2011 was authoriz:ed
by a UN SecurityCouncil Resolutionagreeing'all necessarymeasures'to
protect civilians.
• Just cause, For the cause to be just, it must have the objective of restoring peace,
It must not have an objective of material gain, for example of resources or
territory, Agreeing on just cause in imodern global politics is likely to be a matter
of perspective,
•
Probability of success.If the cause is just, it must also be achievable. Violence
in pursuit of an unachievable aim does not comply with the criteria of
just war theory.
•
Proportionality, Any action taken must be proportionate to the initial
act of aggression.
•
last resort, Efforts to resolve the conflict peacefully (for example, through
diplomacy and negotiation) must have been attempted and been exhausted
beforeviolencebecomesa legitimatecourseof action.
General vocabulary
perspective a W.rf of thinking
about something,csp«ialty one
whichis influenced
by the type
of personyou are or t:,,,
your
e>q>eriences
proportionate correct or
$\lit;ibleins.i:.e,
amount« degree
whenconsidered
in relationto
somethingel.se
Synonyms
Articulation sentences:
Just war theory governs the decision to begin a conflict It is a philosophical,
not political, consensus. States are not obliged to follow it
exhausted ..... havingno more
possibilities
Justifications in international law and norms
•
•
Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter authorizes the UN Security Council
to 'determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace,
or act of aggression' and to take military and non-military action to 'restore
international peace and security'. For example, UN Security Council Resolution
1973 authorized a no-fly zone and 'all necessarymeasures' to protect civilians in
Libya in 2011, A series of UN Secunity Council Resolutions invoking Chapter VII
of the UN Charter have established and renewed the African Union Mission to
Somalia (AMISOM) since 2008,
Request for help, Military action is seen to be legitimate in international law if
a nation state requests help from others, For example, no UN Security Council
Resolution was sought for United Stales-led military action in Iraq against
Islamic State in 2014, as Iraq had requested help,
Subject vocabulary
no~fty zone an area that a plane
mustnot flyintobeeauseit may
be atoacked
by planesbelonging
i:oan enemy
4 Peaceandconflict
I 81
•
Subject vocabulary
ethnic ctea.nsln.g the use of
violence to forcepeople from a
partkular ethnic group to le.ve
an area
rtsp0nsible sovereignty the
idea that states should govern
their populationsin a way that
loob afterand respectstheir
popl.Ation's
be-st
intetests,
committing to protect the civilians of another state from their own government,
sinceGaddafihad calledhiscitizens"cockroaches'
and 'rats'and threatened
them with violence. Some states have invoked the doctrine to justify their own
unilateralactions,suchas Russianmilitary action in Georgiain 2008.
respectinghuman rights
customary something that is
customaryis normalbecauseit is
thewiff something is usually done
uphyxlating prlll<>nling
someonefrombreathing
Responsibility to Protect. In 2005, the UN General Assembly agreed to the
principle of states having a 'Responsibility to Protect' their populations from
genocide, war crimes. ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity. If a nation
state fails to do so, the UN General Assembly agreed that the international
community then hasa responsibility to use the powers of the UN Security
Councilto intervene.HO\Never,
the principle is not internationallaw.Taking
action against states that do not exercise responsible sovereignty depends on
the UN Security Council agreeing to take action. The military action launched by
NATO against the Gaddafi regime in Libya, in 2011, saw the UN Security Council
resolve to 'ensure the protection of civilians.This is an example of other states
)us in bello- conductduring violent conflict
landmlnos • bombhiddenunder
the groundthat explodeswhena
International law and treaties govern the conduct of armed conflict. Agreements by
treaty are only binding for states that have signed those treaties and are certainly
not binding for non-state groups. Such treaties include:
person or vehicle moves over it
•
Geneva and Hague Conventions - under international humanitarian law.
these conventions govern the conduct of armed conflict. including protection
of civilians. hospitals. the injured and the proper treatment of prisoners. All
member states of the UN are subject to the conventions and the UN Security
Council may act in response to any breaches (this is the principle of customary
international law, where laws are 'a general practice accepted aslaw' and exist
independent of treaty law. Statescannot opt out)
•
The Geneva Protocol - a treaty prohibiting the use of asphyxiating or
normal)f,usuallysothatthe-,,die
munitions militarysupplies such
as bombsand guns
duster bombs a borrb dropped
fromanairCf'11ft
thatcontains
a k>t
of smallerbombsthatit sendsout
<?iCf a largeareawhenit explodes
General vocabulary
poisonous gases.
Invoked usedas a justification
for certainactions
Synonyms
doctrine ........ belief
trea.tios ......... agreements
conduct ........ beh&viour
binding ......... to be obeyed
opt out .......... choosenotto
accept
82
I4
Peaceand conflict
•
Ottawa Treaty (1997) - prohibits the use of landmines by treaty.
•
Convention on Cluster Munitions (2,008)- a treaty applicable in international
law only to those states that have sig.ned it, prohibiting the use of cluster bombs.
Articulation sentence:
There are international laws and conventions governing the reasons why
a state can enter into a violent conflict as well as how it must behave
during the conflict.
5
Higher Levelextension: global political challenges
Introduction
Objectives of the Higher Level extension
, General vocabulary
In this part of the course, students must research and deliver two ten-minute oral
presentations. They can choose two of six themes in Global Politics, focusing on a
specific case study. The presentations are recorded on video. Students are allowed
to share one draft of their presentation and discuss it with their teacher, but can
onty deliver a presentation once for it il:obe internally assessed. Some presentations
draft apieceofwritingora plan
that is not yet in its finished form
broad concerning the main ideas
or parts of something rather than
all the details
from the school will be sent to the International Baccalaureate (18)for moderating",
Synonyms
just as with other internally assessed work.
sustained ...... continued
The six themes of global political challenges are as follows. Each of these will be
explored in greater detail in this chapter,
ongoln9 ........ continuing to
• Security
• Identity
• Borders
Subject vocabulary
•
Environment
•
•
Poverty
Health
develop
dls.armamMt the proce,s of
puttingweapons and weapon
sys.temsbeyond use
Under each of the themes, major links to key concepts will be explored and
linked to some contemporary examples, to help students think of ideas for
possible case studies.
Presentationstyle
It is important to remember that the mark scheme rewards a particular style of
presentation. Students should avoid preparing presentations that might be
interesting for another audience, but do not meet the mark scheme requirements.
Students should keep the syllabus objectives clearly in mind when researching,
preparing and delivering presentations.
What musta Higher Level presentationdo?
• The presentation must be strongly !inked to one of the six themes. If the
chosen case study links to identity, the question of identity must be sustained
throughout the presentation.
• The research phase is crucial. Students should consult a wide variety of sources,
properly acknowledged, and ensune their analysis goes beyond their own
instincts or personal viewpoints.
• The case study must be specific enough to be analysed effectively in 10 minutes.
In particular. it should not be so broad (for example, 'nuclear disarmament') that
deep analysis in the time given would be impossible.
• It is best for the chosen case study to be contemporary but not so current
or ongoing that it is impossible to draw longer-term conclusions. As a
general guide, case studies that deal with issues that date back at least a year
previously work best.
• Under the chosen theme, a case study must be analysed and not merely
described. Long explanations of timelines, history and description of current
events should be avoided. The marlc scheme rewards careful analysisof
why events happened in the way they did, the wider political, social or
economic impact of these events, and the challenges they reveal in refation to
the theme chosen.
• (fromSubjectGuid•p57)All
worksvbminedto tht 18for
moderationor assessmtntmust
~ aut#t.tntkattd by a ttod1,r,
and mvst not indude any
known instMUS of Mpf<'Uidor
confirmedacademicmisconduct
AutMnticitymay bf' dttdced
by discussionwith the ~udtnt
on theconte.ntofthewotk,
and wuciny of ont or m«t
of tht foltowing.
The student\;initial proposals
The f,rst <kaftof the
writttn rtportfor tht
e.ngagememactivityand
thewritt,n out/in,offYJ<h
Hl F¥'etentation
Tht ff(ermcu cited
The stylt ofwritingcompated
with workknownto bt
thal
oflh,
rludml
Theancdydsof tht v.ritttn
workby a web•based
plagiarismthteaion service
Thestyleofdeliveryof th~
oralpreuntationscompared
wir'1dtliveryknownto bt
chOl'aaeristicof the student.
Differtntpoliticoliuu,r must
bt studiedfor lhe requir'ements
of tht tngagement activity.the
Ml cdemion and a pocem;at
ExtendedEssaystudents-may
C'hoose
ro write in global
politics.GroupengagemtntJ
maybeundrnaktn
by,rudtnlS
H°""'rvere.adtstudtnt must
studya diffe.rtntpoliticaliS$1H
and individuallywrite up his
or h,r ownWf'it:ren
upon.
Groupwo1'.'.
is not permittedfor
tM Ht.01:tnsion.
5 Higherlevel extension:globalpoliticalchallenges
I 83
General vocabulary
overar<hlng indudingor
W'lfluencingwttry pal'l or
something
• To keepthe presentationanalytical,it makessenseto posean overarching
question at the beginningof the presentation,which is analysedand then
answeredin the conclusion.
• The presentationshould evaluatethe strengthsand weaknessesof
various arguments.
overrun takemore timeor
money thanintended
rememberinformation
• Linksshould be made to the casestudy and the wider global political context.
Where else,for example.are there similar challenges?
• Presentationsshould alwaysbe balanced and look at an issuefrom different
viewpoints. Forexample,the viewsof governmentand non-government groups
or different ethnic or gender groups.
• Thereshould be a strong conclusion.
slldes content dispfayed
on a
•
persuasive abfe to make other
people believesomethingor do
what you ask
vtsualaids somethingsuchas
a map,picture,or film thathetp
people understand, learn, or
screenas a visualaid when giving
a presentation
autocue a machinethat$hows
th• w<>«ls
thatsomeonemustsay
while they ant spN.kingin public.
especialty
on television
staktholders people or
organizationsthat have an
important00nnection with
will be the last thing to be marked.
Engaging
the audience
While presentationskillsare not specifically rewardedor penalizedin the mark
scheme,if a student presentstheir argumentswell, they will be more persuasive.
• Visual aids are not specificallyrewarded in the mark scheme.but may help
students to explain more complex concepts. Graphs, maps, tables and charts are
the only visual aids permitted. Presentations prepared in PowerPoint or similar
something,
andthtt'eforeare
affectedby its successor faiJure
Synonyms
gender .......... sa
Presentations must not overrun. Tea.chersand I B moderators will stop marking
after ten minutes. It is important to leave enough time for the conclusion, as this
are not permitted. Slideswith bullet-points should not be used,as studentswill
havemarksdeducted.
• Studentsshould give a clear senseof structureand focusduring their
presentation.Sign-postinghelps.For example.'This presentationwilt focuson
three key areas- politics. economics and gender.First.politics...'
• Studentsare allowed to useprompt cards but must not read from a script or
autocue, The livelier and more enthusiasticthe delivery.the better.
StructlJring
a presentation
Introduction (1-2 minutes)
• The student should statewhich theme has beenchosen,which casestudy and
why the two are linked.
• Theyshould briefly explain the key facts of the casestudy and which
stakeholdersare involved in it.
Analysis and evaluation - the main part of the presentation (7 minutes)
• What political challengesdoes the casestudy raise?
• What links are there to theory or keyconceptsof the coursethat can
help the analysis?
• How did stakeholdersrespondand why?
•
What were the social, poliHcal and economic impacts in this case study?
Conclusion(1-2 minutes)
• Howdoesthecasestudypo!I!a globalpoliticalchallenge?
• Where elsedo people face this challenge?What linksare there?
84
I5
HigherLevelextension:
globalpoliticalchallenges
5.1 Key theme: Security
Key idea:
Security is the ability to protect against threats to vital interests and
values.
General vocabulary
interesu the thingsthatbring
advan~ to someone
or
something
Most relevant concepts
inttrdepondence a situationin
whichpeopleor thingsrelyon
Interdependence
eachother
Interdependence is linked to security because many nation states share the same
security threats. For example. nation states have worked together to respond to
the threat of global terrorism. particularly since 11 September 2001. Nations often
form alliances and worlc together to protect security interests through intemational
organizations such as NATO and the UN Security Council. States sometimes form
informal coalitions of their own. such as the United States-led coalition in Iraq in
2003. States work together on a wide range of perceived security threats, ranging
from energy security to food and climate security.
insurgenciesatt~ts: by a
groupof peopleto takecontrolof
theirgovemmentusingforceand
violence
ktgltlm&ey
lhofactthat
somethingi.slegal
bAaches actionsthatbfeaka
law,rule,or agreement
annexation takingcontrolof a
Power
countryor area ne>rtto your own.
Power matters for security, because it is often believed that the most powerful
states are the most able to protect their national security. However, recent conflicts
during the so-called War on Terror have seen powerful states such as the United
States unable to achieve conclusive victories against their enemies. Equally, states
with weak internal sovereignty, such as fragile states, find it difficult to protect their
national security. This is illustrated by the prevalence of piracy in Somalia. The rise
of non-state groups such as Islamic State, Boko Haram and al·Shabaab, together
with the increase in insurgencies and asymmetric warfare, have also challenged
beliefs about the ability of powerful states to protect their security.
order the political,soc.ial,
o,
economicsitu.ation
at a ptlticular
time
especially
by usingforce
violate breaka law.agreementor
principle
Synonyms
perce:lved...... betievedto be
fragile ........... unstablo
prevalenc-e.... commonness
legitimacy
measures...... stq,s.actions
legitimacy is linked to security becau,;e illegitimate actions by states or non·
state groups frequently pose a security threat. For example, in 2003 the US led a
military campaign in Iraq even though it did not have decisive UN Security Council
approval. Many people, including the UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, ,;aw this
as a threat to the Security Council and the United Nations' role in maintaining
internationalpeaceand security.Similarly,breachesof internationallaw - such
as Russia's
annexation of Crimea in Ukraine in 2014 - also threatena rules-based
sovorelgnty the power that
an independentcoootryhas to
international order in which nation states respect each other's internal and
external sovereignty.
in aims,capacityor strategy
Subject vocabulary
governitself
asymmetricwarfare conflict
in which there isan imbalance
betweenthe parties,for exemple
Sovereignty
Sovereignty plays a keyrole in discussions about security. Generally speaking, states
seek to protect their own national security within their sovereign borders. State
security becomes threatened when other states violate the sovereignty of others,
by both invasion and interference. Responsible sovereignly means that if a state is
mistreating its population, other states are allO't.Yedand encouraged to inteivene. An
example of this is Libya in 2011, when NATO air strikes were authorized by the UN
Security Council to protect civilians suffering under the corrupt government.
Human rights
Security threats (such as those explained above in relation to responsible
sovereignty) and measures intended to protect security have an impact on human
I 85
5 HigherLevelextension:
globalpoliticalchallenges
General vocabulary
suspended offKiallystopped
fromcontinuing.
especialy
fora
short time
charge an officialstatement
made bythe police sayingthat
theybelievesomeonemaybe
guiltyora crime
rights. Sometimes, human rights are suspended or weakened by governments
that want to protect their domestic security. For example, some counter-terrorism
measures were introduced after the 11 September 2001 attacks in order to protect
domestic security. However, these measures have been criticized on human rights
grounds. Prominent domestic examples include the United States' PATRIOTAct,
introduced after 11 September 2001, and attempts by the UKGovernment since
2001 to increase detention without charge for those suspected of terrorist plots.
Internationally, the US Government has been criticized for using torture and
arbitrary detention at its detention centre at Guantanamo Bay,and for sending
abltrary decided or arranged
withoutanyreasonor plM, often
unfairly
suspects to Cuba and elsewhere by extraordinary rendition.
resotution when someonesolves
Development
a problem.argumentor difficult
situation
enforcement when people are
made to obey a rule or faw
Synonyms
There is a clear relationship between security, and poverty and development.
Sometimes, limited human development might create the conditions in which
security threats are created and thrive. Equally, a lack of human security - which
includes a range of human needs such as food, shelter, employment, healthcare and
education - is one of many causesof violent connict and instability. In recent years,
grounds ........ reuons
detention ...... imprisonment
a keypart of post-conflict resolution has been improving development, sometimes
through ambitious state-building programmes to improve health, education,
human rights and infrastructure to avoid a return to conflict.
exhaustive ..... complete
Peace
Subject vocabulary
Security is enhanced if a community. region or state is at peace. Peacemaking,
extraordinary rendition action
tt,ken b-fa state .-p.inst terrorist
African Union peacekeeping force in Somalia has improved internal security and
prominent ..... famous
suspectscontraryto the rul,eof
lawand other internationalnonns
peacelceeping and peacebuilding are all used to improve security. For example, the
reclaimed territory from the extremist group, al-Shabaab. Similarly,we can analyse
the extent to which peacebuilding efforts by intervening forces and development
agencies in Afghanistan and Iraq have brought greater security.
Possiblecasestudies
Thelinksto keyconceptsbelowarea selectionandarenot exhaustive.
Case studies
links to key concepts
African Union
Mission to Somalia
Peace - positive-or negative? Has AMISOM conducted
{AMISOM)
peacekeeping or peace enforcement operations?
Development - success of development efforts by UN and
Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs),
Interdependence- regional threat to East Africa and the
Indian Ocean. Cooperation between UN Security Council
and African Union.
Sovereignty-strengthening of Somalia's internal
sovereignty (Somalia is a fragile state).
US withdrawa.l from
Iraq in 2011
Power-why did the USwithdraw when it did? Did itdo so
from a positionof strengthor weakness?
Didthe US'win'?
Sovereignty
- was Iraq stable and strong enough to look
after its own security and exercise proper control of its
internal sovereignty?
Peace - what efforts were made to make peace in Iraq?
Had enough been done to reconcile Sunni and Shia
Muslims?
86
I5
HigherLevelextension:globalpoliticalchallenges
Case studies
links to key concepts
US-China tensions
in the South China
Sea
Legitimacy/sovereigntyis China violating international
law by building and expanding islands in the South China
Sea?
Power - why is China expanding in the South China Sea?
How is the US challenging China? What conclusions can be
drawn about the US-China power balance?
Drone strikes in
Pakistan between
2008 and 2014
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
InthetablethereMesuggested
linksto b?yoonceptS,.
Think of
three more pos.siblelinks to by
concepts
forthecase stude
given.
Sovereignty - are drone strikes by the US a violation of
Pakistani sovereignty?
Human rights/legitimacy- are drone strikes a justifiable
act of war or unjustifiable e)(trajudicial killings?
Power - do drone strikes work? Have they reduced the
security threat that the US identified? What do they tell us
aboutthestrengthof the Pakistani
government?
txtrajudldalkllllngsexecutions
carriedout by a state or other
actor withoutdue legalprocess
arms race the competition
betweendrfferent countries to
h"'e a latgtr numbe, of powtfful
Related ideas and debates
Security dilemma and offensive/defensive
Subject vocabulary
weapons
realism
When states want to increase their national security, they face the possibility that
they may provoke other states, which may respond by increasing their own security
defences. An arms race of this kind might threaten the security of both states.The
degree of risk depends on whether states are following offensive realism, where
states try to gain as much power as possible (as theorized by John Mearsheimer); or
African Union a regional,GO
ofwhichmost Ahtcanstatesare
members.focusingprimarilyon
security
andeconomic
pros.perit
General vocabulary
provoke make someone angry,
defensiverealism,where statestry to gain onlyas muchpoweras isnecessary
and
especiallydelibetatdy
appropriate (as theorized by Kenneth Waltz).
sanctkrnsoffK:ial
ordersor laws
it oppingtradeor communication
Security alliances and the role of IGOs
with another state,as away
ol forcing its leaders to make
Forsomeinternationalorganizations,
securityistheir primaryobjective.The North
pol~i<ol
changes
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was established during the Cold War. It is a
count« do somethingin order
to prevent something bad from
military alliance that offers smaJlerWestern European nations collective security
in the face of a threat from the Soviet Union. NATO still exists and has expanded
its operations to Afghanistan (2001) and Libya (2011). The prospect of the former
Soviet state, Ukraine.joining NATO was one of the factors that prompted the
happeningor to reduceits bad
effects
Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014.
The United Nations, through the Security Council, plays a keyrole in international
peace and security. The Security Counc:il can authorize military action,
peacekeeping operations, economic sanctions and weapons inspections in order to
reduce security threats.
Regional organizations, such as the European Union and the African Union, have
taken an increased interest in security. Since the 2009 Lisbon Treaty, the European
Union has a Common Foreign and Security Policy but in reality, the UK and France
have taken the lead. The African Union has conducted peace-support operations in
Somalia and Sudan, funded by the United Nations.
Synonyms
taken the ltid
bees'I
mOSlactivf:
The War on Terror
Since the 11September 2001 attacks on the United States,Western powers have
focused their security strategies on the global terror threat, principally from lslamist
extremist groups such as al-Qaeda. The frequency of terrorist attacks in Western
countries has remained relatively stable since 2001, but have increased dramatically
in countries where the United States and its allies have launched military action
to counter terrorism. Iraq. Pakistan,Alghanistan and Nigeria have seen the largest
I 87
5 HigherLevelextension:
globalpoliticalchallenges
increasein terrorist insurgenciessince2001. Thisraisesthe questionof whether
the War on Terrorhasfailed to reduce,and perhapshaseven increased,the global
terrorist threat.
Subjectvocabulary
non-prollferaUon
preventing
the $preadof something (often
usedspecificallyto refe<to
Other states have increasingly described their own security challenges as a terrorist
threat and haveused theWar on Terror.asjustification for their own military
campaigns.Examplesare Russianmilitary action in Chechnyaand the Assadregime
in Syria'scampaignagainstrebel groups that it calls'terrorists'.
nuclear weapons)
global nuclear an.en.ii total
wor16Ntdestock of nudea,
wea.pons
cuttutal refa.tfVtsm the theory
that ideas and other norms should
reflect cultural practices and
traditions, rather than universal
principles
Nuclearsecurityremainsa key challengein the internationalworld order,with
disarmament(reductionof current nuclear weaponsknown to be possessedby
states)and non-proliferation {preventing the spreadof nuclearweaponsto more
groups)as the main priorities.TheTreatyof the Non-Proliferationof Nuclear
Weaponswas ratified in 1970.but the global nuclear arsenal is in the region of
20,000
weapons.
Thenumberof statespossessing
nuclearweapons
hasincreased
Generalvocabulary
landmark deal one of the most
mportant deal$that influences
50meone or .something
vlgllant givingc-a.reful
attention
distlnd
Nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation
cleaff( different or
beJongingto a differenttype
stxual orientation the fact
that someone is hetff'OSe.JW.i
or
beyond the original countriesthat signe-dthe treaty{the US.Russia.China.France
and the UK)to as manyas nine stales.TheseincludeSouthAsianrival states,India
and Pakistan;and in EastAsia, North Korea.Disarmamentand non-proliferation
havebeen unsuccessful.Preventingthe further spreadof nuclearweaponsis now
focusedon the Middle Eastand curbing-the nuclearambitions of Iran.where a
landmark deal was signedin 2015 between Iran and the UN SecurityCouncil
permanentmembersand Germany{the so-calledPS+1). The risk of nuclear
weaponsreachingnon-stategroups is a further threat, to which international
organizationsremainvigilant.
homosexual
mlnortttes small g,oups of
people or things within a much
larger group
clash if two people OI groups
cla,I\ lheyarguebeco.use
they
h.Mllvery different beliefs and
opir.ions • used In news reports
grass-roots ordinary people, not
the leaders
codlflcadon the arrangement
of laws, princ.,lesand facts in a
oystem
5.2 Key theme: Identity
Key idea:
Identity is the distinctset of characteristics, values, cultures and
traditions that distinguish people and groups from others.
Most relevant key concepts
Human rights
Synonyms
Human rights and liberty are fundamentally concernedwith the protection of the
rightsof human beingsas individuals.regardlessof their identity. For example,the
liberty .......... fre«lom
UniversalDeclarationof Human Rightsdemandsequal protection for human beings
e:xpUdtfy ....... dearly
regardlessof age.race.gender.ethnicity or sexualorientation. Universalhuman
.... ..................-...........................
..
rightscan offer protection to minorities who seetheir human rightschallenged.
such
aswhen lesbian,gayand transgender{LGBT)people are treateddifferently
CHALLENGE
purely becauseof their sexualorientation. However,the concept of universal
YOURSELF
human rightscan sometimesclashwith different culturesand values.particularly
religiousvalues.Statesmay interpret human rightsfor someminoritiesdifferently,
and justify this as'cultural relativism'. Both governm@nts
and communitiesat grassSaudiaArabiag11,1e
women I.he
roots
level
can
abuse
human
rights
in
the
name
of
identity
or cultural difference.
tightto vc>ttin 2015.Towhat
-
-
extentdo you belM nations
should ~ albHed lo pn.'S<.'fVe
thm SCM!rd.gnty? Ooyouthink
:::~:~~=~a:~;:~r
discrim,natory?Oiscussyc,.Jr
views in groups.
-················-·-·-········
88
I5
Justice
Frequently, the rights of minority groups are either not protected in law,or are
activety abused in the codification of the law or in its interpretation by law
enforcement agencies such as the police. For example, the rights of women
in parts of the Islamic world, notably in Saudi Arabia, are not the same as the
rightsof men. Equally.lawsor customssometimesexplicitly preventwomen
HigherLevelextension:
globalpoliticalchallenges
from leadingindependentand full lives.Forexample,the Talibangovernmentin
Afghanistanbefore 2001 did not allow girls to attend schoolor university.In well·
developedstates,there iscriticism that the police treat black and ethnic minority
groupsdifferently.
Legitimacy
Legitimacyrelatesto identity becausethe identity of individualsand groups is often
not recognizedby others.Marginalized groups try to gain legitimacyand formal
recognitionfrom those in power. For example,Indigenousgroups in Australiaand
Generalvocabulary
Canadahave recerJedincreasedrecognitionin recentyears.includingapologies
from governmentswho admitted that previouseconomicand socialpolicies
h,vingpoweror influence
had been unfair.
marginalized
prevented from
migrant someonewhogoes:to
IWo inanother area or country,
especiallyin order to find work
Sovereignty
callphate a singlelslamicstate,
Sovereigntyoffers both the opportunity for identity to be recognizedand
strengthened,and for identity to be diminished and ignored.For example,
Palestinians
havelongsoughtinternationalrecognitionandtheirownstatehood.
Graduallythey havereceivedgreaterrecognition,including observerstatusat the
United Nations.However,they still do not havefull statehood.Within sovereign
bordersthere are often manydifferent ethnic or religiousgroupsthat needto be
respectedand protected.Examplesinclude the Sunni and ShiaMuslimsin Iraq and
Syria,and efforts to build cohesiveand integratedcommunitiesin statesthat have
largemigrant populations,such asthe United Kingdomand France.
Denialof identity and the strugglefor identity to be respectedfrequently cause
violent and non-violent conflict. For example,the conflict in Northem Ireland
betweenthe Protestantand Catholiccommunitiesresultedin an armed struggle.
Peaceprocessesfrequently focuson resolvingclashesand disputesof identity. such
as the power-sharingagreementbetween Protestantsand Catholicsin Northern
Ireland in 1998.
unrlingmanycountrieswith
Muslim populations into one
muchlargersute unifiedby
political
and rellgiousassociation
withls&am
mlfltla a groupof peopletraS"led
as soldiers,who are not part of the
permanent army
Subjectvocabulary
lndlgenouspeopleidentified
assettfed in a placebeforemore
recentinva.s.ions
or migrations
Synonyms
dlmlnlshed.... reduced
coht-stve, ....... well combined
Possiblecasestudies
The links to keyconcepts below are a selection and are not exhaustive.
Casestudies
links to key concepts
Gaymarriagein the United
States/UnitedKingdom
Human rights - campaignershaveargued
for equal rights betweenheterosexualand
homosexualcouples,focusingon the right to
marry.
Justice- campaignshaveled to changesin the
law,allowing gayand lesbiancouplesto marry.
Sunniand Shiaconflictin
Syria/Iraq
Sovereignty- the most prominent Sunnigroup,
IslamicState,hasdeclareda Sunni Islamic
caliphate in both Syriaand Iraq. It hassaidthat
curTentinternationalbordersare irrelevant
and it challengesinternationallyagreed
understandingsof Iraq and Syria'sterritory.
Violence/conflict - a clash betweenSunni and
Shia is a keycauseof conflict; rival militia are
organized into Sunni and Shiagroups.
I 89
5 Higherlevel extension:
globalpoliticalchallenges
Casestudies
Links to key concepts
Sunni and Shia conflict in
Syria/Iraq
Power- pro-Shia governments, notably in Iraq,
have been accused of neglecting the needs of
the Sunni community. In Iraq, there has been a
shift in power between Sunni (under President
Saddam Hussein and the Ba'ath Party) and
Shia (under Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki).
This power struggle is reflected in the regional
powers that have taken sides in the conflict,
notably Shia Iran and Sunni Saudi Arabia.
Kurdish separatism in Turkey,
Iraq and Syria; the Kurdistan
Worker's Party (PKKJ
Sovereignty- many Kurds in Syria, Iraq and
soutl>ern Turkey believe they should have their
own IKurdishstate, Kurds have been granted
greater autonomy in Iraqi Kurdistan since 2007.
Generalvocabulary
ta.kensldts chosento support
one personOf groupin a.n
argument.and oppose the other
one
Subjectvocabulary
sepantfsm wantingto start
a new countrywith its own
gOWO'Wllent.
by sepa~ting from
Legitimacy - demands for an autonomous
Kurdish state would change the existing borders
of Iraq, Turtcey,Syria and possibly Iran. Is there
a legitimate claim for a Kurdish state based on
how i<urds are treated by the states in which
Kurds currently live?
the country that you belong to
,,_
ldeolo8Y opinions or beliek.
often linked to a particular
politicalsystem<K culture
Synonyms
autonomy ..... independence
Womens rights in Saudi Arabia Justice and legitimacy - the law of Saudi Arabia
and Sharia law
is based on Sharia law interpreted by the Senior
Council of Scholars, the highest state body
ruling on Islamic law.
Human rights - independent NGOs criticize
Saudi Arabia for retaining a male guardianship
system which ignores the rights of women.
Relatedideasand debates
A clash of civilizations
Academic Samuel P Huntington's 1996 essay, 'The Clash of Civilisations', predicted
that the main future cause of conflict would be clashes of cultural identity rather
than political ideology. Many suggest that Huntington's prediction has been
proven right, given the conflict between, violent Islam ism and Western powers
since 2001. However.it is important to note the successfulcoexi.stence of a majority
of moderate Muslims with Western culture and values at global, regional and
national levels.
ReligiousIdentity
Some analysts suggest that the importance of religious identity is increasing
in global politics. Certainly. there has been an increase in the influence of
fundamentalist religious groups such as Boko Haram, al-Shabaab. al-Qaeda and
IslamicState.whichsupporta violente>Ctremist
interpretationof Islam.InWestern
Europe, somecountries disagree on how best to accommodate religious difference
within societies. Two key approaches include secularism (where religion should
not intrude into non-religious activities. notably education)and multiculturalism
(where religious and other cultural diversity should be actively celebrated, even
accommodated in non-religious activities, such as through faith schools),
90
I5
HigherLevelextension:globalpoliticalchallenges
Feminism and gender identity
Feminism invotves greater attention to women's experiences in any analysis of
foreign, social or economic pol icy. It is a question of focus and perspective. Analysts
have noticed structural violence tOVlfardswomen where governments treat women
Subject vocabulary
differently to men, excluding women firom basic rights and services. Looking at key
situations in global politics from a feminist perspective might include analysing
the impact of conflict on women. Examples include the treatment of women
under Taliban rule and the consequent insurgency in Afghanistan; or the impact of
economic sanctions in Iran or Iraq on women as opposed to men.
structural violence ocan whe-n
the social.culturalor polrt.ical
structuresol a country prevent
peoplefromreachingtheir
potentialor livinga futllife
Nationalism
complicatedffrits of ~•c-e
Nationalism hascaused major conflict in history and continues to be both a
destabilizing and stabilizing force in global politics. Some analysts suggest that
globalization, particularly the erosion of national identity through cultural
globalization, has increased nationalist tendencies. In Western Europe, there has
been a rise in popularity of nationalist parties such as France's Front National and
the United Kingdom Independence Party. There have been separatist movements
in Catalunya in Spain, and Scotland vo·ted by a small margin to remain part of the
United Kingdom in a 2014 referendum.
1648 to concludethe conflictsof
Treaty of Westphalia
agreements
(treatiet)signtdil"I
Nationalism hasalso played an important role in the Middle East. Strong. autocratic
nationalist leaders such as Hosni Mubarak, Bashar al-Assad and Muammar Gaddafi
suppressed ethnic tensions and kept ethnically and religiously divided states such as
Egypt, Syria and Libya largely united. Since the Arab Uprisings, ethnic and religious
conflict has increased in states where there are no longer strong, nationalist leaders.
the ThirtyYearsWar.containing
the firstmodemconceptionof the
n1tionnate (a.be>
knownasthe
Peaceof Westphal~)
General vocabulary
globalization th. idoathat
the world isdevelopinga singte
economyand cultureas a
rewttof improvedtechnology
andcommunications
and
the influenceof verylarge
multinationalcompanies
tendencktsa groupwithin
a largerpolitic.al
groupthat
wpportsideu thatareu,ua1¥
mOf"e
t!Xtrt:methanthoseof th~
maingroup
5.3 Key theme: Borders
Synonyms
troslon . .. .. .. .. destruction
Key idea:
autocratic...... with complete
Borders are the internationally agreed boundaries between nation
states and are central to the concepts of internal sovereignty and
external sovereignty.
powe,
lnoxb'lcabty... veryclosely
Most relevant concepts
Sovereignty
Sovereignty is inextricably linked to the concept of borders. A state's internal
sovereignty is defined by its territorial borders. The Treaty of Westphalia
(also known as the Peace of Westphalia) in 1648 contained the first modern
conception of the nation state. The post-Westphalian global order agrees borders
internationally and respects the borders of other states. Nation states usually
have control over what happens within their borders and respect the borders of
other states by not interfering in their affairs. External sovereignty allows states
to be recognized on the global stage a:nd to have independent relationships
with other states.
Interdependence
Interdependence suggests that, while borders still exist, their importance is
decreasing in an increasingly globalized world. Shared challenges such as migration,
terrorism, climate change and opportUJnitiessuch as trade mean that nation
states depend on each other. What happens in one state can affect other states.
For example, the global financial crisis of 2008 began with a financial crash in the
5
Higherlevel extension:global political challenges
I 91
United States, but had a much larger impact across Europe and beyond, In Europe,
borders have all but disappeared and there is free movement of people and
goods across the European Union's free trade area. Member states recognize that
removing territorial barriers is beneficial for all member states.
Synonyms
beneftclaJ ...... positive
General vocabulary
asylum protectiongivento
Human rights
Human rights have links to borders. Firsdy, borders are irrelevant because universal
human rights apply to all individuals. Being entitled to human rights is not dependent
on where people live. There are also specific human rights that protect migrants:
the right to seek asylum if a person is in danger in their home country, the right
to freedom of movement, protection from human trafficking and the right
someone bya government
becausethey have escaped
from
to nationality.
fightingor politicaltroublein their
Conflict
owncountry
tnfflddng Ill• blt(ingand<elling
of megalgoods
Conflict often happens when there is a dispute about borders, For example, the
borders between India and Pakistan in the region of Kashmir have been disputed
and fought over since the late 1940s, The borders between Israel and Palestine are
also in dispute, with UN Security Council resolutions still requiring Israel to retreat
from territory seized in the 1960s. Non-state terrorist groups such as Boko Haram,
Islamic State and al·Shabaab have directly challenged the internationally recognized
borders of states. They have seized territory and even declared a new Islamic State
stretching across the border of Iraq and Syria.
Peace
Peace processes and international orgariizations often try to resolve disputes
between states that disagree over international borders. The International Court of
Justice (ICJ)decides on states' territorial waters. It has also resolved border disputes
and claims to sovereigntyby states,including Kosovo'sclaim to independence in
2008, which was rejected by the ICJ.China has refused to recognize the ICJ'srulings
and authority in disputes over territorial waters in the South China Sea.
Possiblecasestudies
The links to key concepts below are a SE,lectionand are not exhaustive.
Case studies
Links to key concepts
European Union
Sovereignty and power - what is the impact of EU
membershipon member states'sovereignty?Critics
of the EU say that member states no longer have the
Schengen Agreement
Accession of Eastern
European member
states in 2008
power to control their own borders.
European migrant
well do EU member states work together on common
security threats? The migrant crisis of 2014-16 showed
a lack of agreement between EU member states on how
many migrants to accept from the Middle East. France
briefly cloSE>dits borders after the Paris terror attacks
in 2015. What were the implications for the idea of an
internally borderless European Union?
crisis in 2014-16
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I5
HigherLevelextension:
globalpoliticalchallenges
Interdependence
- how effectively does the European
Union contra I its internal and external borders? How
Case studies
Links to key concepts
India and Pakistan
dispute over Kashmir
Sovereignty and legitimacy - the borders between
India and Pakistan in the region of Kashmir are disputed.
Both India and Pakistan claim sovereignty over Kashmir.
Peace and violence - in the absence of a peace
agreement, the border regions have been monitored
by one of the United Nations' longest peacekeeping
operations. There are frequent clashes between the
Indian and Pakistani militaries and militant groups from
both sides. ilhe fact that both states possess nuclear
weapons adds a further dangerous dynamic to the
conflict. Attempts by third parties to resolve the conflict
have been rejected by India.
Afghanistan-Pakistan
Power- the border regions between Pakistan and
borderinthe Waron
Afghanistan
arenot underthe controlofeitherPakistan
Terror
or Afghanistan.
General vocabulary
dynamk the Wilfin whichthings
or people behave.reactand affect
each other
vlola.tlon an action thatbreib a
law,1,greement
or princ~le
vetoed refusedto alow
somethingto happM. by having
the rightto specialpowerswhich
allowan actor to k!gjtimate¥
stop
what otherac:tonwant
Sovereignty - the United States has increased drone
strikes in Paijcistan.Does this amount to a violation of
Pakistan'ssovereignty?
Israeli security fence
porous easy to pass throughor
get into something
Legitimacy - the security fencewas constructed in
territory that UN Security Council resolutions have
said Israel should withdraw from. Israel defends the
legitimacy of the security fence,saying that it is needed
to prevent terrorist attacks from Palestinian groups.
Power- critics of Israel say that it has been allowed not
only to ignore UN Security Council resolutions, but to
construct a inew border against internationallaw.The
UN Security Council has been unable to issue further
resolutions as the United States has vetoed many UN
SecurityCouncil resolutions criticalof Israel.
Related ideas and debates
Crossing borders
An increasingly dominant feature of modern global politics has been that borders
are more porous to both people and issues of common concern. Conflicts in the
Middle East and North Africa since the Arab Uprisings have caused large numbers
of migrants to attempt to cross the Mediterranean Sea and reach the European
Union to claim asylum. European Union states have been unsure about the solution.
Is it better to prevent migrants from fleeing conflict zones by attempting to resolve
conflicts and address humanitarian crises at the source? Or is it better to welcome
migrants, particularly highly skilled migrants who might contribute positively to the
receivingcountry'seconomy?
Borders are also crossed and exploited by non-state groups, both violent extremist
groups and organized criminal groups smuggling drugs or weapons.
Furthermore
bordersofferno protectionfromsharedchallenges
suchasclimate
change and pandemic disease.
Subject vocabulary
'
pandemic disease thataffects
people c,,,era very largeareaor
thewholeworid
5 HigherLevelextension:globalpoliticalchallenges
I 93
Protectingborders
Despitethe increasinglyporous nature of borders,states still makegreat efforts
to protect their borders.The Mexico-United Statesbarrier wasbuilt to protect
againstillegal migration from Mexicoto the United States.The United Kingdom has
chosen to keep its border checksand hasopted out of the SchengenAgreement
(most other EuropeanUnion statesno longer require internal checkswithin the
EuropeanUnion). The securityfencebetween Israeland Palestinehasbeenjustified
by Israelas protection againstterroristattacks,but hasbeenwidely criticized.The
border betweenGazaand Egyptis heavilyprotected.The Egyptiangovernmenthas
constructedan undergroundbarrier to prevent militants from building tunnels to
smuggleweaponsinto Gaza.
Liberalizing/breaking
down borders
Asworld trade hasincreased,the significanceof international bordershas
decreased.
It ispositivefor statesif it iseasyfor companies,
peopleandgoods
Subjectvocabulary
tariff s t·a.xon goodscominginto
or goingout of a country
to move around the world free from excessiveregulation.The most significant
exampleof this hasbeen the creation of the EuropeanUnion free tradearea,with
a singlecurrencyin most member statesand full freedom of movementof people
and goods,The Trans-PacificPartnershipagreement.signedbetweenthe United
Statesand major economic powersof the PacificRim(not including China),has
agreedto remove many tariff barriersbetween states,effectivelyreducingthe
importanceof borders to trade in the region.
Agreeingborders
The international order offersconsiderableclarity in deciding and agreeingborders.
The United NationsSecurityCouncil and the InternationalCourt of Justiceboth
playa major role in confirming the legitimacyof stateborders.Many new states
havebeen createdin the post-colonialperiod sincethe 1960s.Somenew states
havebeen createdvery recently,such as South Sudanin 2011.The post-conflict
reconstructionof the former Yugoslaviaunder the DaytonPeaceAccordsin 1995
sawmanynewstatesformed- mostrecently,Montenegrobecame
an independent
state in 2006.Kosovo'sparliame,it declairedindependencein 2008,but this hasyet
to be fully recognizedby the United Nations, though Kosovois an independent
member of other IGOssuchas the International Monetary Fund.
Generalvocabulary
stalemate a situation inwhich
it seemsimpo$$ible
to settlean
al'gument
« disaoeem,,ent.
and
neithersideeanget anadvantag,t
However,in some partsof the world borders haveyet to be agreed.The borders
betweenIsraeland Palestineremain disputed in the GazaStrip,the West Bank
and the GolanHeights.BetweenIndia and Pakistanin Kashmirthere is an ongoing
border dispute.The sovereigntyof Taiwan isdisputed betweenTaiwanand the
People'sRepublicof China.Many of theseterritorial disputesremain in stalemate.
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
~
,nk'Tdepcndeni:e
through
thetSSUe
of <:limali:change.
Research
lhe 201SParisdmate
conference.W,itca listof
poi'SibletopiayoucQVk:I
c<:Wer
in i presentation
onborders
and
iruetdependence.
94
I5
HigherLevelextension:
globalpoliticalchallenges
5.4 Key theme: Environnnent
Key idea:
The environment relates to the natural world, including air, water,
land, animals, plants and resources that states share responsibility for
managing, without inflicting harm for current or future generations.
Most relevant concepts
Globalization
Globalizationimpactson environmental political issues:sincethe world has
becomemore globalizedand industrialized,there hasbeen increasedscopefor
harm to be done to the environment.There have beenmany more global actors
involvedin activitiesthat might harm the environment,rangingfrom multinational
corporationsto states.
Interdependence
Interdependencemeansthat environmentalproblemswill usuallyimpact on
more than one state.For example,rising temperaturesand climatechangeimpact
on many,rather than single,states.Most meaningfulsolutionsto environmental
problemsmust thereforealsobe tackled by statestogether,rather than in isolation,
asjoint solutionsare the only ones likely to achievethe necessaryimpact. For
example,internationalconferencessuch asthe Copenhagenand Paristalkson
climate changehaveseenstatescome togetherto find waysof reducingthe impact
of climate change.
Synonyms
tackled ......... dealtwith
Sustainability
Sustainabilityinvolvesensuringthat meeting the developmentneedsof today
does not put the developmentneedsof tomorrow at risk.The new Sustainable
DevelopmentGoalsreplacedthe Millennium DevelopmentGoalsin 2015
and there is now increasedglobal agreementthat developmentmust follow a
sustainablemodel.
Sovereigntyand conflict
Sovereigntyand conflict are Iinked to the environment,for example,in relation to
energysecuritywhich is likely to impact on potential future conflicts.TheArctic
Circleis a good example,where Russia,
is usingits military power to increaseits
presenceand sovereignclaim to valua'blepotential sourcesof oil. Stateshavealso
respondedto internationalproposalsto combat climate changeby defendingtheir
sovereignright to protect their national industriesfrom internationalIimits on
emissionsthat might harm their development.
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
FindoutwhatI.heMilrennium
Developmt>nl
Goalswerefrom
theUNwcl>sit~.
No.,.,findthe
nt..WSustalnable
Ocvt-lopmenl
Goals.Whathaschanged
befweenthema.odwha(has
"'l'ed ,Ile same?Makea <>b!e
ol
your findings.
I 95
5 Higherlevel extension:
globalpoliticalchallenges
Possible case studies
The links to key concepts below are a selection and are not exhaustive.
Generalvocabulary
consensusanopinionthat
everyone in a groupagreeswith
Casestudies
Links lo key concepts
Recentclimate
cha11ge
talks
(for example,
Copenhagen2009,
Paris201S)
Globalization - hasglobalizationmadeinternational
agreementseasieror more difficult to achieve?
or accepts
attwmath theperiodoftime
aftersomething
suchasa war,
stormor &«idcntwhenpeopie
aret1illd<aling
withthe ,.,.11,
and structuresthat a stateor
organizationneeds in order to
work properly,for example roads,
raitways
orbanks
BPGulf of Mexico
oil spill 2010
manifests...... .shows
urgency ........ important
,pill .............
statessharea common problem (climate change)that
manifestsitselfin differentways to different states?Do
rich and poor statesnot face completelydifferent dangers
arisingfrom climate change,with a greatlydiffering senseof
urgency?
Power- what is the balanceof power betweendeveloped
nations(the Unit,edStates),emergingdevelopingnations
(Brazil,China and India) and developingnations(suchas
thosein sub-SaharanAfrica)?
Infrastructure the basicsyltems
Synonyms
Interdependence - is there a consensusthat statesshare
common problems as a result of climate change? Or do
Power- what does the casestudy tell usabout the balance
of power between large multinational corporations and
state systemsof government?
Interdependence- how well did statesin the region
coordinate on the aftermath of the oil spill?Did IGOs
playa usefulrole-in managingthe aftermathor were other
actorsmore relevant?What was the impact on UKand US
relations?
leo)c
Justice- is intemational law strongenough in holding BP
accountablefor its actions?
Airport expansion
(for example,the
current debate
around Heathrow
ecpansionin the
UK)
Legitimacy - how are decisionsmadeon major
infrastructureprojects that will impact on the environment?
Power- which actors hold power over major infrastructure
decisionslike these?Do multinational corporationsand
businesseshold more power than local residentswho will
be affectedmost directly by theseprojects?
Related ideas and debates
The global commons
The phrase'global commons'relatesto environmentalresourcesthat are shared
by statesand that do not come under the singlesovereignjurisdiction of one
nation state.For example,oceansand the oceanfloor in internationalwatersare
not owned by one nation stateand therceforethe international community has
a sharedresponsibilityfor managingand protecting them from harm, Similarly,
the cleanlinessor pollution of the earth'supper atmosphereis an issueof joint
responsibilityfor nations to protect. The phrase'tragedyof the commons' relatesto
the idea of a conflict of interest between individual and collective interest, with the
former potentialty putting the environment under increasing pressure.
96
I5
HigherLevelextension:
globalpoliticalchallenges
Free riders
On environmental issues,'free riders' are actors in global politics that opt out of
collective agreements to prevent harm to the environment (such as emissions
targets aimed at limiting climate change). However, they still take advantage of the
benefits created by those who do commit to such collective agreements.
Balance of responsibility between rich and poor countries
A key debate in recent climate change talks has been balancing the prevention of
harm to the environment and not impeding the development of states. Developed
states such as the United States have been criticized for demanding that developing
states adopt emissions targets that might impede their economic development.
Such states are encouraged to invest in renewable energy, but argue that developed
states were not impeded by the need to respect the environment when they were at
equivalent levels of economic development.
Synonyms
Impeding ...... preventing
lm~de ......... prevent
Climate change and natural disasters
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)is an independent body of
scientists,appointed by nation states, to advise the UN on the science and extent of
climate change. The IPCChas helped inform nation states and can be credited with the
consensus that now existsamong developed and developingstates of the existence of
man-made change and the need to combat it. There is global consensus now, too, ·that
natural disasters (such as hurricanes and flooding) have been influenced by climate
change, are becoming more frequent and more serious and that sea levels are rising.
5.5 Key theme: Poverty
Key idea:
Poverty is to be deprived of basrc human needs that are vital for life,
such as food, shelter, fuel and clothing. It may be either 'absolute' if
human survival is under immediate threat, or 'relative' if compared
with the wealth or needs enjoyed by others.
Most relevant concepts
Development
Development is relevant because it is seen to include the key activities and policies
aimed at reducing poverty. Many measures of development focus on measuring
poverty, either absolute or relative poverty.The Millennium Development Goals
included reducing povertyas a key objective from 2000 to 2015,and this objective
has been retained in their successor, the Sustainable Development Goals. Many
different types of development - ranging from economic development to human
development - have reducing poverty as their aim.
Globalization and inequality
Globalization and inequality are relevant to poverty, particularly with regard to
the debate as to whetherglobalizationhas reducedor increasedglobalinequality.
Economic progress in developing states such as China and India have succeeded
in reducing the global gap between rich and poor, but in other parts of the world
- notably sub-Saharan Africa - the gap between rich and poor has been widening.
There is also a debate as to whether multinational corporations take advantage of
developing states or whether they empower them and help developing states with
5 Higherlevel extension:globalpoliticalchallenges
I 97
the<reconomic and human development. Inequalityalso e<istswithin states.with
many statesseeingan increasein the gap between rich and poor.
Justice
Synonyms
r•llef ............ assistance
preserve........ retain
General vocabulary
spectrum a complete range of
opinions,people or situations
goingfrom one extremeto its
opposite
Justicehasoften been cited asa keypart of reducingpoverty,with worldwide
campaignsoften framed in terms of delivering justice to those in poverty.There
havebeen national campaignsbasedaround the notion of 'socialjustice',connected
to ideasof fair pay,provision of welfare paymentsand tax relief to support those
on lower incomes.Politicalpartiesacrossthe political spectrum are interestedin
ideasof socialjustice, but differ on how it can be achieved.At a global level,there
havebeen debatesabout debt cancellation and debt relief for poor countries,often
linked to notions of justice between rich and poor countries.
Conflict and violence
Conflict and violence are frequentlyidentified asdrivers of poverty.Structural
violencewill result in poverty if the state actively choosespolicies that deny basic
human needsto certain groups.Direct violence also causespoverty by causing
injury or destroying the infrastructurethrough which the basic human needsof
a population are delivered.suchas food, shelter.schoolsor hospitals.Countries
in conflict are more likely to experiencedeeper levelsof human poverty than
countries that are at peace.Povertyis 20 percent higher in countries experiencing
conflict. The displacementof populations and refugeesin conflict regionsfurther
contributes to worsening poverty.
Possible case studies
The links to key conceptsbelow are a selectionand are not exhaustive.
Casestudies
linl<Sto key concepts
Make Poverty
History
Power- how powerful are social movementsthat pressure
governmentsto reduce poverty?Whywas this protest
movement powerful? Did governmentsrespond adequately
to the demandsof the protest movement?Did powerful states
look to preserve the;, economic power or did they tJy to
campaign and
GleneaglesGB
Summit2005
balance power to alleviate poverty in poorer countries?
Justice - were the demandsof Make PovertyHistory fair
and focusedon delivering justice? Is debt relief and debt
cancellationone way of ensuringgreaterjustice between rich
and poor countries?
Development - were the goalsof debt relief and debt
cancellation sensible-for reducing poverty? Does an increase in
aid help reducepoverty?
The Millennium Development - were the MDGssuccessfulin reducing poverty?
Development
In which regionswere the MDGsmost and leastsuccessful?
Goals(M DGs) What is the value of globally agreed targetsIike the MDGs?
(perhaps
choosinga
particular
region or
country to
focuson)
98
I5
Equality - have the M DGsreduced inequality?How can states
breakdown the inequalitiesof income and of gender?Hasthe
gap between rich and poor been reduced?
Conflict - the MDGsdid not mention conflict prevention
asa keytarget. Somewere critical of this. The Sustainable
DevelopmentGoalsdo not mention conflict prevention either.
Is this a sensibleapproach?
HigherLevelextension:
globalpoliticalchallenges
Case studies
Unks to key concepts
Horn of Afric.a
famine 2011
Development - what were the principal causes of the famine?
The region suffered from extreme poverty, so what was the
relationship between this pre-existing poverty and the famine?
Conflict- the Hom of Africa region suffers from a longstanding civil war. What impact did this have on the famine?
Did it make the famine more likely to happen? Did it make the
famine more devastating a.nd difficult to resolve once it had
happened?
Synonyms
h.mine .......... ertremefood
shortage
acute ............
trapped......... cauiht
least .............
Related ideas and debates
severe
over.a.II.......... general
smalest
General vocabulary
The Washington Consensus
The Washington Consensus sets out a series of neoliberal economic policies that
were agreed in the late 1980s as the best economic model for states' development.
They focus on keeping public spending and taxes low, maintaining free trade,
dvUwu awa.rinwhich
opposing g,oupsof peoplef,om
thesamecountryfightead, other
in Ofderto gainpoliticalcontrol
privatizing state-owned corporations and keeping regulation on financial markets
govemanco the actol making
all the decisions about taxes, laws
and plblk services
low. These ideas have frequently been used by economic IGOs such as the
International Monetary Fund as a way of bargaining with countries that receive aid
to produce wider outcomes in line witih the neoliberal model.
corruption dishonest, illegalor
immo!'lilbehaviour,
especially
fromsomeonewith powtl"
Absolutepoverty
Absolute poverty is defined as the absence of basic needs. Developed states such
as the United States, Canada and Western European states would have very low,
perhaps non-existent, levels of absolute poverty. The United Nations defines
absolute poverty as living on less than $1.90 per day. Middle- and high-income
countries can choose their own absolute poverty line.
Relativepoverty
Relative poverty is defined as the poverty experienced by one individual or group
in comparison with another. This is more likely to exist in developed nations,where
the gap between rich and poor may be particularly acute. Relative poverty focuses
on those who are less wealthy but not in an urgent state of deprivation of basic
human needs. Relative poverty is defined in relation to the overall distribution of
income in a country. This measure is most useful for measuring poverty in middleand high-income countries.
Povertycycle
The poverty cycle refers to the idea that poor countries become trapped in a
state of poverty. For example, some of the least progress towards the Millennium
Development GoaJto reduce poverty has been seen in sub-SaharanAfrica.
A combination of factors that impede development - such as disease,poor
governance, conflict and corruption - work together to exacerbate conditions of
absolute poverty. These factors hold back economic, social, political and human
development, working against many of the key types of development seen in Unit
3 (pages 48-63).
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
In2013, autho<ThomasPlketty
published
hisbookCo.pita#
in
rhe1wrnry-Fht
Centwy.In it
he proposed
a newmet.hodfor
ted1'1:ributJng
wea!thbetween
the richand the poor. Reseateh
oo theinternet
whathisproposal
wasand readaneu:e,pt of
me boo!<if pos,;ble,Do you
tJ,,nkhis ;deas are helpful afld
achievabae?
5 Higherlevel extension:globalpoliticalchallenges
I 99
Global inequality
Global inequality refer.; to the idea that !there is a gap between the rich and poor
countries of the world and that it has been widening over recent years. A recent
Synonyms
burdtn ......... load
adequate ....... sufftcient
Oxfam campaign has highlighted that the combined wealth of the richest 1 per
cent will overtake that of the other 99 per cent in the next few year.; unless action
is taken to reduce the current trends of rising inequality. Global campaigner.; would
like to seeaction taken to introduceminimum wagesfor all workers,a minimum
income guarantee and sharing the tax b-urden more fairly from taxing labour to
taxing capital and wealth.
5.6 Key theme: Health
Key idea:
Health in global politics refers to the ability of actors in global
politics to manage risks to public health at national, regional and
international level, ranging from global pandemics to national
outbreaks of disease and prevention of ill health.
Most relevantconcepts
Globalization and Interdependence
With increased globalization and movement of people across border.;, there has
been increased risk of the spread of global pandemic diseases. Recent year.; have
seen the Ebola outbreak across West Africa, threatening countries far beyond that
region and demanding an international response.
Human rightsand justice
Humanrightsandjustice relate directly to the access of resources for adequate
Subjectvocabulary
Obamacare a healthcare
reform
planin the UnitedStatesduting
theprf!Sideocy
of Ba.rack
Oba.ma,
aimedat reformingpublicand
privatehealth insuranceand
healthcareprovisionacrossthe
eounuy
healthcare. Equally, there are important human rights debates surrounding health,
the right to life and the right to accessadequate standards of healthcare.
Development
Development is a central theme as access to and the inadequate provision of
healthcare can result in significant health-related inequalities. Examples range from
the debates over Obamacare in the US to child mortality and maternal health,
which was a key focus of the Millennium Development Goals.
Violence
CHALLENGE
YOURSELF
Violence plays a part through the notion of structural violence and through the
impact that violent conflict has on healtlh, security and prevention of disease.
WhenPres,dent
Barack
Obama
of the UnitedStatestnedto pass
a lawforObamacarem2010he
met a lotof politicalopposition.
Do youbelievethestate hasa
duty to pro¥Kle healthcarefor
altof i~ citizens?
Discuss
your
8J\9Ners
ing,<oups
andwrite
ovt thekeyarguments
rorand
against.
100 I 5
HigherLevelextension:global politicalchallenges
Possible case studies
The links to key concepts below are a selection and are not exhaustive.
Case studies
Links to key concepts
Ebola
outbreak
2014-15
Globalization • how did the outbreak spread? What were the
key elements of globalization that contributed to the spread of
Ebola? How did political globalization, the increased cooperation
between nation states, help to resolve the outbreak?
Synonyms
5pread .......... e<tend
deficiencies ... weaknesses
Development - what impact did de.,elopment issues or
deficiencies in affected countries have on the spread of the
outbreak?
Decline of
HIV/AIDSin
Brazilor China
Sovereignty - how have states used their internal sovereignty
to tackle the spread of HIV/AIDS?Which policies have been
particularly successful?
Development - how have these states approached tackling HIV/
AIDSin terms of development policy and priorities?
Tackling
obesity with
state policy
(e.g. UKsugar
tax, 2016)
Sovereignty and legitimacy - is it the moral and political duty
of the state to reduce obesity among its citizens? What are the
economic pressures put on public seivices by health problems
such as obesity?
obesity a tem'I usedto describe
SOf'neOne
who isverycwitfWeigh
witha lot of body fat
avla.nflu an infectious type of
influenza that spreads amongst
birds
Related ideas and debates
Global pandemics
Pandemics represent a critical threat to human security across the world. Recent
outbreaks such as the Ebola virus (2014-15) and the avian flu outbreak (2004-05)
caused major global concern andwere responded to by states and by health IGOs
such as the World Health Organizatiom.
State provision of healthcare
State healthcare remains a key part of the economic and soc.ial rights that states
have a duty to provide for their citizens.There is, hO'tlVever,
a wide range of state
healthcare provision, from free-at-the-point-of-use healthcare to all citizens
(such as the United Kingdom's National Health Service) and state health insurance
schemes (such as the United States' Obamacare). With many Western states facing
ageing populations, there is a key debate around the sustainability of public
healthcare systems and the best ways of funding and prioritizing state healthcare.
5 Higherlevel extension:globalpoliticalchallenges
I 101
6
Engagement activity
Synonyms
A key component of the Global Politics course is the engagement activity,where
component .... part
analytical report "'ploring the issue they have chosen.
sufficient ....... enough
a.ppt0pr1a.te... suittbfe
students actively investigate a political issue of their choice and then write an
Students do this by organizing a project that allows them to research and
experience a political issue first•hand. This is followed by writing a 2,000.word
report which combines the research, the activity and the analysis of lhe chosen
political issue.
The engagement activity is one of the many aspects of the Global Politics
coursework that differentiates it from more traditional courses in social sciences.
The coursework activities are intended to allow students to explore and to reflect on
the ways in which politics has an influence on, and is influenced by, people at local,
regional or global levels.
This section of the book describes the requirements for the engagement activity and
offers some practical advice towards completing this essential part of the course.
The engagement activity is worth 25 per cent of the overall marks at Standard Level
and 20 pe<cent at Higher Level.
What is the engagement activity?
The engagement activity is an essential component of the 18 Global Politics course.
At its core, this project offers students the opportunity to:
• develop in-depth knowledge about a particular topic or subject;
• apply knowledge and theory gained in the classroom by talking to fellow
students and professionals;
• receive positive social support from colleagues. professionals, and the teacher
throughout the process;
• connect their learning to the world beyond the classroom.
Students need to write a 2,000-word report which shows:
• analysis of a political issue;
• exploration and direct investigation of the chosen issue through an activity they
have organized.
The engagement activity tests and develops a number of key skills. Each of these can
be thought of as separate stages or tasks to complete:
1 Identifying a political issue of interest and planning an effective and suitable
activity that will allow the political issue to be properly analysed.
synthestz:lngmaking
connections between the activity
andthe key COflCl!pts orthe
course
2 Researching a political issue through active engagement. Organizing, making
sense of, and synthesizing evidence gained through the primary activity and
secondary research.
3 Writing a report which investigates the political issue and binds together
information gained through the student's own activity with secondary research.
Stage 1 - Identifying the issue and the activity
This is a crucial part of the process and sufficient time should be devoted to
choosing both the political issue and the activity.
It is recommended that students first choose the political issue, then look for
an activity or activities that will allow them to explore the issue properly. The
combination of a suitable political issue and an appropriate activity then allow the
102 I 6
Engagementactivity
student to posea researchquestion that they will realisticallybe able to actively
investigateand analyse.
POLITICALISSUE+ACTIVITY----➔ RESEARCH
QUESTION
Studentsshould remember the following when choosing their political issue.
• Will it be possible to organize an activity that allows the student to
explore the political Issue?
Forexample.a student may be interested in Russianair strikesin Syria.but is
unlikely to be able to investigateth is through their own activity. Instead,local
and national issues,close to the student'sown community or home country, may
be more suitablethan choosingissuesthat are currently grabbing international
headlines.Forexample, issuessuch:as the representationof women in the
national politicsof the student'shome country or the local politicsinvolved
in a controversial local infrastructure project are likelyto allow the student
to get much closer to the actors an,d politics than, for example, Russian air
strikesin Syria.
•
Isthe political issue of sufficient depth to allow political analysis?
It is recommendedthat the student choosesa political issuefirst. Somestudents
have beendriven towardstheir political issuebecausethey alreadyhavean
activity ready and waiting. They then attempted to createa political issueout
of an activity that. although praiseworthy, is not very political. Forexample,
choosingvolunteering in a beach clean-up asthe activity and then writing about
the politics of volunteeringor beach cleaningis unlikely to raisereallydeep
political issuesthat the student could analysein their report.
• WIiithe chosen pollllcal Issue be of Interest to the student?
Synonyms
praiseworthy... t"Xcellet1t
Given the freedom to choosea.nypolitical issue,studentsshouldof course
choose something of interest to them.
A good test of a political issueis that it.should havethe right balancebetween:
Accesslblllty - can the studentactually
gain accessto, and experience,the
political issuedirectly?Is this possible
geographically?
Istheactivitysafe?
Polltical content- is there enough
in the issueto analyse?Are there links
with the keyconceptsand learning
outcomesof the course?
Once the political issuehasbeen chosen,the student must then plan an activity or
activitiesthat will allow them to explore the issue.
Studentsshould remember the following when planning activities.
• Research question. It often helps'to develop the political issueinto a resear,ch
question that the activity will allow the student to explore.
Example 1
If the political issuechosen is'major rail infrastructureprojects in the UK',the
studentcould develop this issueinto a researchquestionsupported by the
activity or activities,such as 'How effectivelyis the public consultedabout
a major rail infrastructureproject in the UK?'The activity is then designed
to include the student interviewinga rangeof political actors involved in
the process(for example.a local member of parliament representingtheir
constituents' views;the views of local residents;the views of the business
community; the views of the rail company building the project).
•
Multiple perspectives. The best activitieswill seestudentsengagewith
different opinions and viewpoints,·sothat they can compare theseand test the
validity of opposingviews.
Subject vocabulary
comtlb.Mntspeoplelivingin a
com,,.,,nity
who1te repr0$0nted
byan electedrept'tSf'fttative,
partieularty
inthe UK
General vocabulary
vaffdtty credibility
anda«uracy
6 Engagement
activity
I 103
Example2
If the political issue is the representation of women in politics, it will be
important to gain access to the vievvs of both men and women on the obstacles
and possible solutions. Students should therefore avoid intervie.Ning a single
source,for the same reasonsgiven in Example 1.
• Design.Activities must be designed to support investigating a specific political
Subject vocabulary
grass•rootsactlvlsts people
involvedin politicalcampaigning
at localcommunitylevel
issue, not the other way round. Some students rely on an activity that has
perhaps been organized for another purpose, such as work experience in
business or volunteering in a school. The students then find it difficult to build a
really strong link between the activity and the political issue. The best activities
will be designed with the specific political issue in mind.
• Organization.Designing the best engagement activity is likely to take time. A
key test for students will be contacting a range of political actors and setting
up activities or appointments. finding public events to attend, etc. Some
students may have high-level contacts in politics or business that they may
wish to use, but these are not necessary for an activity to be successful. In fact,
some of the best activities are those !lhat interact not with senior politicians
but grass-roots activists or communities affected by bigger political decisions.
It is recommended that teachers and students begin this process early in the
first year of study. The activities can be carried out during the holiday period
between the first and second years of sl\Jdy. The report is then written in the
early part of the second year of study.
• Slmulatlon actlvillM. These can be very good, but there is a risk that activities
such as Model United Nations (MUN) or other simulations become too
theoretical and distant from real-life events. It is also the case that if students are
doing the same engagement activity as others in their class, each student should
study a different research question, or provide their own angle on the question.
This is harder to do in MUN-styfe activities. Students should, wherever possible,
root themselves in analysing how politics really works. Combining a simulation
exercisewithan activitythat allowsthe studentto explorethe issuethrough
real-world events is better than a simulation exercise alone (for example, visiting
a refugee charity to explore its work and then carrying out a simulation exercise
which explores the difficult choices experienced by the political actors involved).
Stage 1 activities
Political issue and
research question
Good activity
Representation of
The student has no links with any
women in UK politics female MPs but writes to their
local council and meets female
'Why are women
councillors, interviewing a variety
under-represented
of actors about their experiences.
in elected political
the challenges they have faced.
office in the UKr
104 I 6
Engagement
activity
l<>ssgood activity
The student has links
with one female
MP and chooses to
interview this MP
about her experiences.
No other activity
organized.
Political issue and
research question
Good activity
less good activity
The student might then organize
any of the following:
To attend a panel discussion on
female representation in politics.
To interview aspiring female
politicians from a university
politics society.
To interview male councillors
comparing their experiences.
To conduct secondary desk-top
research on the barriers faced by
women in politics.
The refugee crisis in
Europe
What are the
challenges faced by
a national NGO in
responding to the
European refugee
crisis?'
The student takes part in a role
play activity, playing the role
of an NGO trying to lobby EU
governments to take more
action.
The student might then organize
any of the following:
To visit a national NGO involved
in the refugeecrisisand interview
grass-roots activists on the
challenges they face.
The student takes part
in a role play activity,
playing the role of an
NGO trying ta lobby
EUgovernments to
take more action.
No other activity
organized.
Subject vocabulary
lobby try to persuadethe
~rnment
or someonewith
political
power that a la.wor
situationshouktbe changed
To conduct an on line
interview with a more senior
representative from !he NGO.
To attend a panel discussion
where NGOs debate the
challenges they face.
Stage 2 - Carrying out the activity
Students should remember the following when carrying out activities.
• Keop the resaarch question In m'lnd. There is a risk that when the activity
begins, it becomes driven by the people or groups that the student is meeting
or working with. It is worth the student being clear with those they are meeting,
working or volunteering with, what it is that they are trying to get out of the
activity. This does not mean that theywill not be able to offer something in return.
But it is not uncommon for students to carry out work experience where the
original point of the activity (researching a political issue) becomes side-lined.
• Effective not,..taklng. Students should be organized with their note-taking
so they have a clear record of the activity when they come to write about the
General vocabulary
side-lined gf\fenlesserpriority
than othet content
activity. The notes from interviews need to be included as appendices to the
report. Students should seek permission from those they are working with
before recording interviews.
6 Engagement
activity
I 105
• Ga.ps where secondary research is needed. As students carry out the activity,
it is worth noting where the activity has raised questions that need further
investigation. Are there different perspectives that need to be examined?
Could any of these be explored with another, smaller-scale activity, perhaps
with another contact recommended by the organization or individual that the
student has been working with?
• Linksto the prescribed content and key concepts. A key skill in writing the
report is to make connections between the activity and the key concepts of
the course (for example, power, sovereignty, development, human rights, etc.).
This is assessed in the markscheme as the student effectively 'synthesizing' their
material. Students should keep notes on how the experience relates to the key
concepts and learning outcomes of the course.
Stage3 - Writing the report
Before considering in detail how to write the report, it is worth drawing attention to
the two most common mistakes that students make when presenting the first draft
of their reports.
Report is dominated by the activity,
with no analysis
Report forgets about the activity, with
or without analysis
• The student writes only about the
• The student writes only about the
political issue, perhaps analysing
it, but more in the style of an
Extended Essay.
activityand does so in narrative,
rather than analysis.
• The report reads like an account
of who they met, what they did,
what they saw, what they were
told, how they felt about what they
saw and heard.
• There is little analysis of what
• There is no link between the
activity and the issue, it feels as if
the student has focuS<!dmore on
secondary research.
• There is a sensethat the activitywas
their experiences tell us about
of little importance or relevance to
the political issue or how it links
to and helps us understand
the key concepts or learning
the political issue, which is why the
student rarely mentions the activity.
outcomes of the course.
The simplest advice is that reports should be a balance between th= two extremes,
aiming to clearly demonstrate how the activity has helped build an analytical
understanding of a political issue.
100 I 6
Engagement
activity
The engagement activity is assessedagainst a markscheme, as is the casewith every
piece of coursework that students submit for assessment in 18courses. For the
engagement activity, the markscheme is divided into four sections. The report is
marked out of 20,as follows.
Assessment criteria for the written report
Criterion
Student will ...
Mark and descriptor
A - Identification
of issue and
justification
(4 marks)
. , clearly identify
and explain what the
political issue is.
0
The work does not reach a
standard described by the
descriptors below.
.. explain how the
1-2 The political issue raised by the
issue links to the
engagement is implied but not
key concepts and
explicitly identified. There is some
prescribed content
limited explanation of why the
andof the IB Global
studentchosethisengagement.
Politics course.
There is some link between the
engagement and course content
3-4 The political issue explored
through the engagement is clearly
and explicitly identified. There is
a clear explanationof why this
engagement and political issueare of interest to the student
There is a clear link between the
engagementand politicalissueon
one hand and course content on
the other hand .
B - Explanation
of the
engagement
(4 marks)
.. clearly identify
and explain what the
activity was.
0
The work does not reach a
standard described by the
descriptors below.
-· explain the reasons 1-2 There is a description of the
why the activity was
engagement and of what the
chosen, including
student actually did. There is
why it was suitable
some limitedexplanationof
for exploring and
what the student learned about
analysing the
global politics from undertaking
political issue that
the engagement.
was chosen.
3-4 The description of the
., explain the ways
engagement and of what the
in which the activity
student actually did is clear and
has helped the
relevant for their chosen political
student understand
issue.There is a clear explanation
key concepts and
of the ways in which the
learningoutcomes
student's experiences informed
that relate to the
his or her understanding of the
polltlcaiissue
politicalIssue.
chosen.
6 Engagement
activity
I 107
Criterion
Studentwlll ...
C - Analysisof
...analysethe
0
politic.alissues raised
issue(6 marks)
Mark and d<>scrlptor
in a wider context,
particularly in light
of the key concepts,
learningoutcomes
and theoretical
perspectivesfrom
eachof the units in
the Global Politics
course.
The work does not reacha
standarddescribedby the
descriptorsbelow.
1-2 There issome attempt at analysis
of the political issuebut the
responseis largelydescriptive.
Fewof the main points
arejustified.
3-4 There is somecritical analysisof
the political issuebut this analysis
lacksdepth. The responseis more
... demonstrate
descriptivethan analytical.Some
evidence of research
of the main points arejustified.
skills,organization
and referencing.
D - Synthesis
and evaluation
(6 marks)
...link together
their activity and
the political issue
throughout the
report.
...give equal
attentionto the
activity and the
report (which will
read neither like an
IB ExtendedEssay,
nor like a narrative
description of an
activityin isolation).
S-6 The political issueis e<ploredin
depth. usingthe keyconcepts
of the coursewhere relevant,
and the responsecontainsclear
critical analysis.All, or nearlyall,
of the main points arejustified.
0
The work does not reacha
standarddescribedby the
descriptorsbelow.
1-2 Thereare limited links
betweenideas.There are no
conclusions,or the conclusions
arenotrelevant
3-4 Thereare somelinks between
the student'sexperiencesand
more theoreticalperspectives
on the political issue.
Conclusionsare statedbut are
not entirely consistentwith the
evidencepresented.Multiple
perspectivesare acknowledged,
where relevant.
...makeconnections
with theoretical
viewpoints.related
S-6 The student'sexperiencesand
waysof knowing and
more theoreticalperspectivesare
areasof knowledge,
synthesisedso that an integrated
and multiple
and rich treatment of the political
perspectives,giving
issueensues.Conclusionsare
a comprehensive
clearlystated.balancedand
treatment of the
consistentwith the evidence
political issuethat
presented.There is evidenceof
wasstudied.
evaluationof the political issue
from multiple perspectives.
108 I 6
Engagement
activity
Structuring your report
Linking the issue with the key concepts (Criterion A)
Oneway of ensuringthat studentsinclude the necessarylevelof analysisin their
written work is to reviewthe keyconceptsfor eachunit. For example,the 16 key
conceptsfor the coursearepower,sovereignty,legitimacy,interdependence,human
rights.justice,liberty,equality,development,globalization,inequality,sustainability,
peace,conflict, violence,and non-violence(seepagesvi and vii).Written work
shouldexplore thoseconceptsthat are relevantto the activity and political issue.
Studentsshould makesure that they:
• define the conceptsthat they use
• provide examplesof theseconceptsfrom world politics
• demonstratehow theseconceptscan be found in the activity that
theyengagedin.
Example3:identifying
themostrelevantconcepts
A studentchoosesto work for a local political party to encouragecitizensto vote
prior to an election,and theyare interestedin exploringhow candidatesfor office
constructand maintain their legitimacyamongsttheir constituents.Definingthe
conceptof legitimacy,(perhapsas the degreeto whicha pcliticaJactoris accepted
amongsta groupof peopleor otherpolitical actors)would be an important
componentof the engagementactivity.Studentscould go further by identifying
examplesof legitimateoutcomesof electionsaswell as thoseoutcomesthat have
beendeemedillegitimateby thosewho participatedin electionsor by third-party
observers.A more sophisticatedunderstandingof theconceptof legitimacy
would go evenfurther; identifyingthe degreeto which a candidate'slegitimacyc.an
dependon differentconstituenciesat differentlevelsof analysisin world politics..
Synonyms
sophlstlcatod.. advanced,
developed
Linkingthe issueand activitywith prescribedcontent
(CriteriaA and B)
The chosenactivity and political issueshould alsolink with some part of the
prescribedcontentof the course.For example,the prescribedcontent for the
'Power,sovereignty,and internationalrelations'unit of the courseincludesthe
following (seepages1-29):
• definitions and theoriesof power
• typesof power
• the evolvingnature of state sovereignty
• legitimacyof state power
• the United Nations(UN)
• intergovernmentalorganizations(IGOs)
• non-governmentalorganizations(NGOs)
• multinational corporations(MNCs)
•
resistancemovements
•
violent protest movements
• political parties
• infonmalforums
•
legitimacy of non-state actors
• global governance
•
forms of cooperation
•
formsof conflict
6 Engagement
activity
I 1ffi
It would be impossible for the student to include all of these concepts in the
engagement activity. However, in relation to the example of the engagement
activity that focused on work for a local party, the following content could be
included in the written report: types of power, political parties. legitimacy of nonstate actors. Again, the student should define these terms and provide examples
that demonstrate their ability to make connections between abstract terminology,
examples from outside the classroom, and the activity engaged in for this study.
Justification of the issue (Criterion A)
A key assessment criterion is the degree to which the student can explain why they
participated in this activity in the first place. The key here is to explain why the
activity helped them explore the political issue that they chose. There is no need for
students to explain how the activity helped them build otherskills such as teamwork
or leadership skills - this is not rewarded in the markscheme and is best avoided.
Explanation of the engagement (Criterion B)
Criterion B assesses students' ability to provide a clear account of their activity
and its connection to their studies in Global Politics.This is probably the most
descriptive section of the engagement activity in that students are being asked to
describe all aspects of their activity as it relates to their studies of the prescribed
content of the course.
Example3: explainingyour activity
Returning to Example3 from the previous section, the student could explain
Subject vocabulary
polls an election or• vote that an
electo,atetakespar,in
the reasons why they chose to work for a local political party and explain their
efforts to get voters to the polls. The student might focus on why they feel it is
important to encourage citizens to vote. Regardless of what reasons they have for
pursuing a particular activity, the justification for this choice of activity is entirely
up to the student and their interests.
Onthe onehand,the engagementactivityasksstudentsto articulateandjustify
Synonyms
somewhat ..... a bit
Generalvocabulary
debrief draw00nclusions
from
and summaritcithe learningas the
projectdevelops
110 I 6
Engagementactivity
their reason for political action. This can be a difficult task if students do not have
a political activity that they are at least s·omewhat passionate about. On the other
hand, this section of the engagement activity gives students the opportunity to
express their interest in political issues that matter most to them. This means
that they want to identify a political issue that has some value and meaning for
them, and to describe their participation in such a way that it connects their
understandingof the course materialto the activity.
The application of students' knowledge about politics to their activity is the
second section of Criterion B. Reflecting:on what the student learned through the
engagement activity is a critical aspect of their coursework in Global Politicsand is
one of the key attributes of successful 18 students. As with all aspects of experiential
learning activities. students should take time to debrief throughout, especially
after completing their activity. Keeping a journal, or (if participating in class or
group activities) taking notes during debriefing exercises, will allow students to
capture their thinking about political issues as they relate to the chosen activity.
Using these reflections to produce an analytical account of the student's work that
demonstrates an application of their knowledge of politics, is a crucial element of
the engagement activity.
Analysisof issue(Criterion C)
CriterionCasksstudentsto analysethe political issuethat they chose,drawing on
everything that they have learned in tlneir Global Politicscoursework.
Keyconcepts
Thiscriterionassesses
the ability to examine politicalissuesfrom a varietyof
perspectives.One way to think about this aspectof the engagementactivity is from
the frameof the key conceptsin the course.The 16 key concepts,but especially
thoseof power,sovereignty,legitimacy.and interdependenceare essentialto
include in the analysis.Forexample,the student'swork for a political party could
lead them to be curiousabout lhe degree to which parties,candidates,or other
political actors seekand reinforce their legitimacywith their constituents.linking
their conceptual understandingof legitimacy,especiallywith comparativeexamples
in democraticsocietiesand contrasting examplesin non-democratic societies,will
allow studentsto show the degree to which they can makeconnections between
the theoretical and practicalelementsof their Global Politicscoursework.
Extent of analysis
A secondaspectof this portion of the engagementactivity that studentsshould
think about is the extent to which they are analysingthe political issuethey chose to
explore.The command term to what extent is an important one to understandas it
is an essentialpart of the way that leariningis assessedin the Global Politicscourse.
Essentially,to what extentmeansthat students should consider the quality of a
concept or a line of reasoningin a clear and well-supported manner.
EJQJ11pla
3: extant of analysis
In Example3, the experienceof the engagementactivity could leada student to
explore the waysin which candidatesrunning for office use both hard power and
soft power to exercise influence in an election. In this, the student might want to
examinethe different waysin which money isused to buy advertising,campaign
resourcessuchas consultantsand activities,and other meansof influencing
political decision-makingamongst the electorate. The analysisof the candidate's
behaviourshould lead the student to makea judgement as to how effectivethese
practiceswere. Thesamemethod could then be applied to the ways in which the
candidateled by example.attracted others to their cause,or other aspectsof soft
power as a way of affecting voters'decisionsat the polls. In this case,the student
would be making explicit connections between their experience,their conceptual
understandingof different forms of power, and examiningthe degreeto which
eachform of power waseffectivein the engagementactivity,
Subject vocabulary
electorate aJIthe peoplein
a countrywho NW'ethe right
to vote
Supporting claims
A third aspectof Criterion C is how students support the claimsthat they makein
their anatysis.Studentsare being assessedon how they can use evidenceto support
their claims.This includes:
• demonstratinga logicaland organi:zedreasoningfor ideas
•
using examples from their experience and the cases or material studied in the
Global Politicscoursework
• usingexamplesinvestigatedasa part of the student'sresearchthat are relevant
to the topieeoveredin lhe engagementaetivity.
Again,in Example3, a studentwould want to show that they haveresearched
different ways in which candidatesfor office use different forms of power to
enhancetheir legitimacyamongstvoters. Caseexamplesfrom electionsor other
events in the world outside the classroomcan provide considerableweight in
6 Engagement
activity
I 111
support of the argumentsthat the stude11tmakesabout the political issuethey
are investigating.
Synthesis and evaluation (Criterion D)
As is the casewith the previoussection,Criterion D asksstudentsto align their
experiencein the engagementactivity with the topic that they are investigating,
drawingon their researchand existingknowledgeof global politics.Whereas
Criterion C focuseson the differentways the studentanalysesthe political issuethey
studiedwith referenceto evidence,Criterion D requiresthem to makeconnections
betweenall of their learning experiencesinside and outsideof the classroomalong
with researchon the political issuethey arestudying.Thissectionshouldalso
includean explicit evaluationof the student'sexperiencesand the political issue
by referringto different theoreticalperspectivesin order to generatea new and
sophisticatedunderstandingof politics.
Generalvocabulary
scholushlp thework of
academicexperts
nuanc•s .smalldifferenot$in
ccpresion
counten:l1lmsopposing
argumentsput folWatdto show
that there isanother point of view
or analysis
lnnovatfve usingnew ideas0t
methods
hono refineor imptove
Thereare severalaspectsof students'researchthat should be includedso that they
can properly synthesizeand evaluatethe political issuethat they arestudying.For
example,conductinga literature review of scholarshipon legitimacyand elections,
or the waysin which candidatesusepower to securevotes,would add a levelof
sophisticationto the argument.Balancingdifferentviewsamongsta few different
theoreticalperspectiveswill allow the student to makegroundedarguments
about politics that highlight the complexity and nuancesof the issuethat they are
studying.In addition, includingrelevant caseexamplesas reportedin leadingnews
sources,periodicalsand policy-orientedjournals, supportsthe student'sarguments
in evaluatingboth their experienceand their research.
In other words, Criterion D should reflect a diverseset of evidencethat both
supportsstudents'thinking but alsoprovidescounterclaims to the arguments
that theyare making.Finally,the student'sown interpretationof eventsin their
experiencein the engagementactivity should inform the argumentsand claimsthat
they makein report, The conclusionsthat they arriveat, as a resultof their research
and experienceshould be clear,balanced,and most of all, alignwith the evidence
that they haveincluded in the report.
Summary
The engagementactivity is one of the more innovative and distinct forms of
assessments
in the InternationalBaccalaureate
Diploma.Thiswork will allow
studentsto engagein an activity that connectsto a political issuethat interests
them. In addition, studentshavethe opportunity to integratetheir classroom
knowledgewith what they have learned through experiencesoutsideof a traditional
lectureor classroomsetting,Buildingon this knowledge,studentshave the
opportunity to further investigatea political issueof interest through researchand
analysisat variouslevels.Theengagementactivity offersstudentsaw~ of linking
their understandingof the complexitiesof world politics with a real-life activity.
Finally,the engagementactivity providesa way to developand hone students'skills
in sourcingand referencingaswell as excellentpracticein undertakinganalytical
writing that is consistentwithin the genre of socialsciences.
112 I 6
Engagement
activity
7
Exam support
Paper 1 (stimulus-based paper) technique
Paper 1 basics
Both Higher Leveland Standard level students sit the same paper which lasts 1
hour 15 minutes. This paper is a stimulus-based paper on a topic taken from one
of the four core units. Four stimuli are presented, which may be written, pictorial or
diagrammatic, and which link to one of the four core units. Students must answer
all four structured questions,
The maximum mark for this paper is 25. The paper is marked using a paper-specific
analytic markscheme and for the fourth question, markbands are additionally
used (see below).
Each question tests different assessment objectives. READTHEQUESTIONS
FIRST
- then you can read the sources knowing what you are looking for.
Question format and
Assessment objective
Relevant command
terms (see page x)
Assessment objective
1: Knowledge and
understanding
Describe Give a
advice
1. Tests understanding
ofasource
You will be asked to
extract information
given to you in a source,
which might be text, an
image, or in the form of
statistics. You must put
i·tinto your own words,
showing that you have
•
•
understoodit. Fivelines
or so is probablyabout
right. If you are asked
to explain information
from a source, take care
not to simply copy the
information word for
word.
•
Demonstrate knowledge
and understanding of key
political concepts and
contemporary issues in
global politics.
detailed account.
Define Give the
precise meaning of a
word, phrase, concept
or physical quantity.
Identify Provide an
answer from a number
of possibilities.
Demonstrate
understanding of relevant
Outline Give a brief
sourcematerial.
accountor summary.
Synonyms
contemporarypresent
Demo,nstrate
understanding of
a politicalissue
in a particular
experientialsituation
(engagement activity).
Toptip
Aim to get through this
question quickly - take
no more than 5 minutes.
7 Examsupport
I 113
Question format and
advice
Assessment objective
Relevant command
terms (see page x)
2. Tests application
of contextual
knowledge to a
Assessment objective 2:
Application and analysis
Analyse Break down
source
•
You will be asked to
explain a concept,
using information in
un.speclfled not identified or
highlighted e<pl~ly
hypoth .. l, ~ry
or pO'Op<Mition
conttsted where there islackof
agreement on what a concept or
idea means
withlotsof
differentas:pec:ts
variety of contexts.
•
available if you provide
eiample1 eith@rof your
own or from the sources.
•
Top tips
The questions may
be linked to the key
concepts of the syllabus.
Revisethe definitions of
these.
•
Don't forget to use the
sources to help you, too
- you are asked to do
this. Refer to more than
one source if possible.
Some concepts that you
are asked
to analyse may
be contested or multifaceted. If so, bring this
out in your analysis,
demonstrating your own
knowledge. For example,
a question analysing
power may require you
to show that power
is a broader concept
than the material in the
sourcessuggests.
Aim to spend 10 minutes
or so on this question
and write about 200-250
words.
114 I 7
politicalissuesin a
Fullmarks are only
orhow,omothirig-k,
mum-faceted
unspecified sources and
your own knowledge.
Examsupport
Apply knowledge of key
political concepts to
analyse contemporary
Identify and analyse
relevant material and
supporting examples.
Use political concepts
and examples io
formulate, presentand
sustainan argument.
Apply knowledge
of global politics to
inform and analyse
experiential learning
about a political issue
(engagement activity).
in order to bring out
the essential elements
or structure.
Distinguish Make
clear the differences
betweentwo or more
concepts or items.
Explain Give a
detailed account
including reasonsor
causes.
Suggest Propose a
solution. hypothesis or
other possible answer.
Question format and
advice
Assessment objective
Relevant command
terms (see page x)
3. Testscomparison
Assessment objective 3:
Compareand
contrastGive an
and/ or contrasting Synthesis and evaluation
of sources
•
You will be asked to
compare and contrast
the views in two different
or contradictory sources.
Top tips
Aim for at least four
points of comparison.
contrast or both
(depending on the
command term used).
Clearly devote equal
consideration to both
from sources and
background knowledge.
•
•
There is no need for your
own views on which
source is more credible/
convincing.
sourceis- isonea
news article and the
other an NGO report.
for example? What
relevance does the type
of source have?
Aim to spend around 25
minutes on this question
and write at least 300
words.
Comp.are, contrast,
synthesize and evaluate
a variety of perspectives
and approaches to
global politics, and
evaluate political beli~t\
biasesand prejudices,
and their origin.
sources.
Highlight what the
Comp.are, contrast,
synthesize and
evaluate evidence
Synthesize and evaluate
results of experiential
learning and more
theoretical perspectives
on a political issue
(engagement activity).
Assessment objective 4:
Use and application of
appropriate skills
•
Produce well-structured
written material that uses
appropriate terminology.
•
Organize material into
a clear. logical, coherent
and relevant response.
•
accountof similarities
and differences
between two (or more)
itemsor situations,
referring to both (all)
of them throughout.
ContrastGive an
account of the
differences between
two (or more) items
or situations, referring
to both (all) of them
throughout.
CompareGive
an account of the
similarities between
two (or more) items
or situations, referring
to both (all) of them
throughout.
Demonstrate evidence
of research skills,
organization and
referencing (engagement
activity and HL extension
in particular).
7 Examsupport
I 115
Question format and
advice
Assessment objective
Relevant command
terms (see page x)
4. Testsevaluation
of sourcesand
conlelc1ual
kn-ledge
Assessmentobjective3:5\tnthesisand evaluation
DiscussOffer a con-
A03: Compareand contrast,and evaluatesource
material.Synthesizeand
evaluate evidence from
both sourcesand your
ONnknowledge.
General vocabulary
blasts urlair preferencesforone
personor groupaver another
A04: Organizematerial
intoa clear,logical,and
coherent response.
The questionwillbe a
Paper2 stylequestion.
demandinga longer
responsebased on the issues raisedby the sources.
Thinkof thisquestionas a
paper 2 stylequestionbut
one where you have some
sources to helpyou.
Toptips
Usethe sourcesto help
you:don'tignorethem
anddon'tonlyuseyour
ONnknowledge.Youare
beingtested on your ability to use sourcesas well
as your own knowledge.
Useexamples-from the
sourcesand your own
knowledge.
Includedaim and counterclaim,balanceand clear
evaluationetc. Keepyour
focuson the question,
referback to the question
frequenUyto buildyour
argumentas you go along.
Defineany keyterms.
Aim for a short introduction and conclusion.
Aim to spend around 30
minutes on this question
and write at least 600
words.
116 I 7
Examsupport
sidered and balanced
reviewthatincludes
a range of arguments,
factors or hypotheses.
Opinionsor conclusionsshould be
presented clea.rlyand
supported by appropriate evidence.
• Compace,contrast,synthesize and evaluateevidence
fromsources and background lcnowledge.
• Compar,e,contrast,synthesize and evaluatea variety
of perspectivesand approaches to globalpolitics,
and evaluate politicalbe- EvaluateMakean
appraisal by weighing
liefs,biasesandprejudices,
up the strengths and
and theirorigin.
limitations.
• 5\tnthesizeand evaluExamineConsider an
ate resultsof experienargument or concept
tiallearningand more
theoretic:::al
perspectiveson in a way that uncovers
a politicalissue(engage- the assumptions and
interrelationshipsof
ment activity).
the issue.
Assessmentobjective4: Use
and applicaltionof appmpriate
skills
• Producewell-structured
writtenmaterialthat uses
appropriate terminology.
• Organizematerialintoa
clear,logical,coherent and
relevantresponse.
•
Demonstrate evidence of
researchskills,organization and referencing(engagemerit activityand HL
extensionin particular).
Markbands for the fourth question
level descriptor
16ffid
0
• The work does not reach a standarddescribedby the
descriptorsbelow.
1-2
• There is a very limited understandingof the demandsof the question.
• There is little relevantknowledge.
• The responseis mostly descriptiveand maycontain unsupported
generalization.s.
3-4
• There is a limited understandingof the demandsof the question,or
the question isonly partially addressed.
• Someknowledgeis demonstrated,but this is not alwaysrelevantor
accurate,and may not be usedappropriatelyor effectively.
• Counterclaims,or different viewson the question,are not identified.
5-6
• The responseshowsan understandingof the demands
of the question.
• Knowledgeis mostly accurateand relevant,and there is somelimited
synthesisof own knowledgeand sourcematerial.
• Counterclaims,or different viewson the question.areimplicitly
identified but are not explored,
7-8
• The responseis focusedand showsa good understandingof the
demandsof the question.
•
Generalvocabulary
count«daims opposing
argumentput fotwardto show
that there is anotherpoint of view
or analysis
Relevant and accurate knowledge is demonstrated. there is a
synthesisof own knowledge and source material, and appropriate
examples are used.
• Counterclaims,or different viewson the question,are explored.
9-10
• The responseis clearly focusedand showsa high degreeof
understandingof the demandsof the question.
•
Relevantand accurateknowledgeisdemonstrated,there iseffective
synthesisof own knowledgeand sourcematerial,with appropriate
examplesintegrated.
•
Counterclaims, or different views on the question, are explored
and evaluated.
The following is an exampleof a claim and counterclaimbeing identified,
exploredand evaluated.
Question:Evaluatethe claim that the importanceof military poweris diminishingin
modernglobalpolitics.
Possibleclaim: Military power still relevant,asseenin the conflicts in Afghanistan
and Iraq in 2001 and 2003 respectively.Powerfulstates,suchas the United States,
choseto usemilitary power to achievetheir objectives.
Possiblecounterclaim: However,despite this useof military power,its effectiveness
and therefore its importance is questionable. In both of these conflicts mentioned
(lr.1qand Afghanistan)military power led to inconclusiveoutcomes.
7 Examsupport
I 117
Paper 2 (extended response paper) technique
Paper2 Basics
Each Paper2 question is marked out of 25.
Higher Level students must answer three questions in 2 hours and 45 minutes.
Standard Level students must answer two questions in 1 hour 45 minutes.
This paper is an essaypaper. with two questions set on each of the four core units.
At least one of the questions for each unit is finnly anchored in that unit. whereas
the second question may open up for a more cross-unit approach.
Conceptual understanding and ability to work with the key concepts of the course
is particularly important in this paper. Some questions use the key concepts of
that particular unit. Still other questions draw on keyconcepts from several units.
Even where the key concepts are not explicitly mentioned in a question, students
should demonstrate a conceptual understanding of global politics. In their answers,
students are invited to draw on their understanding of any relevant political
concepts, depending on the arguments 1hey put forward.
Marks are awarded for:
•
demonstrating understanding of relevant political concepts and
prescribed content
•
making reference to specific relevant examples
• justifying points
•
and exploring and evaluating counterclaims. or different views on the question.
The same paper is set at both SLand HL.
SLstudents must answer two questions, each selected from a different core unit.
H L students must answer three questions, each selected from a different core unit.
The maximum mark for this paper is SOmarks at SLand 75 marksat H L.The paper
is marked using generic markbands (see pages 125-126) and a paper-specific
markscheme. The questions in this paper assessobjectives A01-A04, and questions
are set using A03 command terms (seepage x).
118 I 7
Examsupport
Paper 2 overview
Core unit
Key concepts
Learning outcomes
Power, sovereignty Power
and international
Sovereignty
relations
Legitimacy
• Nature of power
• Operation of state
power in global politics
lnterdependernce
• Functionand impact
of international
organizationsand
non-stateactorsin
global politics
•
Nature and extent
of interactions in
global politics
Possible questions
Evaluatethe claim that the importanceof
military power is diminishing in modern
global politics.
Evaluatethe claim that the only legitimate
actors in global politics are nation states.
Discusshow globalization hasaffected
both the interdependenceof statesand
the balanceof power in the international
system.
'Global politics is characterizedmore by
conflict than by cooperation'.Discuss.
Questions that link between this unit and
other units:
'Nation stalesare the biggestobstacleto
global human rights protection'. Discuss.
Compareand contrast a stale-led approach
to resolving violent conflict with an
approach led by other international actors.
Human rights
Human rights
Justice
Liberty
Equality
•
Nature and evolution
of human rights
• Codification, protection
'A national or regional approachto human
rights enforcementis more effectivethan a
global approach'.Discuss.
and monitoring
Evaluatethe extent to which universal
of human rights
human rightschallengestatesovereignty.
• Practiceof human rights
To what extent do the complex realities
• Debatessurrounding
and relationshipsof power in global
humanrightsand
politics makethe conceptof human rights
their application:
an unachievableideal?
differing interpretations
Examinethe claim that different
of justice,
interp relations of human rights by states,
liberty and equality
cultures and people are unjustifiable in
modern global politics.
Hasglobalization made the protection
of human rights more or lessdifficult?
Oiscus.s.
Questions that link between this unit and
other units:
Evaluatethe extent to which universal
human rightschallengestatesovereignty.
Evaluatethe extent to which a lackof
human rightsimpactson development.
Evaluate the importance of justice and
human rights in resolving violent and nonviolent conflict.
7 Examsupport
I 119
Core unit
Key concepts
Learningoutcomes
Possible questions
Development
Development
Globalization
Inequality
Sustainability
•
Contested meanings
of development
Evaluate the claim that there is a link
between globalization and poverty.
•
Factorsthat
may promote or
inhibit development
'Development failures stem from factors
that are internal to states, rather than
external'. Discuss.
•
Pathways
towards development
•
Debates surrounding
development:
challenges of
globalization, inequality
and sustainability
Evaluatethe claim that development is
impossible to measure.
To what extent are most pathways to
development based on purely Western
approaches to development?
Questionsthat link betweenthis unit and
otherunits:
'There is no securitywithout development.
and no development without security'. To
what extent do you agree?
'•Conflict powerfully inhibits development,
and equally, failures in development
substantially increase the likelihood of
conflict' (Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion).To
what extent do you agree with this claim?
Peace and conflict
Peace
Confl'ict
Violence
•
Non-violence
•
Causesand
partiesto conflict
•
Evolution of conflict
•
Conflict resolution
and post-conflict
Contested
meanings of peace,
conflict and violence
transformation
'Transforming violent conflict towards
peacerelieson an interrelationship
of peacemaking, peacekeeping and
peacebuilding'. Discuss.
To what extent is modem conflict caused
bycompetition for power?
To what extent is third party involvement
in conflict (for example, through
humanitarian or other intervention)
beneficial for advancing peace and
reducing conflict?
ifo what extent do you agree with the view
that those in power have an obligation to
identify and prevent structuraJviolence?
Questionsthat link betweenthis unit and
other units:
Evaluate the claim that violations of human
rights are no guarantee that humanitarian
intervention will take place.
'A key part of achieving positive peace is
the availability of a system of justice to
settle differences non-violently'. To what
extent do you agree?
General vocabulary
partiesto thoseac'lol'$
involved
W'150mtthin,g
13)
I7
Examsupport
Paper 2 Top tips
•
Define the keytem,s of the question in your introduction. For example,
if the question asksyou to 'discuss how globalization has affected the
interdependence of states and the !balance of power in the international system',
you must define the key terms underlined here.
•
Explain briefly in your introduction how you intend to answer the question.
•
Use plenty of contemporary examples to back up your arguments, ideally ones
from within your lifetime.
•
Root your arguments in the relevant theories and concepts that you have
studied. This might be hard or soft power, sovereignty etc.
•
Build your argument as you go and refer back to the question. This is what marks
out really high standard politics essays.Only make a point if it helps you lo
answer the question. When you have made a point, state how this helps answer
the question. Use phrases like 'this shows that..' when summing up a point you
have just made.
•
Avoid using the fi~t person - there is no need for 'I believe that..' or
'in my opinion,_',
•
Aim for balance. Always look at the other side of the argument. High marks are
available for students who use claims and counterclaims in their answers. Put
forward one side of the argument and then contrast it immediately with other
vievvsand state which - on the balance of the evidence - is more powerful.
•
Better to focus on fundamental points well explained, than ambitious guesses
or new theories that are poorly explained. Only explore more radical thoughts
once you have been through the fundamental arguments.
• Taketime to explain your points. Do not rush or try to make a complicated point
in one sentence. Use the first few sentences to set out your argument carefully.
•
Responsesshould deal with the whole question not just the separate parts.
•
Do not rush your conclusion. See it as a fundamental part of your essay rather
than something to tick off. Check that your conclusion answers the question.
Takeyour time to summarize the most important points and pieces of evidence
which have led you to that conclusion.
Structuringa response
Introduction
•
Define the key terms.
•
Explain how you will answer the question.
•
Subsequent paragraphs should develop one point only each.
•
Follow this structure for paragraphs:
•
•
Point - make the main statement of the paragraph.
•
Evidence or Example - this is the longest part of
your paragraph.
•
Analyse - why does the evidence back up your point?
•
Link - relate the paragraph to the main question with a
onesentencemini conclusion
or counterclaim.
Summarize points :already made - explain what the balance
of evidence leads you to conclude and which side is
most persuasive.
•
Answer the question.
'--
7 Examsupport
I 121
Exampleparagraphstructure
'Nation statesshould be forcedto accept,universalhuman rights'.Discuss.
Prisonervoting rightsis a controversialissuewithin Western
POINT
{
Generalvocabulary
blanket ban complete
prohibitionof $0methill£
landmark significant
development
stsnatory referringto a state that
has~ned a pieceof intemational
law
EVIDENCE/
EXAMPLE
countrieswhere the universalityof those rightsis questioned.
The United Kingdomcurrently hasa blanket ban on prisoners
voting in any form of UK election. In a landmark case,Hirst v
UK, the EuropeanCourt of Human Rights(ECHR)ruled that the
blanket ban on prisonersexercisingthe vote was contrary to the
ECHRto which the UK isa signatory. The UKappealed.stating
that it wasthe sovereignright of its parliamentto representthe
majority wish of the British people to maintain the ban, but the
decisionwas upheld by the ECHR.Thisdemonstratesthat, in
countries
with well•developed
nationalhumanrightslawsand
hegemonic relatingto a stateor
anactorin globalpoliticsthatis
more powerfulthan aUothers
ANALYSE
democraticprocessessuch as the UK,there are still differencesof
opinion with universalhuman rights asinterpreted by regional
and international bodies. In the UK, the concept of parliamentary
sovereigntymeansthat the UK'sdemocraticallyelectedMPsin
parliamenthavethe power to makeor unmakeany law,so long
as it is compatiblewitl> the UK'sHuman RightsAct. In summary,
this raises the question of whether democratic decisions taken
by elected bodiesshould be overruled by international bodies
promoting universal rights but with no direct democratic right
LINK
to do so. Universalistswould arguethat universalrights are,by
definition, beyond the scopeof democraticdebate.
--c
Model essayplans
Discusshow globalizationhas affected both the interdependenceof statesand
the balanceof powerin the internationalsystem.
Subjectvocabulary
The essaywill includea definition of 'globalization'as the increasingglobal
interconnectedness
of political, economicand cultural life. In a gtobalizedworld, our
livesare increasinglyshapedby eventstlhat occur,and decisionsthat are made,at a
distancefrom us.The concept,which is a contestedone for scepticsand a reality for
hyperglobalists,arguesthat geographicaldistanceis of declining importanceand
that territorial bordersare becominglesssignificant.
hyperslobalists thos,ewho
'Balance of power' refers to a condition in which no one state predominates over
beliewthatglobalization
has
r••fa,allychang,,dmodernglobal
politicalstructuresand systems
others, tending to creategeneralequilibrium and limit the hegemonic ambition
of all states.'Interdependence'refersto the notion that all stateshavecommon
interests,where each is affectedby decisionstaken by the other.
122 I 7
Examsupport
Claim: Globalization has affected
interdependence/
balance of power
Counterclaim: Globalization has not
affected Interdependence/
balance
of power
Ubaralview
Realistview
•
•
Globalization overstated. Sceptics vs
hyperglobalists.
•
Nation states still remain important.
Economic interdependence
is intensifying rather than an
interlocking global economy.
'More of the same' rather than a
radical change.
•
Globalization has brought new era
where nation state less important
as a lone actor, international
cooperation and interdependence
the new reality,
With the nation state no longer
the dominant actor.a more
stable, equitable balance of
power is possible.
Politicalglobalizationto solve
commonproblems
Anarchy more the model than
Interdependence
•
Climate change,organizedcrime,
pandemic disease.
•
•
Globalization (including removal
of borders, freer movement of
people, goods and information)
means shared problems require
global political institutions to solv,e
them (EU, UN, AU).
•
interdependence is more likely to
lead to conflict than cooperation.
Pooling of sovereignty.
Balanceof power
•
Concept of a global hegemon in
decline. Rise of the BRIC(Brazil,
Russia,India, China) countries
with GDP faster than traditional
Globalizationcreatedby states
• Made by states, for states,
particularly dominant states.
•
Western powers.
•
Globalized economic market is
responsible for this.
•
Frameworks of global governance
(UN UDHR, IMF, WTO, UN) are
reducing the power of nationstates and establishing a more
stable balance of power between
nation stateswhere one is less
able to dominate.
Economicglobalization
•
States remain self-interested
and increased economic
National economiesabsorbedinto
one globalized economy.
Organizations such as the UN
still maintain a certain balance of
power, e.g. the UN Security Council
dominated by five 'world powers'
with veto power.
Globalizationis a causeof conflict
and instability
•
Terroristgroups,for example,are
creating an imbalance of pO\Nerand
have led to a decade of disorder
post-9/11 with many wars where
asymmetric warfarehas challenged
the great powers.
Subjectvocabulary
asymmetric warfare conflict
inwhichthereisa.oim!Hilance
betweenthep&rties,fort)(lmpfe.
in aims,capacityor strategy
7 Examsupport
I 123
To what extent is sovereignty an outdated concept in the 21st century?
Answerswill include an explanationof the concept of sovereigntyasthe principle
of absoluteand unlimited power aver a defined territory and population, including
the notion of internal and externalsove.-eignty(power within a stat.eversuspower
on the world stage).Referencemay be made to sovereigntyas originating from the
Peaceof Westphaliain 1648.
Claim: Sovereignty is an outdated
concept
Counterclaim: Sovereignty is not an
outdated concept
Uberalview
Realistview
• Nation statestill the basicunit of the
intemational system.
• Globalizationhasbeen marked
by the decline of the nation state:
power shifting away from the
stateto non-stateactors,global
interdependencemore important,
the 'internationalizationof the
state'(Cox,1993),
Permeableborders
•
State borders, once the guarantee
of territorial state sovereignty,
are permeable.
• International tourism, movement
of knowledgeand infom,ation
via the internet
• Global financial marketsand
transnationalcapital flows economic sovereigntyredundant.
Riseof non-stateactors
Subject vocabulary
whlstlo,.blowers people within
an organization who exp<Me
wrongdoing or illegal behaviour
committed by the o,pnization
theyw<><lc
fl:><
1.lktgl1.nco loyalty to something
or someone
124 I 7 Examsupport
Borderlessworld a myth
• National economies still exist and
much economic activity takes
place within state borders as
well asoutside.
• States choose to engage in
global economy.
Statesremain dominant
• TNCswield greaterpower than
• Exercisepower in a way that no
many nation states,can dictate
other global actor can.
state policy by relocatingelsewhere. • Control over what happens in
NGOs.Terroristgroups.Whistleterritory is rarely challenged.Only
blowers. IGOs{EU,UN, UN
failed states have lost control over
SecurityCouncil).
what happenswithin their borders.
Internationalhuman rights
Pooledsovereignty
• Notion of responsiblesovereignty, • IGOsare created by states,for states.
R2Pand humanitarianintervention. • Poolingsovereigntymeansgreater
• International norm developed
influence and capacitythan
whereby nation statessurrender
if actingalone,
their sovereigntyif they mistreat
their population.
• Standardsof conduct (UN UDHR)
to which all statesmustconform.
Colll!ctlve dllernmas
Enduringattractionof nation stat@
• Climate change, organized crime,
terrorism, international migration,
pandemic diseases.
• Nation states will not lose their
dominance as long as they enjoy
the allegiance of the massof
their citizens.
• Or allegiancesbasedon religion,
culture or ethnicity unlikely to thrive.
There may be reference to specific examples of threats to sovereignty including
TNCs, IGOs, terrorist groups; collective, dilemmas such as climate change or
organized crime; humanitarian intervention in the former Yugoslavia.
There may be reference to specific examples of the state's enduring importance,
for example in the sphereof international action (Russiaand Ukraine sovereignty
dispute over Crimea in 2014).
Paper2 markbands
Level descriptor
l&ffld
0
• The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
1-5
• The response reveals limited understanding of the demands
of the question.
• The response is poorly structured, or where there is a recognizable essay
structure there is minimal focus on the wk.
• There is little relevant knowledge, and examples are either lacking
or not relevant
• The response is mostly descriptive,
6-10
• The response indicates some understanding of the demands
of the question.
• There issome evidence of an attempt to structure the response.
• Some relevant knowledgeis present, and some examples are
mentioned but they are mot developed or their relevance to
argumentsisnot clear.
• The response demonstrates limited understanding of the key concepts
of the course.
• There is limitedjustification of main points.
• Counterclaims, or different views on the question, are not considered..
11-1S
• Thedemandsofthe qu$ion .ireunderstoodand mostlyaddressedbut
the implications are not considered.
•
There isa clear attempt to structurethe response.
• The response is mostly based on relevant and accurate knowledge of
global politics,and relevant examples are given and support arguments.
• The response demonstrates some understanding of the key concepts
of the course.
• Many of the main points are justified and arguments are
largelycoherent.
• Some counterdaims, or different views on the question, are considered.
7 Examsupport
I 125
Level descriptor
IRffid
16-20
• The demands of the questionsare understoodand addressed,and most
implicationsare considered.
• The responseiswell-structured.
• The responsedemonstrates relevantand accurate knowledgeand
understandingof globalpolitics,and relevantexamplesare used in a
w~ that strengthensarguments.
• The responsedemonstratesa good graspof the key
conceptsof the course.
• Allor neartf all of the main points arejustifiedand
argumentsare coherent.
•
21-25
• AVef)'wellstructuredand balancedresponsethataddressesthe
•
•
•
•
126 I 7
Examsupport
Counterdrums,or differentvie\NSon the question,are explored.
demands and implicationsof the question.
Comprehensiveknowledgeand in-depth understandingof global
politicsisappliedin the responseconsistentlyand effectively,
with
examplesintegrated.
The responsedemonstratesa verygood graspof the key
conceptsof the course.
Allof the main points arejustified.Argumentsare dear coherent
and compelling.
Counterclaims,or differentviewson the question,are
exploredand evaluated.
8
Extended Essay
Introduction
One of the requirements of the 18 Diploma is to write an Extended Essay.An
Extended Essayis an in-depth study of a limited topic within a particular subject
area. It provides the opportunity to carry out independent research within a subject
of your choice. A good research question is essential for Extended Essaysuccess.
Many students find the Extended Essay a useful resource to draw on in interviews
for university or employment.
This leads to a major piece of formally presented, structured writing, in which ideas
and findingsare communicated in a reasoned and coherent manner. appropriate
to the subject chosen. It is mandatory that all students undertake three reflection
sessions with their supervisor, which includes a short, concluding interview, or
viva voce. with their supervisor following the completion of the Extended Essay.An
assessment of this reflection process is made under Criterion E (engagement) using
the 'Reflections on planning and progress' form.
Whichever subject is chosen, the Extended Essay is concerned with exploring
a specific research question through irnterpreting and evaluating evidence, and
constructing reasoned arguments. In undertaking the Extended Essay,students
model many of the elements of academic research by locating their topic within a
broader disciplinarycontext,or issuein the caseof a world studiesExtendedEssay.
They will justify the relevance of their research and critically evaluate the overall
strength of the arguments made and sources used. Guided through this process by a
supervisor, students are encouraged to reflect on insights gained, evaJuate decisions
and respond to challenges encountered during the research.
Reflection in the Extended Essay
•
Reflection in the Extended Essayfocuses on the student's progress during the
planning, research and writing process. It is intended to help students with the
development of their Extended Essay as well asallowing them the opportunity
to considertheeffectiveness
of their choices,
to re-examine
theirideasandto
decide whether changes are needed.
•
The emphasis in the Extended Essayis on process reflection, characterized by
reflectingon conceptualunderstandings,decision-making,engagementwith
data, the researchprocess.time management, methodology,successes
and
challenges,and the appropriatenessof sources.
•
Students will be encouraged to informally reflect throughout the experience of
researching and writing the Extended Essay,but are required to reflect formally
during the reflection sessions with llheir supervisor and when completing the
'Reflections on planning and progress' form.
General guidelines for all Extended Essays
Allstudents must:
•
provide a logicaland coherent rationale for their choiceof topic
•
review what has already been written about the topic
•
•
formulate a clear research questiom
offer a concrete description of the methods they use to investigate the question
•
generate reasonedinterpretationsand conclusionsbasedon their readingand
independentresearchin order to answer the question.
8 Extended
Essay
I 127
Overview of the assessment criteria for the
Extended Essay
Criterion A: focus
and method
Criterion B:knowledge
and understanding
Criterion C: critical
thinking
Criterion D:
pr"5entation
Criterion E:
engagement
•
•
•
•
•
Research
•
Structure
•
Process
Analysis
•
Layout
•
Researchfocus
Topic
Context
• Researchquestion • Subject-specific
terminology and
•
Methodology
concepts
Discussion and
evaluation
Marks
Marks
Martis
Martis
Marks
6
6
12
4
6
Total marks available: 34
The Extended Essaycriteria and advice to achieve high
marks for each criterion
Criterion and Marks
Advice/questions
A: focus and method 6marks
Topic: There is no substitute for solid reading before
choosing your topic and getting to know it really well.
The danger is writing too soon, before you have enough
knowledge. Be broad in what you read - vary the type
of source (books, journals, documentary. news. biogs)
and read aw ide range of views from a wide range
of sources (for example, if researching the Israel and
Palestine question. views from many perspectives will
be needed: Israel, Palestine,UN, EU, other IGOs, NGOs.
etc.). You are aiming for about 20 different sources.
•
Topic
•
Researchquestion
•
Methodology
to ask yourself
Research question: Choose one that you can
reasonably analyse in good depth in 4,000 words.
Examplesof well-focused research questions include:
'How successful has Putin been in decreasing Russia's
internal security threat from the North Caucasus
1999-2009r and 'To what extent was the US
involvement in Afghanistan about US state securityr
They are good because they are country specific
(they avoid analysing more than one country) and
time specific (the best time frame is 2-5 years but no
more than 10). Make sure the answer to your question
requires analysis rather than description. Get yourself
a working title and begin your research. Your question
may change, but be fairly sure about the scope from
the beginning.
Bibliography: It is never too early to start this. It is
better to include everything as you research and write
than to try to fill in the gapsat the end of the process.
128 I 8
Extended
Essay
8: knowledge and
understanding6 marks
•
•
Context
Subject-specific
terminologyand
concepts
• Haveyou explainedhow your researchquestion
relatesto the specificsubjectyou selectedfor the
ExtendedEssay?
• Haveyou used relevantterminology and concepts
throughout your essayas they relate to your
particular areaof research?
•
•
Is it clear that the sources you are using are relevant
and appropriate to your research question?
Do you havea rangeof sources,or haveyou
only relied on one particular type, for example,
internetsources?
• Is there a reasonwhy you might not havea range?ls
thisjustiified?
C: critical thinking -
Researchsources:Sourceswill need to be tailored to
12marks
individualessay$
andre1ear,hquestion1.
• Research
• Analysis
• Discussionand
evaluation
•
Forscholarly,academictexts,a subscriptionto the
academicjournal libraryJSTORis useful.
• In the news media, TheEconomist,ForeignAffairs,
The Financial Times,The New York Times,The
Washington Post,the BBC,Al Jazeeraand other
regionaland national titles relevantto your topic
will all be useful.
• Usefulthink tanksmight include the Royal
United SelvicesInstituteor the Council on
ForeignRelations.
•
Government departments can be useful sources,
such asthe Foreignand CommonwealthOffice (I.JIK)
and the StateDepartment(US).
• IGOssuch as the EuropeanUnion, the United
Nations(and its sub-agencies,suchas the UN
DevelopmentProgramme,the SecurityCouncil or
the Human RightsCouncil),the IMF.the World Bank
and many others,
• NGOssuch asOxfam,AmnestyInternationaland
Human RightsWatch.
• Toget a basicunderstandingof your topic, if you
are new to the topic, establisha basictimeline of
events(websitessuchas the BBCcan be useful).
Record all sources including a consideration of the
reliability of each one.
8 Extended
Essay
I 129
Analysisand skeleton plan:Create a skeleton plan for
your essay- :see the example structure below.
•
Introduction
•
•
•
•
Section I key theme 1
Section I key theme 2
Section I key theme 3
Conclusion
Often, dividing the essay into this structure helps
to break the essay down into manageable sections.
Focusing on ithree key themes, all of which help to
answer the research question can be a good idea. Each
section can be thought of as a mini-essay that supports
the overall research question. Also see the developed
skeleton plan at the end of this 'Extended essay' section.
Asyou read each source. note down key quotations
that seem important or around which you may later
want to structure an argument. Put the quotations into
the relevant sections of the essay. Put arguments that
you think are important into the skeleton structure in
your own words, in note form. You can come back to
them later when drafting and tidy them up. You can
also link them to other sources, statistics or evidence to
back up your argument. This saves time and gives your
reading a real focus.
D: presentation 4 marks
• Stru~ture
• layout
•
Have you chosen a font that will be easy for
examiner.sto readon-screen?
•
Is your =ay double-spaced and typed up
in size 12 font?
• Are the title and research question mentioned on
the cover page?
• Are all pages numbered?
• Have you prepared a correct table of contents?
• Do the page numbers in the table of contents match
the page numbers in the text?
• Are all figures and tables properly
numbered and labelled?
• Does your bibliography contain only the sources
cited in the text?
• Did you use the same reference system
throughout the essay?
• Does the essay have less than 4,000words?
• Is all the material presented in the appendices
relevant and necessary?
• Have you proofread the text for spelling or
grammar errors?
13)
I8
Extended
Essay
Stucture:It helps to divide the essayinto an
introduction (300words),threechapters(approx.1.100
words each)analysingthreekey areas.then a conclusion
(300words).Anotheroption isto write five sections
of600words each.Treateachchapterlike an essayin
its own right, but clearlylink eachone to the question
and the restof the essay.The introduction hasa specific
purpose- to statethe researchquestionandwhy it is
worthy of research.Thisisall you should includein your
introduction. Longsectionsof historicalnarrativethat
describerather than analyseare rarelyneeded.
E:engagement6marks
•
Researchfocus:
•
Process
• Resear,hfo,us
Haveyou demonstratedyour engagementwith your
researchtopic and the researchprocess?
Haveyou highlighted,hallengesyou ta,ed andhow
you overcamethem?
• Will the examinerget a senseof your intellectual
and skillsdevelopment?
•
•
Will the examinerget a senseof your creativityand
intellectualinitiative?
• Will the examinerget a senseof how you responded
to actions and ideas in the researchprocess?
Process:Only startwriting once you:
•
know what your answeris to the researchquestion
•
know severalvery strongarguments in each chapter
that will support that answer
• knowwhat other argumentsareout there
that challengeyour position and how you
will counterthese
• knowwhat other arguments/ evidencesupport
your position and how you can usethese
• aresure of the key threechapters/ themes/ subtopics that are most important to your question.
8 Extended
Essay
I 131
Skeleton plan
To what exti,nt did Pakistan support the United States In the 'War on Terror'
between 2001 and 20117
Introduction - Explainwhy the research question is worthy of study. Why did it
matter that Pakistan did support the US in the 'War on Terror? Was it a legitimate
demand of Pakistan from the US?
Section/key theme 1 - During 2001-2-008 Pakistan was under military rule
(President Musharraf). This provides a distinct period which can be analysed. It
was a period marked by a publicly close relationship between President George
W. Bush and President Musharraf, but what was the real extent of Pakistani
support for the US?
Section/key theme 2 - From 2008 Pakistan was under civilian rule and the
government
changed.
President
Musharrafleftofficeandwasreplaced
by a
civilian president. President Zardari, Did this change from military to civilian rule
have artf impact on the extent of Pakistani support? At this point, too, President
Obama took office in the US, What impact did this have?
Secltion/key theme 3 - A major moment in the US-Pakistani relationship during
the 'War on Terror' was the discovery and assassination of Osama Bin laden.
This was one of the major goals of the US in the 'War on Terror', and yet it was
achieved in spite of, rather than because of, Pakistani cooperation. What does this
tell us about the support that Pakistan provided the US in the War on Terror?
Conclusion - Where does the balance of evidence lie? Did Pakistan support
the US in the War on Terror'? If not, why was this support not provided?What
challenges or viewpoints prevented thi.s?
13'2I 8
Extended
Essay
Index
9/11 attadts 23, 26, 85, 87
A
conflict
borden92
causes of72-4
absolute poverty 99
Afghanistan, conflicts 75
definitionvii, 70
African Charter on Human and People's Rights (1986) 36,39
participants74-5
AfricanCommissionon HumanRights36. 41, 42
pO\/erty98
African Union {AU)24, 36, 47, 87
African Union Mission to Somalia {AMISOM)77, 86
resolution 69, 76-8
environment95
agreement, stage of conflict resolution 77
AIDSdecline JOI
sample e><amquestion 120
stages 76-8
typ .. 74-5
Const~ution of South Africa (1997) 37
airportexpansion96
Alibaba 55
Amnesty 28, 38, 42
constitutions27
contradiction,stageof conflid 76
Annan, Kofi85
Arab Uprisings 8, 76, 91
ConventionagainstTortureand Other Cruel,Inhumanand
Degrading Treatment (1984) 36
armedconflict,conductof 82
Convention on Cluster Mun~ions {2008)82
armsraceg?
al-Assad, Bashar 91
Copenhagen Accord {2009) 22
asymmetricwarfare123
AU seeAfrican Union (AU)
Councilof Europe38
Crimea,sovereignty15
Aung San Suu Kyi55
authoritarianregimes8, 18, 19
culturaldevelopment57
corporations55
avianflu 101
B
balanceof power n
bipolar power 9- 10, 67
Boko Haram 12, 67, 85, 90, 92
culturaldiversity57
cultural gfooo.lization54, 55-6
cultural ident~ 90
cultural power 8-9
culturalrelativism44-7, 88
culturalviolence79
cyber power 9
borders16,91,124
D
case studi .. 92-3
ideas and deootes 93-4
defencespending5
BRIC
countries,as risingpower11
C
CairoDeclarationon Human Rightsin Islam(1990) 39
capitalist models 8
ce-asefire,
stageof conflictresolution77
child soldiers 34
China,as risingpower11
climate change 22, 96, 97
codification of human rights 39
coercion2
defensiverealism87
democracy 4, 8, 18, 26-7. 57
democraticpeaceth~ry 67
dependency theory {of development) 51-2
development
definitionvii, 48-9
economicpower49
as freedom 49
health 100
human48
Cold War 67
measures49-50
pO\/erty97
collectivedilemmas124
sampleexamquestion120
collective human rights 33
security86
Colombia77
socio-political
49
communist models 8
theories of 50-3
Washington Consensus 53, 99
Conable,Barber62
Index
I 133
difference.stageof conflict 76
directviolence78
France,asdedining power 12
freemarketeconomyS2
E
free riders97
G
8,ola outbreak101
Economicand SocialCouncil (ECOSOC)
21
economicglobalization54
Gaddafi,Muammar 91
economicgrowth11, 57
Galtung,Johan 65-6, 72-4
Galtungpeac:eformula6S..6
economicgrowthp«centage 7
Galtung'sconflict triangle 73, 74
ttonomicpower7, 9
economicsanctions3
gay marriage 89
GDPseeGrossDomestic Product (GDP)
economic.sustainability
60-·l
gender issues61-2, 91
economy tridcle-down S2
ECOSOC
seeEconomicand SocialCouncil (ECOSOC)
s,e also gay marriage;LGBTrights
GenevaConvention82
education 31, 90
elections 18,109,110,111
GenevaProtocoi 82
electorate 111
English,as global language54, 56. 57
Gini coefficient49-50
global commons 96
environment95
global governance24-6
genocide 40. 69, n, 78
casestudies96
ideasand debates96-7
gfobalnudear arsenal88
environmentalsustainability63, 95
global te,-rorism85, 87-8
see a,soterrorism
equality 33
globalization 20, 91
definitionvii
definit:ion'vii
sampleexamquestion119
Equalityand Human RightsCommission42
economic16
equity.peacecomponent65
environment95
factors 53-4
EUseeEurop•an Union (EU}
h•alth 100
EUCommon Foreignand SecurityPolicy87
EuropeanCentralBank24
EuropeanCommission23
EuropeanConvention on Human Rights(1950) 3S,39
EuropeanCourt of Human Rights 35, 38, 39, 4-0
history 53-4
impact of 54-6
inequality 56-9
liberalism 123
EuropeanCourt of Justice24
EuropeanParliament23
EuropeanUnion (EU)13, 23-4
poverty 97-8
realism 12.3
sample exam question 120, 122-3
Eurozonecrisis71
types 54
Good Friday Agreement(1998) 64,77
executive(branch of govem ment) 27. 43
government. branchesof 27, 43
extemalsovereignty13
grass•roots
activists104
extremistgroups,legitimacy29
GrossDomestic Product (GDP)7, 49
Grotius.Hug,o32
F
Guterres,Antt6nio56
famine (Horn of Africa) 99
H
federal states19
female genital mutilation (FGM) 34, 46
HagueConvention82
feminism91
Happy Planet Index(HPI) 50
FGMseefemale genital mutilation (FGM)
hard power 2, 3-4, 7, 12
first~generation
humanrights32, 34
fragile states19
harmony,pe.ac::e
c;omponent6S..6
134 I Index
HDI see Human DevelopmentIndex(HDI)
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 42
health 100
case studies 101
ideas and debat., 101
interdependence
borders 91-2
heaJthcare. state provision 101
definition vi. 20
hegemonic stabilitytheory 6'l
HIVdecline 101
HPIseeHappy Planet Index (HPI)
Human Development Index (HDI}SO
human rights
environment 95
abuse of by nation states 17
health 100
sample exam question 119
security85
interdependent human rights 30
intergovernmentalorganizations (IGOs)17, 20-4, 54
borders 92
codification39
legitimacy 28
cultural relativism 44-7
sea.uity as primary objtttive
and power 2
87
definition vi, 30-1
lntergovemmental Panel on Climate Change{IPCC)97
generations of 32-4, 34-5
internal sovereignty 13
h•alth 100
identity 88
laws 35-7
lntemational Commission of Inquiry, Darfur 77
international corporations 2
monitoring 42
politicization 47
and power 42-4
process of upholding 38-42
promotion 41
protection 40
sample exam question 119, 122
security 85-6
violations 34
Human RightsWatch 28, 38, 42
human trafficking34
humanitarian objectives,and militarypower6-7
Huntington,Samuel P90
InternationalCourt of Justice {ICJ)15, 21, 92
InternationalCovenant on Civiland PoliticalRights(1966)32,
36,39
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights(1966) 33, 36. 39
InternationalCriminalCourt 37, 39. 40,47, 66, 69
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
(ICTY)69
international financial institutions {I Fis) 51. 52
International Labour Organization 54
international law 27-8, 81-2
InternationalMonetary Fund {IMF)22, 52
inter-state war 6, 74
intra-state war 6, 74
IPCCsee Intergovernmental Panelon ClimateChange (IPCC}
Iranian nuclear weapon.s programme 70
ICJsee International Court of Justice {ICJ)
ICTYsee International CriminalTribunalfor the Former
Yugoslavia(ICTY)
identity88
case studies 89-90
ideas and debates 90-1
IFls seeinternational financial institutions (1IF·Is)
IGOsseeintergovernmentalorganizations(IGOs)
IMFsee International Monetary Fund{IMF)
inalienablehuman rights 30
lndla, living standards, rural economy 58-9
indivisible hvman rights 30
inequality
definition vii
and globalization56-9, 100
poverty 97-8
sample ~m
question 120
Iraq75, 86
lslami<State6, 12, 13, 67,85, 90, 92
Israelisecurity fence 93
Israel-Palestineconflict 77. 92
J
judicial systems31
judiciary 27, 43
jus in bello 82
just war theory 81
justice31-2
definition vi
health 100
identity 88-9
and peace 69
poverty98
umple exam question 119
Index
I 135
K
monarchy 19
Kashmir 15, 92, 93
monitoringof human rights42
Kosovo 15, 92
Montevideo Convention (1933) 13, 1S
Kurdistan, conflicts 72
Mubarak, Hosni91
Kurdistan Worlcefs Party (PKK) 90
muh:icultural
ism90
Ky<>toProtocol (1997) 22
multipolarpower 9-10, 67
MUN seeModel United Nation, (MUN)
L
mutually assured destruction 67
law, application of 31-2
N
legislature 27. 43
nationbuilding69
legitimacy 109, 111
nationstates.124
definitionvi
identity 89
governance 18-19
nationstates13-17
impact of globalization 54-5
non-stateactors23-9
sampleexamquestion119
internalpower 42-3
security 85
legitimacy· 13-17, 1S-16
sources of 26-8
and power 2
inter-state-cooperation25-6
LGBTrights 41, 46-7, 88
protectionof human rights43-4
liberalism
on globalization 123
sovereignty 13-17
types 19
on peace65
National Health Service101
on power 10-11
nationalism
on sovereignty
18, 124
NATO see North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
91
naturaldisasters
97
liberty 32
naturalhuman rights32
negativehuman rights 31, 32
definitionvi
sampleexamquestion119
Lisbon. Treaty of (2007) 25
negativepeace-64
living standards '!:1
Moliberaleconomicpolicies99
neoliberali,m (development theory) S2-3
India (case study) 58-9
NGOssee non-governmental
organizations
(NGOs)
Locke.John 32
non-governmental organization, (NGOs) 38, 42, 54
M
Ma,Jack 55
Make Poverty H~tory 98
legitimacy 28
andpower2
promotionof human rights41
Marxism51
Maslow's hierarcifi, of n..,ds 48
non• state actors 17, 67
MDGs seeMillennium Development Goals (M DGs)
non-violence79-80
Mearsheimer,John 87
legitimacy 28-9
definitionvii
Mexico.conflicts75
migrantcrisis92
non-violentconHict70-1
migration93
normalizatOO, stage of conflict resolution 77
military action 3, 28
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 23, 87
militarypower4- 7
Northern Ireland As,embly 77
sampleexamquestion117
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 21, 53, 62, 97, 98
sample exam question 120
Northern Ireland peace process 64, 89
Minsk Protocol (2014) 25, 66
North-Southdivide.casestudy60-1
nucl@af
disarmament88
MNCs s,,e multinational companies (MNCs)
nuclearnon-proliferation88
Model United Nations (MUN) 104
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1970) 25, 88
modernizationtheoryof development50-1
nuclearweaponsprogramme.Iran70
12'3 I Index
Nye.Jo~ph
on relationalpower8
on tacticsof power2-3
0
and human rights 42-4
liberalism10-11
measurementof 9-10
and peace 66-7
realism10
Obamacare 101
sampleexamquestion119
obesity 101
security85
offensive realism 87
theoriesof 10-11
oil spill(BP,Gulfof Mexico)96
Organizationfor s,curity and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE}
66
OSCEsee Organization for Security and Cooperation in
Europe{OSCE)
Ottawa Treaty82
p
pacWism79
Pakistan,drone strikes87
types 2-4
pricecompetition57
private groups, impact of globalization 55
privatization52
progressive
realization33
promotionof humanrights41
protectionof humanrights 40
proxywars 67
Q
Palestinian
territories,sovereignty16
pandemics 101
ParisAgreement(2015) 22
peace
borden 92
creationof 68-9
definitionvii, 64
liberalism65
and powor 66-7
realism65
sampleexamquestion120
security86
through justice 69
peacebuilding 69.76,77
peacekeeping 68, n
peacemalcing68, n
peacemalcingscale 68
persuasion3
piracy85
PKKsee KurdistanWorker'sParty(PKK)
polarization,stage of c:onflictn
political globalization54
polls 110
positivehumanrights31, 33
posftivepeace 64
poverty 97
casestudies98·9
idHs and debates 99-100
power
definitionvi, 2
diffusion12
fonns 4-9
al-Qaeda 12, 87, 90
R
R2Pst• Responsibilityto Protect (R2P)
rail infrastructure103
realism
on globalization123
on peace65
onpower10
on sovereignty 17-18, 124
rec:ession
12
n
reconciliation65,
refugeecrisisin Europe105
see also migrantcrisis;migration
regulation57
relationalpower8, 9
relativepov•rty 99
religiousidentity90
Responsibilityto Pl'otect (R2P)18
r~ponsible sovereignty43
restorative
justice66, 69
retributivejustice66, 69
RioOedaration on Environmentand Oevelopment(1992) 33
RomeStatute (1998)37, 39
Rostow,Walt Whitman :SO-1
Rou,.eau,Jean-Jacques 32
rule of law 27, 31-2
Rwandan
s
sanctions44
SAPsseestructuraladjustment programmes{SAP>)
Index
I 137
SaudiArabia.women'srights45, 90
Schengen Agreement 92, 94
Scottish ind~endenco 71
SDGsseeSustainable Development Goals {SDGs)
second-generation
human rights33. 34
T
terrorism 6, 29, 80-1, 85, trl-8
terroristgroups2, 12
see alsoBoko Haram;IslamicState;KurdistanWori<er's
Party {PiKJ();al-Qaeda; al-Shabaab
secularism90
theocracy 19
security 23, 85
third-genera·tionhumanrights33-4
casestudies86-7
ideas and debates trl-8
Three Pillarsof Sustainal:Mlity
60, 63
trauma,peacecomponent66
securitydilemma68
treaties25
Sen,Armatya49
al-Shabaab 12. 85, 86, 90, 92
truth and reconciliationcommissions
65..6, 69, 77
Turkey,conftkts72
Shia conflict 89-90
u
singfecurrency71
smartpower 3-4
Ukraine 66, 72
social power 8-9
UN seeUnited Nations (UN)
socialsustainability
61·2
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child {1989) 34
soft poW<!r3-4
UN High Commissioner for Human Rights 21, 38, 41, 42
Somalia 64, 77
UN High Commissioner for Refugees56
South China Sea 1S, 87
UN Human Rights Council 21, 38, 41, 42, 47, 55
SouthernSudanPeaceCommission76
UN Security Council 15, 21, 37, 47, 87
sovereignty
UNDP s,e United Nations Development Programme {UNDP)
borders 91
unipolarpower 9· 10, 67
definition vi, 12-13
unitaryst.ates19
environment95
United Kingdom, as declining power 12
identity 89
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 21, 53
liberalism 18, 124
United Nations Refug., Agency 55
of nation states 1>-17
United Nations {UN) 15, 21-2, 32, 41
realism 17-18, 124
sampleexamquestion119, 124
security 85
theoriesof 17• 18
Sri Lanka,conflicts75
statesovereignty,
erosion16- 17
andpeac~keeping 68
United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
30, 33, 35, 39, 88
United Statos, as declining power 12
United States Agency for International Development {USAID)
53
statehood 14, 15-16
UnWersaJ
Declarationsee UnitedNationsUniversal
Declarationof Human Rights
StockholmDeclarationon the Human Environment(1972) 33
universalhuman rights30
strategic alliances {inter-state)26
USAID seeUnited StatesAgency for International
Development {USAID)
structural adjustment programmes {SAPs)
52-3
structuralpower8. 9
structuralviolence79
Sunniconflict89-90
superpowers 12
sustainability
59-63
definitionvii
environment9S
sampleexamquestion120
Sustainable Development Goals {SDGs) 21, 53, 97
Syria
conflicts72
Galtuog's conflict triangle· 74
138 I Index
V
violence29
definitionvii
health 100
justificatio,nfor 81·2
peacecomponent66
poverty98
sample~am question120
stage of conflict 77
types 78-9
violent conflict 64, 68, 71-2, 76
w
wage competition57
Waltz, Kenneth /fl
n
war,stageof conflict
warcrimes69
War on Terror 6, lfl-8, 93
sample extended essayplan 132
Washington Consensus (of development) 53,99
wealth gap ':i7
weapons, decommissioning 66
WEF su World Economic Forum (WEF)
Westphalia, Treaty of (1648) 13, 91
womM's rights 56
empowerment55, 61-2
in politics l 04-5
Saudi Arabia 45, 90
World Bank 22, 52, 53
World Economic Forum (WEF) 55
World ytstems theory 51-2
world trade 94
World Trade Organization (WTO) 22
Index
I 139
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