ARGUMENTATION THEORY
Etymology
● The word “argumentation” came from the 14th century Old French word “argumentacion'
meaning “presentation of formal arguments”.
● Have been also believed it came from Latin “argumentationem” meaning “the bringing
forth of a proof”
The Theory and Its Developers
● Argumentation theory investigates the practices and standards of using arguments.
Arguments are the reasons why you are for or against something.
● The theory explains that while communicating, the speaker will share the information and
the listener will listen to it. Here the listener must be able to differentiate the trustworthy
reliable information with the lies and treachery. The listener must be able to filter the
messages and he must have a vigilant attitude towards the information that he/she
acquires.
● It can be understood as a communicative activity of producing and exchanging reasons
in the context of doubt or disagreement.
● (Oration and logic theories were put forward by Aristotle leading to the said theory) The
theory was developed by several scientists during 1960–1970; one of those was Chaim
Perelman who developed the techniques used by the people to get support of others for
their views and opinions.
– Perelman's theory emphasizes adherence of the audience as both the object and
starting point of argumentation. To achieve persuasion the rhetor must utilize values and beliefs
shared with the audience. As a result, that audience serves as an interventional tool that aids in
the creation of the discourse.
When people argue, they place their thinking in the domain of reason. They have used
reasoning to assess and accept the conclusion.
Communication is perfected with proper reasoning and also a true conclusion is supported by
fair arguments. So the speaker could convince the listeners and the listeners could gain a
reliable piece of information. Thus the communication is successful.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARGUMENT & DEBATE
In general, ‘Argument’ means a line of reasoning or evidence in support of an issue or opinion. It
has a more informal usage, as well as it can imply a personal dispute that has a more negative
meaning to it. ‘Debate’ is more often used as a formal word that implies a larger or public-style
discussion with people supporting both sides of the issue and rules or specific guidelines
governing the proceedings.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARGUMENT & EXPLANATION
An argument is a rationale in which the reason presents evidence in support of a claim made in
the conclusion. Its purpose is to provide a basis for believing the conclusion to be true. An
explanation is a rationale in which the reason presents a cause of some fact represented by the
conclusion.
A description says that it's like that. An explanation says how it came to be like that. An
argument tries to convince you that it is like that.
Types of Argumentation
There are three basic types of arguments a person can use. Each has a specific approach to
persuading the audience of the claim, and they’re based on what that audience needs to be
convinced. Argumentation comes in different forms. These are:
1.
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Classical Argumentation
most commonly used and widely understood in Western culture
was developed by Greek philosopher and rhetorician Aristotle
sometimes referred to as the Aristotelian method which supposes that there are three
ways to appeal to an audience:
♦ Ethos is where the speaker or writer uses their authority or standing to convince the
audience to do or think something. By invoking the names of experts—or anyone
respected as an authority on a subject—the speaker is able to build a powerful argument
in their favor.
Example: "As the son of a former president and a former governor and senator myself, I
understand the challenges facing our country and the weight of responsibility that comes with
public service. I pledge to uphold the values of integrity and excellence that my family has
always stood for, and to work tirelessly for the betterment of the Filipino people."
♦ Logos is a style of argumentation that appeals to the logical side of the audience. This
is the most commonly used academic writing and speaking method, where logic is held
in the highest regard.
Example: "We need to address the root causes of poverty and inequality in our country by
investing in education, healthcare, and job creation. By building a strong economy and
empowering our people with the tools they need to succeed, we can ensure that every Filipino
has the chance to reach their full potential and contribute to the development of our nation."
♦ Pathos appeals to the audience’s emotional connection to the topic. Emotions are a
powerful force, and when used properly, they can be used to persuade people to act or
think a certain way.
Example: "I love this country and its people, and I am committed to ensuring that every Filipino
has the opportunity to achieve their dreams and live a life of dignity and respect. Together, we
can build a brighter future for our children and grandchildren, a future where every Filipino can
flourish and thrive."
2.
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Rogerian Argumentation
was introduced by psychologist Carl Rogers
its main goal is to find the middle ground between the two extremes of an argument
It is an especially effective way to present an argument when two poles of opposition are
extremely far apart.
●
In using the Rogerian method, you must acknowledge the validity and pitfalls of both
sides of an argument.
Example:
"I understand that there are many Filipinos who have concerns about the past and the role my
family played in our country's history. I want to acknowledge those concerns and assure you
that I share your commitment to building a better future for all Filipinos. We may have different
perspectives and experiences, but we can all agree that our country needs leaders who are
dedicated to promoting peace, progress, and unity. Let us work together to create a future
where every Filipino can achieve their dreams and live a life of dignity and respect. I believe that
by finding common ground and focusing on our shared goals, we can overcome our differences
and build a stronger, more prosperous nation for all."
3. Toulmin Argumentation
Other benefits of the Toulmin method include:
● Evaluating how the parts of an argument contribute to the whole
● Constructing a logical argument step by step
● Analyzing arguments with a linear structure, where one idea leads to another
● Strengthening or improving upon specific weak points within an argument
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This method focuses on gathering the strongest evidence for the conclusion.
developed by Stephen Toulmin, a British philosopher, author, and educator to evaluate
ethical arguments effectively.
The chief advantage of the Toulmin model is that it categorizes an argument into three to
six distinct parts. Academics or professionals can then evaluate each part individually to
ensure that the logic is sound.
COUNTERCLAIM:
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for older people.
Using hearing
difficult task
The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, a diagram containing six interrelated components, was
considered Toulmin’s most influential work, particularly in the fields of rhetoric, communication,
and computer science.
Elements of Toulmin's Model of Argumentation
1. Claim – is a statement that is put forward by a speaker or listener in order to accept an
information as true
– asks the reader to believe an idea and suggests an action to enact
2. Ground – reasoning behind the claim
– base where an argument is made up and may also have the proof for reasoning
Information is usually a powerful element of persuasion, although it does affect people
differently. Those who are dogmatic, logical, or rational will more likely be persuaded by
factual data. Those who argue emotionally and who are highly invested in their own
position will challenge it or otherwise try to ignore it. Thus, grounds can also include
appeals to emotion.
3. Warrant – justifies the claim by making the ground to be appropriate
– links data and other grounds to a claim, legitimizing the claim by showing the grounds
to be relevant
– can be a small statement or a pursuing argument and may be accurate, implicit or
unspoken
4. Backing – additional support to the warrant
5. Qualifier – indicates how the data justifies the warrant and may limit how universally the
claim applies
– Another alternative of qualifier is reservation. It is a term which might state that the
claim is incorrect.
The necessity of qualifying words comes from the plain fact that most absolute claims
are ultimately false .Common qualifiers include “most,” “usually,” “always,” or
“sometimes.”
Qualifiers and reservations can be used to bolster weak arguments, so it is important to
recognize them.
6. Rebuttal – can be given during the early stages of presentation or through a prolong
discourse
Counterclaim – rebut of claim
Rebuttal – contradiction
The first three elements–“claim,” “grounds,” and “warrant”–are considered the essential
components of practical arguments, while the last three—“qualifier,” “backing,” and
“rebuttal”—may not be necessary for all arguments.
Examples:
1. China: Maritime dispute with PH ‘effectively dealt with’ over the years
China's Vice Foreign Minister Sun Weidong said during the opening session of the
seventh bilateral consultations mechanism on the South China Sea, that:
CLAIM: “Maritime issues are an important part of China-Philippine relations that should
not be ignored. In the past years, through friendly dialogue and consultations, our two
countries have generally managed and effectively dealt with our differences on maritime
issues, and we have also advanced our practical cooperation and our mutual trust.”
GROUND: Sun cited the consensus between China and the Philippines on the peaceful
resolution of South China Sea disputes, which was agreed upon by President Ferdinand
“Bongbong” Marcos Jr. and reelected Chinese President Xi Jin Ping.
WARRANT: Both sides reaffirmed the importance of maintaining and promoting peace
and stability in the region and the freedom of navigation in and overflight above the
South China Sea, and reached consensus on the peaceful resolution of disputes on the
basis of the Declaration on the Code of Conduct of the Parties in the South China, the
United Nations Charter, and the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea,” the joint statement of Philippines and China read.
BACKING: Marcos and Xi likewise agreed that confidence-building measures would help
bolster mutual trust, highlighting the importance of the Foreign Ministry Consultations
and the Bilateral Consultation Mechanism on the South China Sea.
The two leaders also agreed to create a direct communication mechanism between the
Philippine Department of Foreign Affairs’ Maritime and Ocean Affairs Office and China’s
Department of Boundary and Ocean Affairs of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
QUALIFIER: The two leaders stressed “that maritime issues do not comprise the
sum-total of relations between the two countries and agreed to appropriately manage
differences through peaceful means.”
COUNTERCLAIM: Reports and complaints have been reported to the authorities that
Chinese fishing vessels harassed Filipino fishermen in the West Philippine Sea.
REBUTTAL: Xi, according to Marcos, also promised to “find a compromise and find a
solution” that would allow Filipinos to fish again in their traditional fishing grounds in the
contested waters.
The 2016 ruling of the Permanent Court of Arbitration affirmed the Philippines’ sovereign rights
over the West Philippine Sea in the South China Sea and invalidated China’s nine-dash line
claim.
2. CLAIM: Social media influencers, bloggers and vloggers should be blamed for spreading
fake news.
GROUND: A survey by Pulse Asia released in October 2022 revealed that 58% of
Filipinos see social media influencers, bloggers and vloggers as peddlers of fake news
about government and politics.
WARRANT: Filipinos said the top sources of fake news about the government and
politics come from the internet or television which is statistically tied at 68% and 67%,
respectively.
Key Takeaways
♦ Argumentation theory is an important area which is important to the scholars, philosophers
and logicians. It comes under interpersonal communication as it is vocal but also can be applied
to group and written communication.
♦ Argumentation theory investigates the practices and standards of using arguments
♦ The Classical model of argumentation has the ability to appeal to the audience’s emotions,
logic, or the author's credibility.
♦ The Rogerian argumentation model is designed to bring about consensus and mutual
understanding rather than conflict.
♦ Toulmin’s argument model has six interrelated components used to diagram an argument,
drawn from both rhetorical and academic argument.
♦ The Toulmin's argumentation model categorizes an argument into three to six distinct parts
which can then evaluate each part individually to ensure that the logic is sound.
.
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