PAC I FIe
LIN G U 1ST I C S
Editor: S.A. Wurm
Associate Editors: D.C. Laycock, C.L. Voorhoeve
SERIES C
No.
ENG LIS H
BOOKS
�
3
G RAMMAR
A Combined Tagmemic and Transformational
Approach
by
A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH
AND VIETNAMESE
Vo 1.
CANBERRA
1
1966
THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
Second
Nguyễn Đ.L. A contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese, Vol 1.
C-3, xliv + 221 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1966. DOI:10.15144/PL-C3.cover
©1966 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
Pr I nt i ng
1970
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Books,
No.3.
Confucius was asked by Tsze-Iu What he would consider the first thing
to be done 1! he were to administer the government of a nation.
He
replied:
"What is necessary is to rect1!y names...
If names be not correct,
language is not in accordance with the truth of things.
If language be
not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on
to success.
When affairs cannot be carried on to success, properties and
music do not flourish, punishments wlll not be properly awarded.
When
punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move
hand or foot.
Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses
ma,y be spoken appr opri a t e Ly, and also that what he speaks ma,y be carried
out appropri a t e ly .
What the superior man requires, is Just that in his
words there ma,y be nothing incorrect."
The extract on the previous page is from J ames Legge, T h e Chi n e s e
Classics. Hongkong University Press, Hongkong, 1960, Volume I , pp.383-4.
P RE FA C E
This is the first volume of a contrastive analysis of English and
Vietnamese in the light of a combined tagmemic and transformational
approach.
The next two volumes are planned to consist of a Vietnamese
g rammar,
and a contrastive study of English and Vietnamese as the
b asis for a linguistically oriented technique of teaching English
g rammar and patterned practice to speakers of Vietnamese,
and vice
versa.
The subsequent volumes will constitute a study of the phonologies
of the two languages and an analysis of them as the theoretical back­
ground for the teaching of English pronunciation to Vietnamese, and of
Vietnamese pronunciation to English speakers.
All these volumes are in advanced stages of preparation and will
appear in the foreseeable future.
S.A.
Wurm
Edi to r
v
A C K N O W L E D G EM EN T S
This contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese phonology and
grammar was carried out under the auspices of The Australian National
U niversity,
Australia,
and with a scholarship grant of the Colo mbo P lan of
I express my thanks to these two Institutions.
I would like to acknowledge my deep obligation tq the University of
Saigon,
and the Department of National Education of Vietnam,
for
granting me study leave.
To Dr Stephen A.
his teaching,
Wurm,
my supervisor, I express my gratitude for
encouragement,
advice,
and tireless persistence in
reading drafts of this study. special thanks are also due to Dr Donald
Laycock, and Dr Herman Bluhllle for many valuable suggestions which have
been incorporated into the final version.
It was through my former teachers, particularly Professors Albert
H. Marckwardt, Robert Lado, Harold V. King, James W. Downer,
J. Gedney, Bryce Van Syoc,
Warren G.
Yates,
William
and Mr William T.
Weir
that I was first interested in linguistics and inspired to the study
of teaching English as a foreign language.
To all of them, I wish to
express my appreciation for their teaching and advice during my
graduate studies at the University of Michigan, or during my work with
the South East Asian Regional English Project of the University.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge my i ndebtedness to numerous
students,
friends,
and colleagues at the University of Saigon,
the
National Institute of Administration, the Vietnamese American Associa­
tion and elsewhere.
In particular, I extend my thanks to Professors
U Van Thai, Ph{lm Bie"u Tam, and Tran Quang Of, Dr Hoang Gi a
Linh,
Dr
Richard S. P it tman, and Dr Arthur Capell for their encouragement
during the writing of this manuscript, a'ld to Mrs Sally Sinisoff for
her editorial comment and difficult job of typing the English Grammar
volume.
To my parents,
whose expectation,
moral sacrifice,
and prayers
gave me the encouragement to keep writing this study, I express my
reverence.
N. D. L.
Canberra,
Apri I 1966.
vi
G ENERAL
I N TRODUCT I ON
The Vi etnamese Langu age
1.
Vietname se . spoken by 24 . 000 . 000 peop le 1 1n the Indo-Chine se pen­
insu l a . is an Aus t ro-As ia tic language . 2 In the Repub l i c o f Vi etnam .
there are a l so Ch inese spo k en by 126 . 000 peop le . and Mon-Khm e r lan­
guages spoken by 300 . 000 peop l e . 3 Bu t Vie tnamese is the standa rd o f­
f i c i a l language to wh i ch nat iona l sent imen t i s s t ron gly a t t ached . and
wh ich makes use o f a Roman a lphabe t crea ted by Al exander o f Rhodes in
the seven teenth cen tury . It has a siza b l e l i terature w i th a h i story
o f seve ral centu r i e s inc luding poetry and re l i g ious works wr i t ten in
Ch inese cha ra c t e r s (ChdHan I�
) . Demo t i c charac t er s ( Chd Nom
!¥ � ) whi ch are though t to be c rea ted in the four tee�h cen tury by
Han Thuyen . o r Nat ional ( Roman ) Alphabet (Chd Q.J� c Ngd '� � � ). 4
3;'
Vietnamese i s embedded in a nat ion a l cu l ture wh ich. a l though deep ly
in fluenced by the Ch inese CU l ture . is di fferent from i t .
Be ing now the med ium o f ins t ruct ion in e l emen t a ry . seconda ry. and
h i gher educat ion a l in s t i tut ion s . Vi etnamese i s a lways inc reas ing in
n ew t echn i c a l t e rm s and morpho l o g i c a l dev i c e s to cope w i th mod e rn
s c i ence and techno logy . S
1
Jan e t Ro b e r t s .
" So c i o c u l tu r a l c h an g e an d commu n i c a t i on p ro b lem s " .
in
F r an k A . Rice ( ed . ) . Study o f the Rol e o f Second Lmguages i n Asi a . A fr i ca.
and L a t i n America.
Cen t e r fo r App li e d Li n gu i s t i c s of the Modern Langu a g e
As so c i a t i o n o f Ame r i c a . Washington D. C. ,
2
19 62 , p p . 10 5 -123.
And r e G. H au d r i co u r t , " La pI a �e du Vi e t n am i e n dans les langues au s t ro ­
a s i a t i qu e s . "
Bul l e t i n de l a'Soci e t e de Lingui s t i que de Par i s ,
49 (19 53),
I. 122-1 28 .
3
For fu r ther de t a i l o n m i n o r i ty group langu ages i n Vi e t n am , s e e Dav i d D .
Thom a s ,
" V i e t n am M i n o r i t y Lan gu a ge s " .
M a y 19 64,
Summe r In s t i tu t e o f L i n ­
gu i s ti c s i n Vietnam , unpubli shed.
4
N gu y en -Din h H oa , "Chll' N om :
�
,..,
the demo t i c sys tem o f Wr1tlng ln V i e t n am e s e
o r t h o g r a p hy " , Journal o f t h e Ameri can Ori en t al Soci e ty , 7 9 . 4 ( Oc t . -Dec .
19 S9 ) , pp . 27 0- 27 4.
5
The Facult y o f Sc i en c e o f the Un i v e r s i ty of Sai gon h a s been p r ep a ri n g
a d i c t i o n a ry o f techn i c al and s c i en t i fi c t e rm s i n Vi e tn ame s e .
V11
Vlll
2.
French and Engl i sh in Vi etnam
Vie tnamese h i gh- schoo l s tuden t s are requ i red to l e a rn two fo reign
l angua ges . the first one fo r seven years. and the second one for three
y e a r s . Th e i n c r e a s e in the numb e r o f s tuden t s l e a rn in g French o r
Engl i sh a s f i rst fo reign l anguage i s a s fo l lows : 6
Academi c Years
Publ i c Hi �h-Scho o l s
1958-1959
1959 - 1960
1960- 196 1
196 1- 196 2
196 2-1963
1963-1964
Pri vate H i th-Scho o ls
French
En g l i sh
French
En gl i sh
34.774
35.516
42. 009
SO. 324
57.996
65.853
18.412
27 . 058
32 . 414
36 . 556
40 . 7 53
46 . 7 53
74. 85 1
9 1 . 943
100 . 56 2
43 . 406
66 . 567
7 5 . 2 18
French . wh ich used to be an o ffi c i al language ln the coun t ry . st i l l
h a s a h i gher tot a l number o f students en ro l led . Meanwh i l e . En g l i sh .
b ecause o f i t s in c reas in� ro le in in t e rna t ion a l commun i c a t ion . ha s a
h i ghe r ra t io o f inc rease o f enro lments . The ra tlo o f inc re a se o f en­
ro lmen t s h a s be en o v e r 90% fo r French and ove r 154% fo r En g l i sh 1n
pub l i c h i gh- schoo l s in the past six yea r s .
Th is process p roves Al f Sommerfe l t' s statement t o be correc t :
"Un t i l o ur t im e . French had the l e ad . . . I n our t ime .
howeve r . the ov e rwhe lming in fluence come s from En g l i sh
b ecause o f the lead ing part the Bri t i sh COmmonwea lth and
t he Un i t ed S t a t e s p l ay in the modern wo r l d . . . In the
v i ew of the deve lopment which is going on under our eye s ,
Engl i sh ought to b e adopted a s the ma in language . "7
3.
Fo rei gn Language Learn i n g and Nation al Development 8
Bec ause o f the "ro le o f l anguage as a cul tura l ins t i tu t ion" , 9 the
6
1962- 1964. p ub li s h e d by t h e
Annuai re S ta t i s t i que de l ' En sei gnemen t ,
M i n i s t ry o f N a t i o n a l Educa tion of t h e Republi c o f Vi e tn am , p
7 Alf Sommerfelt ,
Aspec t s o f Language.
8
.
83
.
" An Auxi li a ry Language" in hi s Diachron i c and synchroni c
Mouton and Co
For furt h e r i n fo rm a t i on ,
n a t i onal de,v elo{XTIent
.
•
The Hague .
1962 ,
pp
.
69 70
-
.
see Sec;nd Language Learn i n g as a fac to r in
a n d Recorrrn enda t i on s o f an In t e rn a t i on al Mee t i ng o f Spec i al i s t s hel d i n
London , December 1960.
Cen t e r fo r Ap p li ed L i n gui s t i c s o f the Mo d e rn Lan­
guage Asso c i a t ion o f Ameri c a . Wa s h in gton D. C
9
Jo hn B.
Cambri d ge ,
.
•
1961.
Ca rro ll, The StudY o f Language .
1959 .
p . 169
.
H a rv a rd Un i v e rs i t y P re s s ,
LX
v a lu e o f fo r e i gn l anguage l e a rn in g in the gene r a l edu c a t ion o f a
peop le i s unden i ab le .
Bes ides th i s v i t a l in t e r e s t to Vie tnam to keep a b r ea s t of mode rn
in t e rn a t i on a l c u l tu re , the u s e o f one o r m o r e l an gu a ge s o f w i de r
c ommun ica t ion b y a l a rg e r segment o f i t s popu l a t ion i s an impo rtant
fac t o r i n the econom i c , so c i a l , and educ a t ion a l deve lopment of the
n a t ion . There are at l e a s t two commun i c a t ion needs to b e recogn i zed
h e re : t ransm i ss ion of sc ienc e and t echno logy , and interna t iona l com­
mun icat ion .
Sci e n ce and Techn o l oey: There a re urgen t ne eds fo r the coun t ry to have
a cc e s s to the sc i en t i fi c , t e c hn i c a l , and econo m i c know l edge o f the
modern world.
Internat i on a l Commun i cat i on: Vietn am wishes to en ter the interna t iona l
s c ene and e s t a b l i sh e f fec t i ve channe l s o f commun i ca t ion w i th o th e r
nat ion s .
4.
Forei gn Lan guage Programmes and L in gu i s t i cs
Leonard Bloom f i e ld di scussed in 1933 the ways Ln wh i ch the findings
o f l in gu i s t i c s cou ld be app l .i e
in h i s book L an gu a ge. O1ap t e r 28. "App l i c a t ion s and Ou t look " , pp .
496 5 10 . 10
S in c e then , throughou t the I n t e n s ive Lan gu a ge P r o g r a m o f the
Am e r ic an Counc i l o f Learned Soc i e t i e s dur in g Wo rld War I I . the Army
Language Sec t ion , the Army Spec i a l i zed Tra in ing Program : Language and
Area Sec t ion , the Fo re ign Lan guage and Are a P rograms o f the Provos t
Marsha l Genera l' s Office o f the Depa rtment o f the Army , and the recent
devel opments in l an gua ge teach ing man i fe sted by the Co rn e l l Langua ge
P ro gram . the Fo re i gn Se rv i c e I n s t i tu t e of the St a te Depa r tmen t . the
Inst i tute o f Languages and Lingu i s t i c s o f Geo rgetown Un iv e r s i t y , the
Engl i sh Language I n s t i tu t e o f the Un ive r s i t y of Michi gan , ll e t c . , a
new con cept o f app ly ing modern l in gu i s t i c s to the te aching o f fo r e i gn
-
10
11
Leon ard Bl oomfi e l d , L anguage.
Hen ry HoI t and Co . , New York ,
19 3 3 .
Fo r f u r t h e r de t ai l o n t he h i s to ry o f ap p l i ed l i n gu i s t i c s du r i n g t h e
period u n d e r di scussion ,
see,
for examp l e s :
J ohn B . Car ro l , The Study o f L anguage.
b r i dge ,
19 5 9 ,
Ch a p t e T 6 ,
Harv ard Un i v e r si ty Pres s , Cam ­
p a r t on Se c o n d L a n gu a ge Te a c h i n g,
pp.
168- 19 0 ;
Wi l l i a m G. Moul ton ,
"Li n gu i s t i c s a n d L an gu a ge Te a ch i n g i n t h e Un i t e d
St a t es " , i n C . Moh rmann , A . Somme r fe lt ,
an d J .
Wh atmo u gh ( edi to rs ) ,
Tr ends in Eu ropean and Ameri c an L i n gui s t i c s 1930- 1 960.
Sp e c t rum
Pu bl i she r s , Ut rech t , 19 6 2 , p p . 8 2- 10 9 ;
C a r l e ton T . Ho dge , liThe I n f l u en c e o f Lingui s ti c s on Lan guage Te aching".
Anthropological Lingui s ti cs 5 . 50- 58 ( 19 6 3 ) .
x
l anguages has been deve loped in the Un i t ed Sta t e s . Th i s concept o f
app l i ed lingu i s t i c s has been systema t i zed ma inly by Charles C. Fr i e s , 12
and Robert Lado . 1 3
Th e c ent ral idea o f th i s concept i s the " importance o f the n a t ive
l anguage in fo re i gn l an guage l e a rning" . 1 4 Each l anguage ha s i t s own
sound system and gramma t i c a l st ructure . The fo re i gn language l e arne r
has a l ready learned a nat ive language extensively enough to grasp and
express a variety o f experience and he can never again be in the same
pos i t ion as a ch i ld learn ing h i s own l an gua ge . He tends to t ransfer
the phono lo gical and gramma t i c a l systems of his nat ive language to the
fo reign language to be learned . This t ransfer creates a phenomenon o f
inter fe rence , 1 5 o r dev i a t ion from the no rms o f e i the r l anguage which
o ccurs in hi s spe ech wh i l e he is swi tching from one l an guage code to
another .
Th i s concept o f app l ied l ingu i s t i c s has been carried out i n Vietnam
in the l as t few years by the South- Eas t As i an Region a l Engl i sh Proj ect
( SEAREP ) , a Un ive r s i t y o f Michigan-Un i ted States Operat ion s M i s s ions
Con t r a c t, in the t r ain i n g o f En g l i sh t e ache r s at the Fa cu l t y o f
Pedagogy , Un ive r s i t y o f Sa i gon . The final wri t ten resu l t s were a set
of three text boo k s for intens i v e courses in En g l i sh , 1 6 a l l of them
r ewri t ten by the present author . In broad l ine s , the wri t ing o f these
books was deep ly in f luenced by the Lado - Fr i e s se r i es of En g l i sh text
books fo r La t in American studen t s , 17 and based upon an intu i t ive but
12
Char l e s C. Fr ies , Teaching crld Leaming Engl i sh a s a Forei gn Lcrlguage.
Ann Arbor , Mi chi gan , 1945.
13
14
Robe r t Lado , Lingui s ti cs across CUl tures.
Dav i d W. Re e d , Ro b e r t Lado , Yao She n ,
L an gu age in Fo r e i gn Language Learn i n g" ,
Learning,
15
16
Ser i e s I , Ann Arbo r , M i c h igan ,
Ann Arbo r , M i c h i gan , 19 57 .
" Th e Impo r t an c e of t h e N at i ve
in Sel ec ted Art i cl es from Language
19 5 3 , p p . 121- 1 27 .
U r i el Wei n r e i c h , Lcrlguage in Con tac t , N e w Yo rk,
19 5 3 , p . 3 .
. ..
;: n"
C r Vi e tnanese ,
. t'
l ' 1 P ronunclalon
lo
N guyen >:1an g L lem , En glSl
SEARFP- Usa.1,
Sa�on , 19 62;
N guy �n D�n g Li �m and St a f f , En g l i sh Grammar fo r Vi e tnanese.
SEARFP-
USJ.1, Saigon , 196 3;
N guy � 9�n g L i em , Engl i sh Pat tern Prac ti ce fo r Vi e tnanese , P ar t On e ,
and P ar t Two .
17 Nguy ln DJn g L i em ,
i n g Probl em s" ,
SEAREP-USJ.1, Sai gon ,
196 3 .
" En g l ish Gr ammar for Vi e tn ame se , Te ac h i n g and Learn­
i n Van H'; a N guyet San , or Cul tu re, mo n th l y Re v i e w, p u b l i sh e d
b y t h e Dir e c to r a t e o f Cu l t u ral A f fai r s , M i n i st ry o f N at i o n al
Sai gon , No . 8 8 ( De c .
1963), p p . 20 33- 2040.
Edu c ati on ,
Xl
not s t a ted l ingu i s t i ca l ly o r i en t ed comp a r i son o f En g l i sh and V i e t ­
namese . 18
5.
The Presen t Study
Representat ive o f the recogn i t ion o f the deve lopment of a me thodo­
logy fo r the app l i c a t ion o f the findings o f l ingu i s t i cs to the tea ch­
ing o f fo reign l anguages are the fac t s tha t the Un i t ed S t a t e s Offi ce
o f Educat ion . under the Na t iona l De fence Educa t ion Act of Sep tember 2 .
19 58 . spec i fied the ana lys i s fo r l anguage teaching in Fo re i gn Language
Inst itutes . and con t rac ted w i th l ingu i s t s for an Antho logy o f App l i ed
L ingu i s t ic s fo r the us e in the I n s t i tu t e s . and w i th the Cen t e r o f
App l ied Lingu i st ics o f the Modern Language Asso c i a t ion o f America fo r
the deve lopment o f l in gu i s t ic con t rast ive ana lyses . So fa r . a se r i e s
o f con t ra s t ive s t ud i e s de s c r i b in g the s im i l a r i t ie s a n d d i fferenc e s
between Eng l i sh and each o f the five languages mo s t commonly taught in
the Un i t ed States ( French . German . I t a l i an. Rus s i an and Span ish ) have
been pub l i shed o r are be ing p repared . 19
Because o f i t s methodo log i c a l impor tance to the te aching o f Engl i sh
to Vie tname se sp e ak e r s . and o f V i e tn am ese to En g l i sh spe ake r s . the
p r e sent con t ra s t ive ana l y s i s o f En g l i sh and V i e tn amese gramm a r and
phono logy has p roved to be nece ssary .
As i t has been said a sho rt wh i l e ago . one o f the maj o r p rob lems in
the l e a rn ing of a second l an gua ge is the in t er fe rence cau sed by the
s t ruc t ura l d i fferen c e s be tween the l angu age to be l e a rned and the
l an guage of the learne r . Con sequen t l y . a con t rast ive ana lys i s o f the
two languages w i l l point out learn ing and teaching p rob lems . and w i l l
con s t i tu t e the b a s i s for the p repa r a t ion o f sc ient i fi c a l ly o r i en t ed
i n s t ruc t i on a l m a t e r i a l s . the p l anning o f c ou r s e s a c c o rd i n g to the
r e l a t ive degrees of d i fficu l t ies of l e a rn in g p rob l em s . and the deve­
lopment of c lassroom techn ique s .
I n te rm s o f l in gu i s t i c theoret i c a l imp l i c a t ion s . th i s con t r a s t i ve
a na l ys i s i s a t en t a t i ve comb in a t ion o f t wo l e a d in g . i f n o t t h e two
18
Robe r t Lado - Ch ar l e s C .
M i c h i gan.
Fr i e s. Engl i sh Pronunci a t i on .
Ann Ar bo r .
19 5 4;
Ro b e r t Lado-Char l e s C. F r i e s. Engl i sh Sen t ence Pa t t ern s .
Ann Arbo r .
Michi gan . 19 57 ;
Robe r t Lado - Ch ar l e s C.
M i c hi gan ,
19
Ann Arbo r ,
19 58 . r ev i se d edi t i o n ;
Ro be r t L ado - Ch ar l e s C .
M i c h i g an ,
Fr i e s. Engl i sh Pa t t ern Prac t i ces,
Fr i e s , L e s son s i n Vocabu l ary .
Ann Ar bo r .
1956.
O!arJes A. Ferguson .
" Gen e r al I n t rodu ction to the Ser i e s" . i n Wil l i am
G. Moul ton . The Sounds o f Engl i sh and German.
Chic ago and London ,
19 6 2 , pp. v - vi .
Uni v e rsi ty o f Dlic ago P r e ss,
Xli
l eading l ingu i s t ic theories o f the last decade , Tagmemics and Trans­
format ion a l Gramm a r ; it i s a l so an app l ic a t ion o f the tagmem i c mode l
to the p repa rat ion o f subst i tut ion , and dev e lopment dri l l s , and o f the
t ransfo rma tion a l' mod e l to the preparat ion o f t rans fo rma t iona l dri l l s
in grammar and patte rn p ra c t i c e lesson s .
Neverthe le ss , at the same t ime, th i s study , conce rned on ly w i th the
g ramma t ic a l s t ruc tur e s and the sound sys tems o f the two l an guages ,
c anno t be consid ered comp l e t e for th e prep a r a t ion o f te xt boo k s o f
e i ther la n guage fo r n a t ive sp e a k e r s o f the o th e r l an guage , s e e i n g
tha t :
"The fundamen ta l purpose o r obj e ct ive 0 f a l l fo re i gn l anguage teaching is to achieve an understanding as comp l e t e
a s poss i b l e be tween peop l e o f d i f fe ren t lingU i s t i c back­
grounds . ,,20
Thu s , the p resent study mus t be fo l lowed by a c a r e fu l con t ra st ive
ana lys i s of the cu l ture or cu l tures of the En g l i sh sp eak ing peop l e,
and the Vie tnam e se cu l ture to p o i n t ou t cu l tu r a l d i f fe r enc e s , i . e .
c u l tu r a l t e a ch i n g and l e a rn i n g p rob l em s , as A l b e r t H . M a r c k wa rd t
says:
"Just so , it may be reasonab l y mainta ined that cont rast ive
c u l tura l ana ly ses Are equa l ly impo rtant in t e rms of l an­
2
guage s tudy . ,, 1
Th e fa c t tha t l a n gu a ge i s c l o s e l y r e l a t ed to cu l ture h a s b e en
p o int ed out by many a l ingu i s t, amon g them Edward Sap i r , 22 Benj amin
Lee Who r f, 2 3 and Kenneth L. Pike , who say s :
" I n sum , then , w e m ay say tha t the l ingu i s t w i she s to d i s20
Th e Teach i n g o f Modern L anguages ,
Repo r t on
Seminar held in Sydhey , January-February 1957.
the UNESaJ Reg i on al
Au s t r al i an N at i o n al Adv i so ry
Commi t t ee for Unesco , p . 1 5
21
A l be r t H . M ar c kward t ,
" Th e Cu l t u r al P r e p ar at i o n o f t h e Teach e r o f
i n Sel ected Ar t i cl es from L anguage Learning
Engl i s h as a Fo re i gn L an gu age "
No . 2.
22
Ann Arbor, M i c h i gan ,
Edward Sap i r ,
Sapi r ,
' 196 3 , pp. 1-4.
i n D. G. Mande l b aum ( e d . ) , Sel ec t ed Wri t i n g s o f Edward
1n Languag e , Cul tu r e ,
and Personal i ty .
P r e s s , Be rkel ey an d Los Angpl e s ,
1949 ,
Un i v e r s i ty o f Cal i fo r n i a
say s :
" We see and hear o t h e rw1se e xp e r i en c e v ery I argel y as we do be­
c au s e the l an gu age h ab i t s of our commun i t y p re d i s p o s e c e r t ai n
c h "i c es of i n terp re t at ion . "
23
D. C. ,
Benj amin Lee Who r f ,
1952 ,
»
•
•
-
p. 16 2 .
in Cbl l ec ted Papers on Metal ingui s t i cs , Was h i n gton
defines l an gu age a s :
t h e t ho u gh t wo r l d . . .
t h e m i c r o c o sm t h at e ac h man c ar r i e s
abou t wi thin h imsel f by whi ch he me asures an d unde r s t ands what h e
c an o f the m ac ro co sm . " - p .
36 .
xiii
cover the st ruc ture o f l anguage behav i o r . and obta ins i t s
s t ruc t u r i n g on l y in r e f e r en c e t o t h a t l a rg e r b eh av i o r
f, ield . and relat ive to the structura l un i t s o f that l arger
f i eld . the l ingu i s t mus t on occas ion re fer to tha t l a rger
f i eld in o rder to get a c c e s s to tha t frame of re ferenc e
w i th i n which the l in gu i s t i c un i t s o b t a in p a r t o f the i r
de fin i t ion. ,, 2 4
Since the mean ings exp r es sed in a l anguage are l argely behav iou r­
a l ly { o r c u l t u r a l l y} de t e rm in e d . one c anno t und e r s t and a l an gu a g e
fu l ly w i thout unde r s t and ing a t l e a s t the d i st in c t cul tural mean in g s
e xp re s sed through i t . Thus . the fo re ign l anguage studen t cann o t g o
fa r in to the l anguage t o b e l e a rned without fa c ing d i f fe ren c e s i n
c u l t u r a l m e an in g s . He n e eds to h a v e a sub s t an t i a l kno w l edge o f
spec i fi c fac t s concern ing the cu l ture . some unde rstand ing o f the ma in
p at t ern s of thought . bel i e fs . t rad I t ion s . app rec i a t ion of the v a l u e s
t hat a c coun t fo r the way t h e p eop l e l ive and behave . and be able t o
r eco gn i z e the s ign i fi cance o f the accomp l i shments o f the peop le .
I n l e a rn ing a fo re ign cu l tur e . the student tends a l so to t rans fe r
the p a t t e rn s o f h i s nat Ive cu l ture to the cu lture to b e le arned . bo th
on the p ro duc t ion l ev e l and on the re cep t ion le ve l . as Robe r t L ado
says:
"The student learns the target cu l ture no t from scra tch as
h e learned h i s nat ive one . bu t with th e expe rience . mean­
i ngs . and hab i t s o f h i s n a t ive cu l ture in fluenc ing him a t
every s t ep . Th e n a t ive- cu l ture exp e r i en c e w i l l fa c i l i ­
t at e learn ing those pat terns that a re suf fi c iently s im i l ar
t o the fun c t ion s a t i s fa c to r i l y when t r an s fe r r e d . Th e
n a t iv e - c u l t u r e exp e r i en c e s w i l l i n t e r fe r e w i t h tho s e
c ul tural pat terns and mean Ings tha t are no t equa tab l e wi th
s i m i l a r ones o r that are p a r t l y s i m i l a r but func t ion d i f­
ferent l y in the ta rget cu l tu re . ,, 2 5
In conc lus ion . a con t ra s t iv e cu l tu r a l s t udy i s a l so o f g r e a t e s t
i mpo r t an c e to the p ro gramm ing o f a n En g l i sh o r V i e t n amese language
course fo r nat ive speakers of the other language .
6.
The Cho i ce o f Di al ects
The purp o s e o f th i s s tudy is to make a con t r a s t Ive an a lys i s o f
En g l I sh and Vietnamese for pedago gIca l app l i c a t ions . and no t to make a
l ingu i s t ic geography survey o f a coun t r y . There fo re i t i s nec essary
to choose a pa r t i cu l ar d i a l �ct o f Engl I sh . and a p a rt Icular d i a le ct o f
Vietnamese . a s Ze l l i g S . Har r i s says :
24
25
Kenn e t h L. P i ke . Langua�e. Part I .
Robe r t L ado , L angua�e Teaching.
Gl e ndal e .
19 5 4, p . 27 a.
McGraw- H I l l , New Yo rk, 19 6 4 , p . 30.
XLV
"The un i verse o f d i s course fo r a desc r iptive l tngu i st i c
investigatlon IS a s ingle l anguage or dialect.
These invest lgat ions are carried out fo r the speech o f
a p a r t i cu l a r pe rson . o r on e commun i ty o f d i a l ecti c a l ly
identical p e rson s . at a time . ,,26
Both in Engl i sh and Vi etname se . the re are not many ser lous g ram­
matical d i ffe rences among d i fferent standard d i a lects . but there a re a
few phono lo gical di ffere,·ces . Thus the cho ice o f dia lects m atte rs only
in the phono log ica l ana lyse s .
The two d i a l e c t s cho',en fo r contra st i v e an a l ys i s a re : M id we s t
Standa rd Amer ican Engl ish . and Standard Sa igon Vi etnamese .
6.1.
M i dwest Standard American Engl i sh
( MSAE)
The problem o f choo s ing wh lch l ingu i stic fo rm should be lea rned o r
taught fo r a ctlve p roduct ion o f En gl i sh when many fo rms a re emp loyed
in app rox imate l y equ iva l ent mann e r s by d i fferent native sp eakers o f
the l anguage must b e con s l de red in the p r ep a r at ion o f text boo k s
where . fo r conven ience . mate r i a l s are centered about a s ingle d i a lect .
Wh i l e i t i s p e rt i n ent fo r advanced stud ents to b e e xpo s e d to
B r i t i sh Engl i sh . Austral ian Eng l i sh . New Zea l and En gl i sh . etc . . MSAE
is chosen fo r thi s study . and assumed ' t o
namese student observes in h i s e lementary study o f the languag e . The
reasons fo r thi s cho ice are :
( 1) Since a student o f a second language wi l l try to speak l i ke the
in fo rmant o r in fo rmants who are used as mode l s . MSAE IS cho sen
be cause it is much mo re eas i l y observab le in Vietnam than any
othe r Engl i sh dia lect;
( 2 ) MSAE. a standa rd co l loqu i a l spe ech . is mutua l ly inte l l i g i b l e
w lth other d i a lects ;
( 3 ) MSAE. l ike othe r standard diale cts o f Engl i sh . has soc i a l . cul­
tura l . and l ite ra ry p restige;
( 4 ) MSAE has re l i ab l e sou rces o f l in gu i st i c in fo rmation . such as
descriptive g rammars . d i ctionaries , etc .
6 . 2.
Stan dard Sai gon Vietn amese
( SS V )
S ince V i etnamese native sp e ak e rs o f the thre e ma l n d i a l e cts o f
V i etnamese (Hano i . Hue , Sa l gon dia lects} . 2 7 are present in any Engl ish
c la s sroom in Vietnam . It is obv iously un rea l i sti c . fo r the purpose o f
26
Ze l l i g S. H ar ri s. S t ruc turaL Lingu i s t i cs .
The Un i ve r si ty o f Ch i c ago
P re ss. Chi c ago , 195 1, p . 9 .
27
t o V'le t n ame se p r on un c la t l0n ,
'
Fo r an ln t r o d uc tlon
Grammar .
.
.
wri t i n g system an d d i al ect v ar i at ions,
,
' t n am e se
t h e Vle
se e Lawrence C. Thomp son , A Vi e tnamese
Unlver sity of Wash i ngton Press. Seat t l e .
19 6 5 . p p . 3- 10 4 .
xv
teaching En g l i sh in the country . to choo se just one d i a lect o f Viet­
n amese for contrastive an a ly s i s wh1 1 e neg l ecting the othe r two . The
three dia lects di ffe r from one another in the i r phono lo g i c a l system s .
m a in l y i n the i r inton ation p atte rn s . but they a re p e r fectly mutua l l y
inte l l i g ib l e . An a rb i t r a ry cho i ce o f SSV . wh i ch ha s the g reate st
numb e r of spe a k e r s in the Republ i c of V i etnam . h a s been made he re .
Neve rthe l e s s. as fa r a s teach ing and l e a rn in g p ro b l em s o f En g l i sh
p ronunc iation a r e con c e rned . on l y the Engl i sh phonemes wh i c h have
thei r equ iva lents in the Vietnamese phono lo g i c a l common c o re 28 of the
th ree m a in d i a l e cts a r e con s i de r e d easy fo r V i etn ame se students .
P rob lems fo r sp eakers o f any p a rt i cu l a r V i etname se d i a l e ct a re con­
s idered as p rob lems fo r Vietnamese sp eakers in gene ra l . a lthough in
p ra ct i c a l s i tuation s . the sounds con s ide red a s d i f f i cu l t may not b e
p rob l ems fo r speakers o f any on e p a rt i cu l a r d i a lect because i n every
day contact. speak e rs of a p a rticu l a r dia lect have pi cked up phonemes
o f another d i a lect.
Al l the arguments g i ven so far have centered about the purpo se o f
teach ing Eng l i sh to Vietnamese speakers . Reasons should also be given
for th i s cho ice o f d i a lects for the purpose o f te aching Vi etnamese to
Engl i sh speake rs .
COn s i de red no w a s the d i a l e ct to be le arned by En g l i sh sp eake rs .
SSV. whi ch i s a standard d i a l ect l i ke the othe r two ma in d i a l ec t s . wa s
chosen even mo re a r b i tra r i l y than MSAE was cho sen as the d i a lect fo r
Vi etnamese students to lea rn . Th i s a rb itrary cho ice has neverthe less
some p ra ct i c a l rea son s : be ing the n ative d i a lect of the autho r . SSV
c an be desc ribed by h im with greater accuracy.
Likewi s e . th i s contra stive ana lys i s is intended to d i scove r tea ch­
ing and learn ing p rob lems fo r Engl i sh speake rs . Thus . i t is obv iously
unrea l i stic to choo se just one d i a lect of Engl i sh for comparison. In
o rder to compensate fo r th i s a rbitra ry cho ice . Vietnamese p ronun c i a ­
t ion d i fficulties fo r speakers o f other En g l i sh d i a lects ( e spec i a l l y
British and Austr a l ian dia lects) wi l l be a l so pre sented in the Pa rt on
Vi etnamese p ronun c i ation fo r En g l i sh .
7.
Kenneth L . Pik e's Ph i losophy o f Language AdoPted29
The phi losophy o f l an guage and model fo r language structure p re­
sented in Kenneth L. Pike's L an gu a ge in Rel a t i on to a Un i fi ed Th eo ry
o f the S t ru c tu r e o f Human Beh avior. Pa r t s I . I I . and I I I ( Gl enda l e .
19 54. 1955 . 1960 ) a re adop ted in th i s study .
28
Ch arl e s F. Ho ck e t t , A COurse in Modern L ingui s t i cs .
N e w Yo rk ,
19 58 ,
pp .
332 f f
Th e M a cMil l an Co .
.
29 Som e po i n t s i n t h i s s ho r t di scu ssion h a ve been bo r ro wed f rom John C.
C r awfo r d , To ton tepec Mi xe Phono t a gmemic s .
Norma . Ok l ahoma ,
1963.
Summ e r In s t i tu t e o f Li n gu i s t i c s ,
XV l
There a re four cha racter i sti c s o f P i ke ' s ph ilosophy o f language and
mode l fo r l an guage structure wh ich a re ba s i c to th i s p r esen t a t ion .
The b r i e f d i scuss ion o f these fou r po ints made he re i s no t meant t o
summar ize Pike ' s L an guage. It is on ly to show the d i rection that thi s
study w i l l take . and what the majo r l ingu i stic . and e spec i a l ly ext ra­
l ingu i s t i c con s ide rations w i l l be wh ich wi l l have to be tak en into
a ccount fo r a sc ient i fic p ro g ramm ing of the teaching of two qu i t e
d i fferent language s . both in te rms o f l i ngu i stic structural pa ttern s
and overa l l behavioural matr ices . The four cha ra c t e r i st ic s . wh i ch a r e
c l o s e l y inter- re l ated, a r e : ( 1 ) Langua ge i s v i ewed a s behav i o u r ;
( 2) Language is hiera rch i c a l ly o rde red ; ( 3 ) Language con s i sts o f em i c
un its ; ( 4 ) Language is tri -moda l ly structured .
7 . 1.
Language i s V i ewed as Behav iou r
Language i s not a se l f- conta ined system ; the behav iour aspe cts are
c losely re l ated to l ingu i stic aspects . It i s viewed by Pike as b e ln g
on ly o n e pa rt o f a l a rger tota l ity o f st ructured human behav iour . en
the on e hand . l an guage i s inextr i c ab l y m i xed w i th other a spe cts o f
th i s behav ioura l tota l ity . and on the other hand . l anguage behav iour
constitutes a s i gn i f icant part of th i s tota l human behav iou r . COnse­
quently . l anguage can on ly be con s ider�d as be ing in re l a t ion to othe r
aspects o f the tota l i ty o f structured human behav iou r .
I n the l i gh t o f Pike ' s statement that language mus t be v l ewed a s
behav iour . some remarks on Vietnamese l inguistic behav iour and Engl i sh
l inguistic behav iour wi l l be given here . These very brie f rema rks are
only to exp l a in the exi stence of l ingu i stic di fficu lt ies ( fo r sp eakers
o f one l anguage to learn the oth e r language) due to the inter fe ren ce
o f the two di ffe rent l i ngu i stic behav iours.
7. 1 . 1.
V i e tnamese L i n gu i s t i c Behav iour
V i e tn a m e se is an un i n f l e c t i on a l and . at l e a st phono l o g i c a l l y
s p e a k in g . mono sy l l a b i c l anguage . That m e a n s that th e r e a r e on l y
t wo syntact ic and mo rpho lo g i ca l devi ces in V i e tname se : the use o f word
o rde r. and the use of funct ion wo rds . 3 0
Th i s l im i ted number o f grammat i c a l dev ices i n Vietnamese is c losely
re lated to and characte r l stic of the Vletname se l ingulstic behav iour .
\
wh l ch wou ld seem to be gov e rned by two behav ioura l l a ws : the l a w o f
i ndeterm inac y ; and the law o f s i mp l ic ity .
The Vi etnamese lan guage is said to b e governed
by the law o f inde t e rm inacy in the sen se that Vi etn amese Senten c e s .
both Mino r and Majo r Sentence Typ e s , a re not necessa r i ly se l f-su f­
fic ient un i t s, but they can . and usua l l y do . rely on larger l ingu i st i c,
Law of Indet e rmin acy .
30
For the ro l e of f un c t i o n wo r d s in En gl i s h ,
Structure o f Engli sh.
see cha r les C,
H a rcour t , Brace and Co . , New Yo rk ,
Frie s , The
19 5 2, pp . 87 f f .
XVll
o r extra- l ingu i s t i c matrices wh ich exp l a in o r comp lete the i r mean ing .
Wha t i s a s sum ed to be known i s not rep e a t ed in the a ctu a l Sentence
un i t s . In o ther wo rds , Vietnamese Sentences are u sua l ly contextua l ly
Dependent Sentences .
Th i s l a w o f ind e te rm inacy exp l a in s a l so the frequent use o f M ino r
Sentences in a Vie tnamese di s course . Fo r exampl e :
A s tuden t , com ing back from h i s exam inat ions . looks at h i s anx ious
p a rents and says:
Rho 'di fficu l t'
Wha t I have had a s tests were qui te di fficu l t .
'
LU�c a l r ight'
I have done my examinat ions wel l .
or:
� qua 'too bad' = I t was too bad . My papers were too bad .
or:
=
=
These Minor Sen t en c es comp r i s e o r exp r e s s a numbe r o f d i f fe r en t
no t ions .
These same Minor Sent enc es exist a l so in Eng l i sh . but they mus t b e
more numerous i n Vietnamese because i n Vie tnamese . many nuc leus Clause
l eve l t agmemes are op t iona l wh i l e in Eng l i sh the same t a gmeme s a re
o b l i g a t o r y , fo r ex amp l e s the Subj e c t t agmeme , o r the D i r e c t Obj e c t
t a gmeme i n ful l Trans i t ive Clause Typ es 3 1 ( se e Chap t ers on Eng l i sh and
on Vi etnamese Clause Typ e s ) . Fo r examp les :
In Eng l i sh , a s an answer to the que s t ion "When d i d yo u buy th i s
book ? " , the fo l low ing Sentenc'e
I boug h t i t y e s t e rday.
In Vietnamese , the fo l lo w ing Sentence may be uttered:
MUa hom qua, l i t era l l y 'buy day past'.
The Subj ect ta g� eme I . and the Obj ect t a gmeme I t are ob l i gatory In
Engl i sh , but opt iona l in Vie tnamese .
Th i s l a w o f inde t erm ina c y governs a l so Maj o r Sen t en c e Typ e s in
V i e tnames e . As an examp l e o f t h i s contextua l dep endence o f Maj o r
Sentence Types , the fo l lowing Sentence can be unde rs tood in d i f fe rent
ways acco rding to the l a rger l ingui st ic , or ext ra- l ingu i s t i c ma t r ices :
No ve
toi ve
+Fa l l ing Intona t ion
return
He returns I
The Sentence may mean" a cco rding to di fferent context s :
I f he goes home . I'l l go home too .
When he goe s home , I ' l l go home too .
Every t ime he goes home , I go home too .
Because he i s going home . I am go ing home too .
31
Lawren ce C. Thomp son i n terp r e t s t h e op t i on al charac te r o f the Subj e c t
and Di rec t Obj e c t t agmem e s i n Vi e t n amese i n th e se t e rm s:
" Th e se c o n si de r a­
t i o n s al so suggest t h at subj e c t and obj ect as p r e sumed un i ve r sal s n eed c ar e­
ful amendmen t .
I t app e ar s t h at t h ere are syn tac t i c st ruc ture s ( l i ke t hat of
Vietn amese ) i n wh i ch th e se c at ego r i e s sc arce ly exi st at all ;thei r eq ui val en t s
ap p e ar r at h e r a s e l em en t s o f a mo d i f i c at i o n - an d - r e f e r e n c e sub s y st em . " p . 6 18 ,
" N uc l e ar Mo d e l s i n Vi e t n am e s e i mm e d i a t e -c o n s t i t ue n t an aly si s" ,
L an AuaAe
4 1 . 4: 610- 618 (19 65).
XVl l l
Because he went home , I went home too.
Since he m i ght be going home , I am go inS home now, etc .
Law of Si mpL i ci t y.
The Vi e tnamese language is sa i d to be governed by
th e l aw of s i mp l ic i ty in the sen se i t tends to use s i mp l e con s t ruc­
t ions , and compound con s t ruc t ion s , ra ther than to use comp l ex con­
s t ruct ion s . On the Sen t enc e l evel fo r examp l e , Vi e tnamese Sen tences
do no t usua l ly have Ext r a Dependen t Int roduc ers such as bai til 'be­
c ause' , khi ' when ' , and consequen t l y , they do not have a comp l ex in­
t erna l s t ructure o f Clause wi th ln Cl ause . They a re mo re usua l ly COm­
pound Sentences con t a in ing success ive Clauses wh ich can be coo rdinated
o r not . I n these CO mpound Sen t ence s , the d i f fe ren t Cau s e - E f fec t ,
Suppo s i t ion-COnsequence , Time-Re l a t i v i t y , e tc . r e l a t ionsh ips wi l l b e
expressed loo sely b y Independent Clause COo rdlnators.
Thus , the Vi etnamese Language is said to be governed by the law o f
s imp l i c i ty because , instead o f us ing pyram i d ing s t ructures o f con­
s t ruct ions w i thin cons t ru c t ions , it t ends to use lengthy but s imp l e
coo rdina t e success ive cons t ruc t ion s.
As an examp le of th i s law of simp l i c i ty, the two fa c t s a re s t a t ed
i n the i r chrono l o g i c a l order rather than l o g i c a l o rd e r ( i . e . Time­
Situat lon dependence versus government ) re lat ionships in the fo l lo wing
Maj o r Independent COmpound Sentenc e :
NO tie
nh a
t hI.
(no) g�p
he return house
then he
(When h e returned home ,
he
mO t
ngU'ai
khach
meet one person v i s i to r
met a
v i s i to r . )
The two fac t s o f 'going home' and 'me e t ing a V l s l to r are stated in
t he i r chrono l o g i c a l o rd e r r a ther than ln the c i r cum s t an t i a l Time
s i tua t ion o f the fi rst fact , and the government by the second fac t .
Th i s l a w o f s imp l i c i t y do e s no t me an th at t h e re a re no COmp l ex
Sentence Type s w it h the i r interna l s t ruc tures composed o f pyram i d ing
s t ruc tures of Claus e s w i thin Clause s . I t j u s t mean s tha t COmp l ex
s t ructures a re used only when there is a strong p ressure fo r prec i s ion
( c f. Chapter V o f Vie tnamese Gramma r ) .
7.1.2.
Engl i sh Lingu i s t i c Behav iour
Eng l i sh is an inflec t iona l and po lysy l l a b i c l angua ge . Tha t mean s
t hat the re are mo re than two syn t ac t i c and mo rpho lo g i c a l dev i c es in
Engl i sh . the use o f word o rde r , funct ion words, and in flect ions.
This re la t ive abundance of gramma t i c a l dev i ces in Eng l i sh re f l e c t s
the Eng l i sh l ingu i s t i c behaviou r , wh ich c an b e cha r a c t e r i zed by the
law of p reC l s ion .
Eng l i sh is said to be governed by the law of prec i s ion in the sense
tha t even wha t is a s sumed to be known is usua l ly repe ated in a c t u a l
S e n t e n c e un i t s . Fo l l ow ing a r e som e i l lu s t r a t ions o f th i s l a w o f
precis ion' In Clause ma t r ices , the repe t i t ion o f �uc leus Subject , and
ObJec t t a gmemes i s ob l i gatory when these Clauses cons t i tute separate
X 1X
Sen t enc e s . Second a ry no t ions o f Ten se . Conco rdance . Asp e c t s . e t c
a re mo s t o f the t ime exp r e ssed in Sent enc es . Cl ause l eve l re l a t ions
o f Cau se- Ef fe c t . Suppo s i t ion-Consequence . e t c
a re exp re ssed w i th
Comp lex Sentence s t ruc ture s o f Clauses wi thin Clause s .
.
.
7.2.
•
•
Language i s H i erarch i c al ly O rdered
Language . a c co rd ing to P i k e ' s theo ry . cons i s t s o f un i ts o f s i gn i ­
f i c an t l aye ring s and no t m e r e l y o f sequen c e s o f un i t s pu t t o gether
l i k e beads on a s t r i n g . The h i gh e r un i t s a re p a r t l y . bu t n o t en­
t i re l y . det erm ined in te rms of lowe r laye red un i ts o f whi ch they a re
c o mpo s e d . The l o w e r un i t s . mo reo v e r . o c c u r o n l y in s t ruc t u r a l l y
relevan t po s i t ions wi th in h ighe r layered un i ts in the h ie rarchy.
There are three d i fferent h ie ra rchies in l anguage. the phono lo gical.
the lexic a l . and the t agmem ic h i e rarch i e s . 32
( 1 ) The phono log i c a l hierarchy bui lds up through a p yramid ing suc­
c e s s ion o f un i t s . pho nemes to sy l l ab l e s . sy l l a b l e s to s t re s s
g ro up s . s t re s s group s to p a u s e g roup s . p ause g roups to em i c
b reath groups. etc .
In the phono logy d i scuss ion o f th i s study. many phono logica l
l ev e l s w i l l not be dea l t w i th because they a re no t v e ry re le­
vant to a con t ra s t ive ana lysis .
( 2 ) The l ex i c a l h i e r a rchy con s i s t s o f p y r a m i d ing su c c e s s ion o f
un i t s . mo rphe m e s t o wo rd s . wo r d s t o p h r a s e s . p h r a s e s t o
c lause s . c lauses t o sentences . e t c .
( 3 ) The h i era rchy o f t agmem i c un i t s con s i s t s o f a pyram id ing suc ­
c e s s ion o f un i t s l a be l l ed a s " s lo t - c l a s s co r re l a t e " ( P ik e .
L an �uag e . Chapter 7 ) .
These cons i s t o f an ernie s lo t . wh ich i s
a meaningfu l po s i t ion i n t h e n e x t h i gher laye r o f s t ruc ture .
w i th a c lass o f i t ems wh ich form the fi l le r c l ass o f that s lo t .
Th e un i t s wh i ch cons t i tute t he membe rsh ip o f the fi l l e r c l ass
are mo rphem i c un i t s . Th e oc currence of these uni t s con s t i tutes
the occurrence of the t a gm em i c un i t . The f i l l e r c l a s s e s o f
m o rph em i c l ev e l ta gmemes a r e usua l l y mo rpheme s ; the f i l l e r
c lasses o f wo rd level tagmemes a re usua l l y wo rds .
Other h i gher leve l tagmemes a re phra se l eve l tagmemes . c l ause leve l
t agmemes . sentence level t agmemes . e t c . 3 3
32
J o hn C . Crawfo rd. i n hi s To ton t epee Mixe Phonotagnemi es, op . ci t . , s e t s
u p four h i e r ar c h i e s i n s t e ad o f th r e e :
l exi c a l.
33
th e p honem i c .
t h e phono t agmemi c ,
the
an d the t agmem i c h i e r archy .
P i ke .
in hi s "On t agmemes N ee Gram( m ) em e s , " I . J . A. L.
d e f i n e s t h e t agmeme as :
24. 27 3- 2 79 (1958),
" A t agmeme i n my v i e w h as o n e o f i t s b as i c char ac ­
t e r i st i c s a co r r e l ation bet ween a fun c t ional s lo t and a morpheme ( o r mor pheme
se quenc e . e t c. ) di s t r i bution c l as s" .
(cont inued on pag e xx)
xx
The p re sen t study dea l s w i t h a con t ra s t ive ana lys i s o f o n l y t wo
h i e ra rch i c a l a sp e c t s o f Eng l i sh and Vietnamese , name l y phono logy and
g ramm a r . I t l eaves out o n purpose the th i rd h i erarch i c a l a sp e c t o f
l anguage , l ex icon , because the re i s no thing in common between Engl i sh
l ex i co n and V i e tnamese l e x i con to j u s t i fy the n e c e s s i t y o f a con­
trast ive an aly sis . Neverthe less the present study must be accompanied
by a h ighly sophist i ca ted d ic t ionary o f Engl i sh fo r the p rogramm ing o f
an Eng l i sh cou rse fo r Vietnamese , and l i kew i se , a h ighly soph i st i ca ted
d i ct ionary o f V i e tname se fo r the p rogramm ing o f a Vie tnamese course
fo r Eng l ish. Fo r , a s Robert E. Longacre says :
"To describe a language exhaust ively ( a task as yet se r i ­
o u s ly a t t emp t ed by no-one ) . three vo lumes a re ne eded : a
phono log i c a l s t a t ement , a gramma t i c a l s t a temen t , and a
h i ghly soph is t icated d ic t ionary. ,, 3 4
7 . 3.
Language Consists o f Em i c Un i ts
Language un i t s a re not con sidered as phy s i c a l ent l t les p e r s e , but
as re l evant parts of a st ructured system o r syst ems . Such s t ructura l ly
relevant p a r t s a re termed "em i c" in the sense they a re in re l a t ion to
a t o t a l st ructure of a l anguage . They a re meanin g ful , i . e . they a re
parts o f a funct ioning cul tura l ly s i gni ficant syst em .
7 . 4.
Langu age i s Trimodal ly St ruc tu red
Each l ingui s t i c un i t i s d e s c r i bed in t e rms o f three mod e s : the
feature , the man i festat ion , and the d i st ribut ion mode .
Th e fea ture mode i s comp r i s ed o f i d ent i f i c a t iona l - con t r a s t i v e
component s o r fea tures wh i ch de l im i t each un i t from other un i t s o f the
same level or of di fferent leve l s .
Th e mani festat ion mode dea l s w i th varying occurrences o f a un i t .
The d i s t ribut ion mode i s con c e rned w i th the d i st ribut ion o f the
un i t in que s t ion in s ign i fi cant s lo t s in la rger un i t s , and in a l e ss
33 (continued from previ ous pag e )
Ho w e v e r ,
ce r t a i n di f fe r e nces i n the u s age o f t h e t e rm t a gmeme shou l d be
p o i n t ed out he re.
In P i k e 's theo r y, t h e t agm eme i s t h e m i n imum un i t o f t h e
g r a mma t i cal h i e r a r ch y; a l l o t h e r h i gher l ev e l un i ts i n t h e g r amm at i ca l h i e r­
a r ch y wi l l be cal l e d " h yp e r t agmem e s " .
In t h i s s t u d y ,
t h e wo rd t a gmeme i s
u sed i n a l arger s en se , meaning a n y grammati cal emi c un i t a t an y l ev e l i n t h e
g r amm a t i ca l
h i e r a r ch y co n ce r n e d .
Th i s co n ce p t o f t a gmeme s a t v a r i o u s
a s cend i n g l e v e l s was deve l o p ed b y Lo n ga cr e ,
l ysi s" , L cnguage 3 6 . 6 3 - 8 8 ( 1960 ) ,
i n h i s " St ri n g Co n s t i t u en t An a­
and t e s t t,d by Ve l m a S. Pi ck e t t , Hi erarchi ­
cal St ructure o f I s t hmus Zapotec ( =Lan guage Di s s e r t a t i o n No . 56 ) .
Bal timo r e ,
19 60.
34
Hagu e ,
Rob e r t E . Lon g a cre, Gramma r Di scovery Proc�dUres.
19 64, p . 8 .
Mou ton and Co . , Th e
XXI.
i mpo r t an t d e g r e e . in the d i s t r i bu t i on w i t h i n the un i t i t s e l f o f
sma l l e r un i t s . ( John C. Craw fo rd . in op . c i t
do e s no t con s i de r the
c r i t e r i a of the d i s t r i but ion wi thin the un i t i t se l f o f sma l l e r un i t s
a s re l evant t o the d i st r ibut ion mode o f an emi c un i t because the same
d i st r ibut ion of sma l l er em ic un i t s const i tutes the man i fest a t ion mode
o f the un i t a l ready . )
So fa r . the three phono lo g i c a l . t agmem i c . and le xica l h i e rarch i e s .
and the three modes ( feature mode . man i fe s t a t ion mode . and dist r ibu­
t i on mo d e ) have be en d i scus sed sepa r a t e l y . But in P i k e ' s t heo ry .
the re i s a c lose mode-hiera rchy interre lat ionship . There i s no sp ace
here fo r a lengthy di scussion o f thi s mode-hierarchy int errelat ionship
wh ich . fo r examp l e . i s r e f l e c t e d in the moda l s t ruc ture o f a syn­
tagmeme ( cons t ruc t ion ) 3 5 who se fea ture mode is const i tuted in un i t s in
t he l e x i c a l h i e r a rchy . who s e man i fe s t a t ion mo de in un i t s o f t h e
phono log ic a l h i e ra rchy . and who se d i st ribut ion mode i n un i t s o f the
tagmem ic h ie ra rchy .
.
8.
•
P resentation i n t h i s Study
As i t s sub t i t le conv ey s . this study i s a Tagmem i c and Transfo rma ­
t iona l App ro a ch to the Teaching o f Eng l i sh Gramma t i c a l St ruc ture and
Sound Sy s t em to V i e tname s e Sp e a k e r s . and V i e t n a m e s e Gram m a t i c a l
St ructure and Sound System to Engl i sh Speakers. I t has two Part s : the
Grammar Par t . and the Phono logy Part .
The Gramma r Pa r t inc ludes four se c t ions : Eng l i sh Gramm a r . Vi e t ­
namese Gramm a r . En g l i sh Gramma t i c a l St ruc ture fo r Vie tnamese . Vi e t ­
namese Gramm a t i c a l S t ruc ture fo r Engl i sh .
Simi l a r l y . the Phono logy P a r t dea l s a l so w i t h Eng l i sh Phono logy .
V i etname se Phono logy . Eng l i sh Sound Sy stem fo r Vie tname se . and V ie t ­
n a me se Sound System fo r Eng l i sh . Neve rt he l e s s . fo r a b e t t e r con­
t ra s t ive presentat ion . these four desc r ip t i ve and con t rast ive a spects
o f considerat ion a re no t separate here . but they a re regrouped in the
s e c t ions on Consonant s ( the Consonan t s o f Eng l i sh . the Conson ant s o f
Vi e tnamese . Engl i sh Consonant s fo r V ietnamese . and V ie tnamese Conso ­
nan t s fo r Eng l i sh ) . Vowe l s ( the Vowe l s o f Eng l ish . e t c . ) . and Intona­
t ion.
Since the discovery procedures fo r the d i fferent Par t s . or even fo r
the d i ffe rent Se c t ions a re usua l ly a t varianc e w i th each o ther . d i f­
ferent In t rodu c t ions t o the d i scove ry p roc edu re s fo r e ach Par t . o r
some t imes even fo r each Sec t ion . wi l l be given when i t i s necessary to
do so .
35
The t erm Syn t agmeme i s repl aced by the t e rm Hype r t agmeme by Robe r t E.
Longac re in h i s " St ri n g Con s t i t uent Anal ysi s " . o p . ci t
the unde r l y i n g theo ry.
.
•
wi thout any change i n
I N TRO D U C T I O N T O THE GRAMMAR D I S COVERY
PRO CEDURE S A DOP TED
Cba r l e s F . Ho c ke t t , in h i s "Two Mode l s o f Grammat i cal De s c r i p­
t ion",l finds t h a t there i s pa r t i a l t ransl a t ab i l i t y between tWO mode l s
o f grammat i c a l desc r ipt ion tha t he def ines i t e m and arrange men t , and
i t em and pro ce ss.
He conc ludes h i s a r t i c le by loo k i n g towards an
eventual reint egra t ion o f the two mode l s in these wo rds:
"We mus t have more experiment a t ion, a s much w i th a model
a s w i th the o ther - and w i th the dev i s i ng o f fu rthe r
mode l s too, fo r tha t mat ter - lo ok ing towards an eventual
r e in t e g ra t i o n into a s in g l e m o re n ea r l y s a t i s fa c to ry
mode l, but no t fo r c i n g tha t re i n t e g ra t ion un t i l we a re
ready fo r i t . "
TIle f i r s t vo lume o f P i ke's L an gu a ge c ame out in the same year a s
Hockett's art i c le . The fo l lowing yea r ( 1955 ) . Noam Cbomsky's thesi s
S ince
The Lo gi cal S t ru c t u r e o f L i n gu i s t i c Theo r y c ame out a t M . I . T.
then,both the i tem and a rrangemen t model (under the form o f t agmem ic s )
a nd the i t em and p rocess mode l (un de r the fo rm o f t r ans fo rm a t i o n a l
grammar) have been extensively experimented and developed .
Wi l l i am G . Mou l ton, in h i s "\\hat is St ruc tura l Dri l l?" , 2 po ints out
tha t t agmem i c s can be served as the theo ret i c a l foundat ion for the
writ ing of grammat i cal sub s t i tu t i on dr i l l s in fo re ign l anguage teach­
ing, and that t rans format ion a l grammar can be served as the theoret i c a l
foundat ion for the w r i t ing o f t ransfo rmat ion a l dri l l s . Insp i red by
Moulton's art i c le, the present autho r makes an at tempt in thi s study to
comb ine the two mode l s o f g ramma t i c a l descript ion for an analy s i s o f
Eng l i sh grammar and Vietnamese grammar, a s we l l as fo r p resent ing the
teaching and learning p rob lems o f Eng l i sh grammar for Vietnamese, and
o f Vietnamese grammar for Eng l i sh . He i s p leased to see, in reading
S i mon Be l a s co ' s a r t i c le, '�agmemi c s and Tra n s fo rma t iona l Grammar in
L ingu i s t ic An a l y s i s", 3 tha t Be l a sco demonst rates that "one need no t
1
Ch a r l e s F.
Ho ck e t t ,
" Two Mo de l s o f Gr amm a t ic a l De s c r ip t io n" , WOrd,
1 0 . 2 10 - 231 ( 19 5 4) , r ep r in t ed in Readings in Lingui s ti cs , Mar t ine Joo s ( ed . ) ,
AQS, New Yo rk , 1958 , p p .386 - 399 .
2
Wil l iam G. Mou l ton ,
" Wh a t is St r u c t u r a l Dril )?" ,
and the L an guage Labora tory ,
in St ruc tural Dri l l
Franc is W. Gr a vit a nd A l b e rt Va l dm a n (ed . ) .
I nd ian a Unive r s it y , Bl oom ington ; Mou ton a nd Co. , The H agu e ,
3
Simon Be l a s co ,
196 3 , p p . 3 -18 .
"Tagmemic s a nd Tran s fo rm a t io n a l Gramm a r in L in gu is t ic
Ana l ys is" , Lingui s ti cs 10 . 5- 1 4 (196 4 ), Mou ton and Co. , The Hague.
xxii.
XXl l l
supersede t h e o t h e r " , p . 14 (mean ing e i ther ta gmem i c s o r t r an s fo rma­
t iona l gramma r need not supe rsede the o the r ) . Now , i f "on e need no t
supersede t h e o t h e r " , then a comb ina t ion o f the two has a good chance
to be at least p edagogic a l ly app l i c ab l e .
1.
Tagmemi c Procedure an d Theo ry
As i t wa s said ear l i e r , the theory o f language on wh ich th i s study
l S b� sed ha s been d eve loped by Kenn e th L. P i k e in h i s L an gu a ge i n
Rel a t i on to a Un i fi ed Th eo ry o f the S t ru c t u re o f Human Behavi o r .
Thi s
theo ry o f fe rs an exc e l l en t me thodo logy fo r con t ra s t ive ana l y s i s be­
c ause it po s t u l a t e s pat t e rn i ng a s be ing cen t r a l to human behav iour.
I t i s a mode l to p r esent l ingu i s t ic p a t t e rn s in s t r a i gh t fo rward and
summary fash ion . Such p a t terns when systema t i c a l l y described fo r one
l angua ge may be con t ras t ed w i th p a t t e rn s desc ribed fo r ano the r l an ­
guage . Thanks to the no t i on o f h i e r a rchy in language in the theo ry ,
such pat terns des c r ibed fo r two l an guages c an be contra sted on c l ear­
c u t l e v e l s of con s i de r a t ion , such a s Sentence l e ve l , Clause l e ve l ,
Ph ra se l eve l , e t c . Fu rthe rmo re , the no t i on o f tagmeme as s l o t p lu s
fi l l e r- c l a s s perm i t s t o s e e whether pat t e rn s o f two language s d i ffe r
i n the i r t agmemes ( i . e . p a t t e rns in one l anguage have some t a gmeme s
tha t p a t t e rn s In the o ther do no t ) , o r j us t in the fi l ler- c la sses o f
the i r t agmemes ( i . e . pat terns In two language s cont ain the same func­
t i ona l s l o t s , but the s l o t s a re f i l l ed by a d i f fe rent numb e r o f
d i st r ibut ion- subc lasses ) .
Fo r p rac t i c a l gramm a r d i scovery p ro c e du res , Ro b e r t E. Longa c r e ' s
g ramm a r d 'i s covery p ro c edu res s t a t ed in h i s G r amm a r di sco v e r y P ro ­
cedu res a r e used w i t h some theo ret i ca l mod i ficat ions as fo l lo ws :
Fi rst l y , conc e rning the scope o f ana lys i s , the word l eve l ana lys i s
i s purpo s e l y om i t ted i n this study . because s in c e Vie tnamese has no
i n flec t ions or der ivat ions , the re is no point in giv ing a cont ra s t ive
ana lys l s on the wo rd l e ve l . Neverthe l e s s . in En g l i sh grammar , wo rd
l eve l compu l so ry gramma t i c a l c a t ego r i es ( fo r e xamp l e s case , gende r ,
pe rson-numbe r , et c . ) are stated .
Second l y , Ph � a se l eve l t a gmemes a r e no t a n a l y zed fo r the i r o wn
s ake but as fi l l e rs o f Clause l eve l slo t s . The resu l t o f thls way o f
presen t i ng i s tha t Phra se leve l tagmemes are p resen t ed i n the d i scus­
s ion o f i n t e rna l s t ructures o f Clause l e ve l tagmeme s . Fo r examp l e ,
t he Verb Ph r a s e i s p r e s en t ed i n t h e s e c t i o n on t h e C l a u s e l e ve l
P red i c a t e tagmeme . Ih l S way o f present ing i s mo re accurate because ,
fo r examp l e , in the ana lys i s o f the Noun Phrase a s an a l t e rnate d i s­
t r ibut ion- subc lass o f the _l duse l eve l Subj ect f l l le r c lass , and again
I f necessary as an a l ternate d i s t ribut ion- subc lass of the Clause l eve l
Attribut ive f l l ler c lass , I t becomes evident that a Noun Phrase can b e
d i fferent when i t f i l l s a Subj ec t s lo t o r an At t r i bu t ive s lo t . Ex­
amp l e : a De t e rm in e r l S obl l gato ry in a Noun Ph rase fi l l ing a Subj e c t
XXiV
s lo t , but it i s om i t ted in a Noun Phrase fi l l ing
an
At tribut ive s lo t -
T h e p re s i d e n t was acc L ai m ed .
John was e L e c t ed pres i d en t .
( Fo r furthe r det ai l on p resentat ion , see Cbapter 3 in each Gramma r . )
Th i rd ly , Longacre ' s requ i remen t s fo r the d i st inct ion o f t wo syntagmemes a s :
" Fo r t wo p a t t e rn s ( syn tagmeme s ) to b e in con t ra s t they
must have mo re than one s t ru c t u r a l d i ffe rence b e tw e en
them; a t l ea s t one o f these di ffe rence s mus t invo l ve the
nuclei o f the syntagmemes" ,
op . c i t . p . l8 , seem rather di fficu l t to be met when i t i s to contrast
two synt agmemes in Vi etnamese.
As a matter of fac t , Vietnamese, be ing an un inflect iona l langua ge ,
c an rely on l y upon two gramma t ic a l devices, wo rd orde r , and funct iona l
wo rds . Th i s l im i t ed numb e r o f gramm a t 1 c a l dev i c e s means that some­
t imes two di f feren t syn t agmemes have only one st ruc tura l di f fe rence ,
o r even none . I n I he l a t t e r c a s e , i t i s po s s i b l e t o f ind o n l y non­
fo rmal d1 fference s such as ( a ) di ffering trans fo rm potent ia l , ( b ) d i f­
fer ing po t ent i a l o f int e rna l expans ion , ( c ) d i f ferent syntac t ic mean­
i ng , i . e . 1t is some t imes nece ssa ry to re ly upon the nat ive speake r ' s
intu i t io n .
I t i s no t nece ssary t o g lve examp les o f such cases here , because i n
t h e Vie tname se Gramma r , wherever Longac re ' s requ i remen ts fo r t h e d i s ­
t inc t i on o f t wo syn t a gmemes a re no t me t , t h e re i s a l wa y s a sho r t
t h eo ret i c a l exp l i c a t ion de fend ing the d i f fe r en t i a t i on o f the syn ­
tagmemes .
Even in En g l i sh , wh i ch can make use o f mo re g ramma t i c a l dev i c e s
than V i e tnamese ( wo rd o rd e r , func t ion wo rds , 1n f l ec t i ona l and de r i ­
v a t i on a l s u f f xe s ) , the re i s a l so a n e ed t o r e l y upon t h e n a t i v e
speak e r ' s int u i t ion rathe r than t o requ i re mo re than o n e s t ructural
d i ffe rence in the di fferen t i a t ion of two syntagmemes.
Lon g a c r e h i m s e l f . wh i l e d i s c u s s ing Noam Cbomsky ' s p a p e r "The
Logi c a l Ba s i s o f L in gu i s t i c Theo ry" a t the N in th Congre s s o f L in ­
gu i s t s , hand l e s the amb i gu i t y i n the sentence :
I don ' t appro ve of h i s dri n k i ng
"by se t t i ng up t wo con t ra s t i ng t o t a l fo rmu l a e b o th 0 f
wh ich may have homophonous m in imum man i festa t ions :
+Possessive +Gerund
iObj e c t
+Po ssess ive ±Adj ect ive -+Nomina l " . 4
Thu s , i t i s su f fi c i e n t to s a y s i mp l y that there may be mo re o f
these k i nds o f homophonous man i fes t a t ions o f con t ra s t ing formu l a e in
V i e tnam ese than 1n En g l i sh ; then , l es s fo rma l i sm is some t im e s p e r­
m i t ted in the d i scove ring o f synt agmemes in Vietnamese .
4
I n Ho r a ce G. Lun t ( ed. ) , Proceedings o f the Ninth In t ernati onal Congress
o f Lingui s t s .
Mouton a nd Co . , The Hagu e ,
1964, p . 99 8 .
xxv
2.
Transfo rmat ional Grammar an d Grammati cal Matri x Theory
Gramma t i c a l pa t t e rn s o f a language comp r i s e a s y s t e m ; t h ey a r e
i n t e rre l a t ed . The re a re t wo w a y s t o sho w re l a t ions among p a t t ern s .
Both o f these ways are inco rpo rated t o some degree i n thi s study .
The f i rst way to show re l a t ion s among gramm a t i c a l p a t t e rn s to b e
d iscussed here i s gramma t i c a l m a t r i x theo ry . The theo ry , developed by
Kenneth L. Pik e , 5 o ffe rs a way o f showing re l a t ions b etween con s t ruc­
t ions in general ( sentence s , c l ause s , ph rases , e tc . ) by concep tua l i z ing
them as cha rted toge the r in various dimension s . I t is app l i ed in the
p re sent paper in the cha r t ing of Sen tence Typ e s and Cl ause Typ e s o f
both Eng l i sh and Vi etnamese ( c f . Chap ters I I , and V in each Grammar) .
The second way i s tran s fo rma t iona l gramma r , wh tch i s no t immiscible
w i th t agmem i c s . In fac t , Pike himse l f says :
" . . . so i t wou l d s e em po s s i b l e t h a t i f t agmem i c s and
transfo rm grammar are bo th deve loped fa r enou h , that they
�
could come to the point o f complete over l ap . "
There i s even no need to j u st i fy the in t roduc t ion o f t rans fo rma­
t iona l grammar to the ana l ys i s in th i s pap e r , but j us t to quo t e from
Noam Chomsky :
"The mo t i v a t i o n fo r a d d i n g t r a n s fo rm a t i o n a l ru l e s t o
gramma r i s qu i te c l e a r . There a re c e r t a i n senten c e s ( in
fa ct , simp le dec larat ive act ive sentences w i th no comp l ex
noun or ve rb phrases - or, to be mo re prec i se , the term in a l
s t r i n g s unde r l y ing th e s e ) t h a t c an b e gen e r a t e d b y a
c o ns t i tuent s t ru c ture g ramm a r in qu i t e a n a t ura l w ay .
There are o thers ( e . g . pass ive , que st ion s , sentences w i th
d i s c o n t inuou s phra s e s and c omp l e x p h r a s e s t h a t embed
sentence t ransfo rms) that cannot be gen e r a t ed in an eco­
nomic and na tural way by a con s t i tuent s t ructure gramm a r ,
b u t t h a t a r e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y re l a t e d t o sen t e n c e s o f
s imp l e r st ruc ture . Tran s fo rmat ion s th a t a re const ruc ted
to express th i s re l a t ion C2n thus mate r i a l l y s imp l i fy the
g rammar when used to generate mo re comp lex sen t en ces and
t h e i r s t ruc t u r a l d e s c r i p t i on s from a l re ady gen e r a t e d
s imp l er ones . ,, 7
5
K enneth L. Pi k e , " Dimen s i o n s o f Gramm a t i c a l Con s t ru ct i ons" , Language ,
38 . 22 1 - 244 ( 19 6 2 ) .
6
K en n e th L . Pike , Language , P a r t I I I , p . 36b.
7
Noam Chom sk y , "On the no t i on of ' Ru l e of Granrn a r ' '' , Proceedings of the
Twel fth Symposium in Appl i ed Mathematics XI I . 6 - 24 ( 19 6 1) ,
Fo do r a n d J . J . K a t z ( ed . ) , The S t ru c tu r e o f Language.
p p . 119 - 136 .
Quo t a t i o n , page 129 .
rep r i n ted in J . A.
New J e r s e y ,
19 6 4,
XXV1
The in s e r t i on in to a t a gmem i c framewo rk o f a t ran s fo rm a t i on a l
mode l from wh ich no t ion o f t r an s f o rm a t ion s and r e wr i t e ru l e s i s
adapted , requ i res some theore t i c a l mod i fi cat ions to the mode l . Fo l ­
lowing are the d i ffe rences between the o r igin a l t ransfo rma t iona l mode l
and i t s adap t ed fo rm used here . I t i s unde rstood that the fo l lowing
d i s cus s ion is n o t a c r i t i c i sm no r an eva luat i on of transfo rma t iona l
g rammar.
Firs t l y , the r e is a di fference 1n the po stul a t i on o f gramma t i c a l
h i e rarch i c a l levels o f con s iderat ion .
The t ran s fo rm a t iona l mo de l , wh i l e de fin i ng gramma r as a sent en c e
gen e ra t ing dev i c e wh i ch i s ab l e to p roduce a l l and on l y gramma t i c a l
sen t ences o f a l angu a ge b y mean s o f v a r ious k inds o f ru l e s fo r re­
wr i t ing e l emen t s , begins nece s s ar i l y with the e l emen t Sen t ence S an d
wo rk s down through va riou s l eve l s to the phonem i c leve l 9 or beyond { to
the l eve l o f d i s t inc t i ve fea tures ) . 1 0
In thi s study , since " In essence , the c l ause pos i t s a s i tuat ion in
miniature { whether asse rt ing, quest ion ing , commanding , or equa t ing ) ,, 1 1
t h e g r amma t i c a l p ro c edu r e s s t a r t w i t h C l a u s e l ev e l syn t a gm e m e s
( Cl ause Types ) r ather than w i t h Sen t en ce level syn tagmemes . A resu l t
o f th i s i s that grammat ica l t rans fo rms ( t ran s fo rmat ion s ) c an ope r a t e
a t any l eve l o f the gramma t i c a l h i era rchy , and d o no t have t o b e em­
b edded in o v e ra l l s e n t en c e ma t r i c e s . Thu s , fo r e x amp l e s , on the
C l au se leve l , a Yes -No Inte r ro gat 1ve Transfo rm can b e app l i ed to any
Clause Typ e o f the Independent Dec larat ive Clause Cl a s s to d e r ive an
I ndependent Yes -No Interrogat ive Clause Type ( c f. Chap t e r I I in each
Gramma r ) , o r 1n the Phrase a Nega t ive ( don ' t ) Trans form o r a Nega t ive
Aux i l i a ry (or Moda l ) Trans form can be app l i ed to an Affirma t ive Verb
P h r a s e in Eng l i sh to d e r i v e a Ne g a t i v e ( do n ' t ) Verb Ph ra s e o r a
N e ga t i v e Aux i l 1 ary ( o r Mo da l ) Verb Ph rase ( see Sec t i on 3. 1. in each
Grammar) .
I n p o s tu l a t ing Clause l eve l syn t a gmeme s , o r Ph r a s e l e v e l syn ­
t agmem e s a s po s s i b l e m a t r i c e s fo r t ransfo rm a t ions , the re i s no n eed
any mo re to make a d i s t inct ion between Singu l a r l y Tran s fo rma t ions and
Genera l i zed Tran s fo rmat ions 1 2 { which is necessa ry in t rans fo rma t iona l
g r amma r to make a d i s t inc t ion b e tween Comp l e x Sen t ences - tha t , in
t ransfo rm at ion a l gramm ar t e rms , have more than one Phrase - St ruc ture
S
Noam QlOmsk y , Syn tac ti c Struc tures .
9
Mo rri s H al l e ,
10
Mou ton and Co . ,
"Phono l ogy in Gen e r a ti ve Grammar" .
19 57 ,
Hb rd
p p . 37 ££.
lS . 5 4- 7 2 ( 196 2 ) .
Fo r a m o d e l o f d i s t i n c t i v e fe a t u r e an a l y s i s i n phono l o g y,
e x ampl e, Roman J akobson and Mo r r i s H al l e , Fundcmental s o f Lan�a�e.
and Co . ,
11
12
see,
fo r
Mou ton
19 5 6 .
Robert E. Long a c re , Gramma r Di scovery ProcedUres , p . 35.
J e r ro l d J. K a t z an d P au l M. Pos t a l , An In t e�rated Th eo ry o f Lin�ui s t i c
D�l>cr:ip tions.
The M. 1 . T . Pre s s , Cambr i dge , Mas s . ,
1964.
XXV l l
t r ee i n the i r d e r iva t i ona l h i s t o ry - and S i mp l e Sen t en c e s - who s e
derivat ional histo ry inc ludes on ly one Phrase- St ruc ture tree - be cause
o u r t rans fo rma t i on s o p e ra t e now on a d i f fe ren t g ramm a t i c a l h i e r ­
a rch i c a l leve l than the Sen t ence l eve l . Then . o n the Sentence l eve l .
the c l a ss i fi c a t ion o f Sen t en c e s into Simp l e . COmpoun d . and COmp l e x
Sen t ence Typ e s i s b a s ed upon t h e numb e r and n a t u re o f Cl aus e Typ es
they con t a in ( c f . Chap ter V i n each Grammar) .
Se cond l y . the re i s a d i f fe rent u s age o f the t e rm k e rn e l on the
e a rly fo rm of Trans fo rm a t ion a l Gramm a r 1 3 and here . The t e rm has a
l a rger mean ing here in two wa ys.
In Syntac t i c St ru c tu re s . Chomsky de fine s kerne l senten c e s a s " the
s e t o f sentences tha t a re p ro du c ed when we app l y ob l i ga t o ry t r ans­
fo rmat i ons to th e k e rn e l s t r ings of the ( phra se struc ture ) grammar" .
p . 4S . I n o th e r wo rd s . the re are n o k e rn e l s t r in g s i n o th e r gram­
m a t i c a l h i erarch i c a l l eve l s except in the Sen t ence leve l . and there
a re no kernel st r ings that have undergone an op t iona l t rans fo rm a t ion .
The term kerne l a s used here ha s a l a rge r mean ing i n the fi rst way
in the sense that there c an be k e rne l s t r ings or st ru c t u r e s on any
grammat ica l hi erarch i c a l l eve l . A k e rne l i s any s t ructure to wh ich a
Transfo rm ( t ran sfo rmat ion ) can be app l ied. Thus . fo r examp le s . on the
C l ause leve l . an Independen t De c l a r a t ive Clause Typ e i s the ke rne l
s t ructure to wh i ch the Ye s-No Int e rroga t ive Tr ans fo rm can be app l i ed
to derive an Independen t Ye s-No I n t e rroga t ive Clause Type . o r an Af­
f i rm a t i v e Verb Ph ra se i s the k e rn e l s t ru c ture to wh i ch a Ne g a t i v e
( don ' t ) Transfo rm . o r a Negat ive Auxi l iary ( o r Moda l ) Trans fo rm can b e
app l i ed to derive a Negat ive Verb Phrase i n Eng l i sh.
The term kerne l a s used here has a larger mean ing in the second way
i n the s e n s e tha t i t m e a n s a b a s i s fo r t r a n s fo rma t i o n : a k e rn e l
s t ruc ture c.an have und e r gone op t i ona l t r an s fo rma t i on s ( Ch o m s k y ' s
types o f opt iona l t rans fo rma t ion s } . 1 4 As an i l lustrat i on . the fo l low­
i ng Independent Dec larat ive Clause "he went to Sydn ey" i s the k e rne l
s t ruc ture to wh i ch the Yes -No Int erro ga t i ve Tran s fo rm i s app l i e d to
d e r i v e the Independent Ye s -No In t e r ro g a t i v e C l a u s e " d i d he go t o
Sydney" . wh ich in i t s turn i s the ke rne l s t ructure t o wh i ch t h e Ext ra
I n t e r ro gat ive Tr an s fo rm i s app l i ed to d e r i ve the I ndependen t Ex t ra
I nterroga t i ve Clause "when did he go to Sydney" I S ( c E . Chap t e r I I in
13
Pau l
Sc h a ch t e r .
fo rm a t i o n a l Gr amm a r " .
in h i s "Kernel
an d Non - K e r n e l
i n Ho r a ce G . Lun t ( ed . ) . o p . ci t
Se n t en c e s i n Tr an s ­
.
•
pp . 69 2 - 6 9 6 . demo n ­
s t r a t e s the r e l a t i v e t r i v i al i ty o f the d i s t i n ct i o n made be tween k e r n e l an d
non - kernel sen t en c e s in e a r l y �odel s o f Tran sform a t i o n al Gramm a r .
14
15
Noam Chomsk y . Syn tac t i c S t ru c tures . p p . 4 5 f f .
Zel I i g S . H a r r i s .
i n h i s " Co - o c c u r r en ce an d Tr an s f o rm a t i on i n L i n ­
g u i s t i c St r u c tu r e " . Languag e .
3 3 . 2 9 3 3 40
-
( 19 5 7 ) .
s t r e s s e s t h a t a n y sen ­
t e n ce in t h e l an gu a ge m a y be u s ed as t h e b � s i s f o r t r an s fo rm a t i o n .
s en s e .
the t ran sform a t i on a l mo del
In a
adap t ed in the p r e sent s t u dy i s c l o s e r to
H a r ri s ' s theory than to Chomsk y ' s in the defi n i t i on of kernel s t ru ctures.
xxv i i i
each Grammar) .
Th i rdl y , see ing that in learn ing Engl ish o r Vi e tnamese as a fo r e i gn
l anguage , one ha s to ma s t e r the in tona t ion p a t t ern o f the l anguage ,
and since the u l t imate purpo se o f the p re sen t study i s fo r pedagog i c a l
app l i c a t i ons , inton a t ion 1 S con sidered here a s a n important component
o f Sen t en c e s . COns e quent ly , i t i s s t a t ed in s t ructura l fo rmu l a e o f
Sen t en c e Type s in thi s study , whi l e ·i t i s no t s t a t ed 1n t ran s fo rma­
t iona l grammar. 1 6
Fourth l y , and last in the l i st , s ince a sta t ement in t e rms of i t em
and p ro c e s s n e eds an adequa t e s t a t e men t o f i t em un i t s b e fo re the
p rocess can b e mo s t e f fe c t i v e l y imp l i ed , the g ramma t i c a l mode l h e re
a t temp t ed d1 ffe rs from curren t t ransfo rmat iona l g ramma r by s e t t ing up
t h e i t �m un i t s , n ame l y t a gm em e s a t a l l g r amm a t i c a l h i e r a r ch i c a l
l eve l s . 1 7 Th i po s tu l a t ion o f i t em un i t s fo r a gen e r a t i ve gramm a r i s
u rged by Pike in these terms :
"At some point ,
furthe r un 1 t to
b e l i e f tha t the
s t ru c t u r e , 1S
g ramm a r . " 1 8
i t wou ld s eem , t ransfo rm gramma r n eeds a
be iden t i fied and t ransfo rmed. I t is our
tagmeme , or something very much l i ke i t in
n e e d e d fo r t h i s p u rp o s e in t r a n s fo rm
( Fo r overa l l st a temen t s on the postulat ion o f t agmemes on d i ffe rent
g ramma t i c a l l eve l s and Ph rase- St ructure rep resent a t io n s , see App en­
d i ces in each Gramma r . )
16
Ro be r t P . S t o c k we I I ,
i n h i s " T h e P I ace o f I n ton a t i on i n a Gen e r a t i ve
G r amm a r o f En g l i sh " , L an guage ,
36 . 3 p p . 360 - 367 ,
do e s t h e p i o n e e r i n g wo r k
t o i n co rpo r a t e i n t o n a t i on i n t o gen e r a t i v e g r amm a r s .
S � Nuc. +IP ( I n to n a t i on
+ VP ( Chomsky ' s S � NP +VP) .
ru l e i s
17
P a t t ern ) ,
H i s f i r s t ge n e r a t i v e
and h i s second ru l e i s
Nuc.
�
NP
I am indebted to Dr Ro b e r t E. Lon g a c r e for i n fo rmi ng me t h a t my com­
bined t agm emi c and t ran sformat i o n a l
ap p ro ac h i s v e ry p a r a l l e l to h i s own i n
" Tr an s fo rm at i on a l Pa r ameters in Tagmemi c Fi e l d St ru c t u re s " , George toVll Mono­
graph Seri es ,
vo l um e repo r t i n g t he Round Tab l e h e l d in M a rch 1 9 6 5 , p p . 43 - 58 .
he s a y s :
" Tagmem i c s c an g a i n m a n y v al u a b l e i n s i gh t s f rom
t r an s f o rm a t i o n al gramm a r .
Tran s fo rm at i on a l gramm a r co u l d I e a rn some t h i n gs
I n the a r ti c l e ,
from t a gm em i c s as wel l : more exp l i c i t fu n c t i o n a l o ri en t a t i o n ; u se o f fun c ­
t i on - s e t n o t a t i on t o c l a r i fy t r an s fo rm a t i on ru l e s ;
and su f fi c i en t a t ten t i on
to f i e l d s t ru ct u r e s to fi t t ran s fo rm a t i o n s in adequ a t e con t ex t " , p . 58.
examp l e s o f " t r an s fo rm a t i on a l p a r am e t e r s " ,
Gramm a r , and V i e tn am ese Grammar.
18
Fo r
see Cha p t e r s 2 i n bo t h my Engl i sh
Kenneth L. Pi k e , Lan�age , P a r t I I I , p . 36b.
TABL E
OF
CON T EN T S
Pa�e
PREFACE
v
A CKNO WL EDGEMENT S
vi
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
vii
I NTRODUCTION TO THE GRAMMAR DI SCOVERY P ROCEDURES ADOPTED
XXll
SPECIAL SIGNS A ND ABBREVI A TIONS
xl i i i
Ch ap t e r 1 :
I N DEPEN DEN T D ECL ARAT I VE C L AU SE TYPES
1
1 . 0 . I n t roducto ry
1 . 1 . C l assi f i c at ion
1. 2. Cl ause Cl asses and Per t inent Rem arks
1. 2. 1 . Se lect ion o f the fo rm o f the Predicate
1 . 2. 2. The Pa ssive Tran s i t ive Clause Cla s s
1 . 2. 2a. Th e Pas s i ve Tran s fo rm
1 . 3. I ndependen t Decl arat i ve Cl ause Types i n Detai l
1 . 3. 0. I n t roducto ry
1 . 3. 0 . 1 . Min imum Nuc l eus Fo rmulae
1 . 3. 0 . 2. Expanded Max imum Fo rmu lae
1 . 3. 1. Independent De c l a rat ive Clause Type 1: Ac t ive In­
t ransit ive Dec l a ra t i ve Clause Type
1 . 3. 2. Independent De c l a rat ive Clause Type 2: Ac t ive Single
Trans i t ive Dec l a rat ive Cl ause Typ e
1. 3. 3. Independent De c l a rat ive Clause Typ e 3: Ac t ive Dbub l e
Tran s i t i v e Dec l a rat ive Clause Type
1. 3. 3a. The Ind i rect Obj ect Transform
1. 3. 4. I ndependent Dec larat ive Clause Type 4: AC,tive
Att ributive Tran s i t ive Dec la rat ive Clause Type
1. 3. 5. Independent Dec l a rat ive Clause Type 5: Passive Sing l e
Tran s i t i ve Dec l a ra t ive Clause Type
1. 3. 6 . Independent Dec l a rat ive Cl ause Type 6 : Passive Dbub l e
Tran s i t ive Dec larat ive Cl ause Type
1 . 3. 7 . Independent Dec larat ive Clause Type 7 : Pa ssive
At t ribu t ive Tran s i t ive Dec l a rat ive Clause Type
Independent
Dec larat ive Clause Type 8 : Equa t iona l
1 . 3. 8 .
Dec la rative Clause Type
1 . 3. 9 . Independent De c l a ra t ive Clause Type 9 : ( T here )
Sta t ive "De c l a rat ive Cl ause Type
1. 3. 10. I ndependent De c l a rat ive Clause Type 10 : (I t ) St at ive
Dec larat ive Clause Type
1
1
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
5
XX1X
6
7
8
9
10
11
13
15
16
17
18
xxx
Page
1. 3. lOa.
Some o ther u ses o f the ob l igatory nuc l eus Lo g i c a l
Subj ec t ( I t )
C h ap t e r 2 : CL AU SE CL ASSES
2. 0 . Cl assi f i cation
2. 1 . Cl ause Cl asses i n Detai l
2. 1 . 0. Introducto ry
2. 1 . 1 . { Independent } Dec l a ra t ive Clause Class
2. 1 . 2. { Independent } Impera t ive Clause Class
2. 1 . 3. { Independen t } Yes-No Interrogative Clause Class
2. 1 . 3a. The Yes-No Trans form
2. 1 . 4. { Independen t } Interroga t ive Subj ect Clause Class
2. 1. 4a. The Int e rrogat ive Subj ect Trans fo rm
2. 1. 4b. The obl igatory nuc leus Interroga t ive Subj ec t t agmeme
2. 1. 5. { Independent } Inte rrogat i ve Non- Subj ect Clause Cl a s s
2. 1. 5a. The Non- Subj ect In t e r ro gat i ve Tran sfo rm
2. 1 . 5b. The obl i ga tory nuc leus Int errogat i ve Non- Subj ect
t agmeme
2. 1 . 5b. 1. Al t e rnate d i v i s ion- subc l a s s Int errogative Di rec t
Obj ect tagmeme
2. 1 . 5b . 2. Alternate division- subc lass Inte rroga t i ve Ind i rect
CbJ ec t tagmeme
2. 1 . 5b. 2a. No t e on the Ind i rect Obj ect I n t roducer ( t o )
2. 1 . 5b. 3. Alt ernate di v i s ion- sub c l a s s Inte rroga t ive
At tribut ive tagmeme
2. 1. 5b. 4. Al te rrate divi s ion- subc lass Inte rroga t i v e
Equa t i ona l COmplement t agmeme
2. 1 . 5b. 5. Alternate divi sion - subclass Interroga t i ve Stat ive
Subj ect tagmeme
2. I . 5b. 6. Alternate divis ion- subc lass Interroga t ive St a t ive
COmp lement tagmeme
2. 1. 6 . { I ndependent } Ex t r a Int e rroga t i ve Clause Cla ss
2. 1. 6a. The In t e rrogat ive Add i t ion Trans fo rm
2. 1. 6b. The obl iga tory nuc leus Int e rroga tive Clause
Int roducer
2. 1 . 7 . Dependent Subj e c t Clause Cl a ss
2. 1. 7 a. The Dependent Subj e c t Trans fo rm
2. 1 . 7b. Ob l igatory nuc l eus Dependent Subj ect t agmeme
2. 1 . S . Dependen t Non- Subj ect Clause Cl a ss
2. 1 . Sa. The Non- Subj e c t Dependent Tran s fo rm
2. 1 . Sb. The opt iona l nuc l eus Dependent Non- Subj ect t agmeme
2. I. Sb. 1. Alternate d i v i s ion- subc lass Dependent Di rec t
Obj ect tagmeme
2. 1. Sb. 2. Al ternate divi sion-subc lass Dependent .Ind i re c t
Obj e c t tagmeme
2. 1 . Sb. 2a. Not e on the Ind i rect Obj ect I n t roducer ( to )
20
21
21
24
24
24
25
25
28
28
28
28
30
30
30
32
32
32
32
33
33
33
34
34
34
36
36
36
36
39
39
39
39
40
/
xxx 1
Page
2. 1 . 8b . 3.
Al ternate divis ion- subc lass Dependent Equat ion a l
Comp l ement tagm eme
2. 1. 9. Dependent Re l a t ive Clause Class
2. 1 . 9a. The Re l a t ive Dependent Transfo rm
2. 1 . 9b. The opt iona l nuc leus Dependen t Re l a t ive Clause
Int roducer
2. 1 . 10. Ext ra Dependent Clause Cla s s
2. 1 . lOa. Th e Dependent Add i t ion Trans fo rm
2. 1. lOb. Ob l i ga to ry Dependen t Cl ause I n t roducer tagmeme
2. 2. The t en comp l ete C l ause Cl asses and thei r Transforms
2. 3. The 87 comp l et e Cl ause Types
C h ap t e r 3 : I N TERN AL STRUCTURES O F CLAUSE L EV EL T AGM EM ES
3. 0. Introducto ry
3. 1 . Nuc l eus Cl ause l,evel t agmemes
3. 1. 0 . I n t roductory
3. 1 . 1 . The ob l i gatory nuc l eus Pred i ca t e t agmeme
3. 1 . 1 . 1. Inte rna l St ructure o f the Verb Phrase Hyperc lass
3. 1. 1 . 1. 1 . Close- kn i t Act ive Verb Phrase
3. 1. 1 . 1 . 2. Close - kn i t Passive Verb Phra se
3. 1 . 1. 1 . 3. Close-kn i t Nega t ed Dec larat ive Verb Phra se s
3. 1 . 1 . 1. 3. 1. The a l te rna t e d i v i s ion- subc lass Nega ted
Dec la ra t ive (don ' t ) Verb Phrase
3. 1 . 1. 1. 3. 2. The a l t e rnate d i v i sion- sub c l a s s Nega t ed
Dec larat ive ( n ' t ) Verb Phrase
3. 1. 1 . 1. 3. 2a. Note on the fo rm ( n ' t )
3. 1. 1. 1. 4. Close-kn i t Int errogative Verb Ph ra ses
3. 1. 1. 1. 4. 1 . The a l ternate d i v i sion - subc l a ss Inte rroga t ive
( do ) Verb Phrase
3. 1 . 1. 1. 4. la. Nega t ion o f the Inte rroga t ive ( do ) Verb Phrase
3. 1. 1. 1. 4. 2. The a l ternate d i v i s ion- subc lass Interroga t ive
Moda l (or Aux i l i a ry ) Verb Ph ra se
3. 1 . 1. 1. 4. 2a. Nega t ion o f the Int errogat ive Moda l ( o r
Auxi l i a ry) Verb Phrase
3. 1. 1 . 1. 5. Verb Phra se Subst i tutes
3. 1. 1 . 1 . 5. 1 . The a l terna te divi sion - subc l a ss Substi tute ( do )
Phrase
3. 1 . 1 . 1 . 5a. Nega t ion o f the Subst itute ( do ) Phrase
3. 1. 1. 1 . 5. 2. The a l ternate d i v l s ion- sub c l a s s Subst i tute
Moda l ( o r Aux i l i a ry ) Phra se
3. 1 . 1. 1. 6 . The opt iona l sate l l i t e De l im i t e r t agmeme
3. 1. 1. 2. Verb stem c l a s ses . d i v i s ion- subc lasses. and co occurrence- subc lasses
3. 1. 1 . 2. 1 . The Int rans i t ive Ve rb stem c l a ss
3. 1. 1 . 2. 1. 1. The I nt ran s i t ive Verb stem s a l t erna te d i v i s ionsubc lass
40
40
42
42
42
44
44
44
44
48
48
48
48
48
49
49
52
55
55
56
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63
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XXXll
P BA e
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 1 . 2.
The Int rans i t ive Verb stemp rep a l ternate
divis ion- subc lass
3. 1 . 1. 2. 2. The Single Trans i t ive Verb stem c l a ss
3. 1 . 1. 2. 2. 1. The Sing l e Trans i t i ve Verb s tems a lt erna t e
divis ion-subc l ass
Th
e Single Trans i t ive Verb stem s l co ­
3. 1. 1. 2. 2. 1 . 1 .
occu rrence- subc lass
3. 1. 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 2. The Sing l e Trans i t i ve Verb stem s 2 co­
oc currence- subc l a ss
3. 1 . 1. 2. 2. 1. 3. The Sing l e Trans i t i ve Verb stem s 3 co­
occu rrence- subc lass
3. 1 . 1 . 2 . 2. 1. 4. The Sing l e Trans i t ive Verb stem s4 co­
occu rrence- subclass
3. 1 . 1. 2. 2. 1 . 5. The Single Tran s i t ive Ve rb stem sS co ­
occurrenc e- sub c l a ss
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 6. The Single Tran s i t ive Verb stems6 co­
oc currence- subc lass
3. 1 . 1. 2. 2. 1 . 7 . Th e Sing l e Transit ive Verb stem s7 co­
occur rence - subc lass
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 8 . The Sing le Trans i t i ve Verb stem s8 co­
occurrenc e- subc lass
3. 1. 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 9 . The Sing l e Transi t ive Verb stem s9 co­
occu rrence- subc lass
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 10. The Single Trans i t i ve Verb stem s lO co­
occu rrence- subc lass
3. 1 . 1. 2. 2. 1. 1 1. The Single Tran s i t ive Verb stem s l l co­
occu rrence- subc lass
3. 1 . 1. 2. 2. 1 . 12. The Single Trans i t ive Verb stem s l 2 co­
occurrence- suh c l a s s
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 2. The Sing le Trans i t ive Verb s tern rep a l t e rna t e
P
d lV
' l. S lon.
sub c I ass
3. 1. 1 . 2. 2. 2. 1 . The Singl e Tran s i t ive Verb sternp rep l co ­
occu rrence- sub c l a ss
3. 1 . 1. 2. 2. 2. 2. The Single Trans i t ive Verb sternprep 2 co­
occu rrenc e- subc lass
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 3. The Dbub l e Tran s i t ive Verb stem class
3. 1 . 1. 2. 3. 1. The Dbuble Tran s i t i ve Ve rb sternn a l te rna t e
divis ion-subc lass
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 3. 1. 1 . Th e Dbub l e Tran s i t ive Verb stemn l co ­
occu rrence-subc l a ss
3. 1. 1 . 2. 3. 1 . 2. The Dbub l e Trans i t i ve Verb ste� 2 co ­
o ccu rrence- subc l a ss
3. 1. 1 . 2. 3. 1 . 3. The Dbub l e Tran s i t ive Verb ste� 3 co ­
oc currence- subc lass
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 3. 2. The Dbub l e Trans i t ive Verb stem v a l t e rna t e
d i v i s ion- sub c l ass
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64
64
6S
65
65
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66
66
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67
68
68
69
69
69
69
70
70
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Page
3. 1. 1. 2. 3. 2. 1.
The Dbub le Tran s i t ive Verb stem v 1 co­
occurrence- sub c l a ss
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 3. 2a. Note on the Dbub l e Tran s i t ive Clause Typ e
3. 1. 1. 2. 3. 2. 2. The Dbub le Tran s i t iv e Verb s t em v 2 co­
occurrenc e-subclass
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 3. 2. 3. The Dbub l e Transi t ive Verb s t em v 3 cooccurrence-subclass
3. 1. 1 . 2. 4. The At � r ibutive Tran s i t ive Verb stem c la s s
3. 1. 1. 2. 4. 1 . The At t r ibut i ve Transi t ive Verb stemp a r t c o occurrence- subc lass
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 4. 2. The At tr ibut ive Tran s i t ive Verb s t em adj cooccu rrence- subclass
3. 1 . 1. 2. 4. 3. The At t r ibut ive Tran s i t ive Verb s temn cooccu rrence- subc lass
3. 1. 1. 2. 5. The Equat iona l Verb stem c l ass
3. 1. 1. 2. 5. 1 . Th e Equa t iona l Int rans i t i ve Verb stem a l ternate
dist ribut ion- subc l a ss
3. 1. 1 . 2. 5. 1. 1 . The Equa t iona l Intran s i t ive Verb ste�art cooccurrence- subc lass
3. 1. 1 . 2. 5. 1 . 2. The Equa t iona l Intran s i t ive Verb stem adj cooccurrence- subclass
3. 1. 1. 2. 5. 1 . 3. The Equa t iona l Intran s i t ive Verb stemn cooccurrence - subc lass
3. 1. 1 . 2. 5. 2. The Sem i. -Aux i l i. a ry s t em a l t ernate di stribut ion- subc lass
3. 1. 1 . 2. 5. 2. 1. The Sem i -Aux i l i a ry ste� _ adj co-occurrencesubc lass
3. 1. 1. 2. 5. 2. 2. The Semi. -Auxi l iary stem adj co-occurrencesubc l a ss
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 5. 3. The Auxi l i a ry < b e ) stem a l ternate d i s t ri but ionsubclass
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 6. The Auxi. l i a ry < b e ) s t em
3. 1 . 2. The ob l i gato ry nuc l eu s Subj e c t ta gmeme
3. 1 . 2. 1. Th e No un Ph rase a l ternate d i s t ribut ion - sub c l a s s
3. 1 . 2. 1. 1. The Nou�oun Phrase a l t e rnate divis ion- subc lass
3. 1 . 2. 1. 1 . 1.
The COmmon No�oun Phrase a l ternate
3. 1 . 2. 1. 1 . 1. 1.
3. 1 . 2. 1. 1 . 1 . 1. 1 .
3. 1. 2. 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 2.
d i v i s ion- subc lass
The COmmon No uoNou n-COunt Ph rase a l ternate
d i v i s i on - subc lass
The COmmon NO�oun-COunt . Singu la r Phrase
co-occurrence- subclass
The CO mmon No uoNo -COun t . Plural Phrase co uo
occurrenc e - subclass
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72
73
73
74
74
74
74
7S
7S
7S
7S
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76
76
77
77
78
78
78
79
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79
79
81
XXXlV
Page
The COmmon NO �oun -Ma ss Phrase a l ternate
3. 1. 2. 1. 1 . 1. 2.
3. 1. 2. 1 . 1 . la.
3. 1. 2. 1. 1 . la. 1.
3.
3.
3.
3.
1 . 2.
1 . 2.
1. 2.
1 . 2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
la. 2.
la. 3.
la. 4.
la. 4.
3. 1. 2. 1 . 1 . 1a. 4.
3. 1 . 2. 1. 1. 1a. 4.
div i s ion- subc lass
Opt ion a l sa t e l l i t e tagmemes o f the COmmon
NounNo un Phrase
The opt iona l sate l l i te Pre-Determiner
tagmeme
The opt iona l sat e l l i t e Ordina l tagmeme
The op t iona l sat e l l i t e Numeral tagmeme
The op t ional sa t e l l i t e Modi fi e r 1 tagmeme
1. The a lternate d i st r ibu t ion- subc lass
Adj ec t ive Phrase
1a. The Adj e c t ive stem c l a ss
2. The a l t ernate dist ribut ion- subc lass
Verb C _ en ) Phrase
82
83
83
84
84
85
85
86
86
3. 1. 2. 1. 1 . 1a. 4. 3.
3. 1. 2. 1.
3. 1 . 2. 1 .
3. 1 . 2. 1.
3. 1 . 2. 1.
3. 1. 2. 1 .
3. 1. 2. 1.
3. 1 . 2. 1.
3. 1 . 2. 1.
3. 1 . 2. 1 .
3. 1. 2. 1.
3. 1 . 2. 1.
3. 1. 2. 1.
3. 1 . 2. 1.
The a l ternate dist ribu t i on- subc lass
Verb c_ i n ) Phrase
g
1. la. 5. The op t iona l sa t e l l i te Mod i fier 2 tagmeme
1. la. 6 . The optlona l satel l i t e Po st-Modi fi er tagmcme
1 . 1a. 6 . 1 . The a l t e rn ate d i s t ribu t i on- subc lass
COmp lex Modi Her 1
1. 1a. 6 . 2. The a l ternate dist ribut ion- subc lass
Locat lon Adverb Phrase
1 . 1 a. 6. 3. The a l t e rnate d i s t r i but ion- subc lass
Locat ion Re lator Ax i s Phrase
1. 1a. 6. 4. The a l te rn ate d i s t r tbut ion - sub c l a s s NOun
Phrase
1. 1a. 6. 5. The a l ternate dist ri.but ion- subclass < to )
Verb Phrase
1. 1a. 6 . 6 . The a l t e rn ate d i s t r ibut ion- subc lass
Appo s i t i ve Phrase
1. 1a. 6. 7 . The a l t e rna te d i st ribut ion- subc lass Reflex ive Pronoun
1. la. 6. 8. The a l t e rn a t e d i st ri.bution- subc lass
Dependent Clause
1 . 2. The Proper Nou'No un Phrase a l t e rnate d i v i sion··
subc lass
1. 2. 1. The Persona l Proper Nou'Noun Phrase co occurren ce - subc l ass
1 . 2. 2. The Non-Person al Proper NounNoun Phra se
3. 1. 2. 1. 1. 2. 2. 1.
3. 1. 2. 1 . 1. 2. 2. 2.
a l ternate d i v i s ion - subc l a ss
The NOn-Person a l Prop er NounNoun 1 Ph rase
co-o ccu rrence- subc l a ss
The co-occu rrence- subc lass Non-Pe rsonal
P rope r Nou'Noun 2 -Phrase
87
87
88
89
89
90
90
90
91
91
92
93
93
93
94
94
xxxv
Page
3. 1. 2. 1 . 2.
The Nomina l i zed Adj ec t ive Phrase a l te rna t e
d i v i s ion-sub c l a ss
3. 1. 2. 1. 2a. The Nom ina l i zed Adj ect i ve Phrase a l terna te
d i v i s ion- subc l ass
3. 1. 2. 1 . 3. The Nomina l ized Verb < _ en ) Phrase a l t ernate
d i v l sion- subclass
3. 1 . 2. 1 . 4. The Nomin a l i zed Verb < _ i n g ) Phrase a l t e rna t e
d i v i s ion- subc la s s
3. 1. 2. 1 . 4a. Note on the Nomina l i zed Verb < _ i ng ) Phra se
3. 1 . 2 . 2. The Pronoun Phrase a l ternate d i st r ibut ion- subc l a ss
3. 1 . 2. 2. 1 . The Pe rsonal Subj ect Pronoun Phrase a l t erna t e
d i v i s ion- subclass
3. 1 . 2. 2. 2. The I nde t e rm inate Pronoun Phra se a l ternate
d i v i s ion- sub c l a s s
3. 1 . 2. 2. 3. '[he Demons t ra t ive Pronoun Phrase a l t e rna t e
d i v i s ion- subcl ass
3. 1 . 2. 2. 4. The Po ssess i ve Pronoun Ph ra se a l ternate
d i v i s ion- subclass
3. 1 . 2. 2 . 5. The Po ssessive ca se Phrase a l ternate d i v i s ionsubc lass
3. 1 . 2. 3. The Re l a to r Axi s Phrase a l t e rnate d i s t r ibut ionsubc lass
3. 1. 2. 4. The Ve rb Phrase a l ternate d i st ribut ion- sub c l a s s
3. 1 . 2. 4. 1 . The < to ) Verb Phrase a l te rnate d i v i s ion- subc lass
3. 1 . 2. 4. 2. The Ve rb < _ i n ) Phrase a l terna te d i v i s ion- subc l a ss
g
3. 1 . 2. 5. The Dependent Clause a l t e rn a t e d i s t ribut ion- subc l a s s
3. 1 . 2. 6 . The De fect ive Clause d i s t ribu t i on- subc lass
3. 1 . 3. The obl igatory nuc l eus Di rec t Obj e c t t agmeme
3. 1 . 3. 1 . Noun Phrase a l ternate d i s t ribut i on- sub c l a s s
3. 1 . 3. 2. The Pronoun Phra se a l ternate d i s t r ibut ion - subclass
3. 1 . 3. 2. 1 . 1he Persona l Obj ect Pronoun Phrase a l t e rna t e
d i v i s ion- subc lass
3. 1 . 3. 3. Adve rb Phra se a l t e rnate d i s t ribu t ion- subclass
3. 1 . 3. 4. The Verb Phra se al ternat e d i s t ribu t i on- subc l a ss
3. 1 . 3. 5. The Dependent Cl ause a l t ernate dist ribut ion- subc l ass
3. 1 . 3. 5. 1. The De c l a ra t ive Dependent Clause Typ e a l ternate
d i v i s ion- subc l a ss
3. 1 . 3. 5 . 2. The ubj Lmc t ive Dep endent Re la t i ve Clause
a l t e nl a t e d i v i s i on- subclass
3. 1 . 3. 6. The De fective Clause a l t ernate d i st r ibu t i on- subc lass
3. 1 . 4. The ob l i ga to ry nuc leus I nd i rect Obj ect tagmeme
3. 1 . 4. 1. 1he Noun Phrase a l t e rna te d i st r ibu t ion - subc lass
3. 1 . 4. 2. The Pronoun Phrase a l t e rna te d i s t r i but ion- subc lass
3. 1 . 4. 3. The Dependent Cl ause a l ternate d i s t r ibut ion- subc lass
95
96
97
97
98
98
98
99
99
100
100
100
100
100
10 1
10 1
10 2
102
103
10 3
103
104
104
105
105
106
106
106
107
107
108
xxxv i
1 . 5. The obl igato ry nuc l eus At t r ibut i ve tagmeme
1 . 5. 1. The NO un Phra se a l t ernate d i s t r ibut ion- sub c l a s s
1 . 5. 1. 1 . The NOun Phra se a l t e rna te divis ion- subc lass
1 . 5. 1 . 2 . The At tribu t i ve Noun Phrase a l te rnate d i v i s ionsubclass
3. 1 . 5. 2. The Adj ec t ive Phrase a l ternate d i s t r ibution-subcl a s s
3. 1 . 5. 3. The Verb < _ en ) Phrase a l terna t e d i s t ribut ion- sub c l a s s
108
109
109
The ob l igatory nuc leus Equa t iona l COmp l emen t tagmeme
The Noun Phrase a l terna t e di strtbut ton - sub c l as s
The Pronoun Phrase a l terna te d i s t ribution- sub c l a s s
The Adj ect ive Phrase a l te rna te di st r ibut ion- sub c l a ss
The Ve rb < _ e n ) Phrase a l t erna te d i s t ribut ion- subclass
1 10
1 10
111
111
111
The Verb Phrase a l t e rnate distribut ion- subclass
The Locat ion Adve rb Phrase a l terna t e d i s t ribut ionsubc lass
3. 1 . 6 . 7 . Th e Locat ion Re la to r Ax i s Phrase a l ternate
dist ribut ion- subc l a s s
3. 1 . 6 . S. The Dependent Clause a l te rnate d i s t ribut ion- subc l a s s
3. 1 . 6 . 9. The De fec t ive Clause a l ternate d i st r ibut ion- sub c l a s s
3. 1 . 7 . The ob l i gatory nuc l eus Sta t i ve Subj ect tagmeme
3. 1. 7 . 1 . The Noun Phrase a l t e rnate d i st ribut ion- subc lass
3. 1 . 7 . 2. The Pronoun Phra se a l ternate dist ribut ion- subclass
3. 1 . 7 . 3. The Dependent Clause d i s t r ibut ion- subc l ass
3. 1 . S . The obl igato ry nuc l eus Stat lve COmp lement t agmeme
3. I. S . 1. The Noun Phrase a l t ernate di st ribut ion-subcla ss
3. 1 . S . 2. The Pronoun Phra se a l t erna te d i s t ribut ion- sub c l ass
3. 1 . S . 3. The a l ternate d i s t r ibu t ion- sub c l a ss Dependent Clause
3. 1. 9 . 1he op t ion a l nuc l eus Agent tagmeme
3. 1 . 9 . 1 . The Noun Phrase a l t ernate d t s t r ibut ion- subc lass
3. 1 . 9 . 2. The Pronoun Phrase a l ternate d i s t r ibut ion- sub c l a s s
3. 1 . 9 . 3. The Dependent Cl ause a l t e rnate d i s t r ibut ion- subc l a s s
3. 2. Opt i on al satel l i te Cl au se l evel t agmemes
3. 2. 0. I n t roductory
3. 2 . 1 . The op t iona l sate l l i t e Ind i rect Obj ect tagmeme
3. 2. 2. The opt iona l satel l i te Accompan iment tagmeme
3. 2. 3. The opt iona l sat e l l ite Bene factor tagmeme
3. 2. 4. The opt iona l sate l l i t e I ns t rument tagmeme - see
Adden dum , page x l i
3. 2. 4. 1 . The a l ternate divis ion- subc lass Inst rument Re l ator
Ax i s Phrase 1
3. 2. 4. 2. The a l terna t e divis ion-subcl ass Ins t rument Re l ator
Axis Phrase 2
3. 2. 5. The opt ional sate l l ite Time tagmeme
3. 2. 5. 1. The a l t e rnate d i s t ribu t ion- subc lass Time Adve rb
Phrase
112
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
1. 6.
1. 6 .
1. 6.
1 . 6.
1. 6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
3. 1 . 6. 5.
3. 1 . 6 . 6.
109
109
109
112
112
113
113
113
1 14
114
115
1 15
1 16
1 16
1 17
117
1 17
1 18
1 19
1 19
1 19
120
121
12 1
121
121
122
122
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XXXV l l
Page
3. 2. 5.
3. 2. 5.
3. 2. 5.
3. 2 . 5.
3. 2 . 5.
1. 1 . The co-occurrence- sub c la s s Time Adverb Phrase 1
1. 2. The co-occurrence- subc lass Time Adverb Ph rase 2
1 . 3. The co - occurrence- subc lass Time Adverb Phrase 3
2 . The a l t e rnate d i st ribu t ion- subc l a ss Time Lo cut ion
3. The a l t erna te d i s t r ibut ion- subc lass Ext ra
Dependent Time Clause
3. 2. 6 . The op t iona l satel l i t e Frequency tagmeme
3. 2. 6. 1 . 1ne a l t e rnate distribut ion- subc lass Frequency
Adverb Phrase
3. 2. 6. 2. The a l t e rnate d i s t r i bu t ion - subc lass Frequency
Noun Ph rase
3. 2. 6 . 3. Ihe a l t e rna t e distribut ion- subc lass Frequency
Locut ion
3. 2 . 7 . The op t iona l sa t e l l i t e Loc at i on-Di rec t ion tagmeme
3. 2. 7 . 1. The a l t e rnate d i s t ribut ion- subc l a s s Locat ion
Adverb Ph rase
3. 2. 7 . 2. The a l terna t e d i s t r i but i on- subc l a s s Locat ion
Re lator Ax is Ph ra s e
3. 2. 7 . 3. The a l terna te dist r i but ion- subc l a ss Ex tra Dependent
Lo cat ion Cl ause3. 2. 8 . The op t iona l sa t e l l i t e Manner tagmeme
3. 2. 8 . 1 . The a l t e rnate d i s t ribut ion - sub c l a s s Manne r Adv e rb
Ph ra se
3. 2. 8. 2. The a l tern a t e d i s t r i but i on- suhc l a ss Manne r. Re lato r
Ax ls Ph rase
3 . 2. 9 . Th e opt i ona l sat e l l i t e Purpo se tagmeme
3. 2 . 9 . 1 . The a l terna t e d i st r ibut i on- subc l a s s PU ll'o se Re l a t o r
Ax I S Phrase
3. 2. 9 . 2. 1ne a l t e rna t e d i s t. r l but i on - subc l a s s Purposl' He l a to r
Ax is Ph rase 2
3. 2. 9. 3. The a l t e rn a t e d i st r i hut l on- suhc L a s s Ex t r a Dependen t
Pu rpo se Clause
3. 2. 10. The op t i ona l sate l l i t e cause tagmeme
3. 2. 10 . 1 . T h e a l t e rna t e d i s t r i hut i on - sub c l a s s Cause He l a lo r
Ax i s Phl'ase
3. 2. 10 . 2. "Ihe a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i bllt i on - !>uh c l a s s Ex t r. �
Dependent Cause C L a l i se
3. 2a. Emphasi zed P l ace o f an op t J Onal sa tc l l i te Cl au se l evel
tagm cm e
3. 2b. The opt ional satcl l i t e Cl au s e l evel tagJlI('III e o rder i ng
Ch ap t e r 4: L I N K I N G TAGM EM ES AN D C RO S S- L EVEL CO N ST RU CT I O N S
4. 0 . I n t rodu c to ry
4. 1 . Th e Coo rd in ato r t agmcme
4. 1 . 1 . The a l ternate d i v i s i on - sub c l a ss S i n gl e Co o rd i nato r.
122
123
123
123
123
124
1 24
125
125
126
1 26
126
1 26
1 27
127
1 28
1 28
1 28
129
129
1 30
130
130
130
131
133
133
133
133
xxxv i i i
PaAe
4. 1 . 2 . The a l terna te
4 . 2. The Comparati ve
4. 2. 1 . The a l t ernate
tagmeme
4. 2. 2. The a l ternate
COmpa ra t i ve
4. 2. 3. The a l t e rnate
COmpar�t ive
4. 3. The Resu l tat i ve
4. 3. 1 . The a l ternate
4. 3. 2. The a l t erna t e
4. 3. 3. The a l t e lna t e
divis ion- subc lass Dbub le COord ina tor
t agmeme
divi sion - subc l a ss Equal i ty COmpa ra t ive
1 34
divis ion- sub c la s s
t agmeme
d i v i s ion- subclass
tagmeme
tagmem e
d i v i s ion- subc l a ss
d i v i s ion- subc lass
d l v i s ion- subc l a ss
Supe ri o r i ty
135
Infe ri o r i ty
Resu l t a t i ve 1 tagmeme
Resu l t a t i ve 2 t agmeme
Resu ltat i ve 3 tagmeme
Chap t e r 5 : EN GL I SH SFNTENCE TYPES AN D SENTEN CE LEV EL
STRU CTU RES
5. O. l il t roductory
5 . 0 . 1 . Cl assi fi cati on
5. 1 . Maj o r I ndep enden t Sen tence Types
5. 1 . 1 . S i mp l e Maj o r I ndependpnt Sent ence Types
5. 1. 1. 1 . S i mp l e Maj o r Ind:-pendent Sentence Type L Simp l e
Maj o r I n d ep en de n t De c l a ra t i ve Sentence Typ e
5. 1. 1. 2. S lmp l t' Maj o r lndepend �nt Sent ence Type 2 : Simp l e
MFij o l" 1ndep endf'n t Tnterrogat ive Sen t ence Type
5. 1 . 1. 2. 1 . S i mp le MFij o r Independent Sent ence Type 2 . 1 . :
S i mp l e Maj o r· Independent Yes-No In t e rroga t i ve
Sen t ence Type
5 . 1. 1. 2. 2. Simp le Maj or Indeppndent Sen tence Type 2 2. :
S i mp l e Maj o r I ndependent I n fo rma t ion Int e rrogat l ve Sen t ence Type
5. 1 . 1 . 3. Simp l e Maj o r Independent Sentence Type 3 : Simp l e
Maj o r Independent Impe rat i ve Sentence Type
5. 1 . 2. COmpound Maj o r Independent Sen tence Typ es
5. 1. 3. COmp l ex Maj o r Independent Sen t ence Types
5. 1 . 4. The COmpound Maj o r Independent Echo Inte rroga t ive
Sen tence Typ e
5. 1 . 5. The COmp l ex Maj o r Independent Suppo s i t iona l Sen tence
Type
5. 2. Maj o r Dependen t Sen tence Types
5. 2. 1. Maj o r Dependent Sequence Sen t ence Typ es
5. 2. 2. Maj or Dependent Pa rentheses Sentence Types
5. 2. 3. Maj or Dependent Sho rt Response Sen t ence Types
Ap p en d i x : O U TL I N E O F GRAMM AT I CAL STRUCTU RES I N EN GL I SH
1 . 1.
1. 2.
134
134
Simp l e Maj o r Independent Dec larative Sen tence Type
Simp l e Maj o r Independent Dec l a rat ive Sen tence Type
135
136
136
137
137
139
139
139
140
140
140
141
141
141
144
144
145
146
147
148
148
148
149
151
152
153
XXX1X
Pa�e
1. 3.
1 . 4.
1. 5.
1. 6.
1. 7.
1. 8.
Simp le Maj o r Independent Dec l a ra t i ve Sen tence Typ e
Simp le Maj o r Independent Dec l a ra t ive Sen t ence Type
Simp le Maj or Independent Dec l a ra t ive Sent ence Typ e
Simp le Maj o r Independent Dec l a ra t ive Sent ence Type
Simp l e Maj o r Independent Dec l a ra t ive Sentence Type
Simp l e Maj o r Independent Dec lara t ive Sent ence Type
Simp le Maj o r Independent Dec l a ra t i ve Sentence Typ e
1. 9 .
1. 10 . Simp l e Maj o r Independent Declarative Sentence Type
2. Simp l e Maj o r Independent Yes-No Inte rroga t ive Sentence
Type
3. 1 . Simp l e Maj o r Independent In fo rmat ion Inte rroga t ive
Sent ence Type
3. 2. Simp l e Maj o r Independent I n fo rma t ion In t e rrogative
Sen tence Type
3. 3. Simp l e Maj o r Independent Info rma t i on Inte rroga t ive
Sen t enc e Type
4. Simp l e Maj o r Independent Impera t ive Sentence Typ e
5. COmpound Maj or Independent Dec la ra t ive Sentence Type
6 . 1. COmp lex Maj o r Independent Dec l a ra t i ve Sentence Typ e
6. 2. COmp lex Maj o r Independent Dec lara t ive Sentence Type
6. 3. COmp lex Maj o r Independent Dec larat 1ve Sentence Typ e
7 . COmpound Maj o r Independent Echo Inte rroga t ive Sen t ence
Typ e
R E F E R EN C ES
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
16 1
162
163
164
16 5
166
167
168
169
170
17 1
17 3
S U M M A RY T A B L E S Summ ary Tabl e
Summ ary Tabl e
II:
Summary Tab l e
III:
I:
Summary Tab l e
I V:
Summary Tabl e
V:
Summary Tab l e
VI :
Summ ary
Summ ary
Summ ary
Summ ary
Summary
Tabl e
Tabl e
Tab l e
Tab l e
Tab l e
VI I :
VI I I :
I X:
X:
XI :
Independen t De c l a ra t i ve Clause Class I
ClaSS i f i c a t ion o f the ten Clause Classes
I n to mo re glob a l Cl asses
I ndependen t Dec l a ra t ive. Yes-No Inter­
ro ga t i v e . and Impera t ive Clause Classes
1. 2 . 3
Examp les re flec t ing Summary Table I I I
Independent Interrogat ive Subj ect Clause
Class 4
Independent Interroga t i ve Non- Subj ect Clause
Cl ass 5
Independen t Ex t ra In t erroga t ive Clause
Class 6
Dependent Subj ect Clause Cl ass 7
Dep endent Non- Subj ect Clause Class 8
Dependent Re l a t ive Clause Cl ass 9
Ex t ra Dependen t Clause Cl ass 10
The six Independent Clause Classes and the i r
Trans fo rms
2
22
26
27
29
31
35
37
�
41
43
45
xl
Summary T abl e XI I :
Summary Tab l e
Summary Tab l e
Summary Tab l e
Summary Tab l e
A D D EN D lIH
The fou r Dependen t Clause Classes and
the i r Trans fo rms from the kernel Independent Dec l a ra t i ve Clause Class
XI I I : The 87 Engl i sh COmp lete Clause Types
X I V: The Ve rb a l Hyp e rc lass
The opt iona l sat e l l i t e Clause l evel t agmeme
XV:
o rde r ing
XVI : Maj o r Inderendent Sen tence Typ es
Examp l es reflect ing Summa ry Tab l e XVI
46
47
49
132
142
143
xli
Adden dum
Page 1 21 -
{
}
Insert . between 3. 2. 3. and 3. 2. 4. 1 . :
3. 2. 4.
±I
I Re] Ax- Ph r 1
I ReUx- Ph r z
.
the opt i onal sate l l i te I n strumen t
tagmeme
fIL L ER S : the op t i ona l sa t e l l i t e Inst rument s l o t i s f i l l ed by a com­
p o s i t e f i l l e r c l a s s i n c luding two a l t e rn a t e d i v i s i on - sub c l a s se s :
Inst rumen t Re lator Axi s Phrase 1 ; Inst rument Re lato r Axi s Ph rase 2 .
xll
Spec i a l S i gn s an d Abb reu i at i on s
The fo l l owing di fferent sign s a re used i n th i s pap e r :
Th e p lus s i gn . + . indicates the ob l i gatory nature o f the tagmeme.
±
The p l us o r minus sign .
•
ind icates that the t agmeme i s op t iona l .
A tagmeme is indicated in the fo rmula by : +Slot [Fi l l e r) .
A l t e rna t e fo rm s o f compo s i t e fi l l e r s wh i ch rep resent d i fferent
d i s t r i bu t i o n - subc l a s s � s are en c l o s ed i n an gu l a r b r ac e s . < >.
t hu s : + S l o t Fi l l e r .
I f the a t t en t i on is b e in g fo cu s s ed on
Fi l l e r
on l y on e o f the d i s t r i but i on - subc l a s s fi l l e r s o f a S lo t . an
abbreviated formu la such as +Slot<F i l l e r > i s used .
(
)
B r a c e s { } enc l o s e a compo s i t e mo rpheme- hype rmo rpheme c l a s s o f
subc l a ss fi l l e r s d i v i ded on the ba s i s o f in t e rna l compo s i t ion .
but un i t ed as one fi l l e r on the ba s i s o f the st ructura l un i ty o f
i t s memb ers and the i r funct ion a s members o f a un i t d i st ribu t i on ­
sub c l a ss .
Pa rentheses ( ) are used to mark the int erna l st ructure o f a Phrase;
thu s : +Phra s e ( + Fi l le r +Fi l le r ) .
The a rrow �
't ind i c a t e s that one o f the fi l l e rs o f a Ph rase
ha s been remo ved to ano th e r po s i t i on . The a r row V-- ± --.
indicates that the two fi l l e rs are op t iona l . but if one o c curs .
the other one must occur as we l l . The a r row I
/
I ind ica tes
I
that e i ther o f the t wo fi l l e rs o c cu r s but no t bo th in the s am e
t ime.
-
-
-
-
The fo l lowing abbrev i a t ions are used :
A
Ac comp an iment ; A c t
Ac t i v e ; A d j
Adj e c t i ve ; A d v
Adverb ;
Aff
Affi rma t i ve ; Ag - Agen t ; Ap - Appo s i t l v e ; A r t - Art i c l e ; Au x
Aux i l i a ry ; A x
Ax i s ; B
Ben e fa c to r ; C
Cau s e ; c - coun t ; C I
C l a us e ; Co
Comp l em ent ; C o m
Common ; C o m p
Comp a r a t i ve ; Co m p d Co mp o und ; Co m p x - Comp l e x ; C o o r d
Co o rd i n a t e ; 0 - Di re c t ; Db
Do ub l e ; O e c l - De c l a r at i v e ; O e f
De fin i t e ; O e f e - De fec t i v e ; D e l
De l im i t e r ; O em
Demon s t r a t i v e ; O e p
Dependen t ; O e t
De t e rm ine r ;
Eq Equat iona l ; Equ al
Equa l i ty ; F
Frequen cy ; Fal l - Fa l l in g ; H Head; I
Instrument ; I
Indi rec t ; I m p
Impe rat ive ; I n - Intonat ion ;
I ndef
Indefin i t e ; I n d e t
Indeterm i n a t e ; I n f
In fi n i t i ve ; I n f e r
I n fe r i o r ; I n fo r
I n fo rmat ion ; I n t en s
In tens i fi e r ; I n t e r - I n t e r­
roga t i ve ; I n t ro d
I n t rodu c e r ; L - Lo c a t ion ; M
Mann e r ; m - m a s s ;
-
-
-
--
-
-
-
--
- -
-
- --
xl i i i
-
-
-
-
-
-
---
xliv
Maj o r ; M o
M aj
Mo d i fier ; N - Noun ; N eg - Neg a t i ve ;
Mod a l ; Mod
Part i ­
Obj ec t ; O r d - Ord ina l ; P - Purpo se ; P a r t
Numera l ; 0
Nu
Pa ss ive ; P e l e - Part i c l e ; Pers - Persona l ; Ph r - Phrase;
c ip le ; Pas
PI o r p i - P lura l ; Pn - Pronoun ; Po s - Po s se s s lve ; Po s tM o d - Po s t ­
Prec i se r ; P reDet - Pre-De term ine r;
Mod i fier ; P r - Pred i cate; P rec
Prepos i t ion ; P rop - Prope r ; Qu an t - Quan t l t a t ive; Re f l - Re­
P rep
f lexive; Rei - Re l a t i ve . Re l a to r ; Resp - Respon se; Resul t - Resul t ­
Simp le ; s in g - s ingu l a r ; S t Subj ect ; S g - Single ; S1 m
a t ive ; S
Sub s t i tu t e ; Sup - Super­
S t a t i v e ; Su bj un e t - Subj un c t ive ; Su b s t
Trans fo rm ;
Time ; t - ten s e ; T
l a t ive ; Supp - Suppo s i t iona l ; T
Tr - Tran s i t ive ; V - Verb ; X Extra .
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Nguyễn Đ.L. A contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese, Vol 1.
C-3, xliv + 221 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1966. DOI:10.15144/PL-C3.cover
©1966 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
-
Ch ap t e r 1
I N DEPEN DEN T
1 . 0.
DE C L A RA T I VE
CL A U SE
T Y PE S
I N TRODU CTORY
Eng l i sh Clauses are gramma t i c a l un i t s of Pred i c a t ion con t a l n lng a
m in imum o f an ob l igatory nuc leus Pre d i c a t e in the c a se o f Impe ra t i ve
C lause s . and a m in imum of an obl iga tory nuc l eu s Subj ec t and an ob l i ­
g a to ry nuc l eu s Pred i c a t e i n the c a s e o f o the r C l a us e s . Th e y a r e
g rouped into e l ev en Clause Cl a s ses wh ich w i l l be shown i n the Chap ­
t e r 2.
The I ndependent Dec l a ra t ive Clause Cla s s . c on t a i n in g t en Clause
Typ e s . is t h e k e rn e l C l a u s e C l a s s from wh i c h a l l t h e o t h e r t en
Engl i sh Clause Cla sses can be derived when the app rop r i a te Trans fo rm
rules a re app l i ed . Thus . a comp l e t e ana l ys i s o f Engl i sh Clause Type s
con s i s t s nec essa r i l y and suffi c i en t ly o f a de t a i led ana l ys i s o f a l l
the Independent Dec l a ra t iv e Clause Types . and the s t a t ement o f Claus e
Class Trans fo rm rul e s .
1 . 1.
CLAS S I F I CA T I O N
The r e are t e n I nd e penden t Dec l a r a t i v e C l a u s e Typ e s wh i ch a re
grouped into larger and large r Clause Cla s ses a cco rd ing to some common
i dent i f i c a t iona l - c on t ra s t i v e fea t u re s . wh ich a r e a l sb used to d e ­
nomina t e the Clause Classes . on a four l eve l scale o f conside ra t ion a s
i t i s sta ted i n the Summary Tab l e I a s fo l lows :
On the first and highest level o f cons idera t io n . the re a r e :
the Cla s s o f Grammat i c a l Subj ect Clause Types ;
the Cla s s o f Log i c a l Subj ect Clause Types .
On the second l evel o f cons ide ra t i on -
( 1 ) the Class o f Gramma t i c a l Subj ect Clause Types inc lude s :
the Ac t ive Clause Cla s s ;
the Pa ss ive Clause Cla ss ;
the Equa t iona l Clause Type (No . 8 ) .
( 2) the Cl a s s o f Logical Subj ect Clause Types inc ludes :
the ( There ) Stat ive Clause Typ e (No . 9 ) ;
the ( I t ) St at ive Clause Type (No . 10 ) .
On the th i rd l eve l o f conside ra t ion
-
( 1) the Ac t i ve Clause Class inc ludes :
1
Nguyễn Đ.L. A contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese, Vol 1.
C-3, xliv + 221 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1966. DOI:10.15144/PL-C3.1
©1966 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
S U II M A R Y
T A B L E
' n d e p en d e n t D e c ' a r a t i u e
C l au s e T y p e
I
II
IV
No .
D ec l arat i v e
C l au s e
Typ e s
E x amp l e s
+S +Act I n t rDec l P r
Sing l e
2
+8 +ActSrTrDecl P r
Doub l e
3
+ S +ActDbTrDec l P r +10 +00
fIIey gave John a
boo lt .
A t t n bu t l ve
4
+S +ActAtTrDec l P r
T h e y e l e c ted II i",
chai rm an .
Sing l e
5
+S +PasSgTrDec l P r
Doub l e
6
+8 +PasDbTrDec l P r
A t t r i bu t L v e
7
+S +PasAtTrDecl P r
Equat iona l
8
+ 8 +EqDec l P r
( fIl e n ) Stat i v e
9
+ (The�e )
+StDec l P r +StS
Tlle�e a � e so m e
+ CI t >
+StDec l P r +StCo
It
Ac t i v e
Trans i t i v e
Gramm a t i c a l
Subj e c t
Pass i ve
Subj e c t
C ' as s
1
In trans i t i v e
Logi c a l
C ' au s e
I n d ep en d en t C I au s e C l a s s 1
C l asses
III
I
Trans i t i ve
(I t ) Stat i v e
10
H e �an .
+00
She g u i d e d
+ 00 +At
± Ar
+
��>
tAr
+At :t Ar
+EqCo
The
the
tou� i s t s .
tou�i s t s we � e gui ded
( by h. e �) .
John was g i ven . a boo lt .
A boo � was �i ven ( to ) ,jo ll" .
He was e ! ec t ed cllai rm a n .
She was It i n d .
=s Jo hn .
boys.
3
the Ac t i ve Int rans i t ive Clause Type (No . 1 ) ;
the Ac t ive Trans i t ive Clause Cla s s .
( 2 ) the Pas s ive Clause Class inc ludes only one Clause Cla s s :
the Pa ss ive Tran s i t ive Clause Cla ss .
On the fourth l ev e l o f con s ide rat ion -
( 1 ) the Ac t ive Trans i t ive Clause Cl ass inc lude s :
the Ac t ive Sing l e Tran s i t ive Clau se Type (No . 2 ) ;
the Ac t ive Dbub l e Trans i t ive Clause Type (No . 3) ;
the Ac t i ve At t ribut ive Trans i t ive Clause Type (No . 4) .
( 2 ) the Passive Trans i t ive Clause Class inc ludes :
the Pa ss ive S ing l e Tran s i t ive Clause Type (No . 5 ) ;
the Pas s ive Dbub le Tran s i t ive Clause Type (No . 6 ) ;
the Passive At t r ibut ive Trans i t ive Clause Type (No . 7 ) .
1 . 2.
CLAUSE CLA S S E S AND P E RT I N EN T
1 . 2. 1.
REMARKS
S e l ect f on of the form of the Pred f cate
The re is a necessa ry s e l e c t ion o f the form o f the o b l i ga t o ry and
n uc l eu s P red i c a t e t a gmeme by the o b l i g a t o ry a nd nuc l eu s Subj e c t
t agmeme :
( 1) In a l l the e i ght Gramma t i c a l Subj ect Clause Types , the Subj e c t
t agmeme , hav ing e i ther t h e fun c t ion a l mean ing o f p e r fo rmer o r
that o f unde rgo e r o f the a c t ion o f the Pred i c a t e tagmem e , p re ­
cedes the l a t te r and obl i gato r i l y se lects i t s fo rm .
EXAMPL ES:
+Pr
+s
�-------.
He
They
wa t k s .
wa t k .
( 2 ) I n the C Th e � e ) S t a t ive Clause Type 9 , a l though fo l l o wing i t ,
the obl iga tory and nuc leus Sta t ive Subj ect t agmeme a l so ob l iga­
t o r i l y s e l e c t s the form of the ob l i ga tory and nuc l eus Sta t i ve
P red ic a te tagmeme .
EXAMPL ES:
+ C T h e� e )
Th e�e
The�e
+StPr
E
we�e
was
+ St S
�
some boys .
a
bo y .
( 3 ) On the contrary , i n the ( I t ) Stat ive Cla use Type 10 , the re i s no
o the r Subj e c t t a gmeme be s i de s the Lo g i c a l Su bj e c t t a gm eme
C I t ) ; tha t Lo g i c a l Subj ec t t a gmeme s e l e c t s the fo rm of the
Stat ive P red i c a t e tagmem e .
4
EXAMPL ES:
+ CI t )
-<
It
It
1 . 2. 2.
+StP r
;310
+StCo
is
is
the
t he
boy .
boys.
The Pass ; ue Trans ; t ; ue C l ause C l as s
Th e Passive Tran s i t ive Clause Class has the fo l low ing ident i fi c a ­
tiona i- cont rast ive features and structure formu l a :
K E RNEL STRUCTU R E : ActTrCl [+S<x> +P r<v> +O<z»
TPas
PasTrCl
+S<z> +P r [+ Au x C b e ) + ( +v +Part C - en » ) ) tAg [+Prep C by ) +H<x»
The formula 1 S read:
A Pa ss ive Tran s i t ive Claus e Typ e . PasTrCl . i s a Pass ive Trans fo rm .
T Pas ' o f a k e rne l Ac t ive Transit ive Clause Type .
I ts s t ructure cons i s t s o f a m in imum o f an ob l i ga tory and nuc l eu s
Subj e c t t a gmeme who s e s lo t i s f i l l ed by the f i l l e r c l a s s wh i ch
fo rmerly fi l l ed the ob l i gato ry and nuc leus Obj ect s lot in the k e rne l
Ac t i ve Trans i t iv e Clause Type . an obl i gatory and nu c l eus Pred i c a t e
t a gmeme whose slot is f i l led b y a Pass ive Transfo rmed Trans i t ive Verb
Phrase . and an optional and nuc l eus Agent tagmeme f i l l ed by a Re lator
Ax i s Phrase composed o f an ob l i ga to ry Prepo s i t ion C by ) and an obl i ­
gatory Head slot fi l l ed by the fi l ler c l ass which fo rmerly fi l led the
Subj ect s lo t in the kerne l Ac t ive Trans i t ive Clause .
1 . 2 . 2a.
T P as ' the Pas s ; ue Tran s form
It is a two- fo ld operat ion :
( 1) the fi l l ing o f the ob l igatory nuc leus Subj ect ta gmeme s lo t w i th
the f i l ler c l a ss o f the ob l i gatory nuc leus Obj ect s l o t in the
k e rnel Ac t ive Trans i t ive Clause Type . the fi l l ing o f the op­
t iona l nuc leus Agent s lo t w i th the fi l ler c l ass of the Subj ect
slot of the kernel Clause' Type ;
( 2 ) the Ve rba l Pa ss ive Trans fo rm . TPasV ' o f the Ac t ive Trans i t ive
Verb Phrase as fo l lows :
K E RNEL STRUCTU R E : ActTrV-Phr
TPasV
PasTrV-Phr
Th e fo rmula 1 S read:
A Pa ss ive Transi t ive Verb Phra se. PastTrV-Ph r .
1S
a Verba l Pass ive
5
Trans form , TP asV ' o f an Ac t ive' Tran s i ti ve Verb Phra s e .
I t s s t ruc tu re i s composed o f an ob l i ga to ry Auxi l i a ry ( b e > , and a
Ve rb Phrase compo sed o f an o b l i ga to ry Ac t ive Trans i t ive Ve rb Phrase
and an ob l i gatory Past Pa r t i c iple [ ( - en > ] ( c f . 3. 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 . , page 5 2 ) .
1. 3.
I N DEPENDENT D ECL ARA T I V E CL AU SE TYP E S
DETA I L
1 . 3. O.
( SU M M A RY
TABLE
IN
I)
I N T RO DU C TO RY
Each o f the t en Independent De c larat i v e Clause Type s w i l l be d i s­
c u ssed now , by g i v ing the i r m i n imum nuc l eus formu l a e and the i r ex­
p anded max imum fo rmu l a e wi th op t iona l sa t e l l ite t agmemes . Because o f
the i r v a r i ab i l i ty a cc o rding to the p a rt i cu l a r Clause Type in wh i ch
they o c cu r , nuc leus Clause l ev e l ta gmemes w i l l be s t a t ed w i th the i r
s lo t s and f i l l e r c la sses in the same t ime . On the contra ry , opt iona l
s a te l l i t e Clause level tagmemes wi l l be sta ted on ly in terms o f the i r
s lo t s because the i r f i l ler c l asses rema in the same no ma t t e r in wh i ch
Clause Type these opt iona l sa t e l l ite tagmemes a ctua l ly occu r .
Each nuc l eus Clause l ev e l tagm eme , each op t iona l s a te l l i te Cl ause
l ev e l t a gmeme , w i l l b e ana l y z ed in de t a i l w i th i t s f i l l e r c l a s s .
d i st r ibu t ion - sub c lass and co-occurrence- subc lass in the Chap ter 3.
1 . 3. 0. 1.
M I N I M U M NUCLEUS FO RM U L AE
They p resent on ly the nuc leus Clause l ev e l tagmemes o f each Clause
Typ e . Nuc l eus tagmemes c an be e i ther ob l i ga to ry o r opt i ona l .
1 . 3. 0 . 2.
E XP AN DE D M A X I MUM FORMULAE
They p re s en t the nuc l eu s Clause l ev e l tagmem e s and a l so the op­
t iona l sate l l ite Clause leve l tagmemes .
Expan s i on o f the b a s i c nuc l e i o f the t en I ndependent Dec l a ra t i v e
C l ause Types inc ludes e i gh t common o p t ion a l s a t e l l i t e C l a u s e l ev e l
t a gmemes : Loc a t i on - L ; Manner
M ; Frequency
F ; Time
T ; I n s t ru­
ment - I ; Benefa c t o r
B ; Purpo se - P ; and Ca u s e - C; and t wo ra re
opt iona l s a te l l i t e tagmeme s : Accompan iment
A , and Ind i rec t Obj ect
-
-
-
-
-
10.
-
The opt ion a l sate l l i te Indirect Obj ect tagmeme . wh i ch i s not to b e
confounded w i th the ob l i ga tory nuc leus Ind i rect Obj ect tagmeme , o ccurs
o n l y in the Ac t ive and the Pa s s ive Si n g l e Tran s i t ive C l a u s e Typ e s .
The o p t iona l s a t e l l i t e Ac comp an iment t a gmeme occurs usua l l y in I n ­
d ep endent Dec la ra t i ve Ac t ive I n t rans i t iv e C l a u s e s o n l y , a l though i t
c an be . occas iona l ly found in o ther Clause Types a s we l l .
Theo re t ica l ly . a l l the e i ght opt iona l s a t e l l ite tagmeme s . and a l so
the o ther 'two in the i r p a rt i cu l a r Clause Typ e ma t r l xes . can c o - o c cu r
i n an a c tu a l Clause . Bu t . because o f the � wkwa rdnes'> o f long Clauses
w i th too many opt iona l s a t e l l i t e t a gmemes , no t a l l of them a r e a c ­
tua l l y found occurr ing i n a no rma l Clause .
6
1 . 3. 1 .
' ndependent Dec l arat i ve C ' au s e Type I : Act i ve ' n ­
trans i t i ve Dec ' arat i ve C l au s e Type
The Ac t i ve Int rans i t ive � c l a ra t ive Clause Type has the fo l low ing
iden t i fica t iona l - con tra s t ive fea tures :
i t has no Pa ss ive Trans fo rm s ;
i t s m in imum nuc l eu s s t ruc ture i s composed o f two ob l igatory nuc l eus
tagmemes .
M I N I MUM N U CL EU S FO RM U L A :
+S
l'ILLIlRS:
( )
N - Ph r
Pn - Ph r
DepCl
+P r [ Act l n t rDec l V- Ph r]
( 1 ) the ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Subj e c t s l o t is f i l led by a c ompo s i t e
f i l l e r c lass inc lud ing three a l terna te d i s t r ibut ion- subc l a sses :
Noun Phrase ; Pronoun Phrase ; Dependent Clause .
( 2 ) the ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s Pred i c a t e s lo t i s f i l l ed b y a s imp l e
f i l l e r c l a s s inc lud ing on l y one d i s t r ibut ion- subc l a s s : Ac t ive
Intran s i t ive Dec lara t ive Verb Phra se .
KXANPL ES:
+S<N - Phr>
+Pr [ Ac t l n t rDec l V - Ph r]
The p o o r m an
cam e a L o ng .
+Pr [ Act l n t rDecI V - Ph r]
+ S<PersSPn>
They
arri ved .
+P r [ Ac t i n trDec l V- Ph r]
+ S<I ndetPn - Ph r>
T h e few I kno w
h ave L ef t .
+Pr [ Actin t rDecl V- Ph r]
+ S<DepSCl >
m i g h t suc c e ed .
Who e ver L i ke s to t ry
E XP AN D E D M A X I MU M FORMUL A :
( + S +P r ) n f A
±L ±M ±F ± T ±B ± I
±P
1
±C
Expan s i on o f the nuc leus inc ludes e i ght opt iona l sate l l i te tagmem e s .
EIANPL ES:
+S
He
+S
He
+Pr
we n t
+Pr
wen t
fA
wi t h Jo h n .
±L
out
1 ( +S +Pr. . . )0
±M
sudden L y
±F
m any t im e s
±T
dur i ng t h e
conce r t
±p
t o g e t c i g are t t e s
i n Exp anded Maximum Fo rmul a e rep resen t s the min imum n u c l eu s
s t ru c tu re o f t h e Cl a u s e Typ e in qu e s t i o n .
r e p r e s en t t h e t a gm eme o r d e r i n g .
s a t e l l i te t a gmeme s , see Chap t e r
3. 2.
Exp anded Maxi mum Formu l a e do no t
Fo r t h e t a gm em e o r d e r i n g o f o p t i o n a l
7
+S
+P r
1 . 3. 2.
,8
±I
wro t e
He
wi t h a p enc i l
jo .,. me
iC
b e cause I cou l d n ' t do i t
myse l f ·
I ndependen t Dec l arat f ue C l au s e Type 1 : Act i ue S i ng l e
Trans i t f ue Dec l arat i ue C l au s e Type
The Ac t ive Sing l e Trans i t iv e Dec l a ra t ive Clause Type has the fo l ­
low ing identi fica t iona l - cont ra st ive feat ures :
i t ha s one Passive Transfo rm ;
i t s m i n i mum nuc l eu s s t ruc tu re
nuc l eus tagmeme s .
+S
( )
N _ Phr
Pn - Ph r
V - Ph r .
Dep Cl
1S
c ompo s e d o f t h ree o b l i ga to ry
M I N I MUM N U CL EU S FORM UL A :
+ P r [ Ac t SgTrDec l V- Ph r] + DO
fIL L ERS:
( 1) t h e o b l iga to ry nuc l eus Subj e c t s lo t i s f i l l ed b y a c ompo s i t e
f i l l e r c l a s s inc lud ing fou r a l t e rna te d i s t r ibu t i on- subc lasse s :
Noun Phra s e ; Pronoun Phra se ; Verb Phra s e ; Depep�ent Clause .
( 2 ) the ob l i g a to ry nu c l eus P red i c a t e s l o t i s fi l led by a s i mp l e
f i l le r c l a s s inc lud ing on ly one d i s t ribu t i on- subc l a s s : Ac t i ve
Single Tran s i t ive Dec lara t i v e Verb Phra se .
( 3 ) the obl igato ry nuc l eu s Di rec t Obj ect s lo t i s f i l l ed by a com­
po si te f i l l e r c l a s s i nc lud ing s i x a 1 te rna t e d i s t r i bu t . i on - sub ­
c l a s s e s : Noun Phr a s e ; Pronoun Ph r a s e ; Adv (! rb Ph ra s e ; Ve rb
Phra se ; Dependent Clause ; De fec t ive Clause .
EXAMPLES:
+S<IndetPn - Ph r>
The ones t h a t I m e t
+ S<Dep Rel Cl >
That h e cam e he't"e
+ S<Dep SC l >
Who e ve't" com e s h e 't"e
+ S<V- Phr>
To have b e en i n t he
f i g h t i ng jo 't"ces
+S<XDep Cl >
How he g e t s t h e't"e
+P r [ActSgTrDecl V- Ph r 1 + DO<Adv- Ph r>
said
so .
+Pr [Ac t SgTrDec l V - Ph r] + DO <PersOPn>
su't"p.,.i sp.d
me.
+Pr [ Ac t SITrDec I V - Ph r] +OO<V - Ph r>
wi l l l i k p-
to s t ay.
+Pr [ Ac t SgTrDecl V - Ph r ] + OO <N - Ph r>
med ts
.,. e a l 't"e wa,..d .
+P r [ Ac t SaTrDec I V- Ph r] + DO<P ersOPn>
s tump s
me.
8
+P r [ ActSgTrDecl V- Ph r] +DO<XDep C l >
+ S<PersSPn>
I
asked
i f her m o t h ef" h ad
com e .
+ P r [ ActSgTrDec l V - Ph r] + DO<De feCl >
+ S<PersSPn>
He
t h em t o 7J.Of"k .
wan t e d
EXPAN DED M A XI MUM FORMUL A :
( +S + P r + OO ) n ± I O
iL ±M
2
i F i T ±B iP ±I iC
Expans ion o f the nuc leus i nc ludes n ine opt iona l sat e l l i t e tagmemes .
EXAHPL ES:
+
+S
Sh e 7J.0 1. d d
He
+S
wri t e
+Pr
usuaL L y
a L e t t er
to her
mo t h e r
±I
t h e do o r
iL
iB
wi t h a key
±T
i n the
g arden
befo f"e
d i nn e r .
iC
fo f" h e r
b ecause he wan t e d
t o h e L p h er.
±p
the can
o p ened
± IO
+00
+00
o p ened
+ DO
+Pr
He
+Pr
qui c k L y
iF
+S
,.
iM
i n o rdef" t o dn n k t h e jui c e .
I ndependent Dec l arat f ue C l ause Type 3 : Act f ue Doub l e
Tran s i t f ue Dec l arat i ue C l ause Type
1 . 3 . 3.
The Ac t i v e Dbub l e Trans i t lve Dec l a ra t ive Clause Type has the fo l ­
lowing iden t i ficat iona l - contrast ive fe ature s :
i t has two Passive Tran s fo rm s ;
i t s m i n imum nu c l e u s s t ru c t u r e
nuc l eus tagmeme s .
+8
\ )
N - Ph r
Pn Ph r
" Ph r
D{'pCI
lS
c ompo s ed o f fo u r ob l i g a t o r y
( )
M I N I MUM NUCLEUS FO RMUL A :
+Pr [ ActDbTrDecl V - Ph r] + 1 0
N - Ph r
Pn - Ph r
DepC I
+DO
( )
N _ Ph r
Pn - Ph r
Adv - Ph r
V-Phr
DepCI
FIL L ERS:
( 1 ) th� ob l ; ga tory nuc leus Subj ect s l o t
I S fi l l ed by a compo s i t e
fl l le . c la s s inc lud ing fou r a l t c rnate d ' s t r ibu t ion- subc la s se s :
Noun Phrase ; Pronoun Phrase ; Verb Phrasc ' Dependent Clause .
2 The Accomp an imen t t a gmeme c an o cc u r wi th Tran S I t i Ve Cl aus e s ,
a l though
the l anguage wou l d p re fe r o ther con s t ructions.
EXAHPL ES:
+8 +Pr
H,
took
+ 00
iA
versus
the bus wi t h He L en .
+8
H e a r d Heten
+P r
too k
+00
the bus.
9
( 2) the ob l i ga t o ry nu c l eus P red i c a t e s l o t i s f i l l ed by a s imp l e
f i l l e r c l as s inc lud i n g on l y one d i s t r i but i on - sub c l a s s : Ac t i v e
Doub l e Trans i t i v e Dec l a ra t ive Ve rb-Phrase .
( 3 ) t he o b l i ga to ry nuc l eus I nd i re c t Obj e c t s l o t i s f i l l e d by a
c ompo s i t e f i l l e r c l a s s inc l ud t ng three a l t e rna t e d i st r ibut ion­
subc l a sse s : Noun Phra s e ; P ronoun Ph rase ; Dependent Clause .
( 4) the ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Di rec t Obj e c t s l o t i s f i l l ed by a com­
pos i t e f i l l e r c l ass i nc l ud ing five a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibu t i on- sub ­
c l a s s e s : Noun Ph ra s e ; P ro noun Phra se ; Adv e rb Ph ra s e ; Ve rb
Phrase ; Dependent Clause .
EXAMPL ES :
+Pr [ Act OhTrOec l V- Ph r l + IO<PersOPn >
+ S<Oep SCl >
a
+P r [ Act ObTrOec l V - Ph r] +IO<P ersOPn>
+ S<V - Ph r>
To
me
g a ve
Who e v e 1" d i d
that
have
h a1"d
h im
g a ve
t 1" i e d
+P r r Ac t DbTrOec l V- Ph r] +IO<PersOPn>
+S<P ersSPn>
They
wi L L
h im
te L L
+ P r [ Ac t ObTrOec l V- P h r] + IO<PersOPn>
+ S<PersSPn>
toh01ll e v e 1"
t h ey
g av p
They
l i ked
+Pr [ ActDbTrOec I V - Ph r] + IO <PersOPn]
+ S<OemPn>
to L d
The s e
:1 ,
3a,
{
e.
+ DO<N - Ph r>
som e co n so L at io n .
+ DO<V - P h r>
to
go.
+ OO<OepRe l C I >
+P r [ Ac t ObTrOec l V- Ph rl + IO<OepNonSCl> + DO<N - Ph r>
+S<P ersSPn>
1.
Lo t 0
t 1"o u b
that he
wo u L d g o .
me
to Ld
He
+ OO <N - Ph r>
al l the
b o ks .
o
+OO<Adv>
so .
T I O ' the I nd f rect Ob j ec t Tran s form
The ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s I nd i rect Cbj ec t t a gmeme can . w i th a c e r t a i n
Doub l e Tran s i t I v e Ve rb Nuc l eus c o - o c cu r rence- sub c l a s ,> ( fo r fu r th e r
' d e t a i l o n th i s c o - o c c u r r<!nce- subc l a s s . see 3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 1 . 1 . . p a ge 70 )
u nde rgo an Ind i r e c t Obj e c t Tran s fo rm . T ' and b e c om e an op t i on a l
IO
sat e l l i t e Ind i rec t Obj ec t t agmeme o r an opt i on a l sa t e l l i t e Bene fa c to r
t a gmeme I n an Ac t i v e S ing l e Tran s i t i ve Dec l a rat ive Clause Typ e :
K ER N E L STRUCTUR E :
T IO
ActSgTrOecl CI
Ac tObTrOecl C l [+ 8 +P r +10 +00 ]
: + S +Pr + 00 ±
<� >
O
The fo rmu l a t S rea d :
An Ac t i v e S i n g l e Tran s i t i v e Dec l a r a t ive Clause can b e a n I nd i rect.
Obj e c t Tra n s fo rm o f ap Ac t i v e Do ub l e Tran s i t i v e Dec l a ra t i v e C l a u s e
10
w i th e i the r an opt iona l sat e l l i t e I nd i re c t Obj e c t ta gmeme or an op­
t iona l sate l l i t e Bene fac t o r tagmeme .
I n the S t ng l e Tra n s i t i v e Cl a u s e Typ e . the o b l i ga t o ry nuc l e u s
Di rect Obj ect tagmeme usua l ly p recedes the op t iona l sate l l i t e Ind i rect
Obj ect or Ben e factor tagmeme .
EXAMPL ES:
..
::
+ S<PersSPn> +Pr [ Ac tDbTrDcc l V- Ph r ] +IO<PersOPn> + OO <N - Ph r >
t h e boo ks.
me
g alle
They
ilO [ +Prep ( t o ) +H<P ersOPn>]
+ S<Pc rsSPn > +Pr [ ActSgTrDec l V- Phr] +DO<N - Phr>
me.
to
t h e boo ks
g ave
They
+ S<PersSPn> +Pr [ ActObTrOpcI V- Phr] +IO<N - Phr> + OO <N - Ph r>
a p".esen t .
Ma".y
boug h t
They
;:
..
±B lPrcp ( !o ". ) +H<N - Ph r>]
+ S<Pcl'sSPn> +Pr [ Ac tSgTrOec I V- Ph r] +OO <N - Ph r>
Ma".y .
j0 1'
a p".e s e n t
bottg h t
They
� XP AN D ED M A X I M UM FORM U L A :
( +S + P r + 1 0 +DO ) n tL ±M iF iT iB i P il iC
ExpanS I on o f the nuc l eus i nc ludes e t ght opt iona l sate l l ite tagmemes.
EXAMPL ES:
iF
+Pr
+ 10 + 00
u �uaL L y bl"Oltg h t htm p1'esen t s
+S
They
..
'+
+S
iF
+Pr
She tLOuLd usua L l y llif'i t e
iB
j0 1' m e
iC
b e cause 1 co u L dn ' t
do i t myse L f ·
iM
iL
iT
+ 1 0 +00
h im a L e t t e1' ve".y
in the
b ejo1'e
qui c k L y
ga1'den
d i nne1' .
+10
+ S +P r
±I
+00
iP
He W1'0 t e t h em a L e t t e 1' wi th h i s javou1'i t e i n o1'de1' to ask j01'
som e money.
p en
1 3. 4 .
I ndependent Dec l arat f ue C l ause Type 4 : Act f ue Attr f bu ­
t i ue Tran s f t i ue Dec l arat f ue C l ause Type
The Ac t i ve At t n bu t ive Tran s i t ive Dec la ra t i v e Clause Type has the
fo l lowing iden t i f t cat iona l - con t rast t ve fea tures :
it has one Pa ss i v e Tran s form .
t t s m in i m um nuc l eu s s t ru c t u r e i s compo sed o f fou r ob l i g a t o ry
nuc leus tagmemes .
+S
\ )
N _ Ph r
Pn - Ph r
V- Phr
DepCl'
( 1
M I N IMUM NUCLEUS FORM UL A :
+P r [ ActAtTrDec l V- Phr] +00
N - Ph r
Pn - Ph r
DepCl
4- A t
( >
N - Ph r
AdJ - P h r
V ( - en ) - Ph r
11
fIL L ER S:
( 1 ) the obl i ga t o ry nuc l eu s Subj e c t s lo t i s fi l l ed by a compo s i t e
f i l le r c l a s s inc lud ing four a l te rna t e d i s t r i but ion- subc l a s se s :
Noun Phrase ; P ronoun Phra se ; Verb Phra s e ; Dependent Clause .
( 2) the o b l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s Pred i c a t e s l o t i s f i l l ed by a s imp l e
f i l l e r c l ass inc lud ing on ly o n e d i s t r i but ion- subc l a s s : Ac t ive
At tr ibut ive Trans i t ive De c l a ra t i ve Verb Phrase .
( 3 ) the ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s Direct Obj ec t s l o t i s f i l l ed by a com­
pos i t e fi l l e r c l a s s inc lud ing three d i st ribu t ion - sub c l a s se s :
Noun Phras e ; Pronoun Phrase ; Dependent Clause .
( 4) the ob l i ga t o r y nuc l eu s At t r i bu t ive s lo t i s f i l l ed by a com­
posite fi l le r c lass inc luding three a l ternate d i s t r ibut ion- sub­
c lasse s : Noun Phra se ; Adj e c t ive Phra s e ; Ve rb ( en ) Phrase .
_
EXAMPL ES:
+S<P e rsSPn>
+Pr [ ActAtTrOecl V - P h r] +OO<OepNonSC l >
They
+ S<Oep SC l >
+ P r [ Act AtT rOecl V - P h r] + OO<PersOPn>
wi n
Who evel' s e e s
t h a t l!..O m an
+ S<IndetPn>
i nsan e .
+Pr [ Ac tAtTrOec l V- Ph r ] +OO<P crsOPn >
+ At <V (
) - Ph r >
_
en
imp1'i so n e d .
+At<Adj - Ph r>
me
m ak e s
Wo r k i ng a l l
t h e t im e
+At<Adj - Ph r>
him
i m ag i ned
+ S<V - Phr>
Pl'esi dent .
her
b e l i e ve
+P r [ ActAtTrOec l V - Ph r] + OO<PersOPn>
A fe w
+ At<N - Ph r>
t h e m an
t h ey l i ked
e l e c t ed
sick.
EXPAN D ED M A X I MUM FO RMU L A :
( +S +P r +00 +At ) n ± L ± M ±F ± T i 8 ± p ±I ± C
Expans ion o f the nuc leus inc ludes e i ght opt iona l sa te l l i t e tagmemes .
EXAMPL ES:
+s
unan im o us l y
e l ec t ed
+S
±p
To save t i m e ,
+S
+Pr
1 . 3. 5.
him
usuaL l y
+U
c h a i rm an
±L
+At
Pr e s i d e n t
Tom
wash
it
±T
a t t h e h e ad­
qual' t ers
+00 +At
+P r
±F
t hey
+00
ree l e c t ed
T hey
+ 00
+P r
±M
They
c l e an
±I
wi til, som e
d e t e rg en t
y e s t erday .
±8
fo r you .
±C
b ecause t hey L i k ed to h ave the s am e
trad i t i o n .
I n dependen t Dec l arat i ve C l au s e Type 5 : Pas s i ve S i ng l e
Tran s i t i ve Dec l arat i ve C l au s e Type
The Pass ive Single Tran s i t ive Dec lara t ive Clause Type has the fo l ­
l owing iden t i ficat iona l - con t ra s t ive fea ture s :
12
i t i s t h e P a s s i v e Tran s fo rm o f t h e Ac t i v e S i n g l e Tran s i t i v e
Decl arat ive Cl ause Typ e ;
I t S m i n i mum nuc l eus struc ture i s composed o f t wo ob l i ga tory nuc l eus
tagmemes , and one op t iona l nuc l eus tagmeme .
+S
\ )
N - Ph r
Pn - P h r
V - Ph r
OepCl
M I N I MUM NUCL EU S FO RMUL A :
+ P r [PasSgTrOec l V - P h r] tAg [ Rel A x - P h d +Prep ( by ) +H
/:��:�,)
\ oepCl
fJLJ, ERS:
( 1 ) the ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Subj e c t s lo t is f i l l ed by a compo s i t e
f i l l e r c la s s inc lud ing four a l terna te d i s t ribut ion - sub c l a s se s :
Noun Phra s e ; Pronoun Phrase ; Verb Ph ras e ; Dependent Clause .
( 2) the ob l i gato r y nuc l eus Pred i c a t e s lo t i s f i l l ed b y a s imp l e
f i l l e r c l a s s Inc lud i ng on ly one d i s t r ibut ion- subc la s s : Pass ive
Single Trans i t ive Dec l a ra t.ive Verb Phras e .
( 3) the op t iona l nuc l eus Agent s l o t i s f i l l e d by a s imp l e f i l l e r
c l a s s inc lud ing on l y one d i s t r ibut i on - sub c l a s s : Re l a to r Ax i s
Ph rase composed o f an obl iga tory nuc l eus Prepo s i t ion ( by ) , and
an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Head s l o t fi l l ed by a compo s i te f i l l e r
c l ass inc lud ing three a l ternate d i s t r i bu t ion- sub c l a sses : Noun
Phrase ; Pronoun Ph rase ; Dependent Clause .
EXAMPL ES:
+Pr [ PasSaTrOecl V - P h r ] iAg [ Rel Ax- Ph r ( +P rep ( by )
+ S<V - Phr>
Running t h a t show
by
was t aoug h t o f
+H<N - Ph r» ]
t h e ar t i s t s .
+Pr [ PasSgTrOecl V - Ph r ] tAg [ Rel Ax- Phr( +P rep ( by )
+ S<OepSCl >
Who e ver has som e
t rou b l e
by
wi L L b e h e l ped
+H<PersOPn» ]
him .
+ S<PersSPn> +Pr [ PasSgTrOec l V - P h r ] iAg [ Rel Ax- Ph r ( +P rep ( by ) +H<Oep SCl » ]
They
by
wi l l b e g u i d e d
who e v e r s e e s
t h em .
EXPAN DED M A X I MUM FO RMUL A :
( +S + P r tAg ) n ± I O iL
±M
iF iT
iB
iP il iC
Expansion o f the nuc l eus Inc ludes n ine opt i onal sate l l i te tagmemes .
)]
13
HANPL ES:
+
+8
A t e t t e.". was
+
+8
1 . 3. 6 .
ltJ<l S
±IO
to h e .". b1"o t h e 1"
w-ri t t en
+
±I
+Pr
usu a t l y
t
T h e wi ndo w
+Pr
qu i c k t y
iF
T h e dOO f" wa s
+8
..
±M
o pe n e d
+
+Pr
F
±8
wi t h a
key
in the
g af"den
iT
b efo 1"e
d i nn e 1" .
iC
f o r h ef"
b e c ause she cou t dn t t
do i t h e f" s e t f ·
iP
opened
usu a l ty
iL
i n o rd e r to g e t som e f're sh a i 1" .
I ndependent Dec l arat i ue C l ause Type 6 : Pass i ue Doub l e
Trans i t i ue Dec l arat i ue C l ause Type
The Pass i v e Doub le Trans i t ive � c l a ra t ive Cl ause Type has the fo l ­
lowing ident i f i ca t iona l - cont rast ive fea tures :
i t i s the Pa s s i ve Tran s fo rm o f the Ac t i ve Doub l e Tran s i t i ve De ­
c l a ra t ive Clause Type ;
( )
i t s m i n i mum nuc l eu s s t ruc t u r e 1 S compo s e d o f th r e e o b l i ga t o r y
nuc l eu s t d �memes . and an op t 1 on a l nuc l eus one .
+8
( )
N - Ph r
P n - Ph r
V · Ph r
Dt'P C l
M I N I MUM N U CLEU S FORMUL A :
+p r f P asDbT rDec l V - Ph r] + [ iIlO
+H
rHL E R S :
( )
N - Ph r
Pn - P h r
Dep Cl
N _ Ph r
Pn - P h r
Adv - Ph r .
V - Ph r
Dep C l
f lO
( 1
N - Ph r
Pn-Phr
DepCl
]
)]
( 1) t he ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Subj ec t s l o t i s f i l l ed by a compos i t e
[ i l l e r c L ass inc lud ing fou r a l t e rn a t e d 1 s t r i but ion- subc l a s s e s :
Noun Phra se ; P ronoun Ph ra se ; Ve rb Phr as e ; �pendent Clal:lse .
( 2 ) t he o b l i ga to ry nuc l e u s P r ed i c a t e s l o t 1 S f i l l e d by a s i mp l e
f i l le r c l a s s 1nc lud lng on l y one d 1 st r i bu t i on - subc l a s s : Pa s s i v e
Doub l e Trans i t i v e �c l a ra t i v e Verb Ph rase .
( 3a ) the a l t e rna te ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s D i r e c t Obj e c t s lot i s f i. l l e d
b y a compo s i t e [ i l l e r c l a s s i n c lud i ng f i v e d i s t r i bu t i o n - sub ­
c l a s s e s : Noun Ph r a s e ; P ro noun Ph r a s e ; Adv e rb Ph r a s e ; Ve r b
Ph rase ; �pendent Claus e .
( 3b ) the a l t e rna te obl igato ry nuc l eus Ind i re c t Obj ect s lo t i s f i l l ed
by a compo s i t e fi l l e r c lass inc lud ing three a l te rn a t e d i s t r ibu­
t ion- sub c l asses : Noun Ph rase ; P ronoun Ph rase ; �pendent Clause .
14
( 4) the op t iona l nuc leus Agen t s lo t i s fi l led by a s imp l e fi l l e r
c la s s inc luding only one d i s t ribut ion- subc l a s s : Re l a to r Ax i s
Phrase composed o-."f an obl igatory nuc l eus Prepo s i t ion ( by > , and
an ob l iga to ry nuc leus Head s lo t f i l l ed by a compo s i t e fi l l e r
c l ass inc luding three a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibut ion- subc l a s s e s : Noun
Phra s e ; Pronoun Phrase ; Dependen t Claus e .
EXAMPL ES:
+ P r [ PasDbTrDecl V - Ph r] +OO<Adv - Ph r > iAg [ Rel A x - Ph r( +Prep C by >
by
we.,.e t o � d
so
+ S<N - Ph r>
The boys
+H<N - Ph r» ]
t h e i .,. pa.,.e n t s .
+Pr [ PasDbTrDec I V- Ph r] + DO<DepNonSCI>.
wh atso e ve.,. they wan ted.
w e re g i v en
+ S<PersSPn>
They
+P r [ PasDbTrDecI V-Phr ] + OO <V . Ph r>
+S<IndetPn >
Som e
to go .
we re o b L i g ed
+P r [PasDbTrDecI V - P h r ] +IO<Dep SC I �
were offe.,.ed
who e ve1'" W(ln ted ·th.em .
]
+Pr [ PasDbTrDec l V- Ph r +IO<PersOpq >
him .
was acco.,.ded
+ S<N - Ph r>
These boo ks
+ S<DemPn>
That
+ S<DepNon SCI >
Wha t so e ve.,.
t h ey wan t ed
+ S<V - Ph r>
Ru nn i ng
show
+Pr [ PasDbTrDecI V- Ph rJ +IO<PersOPn>
t h em .
was accorded
+Pr [ PasDbTrDec I V- Ph r] +IO<Pe rsOPn>
him.
that
EXPAN DED M A XIMUM FO RMUL A :
( + S +P r
+
<�>
t Ag ) n
iL iM
i F iT i 8 i P i l iC
Expan s ion o f the nucl eus inc ludes e i ght opt iona l sate l l i te tagmemes.
EXAMPL ES :
+S
..
t
iF
A l e t t e 1'" was
+P r
usua l l y
..
+S
The p1'"esen t s we .,.e
±M
+10
h i lll
lU1'"i t t en
i lll lll e d i a t e Ly
iM
ve1'"y
iL
qui c k �y
in
iT
the
ga1'"den
b efo1'"e
dinne1'".
t
iC
i8
+ 10
+Pr
sen t t h em fo 1'" !li e because I have
1'"e quested i t .
iP
il
+10
+Pr
+8
The L e t te1'" was wri t ten them wi t h a s t1'"ang e in o 1'"de1'" no t to be
penc i L
.,.ecognized .
is
I ndependent Dec l arat i ue C l ause Type 7 : Pas s i ue Attr i b-
1 . 3. 7 .
u t i ue Trans i t i ue Dec l arat i u e C l au s e Type
The Pa ssive At t r ibu t iv e Tran s i t ive De c l a ra t i ve Clause Type h a s the
fo l lowin g ident i fi c a t iona l -con t ra st ive feature s :
i t i s the P a s s ive Trans fo rm o f the Ac t i ve At t r i bu t i v e Tran s i t i v e
Dec larat ive Clause Typ e ;
i t s m i n i mum nuc l e u s s t ru c tu re i s c ompo s e d o f t h r e e o b l i g a t o ry
nuc l eus tagmemes , and an op t iona l nuc l eus one .
+s
)
l ���:� r
\ Dep C l
( +Prep C by ) +H
FILL ERS:
(
M I N I MU M N U CL EU S FORMUL A :
+Pr [ PasAtTrDecl V - P h r] + A t
/ ���:� � ) ]
\ DepCl /
N - Ph r
Adj - Ph r
V C - en ) - Ph
)
±Ag [ Rel A x - P h r
( 1 ) the ob l i g a t o r y nuc l eu s Subj e c t s lo t i s f i l led b y a compo s i te
f i l l e r c l a s s inc lud ing three a lt erna te d i s t r i bu t ion - sub c l asses :
Noun Phrase ; Pronoun Phra se ; Dependent Clause .
( 2) the o b l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Pred i c a t e s lo t i s f i l l ed b y a s imp l e
f i l le r c l ass inc lud ing on ly one d i st r ibut ion - sub c la s s : Pa s s i ve
At t r ibut ive Tran s i t ive Dec l a ra t i ve Verb Phrase .
( 3 ) t he ob l i g a to ry nuc l eus At t r ibu t i v e s l o t i s fi l led by a com­
posite fi l l er c lass inc luding three a l ternate d i s t r ibut ion- sub­
c l as se s : Noun Phrase; Adj e c t ive Phra se ; Ve rb c _ en ) Phrase .
( 4) the o p t ion a l nuc l eu s Agent s lo t i s f i l led b y a s imp l e f i l l e r
c l a ss inc lud ing o n l y one d i s t r ibut i on - sub c l a s s : Re l a t o r Ax i s
Phrase composed o f a n ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Prepo s i t ion C by ) , and
an ob l i ga to ry Head s l o t f i l led by a compo s i te fi l l e r c la s s in­
c lud ing th ree a l t e rna t e d i s t r i bu t i on - subc l a sses : Noun Phra s e ;
P ronoun Phra s e ; Dep endent Claus e .
EXAMPL ES:
+ S<PersSPn>
He
+Pr [ PasAtTrDec l V - P h r] + At<N - Ph r>
Se cre tary
was app o i n t ed
( +Prep C by ) +II<N - Ph r » ]
the Party .
by
+ S<Dep SC l >
Who ever wen t
t h ere
+P r [ PasAtTrDec l V- Ph r] + At<V C - en ) - Ph r>
was co ns i d ered
impri so ned.
was o rdered
remo ved.
+ S<DepNonSCl >
Wh a t e ve r t hey
saw
16
+ P r [ PasAtTrDec l V- Ph r] + At<Adj - Ph r>
+8<N - Ph r>
A nyone who c am e h e re
was cons i d ered
wi s e .
EXPAN DED M AXIMUM FORMUL A :
( +8 + P r + A t tAg ) n ±L ±M ±F ± T ± B ±I ±C
Expan s ion o f the nuc leus inc lude s seven o p t iona l sa t e l l i t e t a g ­
meme s .
EXAMPLES:
Tom
t8
was e � e c t e d
+P r
+8
was ree l e c t ed
1 . 3. 8 .
wi th some d e t erg ent
+At
+P r
He
y e s t e rd ay .
±B
±I
c l e an
±T
to comm emo r a t e a t t h e h eadh i s bro th er ' s
quar t e rs
work
Presi dent
+At
was washed
It
±L
±P
+At
+Pr
+8
for you.
±C
chai rm an
b e c ause they l i k ed i t t h a t way .
Independent Dec l arat i ue C l au s e Type B : Equat i ona l De­
c l arat i ue C l au s e Type
The Equa t iona l Dec larat ive Clause Typ e ha s the fo l low ing ident i fi­
c a t iona l - con trast ive fe ature s :
i t ha s n o Pas s ive Trans fo rm ;
i t s m in imum nuc l eu s s t ru c tu re
nuc leu s t agmeme s .
1S
c ompo s ed o f t h r e e ob l i ga to ry
M I N IMUM NUCLEUS FO RMUL A :
+8
fILL ERS:
N - Ph r
Pn - Ph r
Rel Ax- Ph r
V- Ph r
DepC l
DefeCl
(
+P r
)
D e C l AU X ( b e ) Phr
Dec l 8em i Au x - Phr
Dec l I n t r EqV - Ph r
+ EqCo
N - Phr
Pn - Ph r
Adj - Ph r
V ( ._ en ) - P h r
V - Ph r
Adv - Ph r
LRel A x - P h r
Dep C l
DefeCl
( 1 ) the ob l iga to ry nuc l eu s Subj e c t s l o t is f i l l ed by a compo s i t e
f i l le r c l a s s inc luding s i x a l t e rnate d i s t r ibut ion- subc lasses :
Noun Phra se ; Pronoun Phra se ; Re lator Ax i s Ph ra se ; Verb Phra s e ;
Dependent Clause; De fec t ive Clause .
( 2 ) the ob l iga to ry nuc leus P red i ca t e s l o t is fi l l ed by a compo s i t e
f i l l e r c la ss inc lud ing three a l terna te d i s t r ibut ion- subc lasse s :
Dec la r a t ive Aux i l i a ry ( b e ) Phra se ; Dec l a ra t iv e Sem i -Aux i l i a ry
Phrase ; Int rans i t ive Equa t iona l Dec lara t ive Verb Phrase .
17
( 3 ) the o b l i g a t o ry nuc l eus Equ a t i on a l COmp l ement s lo t i s fi l l ed
b y a compos i t e fi l l e r c l a s s inc lud ing n ine d i s t r i bu t i on - sub ­
c lasse s : Noun Phra se ; Pronoun Phra s e ; Adj ect ive Phrase ; Verb<_ en '
P h ra s e ; Ve rb Ph r a s e ; Adv e rb Phr a se ; Lo c a t i o n Re l a to r Ax i �
Phra se; Dependent Clause ; Defe c t ive Clause .
EXAMPL ES:
+P r<Oecl Au x ( b e ) - Ph r> +EqCo<N - Ph r>
+S<Rel Ax- Ph r>
a L ong way .
is
From Sai gon to Sydney
+S<XOepCl>
Because h e was ri ch
+Pr<Oec l Au x ( b e ) - Ph r> +EqCo<N - Ph r>
no re ason to h ang
was
on h i m .
+ S<V - Ph r>
To s e e
+Pr<Oec l Au x ( b e ) - Ph r> +EqCo<V- Ph r>
to b e L i ev e .
is
+ S<N - Ph r>
He r v i e w
+Pr<Oec l Au x ( b e ) - Ph r> +EqCo<XOep C l >
that h e sho u L d
is
t'l"y again.
+ S<PersSPn>
He
+P r<Oecl Au x ( b e ) - Ph r> +EqCo<Ad v - Ph r>
'l"i g h t t h e re .
was
+ S<OemPr>
That
+P r<Oec l Sem l Au x- Ph r> +EqCo <Adj - Ph r>
goo d.
sound s
+ S<PersSPn >
He
+Pr<Oec l l nt rEqV- Ph r> + EqCo <Adj - Ph r>
mo t i o n L e ss.
s at
EXP AN DEO ft1 A X I MU M FORM U L A :
( +S +Pr +EqCO ) D iL iF iT iC
Expans lon of the nuc l eus inc ludes four optiona l sate l l i te tagmeme s .
EXAMPL ES:
iC
iT
+S
iL
+Pr
+EqCo
a few years b e cause t h ey were no t so
back i n
They were n i ce
poor at that t im e .
Sat gon
ago
p eop L e
o n the opt iona l s a t e l l i t e Clause leve l tagmemes o f th i s Cl ause
Typ e : They a re to be d i f fe ren t i a ted from op t i ona l s a t e i l l t e Ph ra s e
l eve l tagmemes .
No t e
EXAMPL ES:
+ P r iF
+ EqCo
+S
They a'l"e usuaL L y sad .
1 . 3. 9 .
versus
+P r + EqCo <AdJ - Ph r>
+8
ext, eme L y i n t e L ­
They are
L i g en t .
I ndependent Dec l arat i ue C l au s e Type 9 : ( T h e r e ) S tat i ue
Dec l arat i ue C l ause Type
Th e ( T h e 'l" e ) St a t i v e De c l a ra t l ve C l a u s e Type ha s the fo l lo w i n g
i dent i ficat iona l -con t ra s t ive fea tu res:
18
i t s m 1n 1 mum nuc l eus s t ru c t u r e 1 S compo sed o f t h r e e o b l i ga t o ry
nuc l eus t agmemes;
i t s Lo g i c a l Subj e c t t a gmeme p r e c edes i t s Pred i ca t e t agmem e . and
carries out the Yes-No Trans fo rm ;
i t s St a t i v e Subj e c t t a gmeme . i n sp i t e o f i t s 'pO S l t 10n a ft e r i t s
Pred i c a t e tagmem e . selects the form o f the l a t t e r .
M I N I MUM N U CLEUS FO RMU L A :
+S(The�e ) +P r [Oec l Au x( b e ) - Ph r] +Sts
fIL L ERS:
\ )
N - Ph f
Pn - Ph r
Oep Cl
( 1 ) th e o b l i ga t o ry n u c l eu s Lo g i c a l Subj e c t s l o t i s f i l l ed b y
only one Part i c l e (The�e ) .
( 2) the ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s P red i ca t e s lo t i s f i l l ed by a s i mp l e
f i l le r c lass inc lud ing on ly one d i s t r ibut ion-sub c l a s s : Dec lara­
t ive Aux i l i a ry ( b e ) Phrase .
( 3) the ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Sta t i v e Subj e c t s l o t i s fi l l e d b y a
compo s i t e fi l l e r c l a ss inc luding three a l t e rna t e d i st r ibut ion ­
subc l a sses : Noun Phra se ; P ronoun Phra s e ; Dependent Clause .
EXAMPL ES:
+ S ( The�e ) +P r [Oecl Au x ( b e ) - I' h rJ +StS<N - Ph r>
man y boy s.
The�e
have been
+ S < The�e ) +P r [Occl Au x C b e ) - Ph r ] + St S<Per sSPn - Ph r>
The�e
you and I .
we�e
+SC The�e ) +Pr [ Ol'c l Au x( b e ) - Ph r] + StS<OepNonSC l >
what t hey cal l ed �hum b aba.
The�e
was
EXPAN DED M A X I MUM FORMU L A :
( + ( Th e�e ) + P r +st S ) n ±L ± F ± T ± C
Expansion o f the nuc l eus inc ludes fou r opt ion a l satel l i te tagmem e s .
F:XANPL E:
+Pr
+S
The�e we�e
iF
usual l y
±T
±L
+StS
som e s tuden t s a�ound t h e p l ac e l as t y e a�
iC
because o f the f�e quent m e e t ing s .
1 . 3. 10.
I ndependen t Dec l arat f ue C l ause Type 1 0 :
(It)
S tat f ue
Dec l arat i ue C l au s e Type
The (I t ) Sta t i ve Dec l a r a t ive Clause Type has the fo l lowing iden t i ­
ficat ion a l - con t ra s t i ve feature s :
19
i t s ob l i gatory nuc l eus Lo g i c a l Subj ec t t a gmeme p recedes i t s ob l i ­
g a t o r y n u c l e u s P r e d l c a t e t a g m e m e . s e l e c t s t h e fo r m o f t h e
l a t t e r tagmem e . and c a r r les o u t the Ye s-No Trans fo rm ;
i t s ' m i n i mum nuc l eu s s t ruc t u r e i s c ompo s ed o f t h r e e ob l i ga t o ry
nuc l eus tagmemes .
(���:� )
M I N I MUM NUCLEU S FORMUL A :
+ Sc I O +P r lOcc Uu x ( b e ) - Ph r ] +St�o
N L J. ERS :
OcpCl
r
( 1 ) the ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Log i c a l Subj e c t s lo t is f i l l ed by on l y
one Pa rt i c l e ( Z t ) .
( 2 ) the ob l l ga to ry nuc l eus P red i c a t e s l o t i s fi l l e d by a s i mp l e
f i l l e r c la ss in c l ud ing on l y one d i s t r i bu t i on - subc lass : Dec l a ra­
t ive Aux i l i a ry ( b e ) Ph rase .
( 3 ) the ob l i gato ry nuc leus S t a t ive COmp lement s l o t i s fi l l ed by a
c ompo s i te f i l l e r c la s s inc lud ing t h ree a l t e rnate d i s t r i but ion­
subc lasses : Noun Phra se ; P ronoun Phra se ; Dependent Claus e .
EXAMPL ES:
+ S( [ O
It
+Pr f OecUu x ( b e ) - Ph r] +StCo<N · Ph r>
's
t h e bo y s .
+ S (I t ) +P r [ Oecl Au x C be ) · Ph r] + StCo <P c r sOPn >
It
's
me.
+ScI t >
+Pr
It
[ DecUu x C b e ) · Ph r] +StCo<OepNon SCl >
wh a t they thoug h t to be a p L an e .
was
EXPANDED M A X I MUM FO RM U L A :
( + CI t > +Pr +StCo ) n
i L iF
± T ±C
Expan s i on of the nuc leus inc ludes four op t iona l sat e l l i t e tagmemes .
EXAMPL E:
.-
+ S C I t ) +Pr
It
wou l d
iF
+
US1La L L y b e
±EqCo
Jo hn
±L
i n t h e l i bl"al"Y
at IJ o ' c lo c k
±C
b e c ause he used to
wai t fo l" Nal"y a t
t h a t t im e .
20
1 . 3 . lOa.
Some o ther uses o f the ob l l gGtory nuc l eu s L og i ca l
Sub j ect
CI t )
( 1 ) Para l l e l l y to the use o f the ob l i gatory nuc leus Lo gi ca l Subj e c t
in the Clause Type 10 abov e . C I t ) i s a l so used to fi l l the s lo t
o f the o b l iga tory nuc l eus Subj e c t o f many Gramma t i c a l Subj e c t Clause
Type s ana lyzed abov e .
C I t ) w i l l have the s t ructura l m eaning o f I n ­
d etermina t e Re ferent .
(It)
EXAMPL ES:
+ S (I t )
+Pr [ Act I n t rDec I V- Ph r]
rai n s .
It
+ S CI t )
+Pr [ Dec I Au x C b e ) - Ph r] +EQCo <A d j - Phr> ± T
It
's
ho t
t o d ay .
( 2 ) Th e Log ic a l Subj e c t C I t ) i s a l so used t o rep lace Re feren t s . o f
any internal s t ructure . occurr ing w i thin the same Clause .
EXAMPL ES:
(a)
+S([O
.
It
+ S CI t )
It
It
fi l l s the Subj e c t s lo t and replaces a Dependent Clause .
+Pr [ Dec I Au x C b e ) - Ph r] +EQCo <N - Ph r> +Re feren t <XDep C I >
t h a t h e l ef t .
a s h am e
was
+P r [ ActDbTrDec l V- P h r] + IO<PersOPn> +DO<N - Ph r>
g i ve s
me
a p ai n
+ Re fe ren t <XDep C l >
t ha t t h e y k e ep sp end i ng a l o t o f money .
( b ) C I t ) f i l l s the Subj e c t s lo t and rep l a ce s a Verb Phra se .
+ S CI t )
It
+SCI t )
It
+Pr [ Dec I Au x C b e ) - P h r] + EQCo<N - Ph r> +Referen t<V- Ph r>
a p i ty
was
to m i ss t h a t fi lm .
+ P r [ Ac tDbTrDec I V- Ph r] +IO<PersOPn> + DO<N - Ph r>
d i dn ' t g i ve
him
any p l e asure
+ Re fe ren t <V-Phr>
to bo t h e r h i s n e i g h bour.
+SCl t )
It
+Pr [ Dec l Au xC be ) -Phr ] +EqCo<Ad j - Ph r> +Re feren t <V - Ph r>
i sn ' t
good
dri v i ng t h a t fas t .
C h ap t e r 2
C L AU S E
C LAS SE S
2 . O . CLAS S I F I CAT I ON
There a r e e l even C l a s se s o f En g l i sh Clause Typ e s . d e t e rm ined by
some common l d ent i f l c a t i ona l - con t ra s t i ve fe a t u re s o f t h e in t e rn a l
s t ru c ture and the d l s t r ibut i on o f the Clauses in the l a rger m a t r i x
1.
2.
3.
4.
S.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
( Independent ) Dec larat ive Clause Cl ass
( Independen t ) Impe ra t ive Clause Class
( Independen t ) Yes-No Inte rrogat ive Clause Cl a s s
( Independen t ) In t errogat lve Subj ect Clause Cl a ss
( Independen t ) Int erroga l ive Non- Subj ect Clause Cl ass
( Independent ) Extra Int errogat lve Clause Cl ass
Dependent Subj ect Clause Class
Dependent Non- Subj ect Clause Class
Extra Dependent Claus e Class
Dependent Re lat ive Clause Cl ass
De fe.c t ive Cl ause Cla s s .
These e l even Clause Classes are furthermore grouped into l a ge r and
l a r ge r C l a u s e Cl a s se s a c co rd ing to some co mmon i den t i f l c � l on a l ­
con t ra s t ive fea tures on a five l eve l sca l e o f cons ide rat ion a s i n the
fo l lowing Summary Tab l e I I .
On the f i rs t and h i gh e s t l e v e l o f c o n s i d e r a t i on . t h e r e a rE'
l a rge r Clause Classes :
t W()
the Cl a s s o f Comp l e t e Clause Types . win ch. a re un i t s o f Pred i ­
c a t lon cont a in lng a m i n imum o f a n o b l i ga t o ry Pred l c a t e t ag ­
m eme . and . except [o r Im�� ra t ive Cl ause Types . a n ob l igato ry
Subj ect tagmem e ;
the De fec t i ve Clause Cl a s s ( No . l l ) . who se ident i f icat ion a l ­
c o n t ra s t i v e f e a t u r e s a r e t h e o p t iona l cha ra c t e r o f t h e
Subj ect tagmeme . and the Non -Conj uga ' ed form o f the Predicate
t a gmem e .
EXAMPL E:
Sing i ng a L L t he t im e (Jo hn d ' dn ' t h e a� t he noi se ) .
On the s econd level o f cons iderat ion . the Cl a ss o f Comp l et e Clause
Types
s subd iv ided lnto two Classes :
the Class o f Independent Clause Type s wh i ch a re pO '. en t l a l l y
Comp lete Sentences ;
the Class o f Dependent Clause Types wh ' ch are e i ther lnc luded
21
S U M M ,O\ R Y
TABL E
II
C l a s s i f i c a t i on o f the ten C l au s e C l as s e s i n to mo re g l ob a l C l as s e s
E n g l i sh C I au s e C l a s s e s
I
II
III
Wi t ho u t
IV
an
In t e rroga t i v e
t agm eme
Independen t
Wi th
In t e rroga t i v e
Camp l e t e
t agmeme
Wi t ho u t
an
1
Impe rat i v e
2
Yes-No In t e r rogat i v e
3
From Int e rroga t i ve
k e rne l
Ex t ra Depende n t t agmem e
Dependent
Wi t h
Defe c t i v e
an
No .
De c l arat i ve
From Dec l ara t i ve
k e rne l
an
V
Ex t r a Dependen t t agmeme
In t e r roga t i ve Subj e c t
4
In t e rrogat i v e Non
Subiect
5
Ex t ra Int e r roga t i ve
6
Dep enden t Subj e c t
7
Dependen t Non SUbj e c t
8
Dependen t Re l a t i ve
9
Ex t ra Dep enden t
10
11
23
w i th in or dependent upon ano the r Clause and con t a in a Depen­
dent Clause Int roduc e r tagmeme wh i ch d l s t ingu l shes them from
Independent Clauses.
on
the third level of cons i de rat ion -
( 1) the Cl ass o f Independent Clause Types 1 S subdi v i ded into t wo
Classes :
the Cl ass o f Clause Types wl thout an Inte rrogat i ve tagmeme.
the Cl ass of Clause Types wl th an Inte r roga t iv e tagmeme .
( 2) the Class o f Dep end ent Clause Types 1 S subd i v ided i n t o t wo
Classes :
the Class o f Clause Types w i thout an Ext ra Dependen t t a gm em e ;
the Class o f Clau se Types w i th a n Ext ra Dependent tagmeme .
on
the fourth level o f con s i de rat ion -
( 1 ) t h e Cl a s s o f I n d e p enden t C l a u s e Typ e s w i t ho u t an I n t e r roga t ive tagm eme i s subd iv ided in to three Cla s se s :
the Independen t Dec l a ra t ive Clause Cla s s ( No I ) ;
the Independent Impe ra t ive Cl ause Class (No . 2 ) ;
the Independent Yes-No I n t e r roga t ive Clause Cl ass (No . 3 ) .
( 2) the Class o f Independent Clause Typ es w i th an Inte rroga t i v e
t agmeme i s subd i v ided into two Cla sse s :
t h e Cl a s s o f I nd e p e n d en t Cl a u s e Typ e s w i th a n I n t e r­
roga t i v e ta gmeme wh i ch a rp d e r l v e d f ro m the Independent
Dec l a rat ive k e rnel Cl ause Cla s s ;
t h e Cl a s s o f I n d e p e n d e n t Cl a u s e Typ e s w i th a n I n t e r­
r o ga t i v e t a gmeme wh i ch a re de r 1 v ed f rom the Independent
Yes-No Int e rroga t iv e k e rne l Clause Cla s s .
( 3 ) t h e C l a s s o f Dependent Clause Typ es w i thout an Ext ra Depen ­
dent tagmeme includes on l y on e Cla s s having the same n ame .
( 4) the C l a s s o f Dep enden t Clause Typ e s w i th an Ex t r a Dependen t
t agmeme inc ludes on l y one Cla s s hav ing the same name .
On the f 1 fth level o f con s ide rat ion -
( 1 ) the Class o f Independent Cl ause Type s w i th an I n t e r ro ga t iv e
t agmeme wh i ch a r e d e r iv ed f r o m the Independen t Dec l a r a t i v e
k e rnel Clause Class i nc ludes only one Cla s s , name l y :
the I n t e r roga t i ve Subj ect Clause Cla s s (No . 4) .
( 2) the Cl a s s o f Independen t Clause Typ es w i th a n I n t e r ro ga t i v e
t agmeme wh ich a re der i ved from the Independen t Yes-No Inter­
roga t iv e kernel Clause Cla ss inc ludes two Cla s se s :
t he Independent I n t e r ro g a t i v e Non - Subj e c t C l au s e Cl a s s
(No. 5 ) ,
24
the Independent Ex t ra Int e rro ga t ive Clause Cl ass (No . 6 ) .
( 3 ) t h e Cl a s s o f Dep endent C l a u s e Type s w i tho u t an Ex t ra De ­
pendent tagmeme inc ludes two Classes :
the Dependent Subj ec t Clause Class (No . 7 ) ;
the Dependent Non- Subj e c t Clause Class (No . 8 ) .
( 4) the Class o f Dependent Clause Types wi th an Ext ra Dependen t
t agmeme inc l udes two Classe s :
the Dependent Re l a t ive Clause Class (No . 9 ) ;
the Ex t ra Dependent Clause Class ( No . 10 ) .
2. 1.
CLAU S E CL A S S E S
2. 1. 0.
IN
DETA I L
I N TRODU CTO RY
From the ke rne l Dec l a ra t ive Clause Cla s s . the o ther Clause Classes
c an be deriv ed when p r im a ry o r seconda ry Trans fo rm ru l e s a r e app l ied.
Thu s . 1n o rde r to rev e a l the b a s i c d i f fe renc e s and Trans fo rma t ion a l
re l a t ionsh ips among the ten Comp l e t e Clause Classes . each Clause Cl ass
wi l l b e s t a ted 1n terms of i ts ident i fi c a t ion a l -con t ra s t ive fea t u re s .
Tran s fo rm ru l e s . and Clause leve l tagmemes p e r t inent t o these Trans ­
fo rm ru les . and s t ructure formulae .
Summa ry Tab les o f nuc leus fo rmu l a e and examp les o f e a ch Clause Type
a re a l so g iven .
The ana lys i s o f Cl ause l e ve l t a gmemes wh i ch a r e no t n e c e s sa ry t o
t he exp l an a t ion o f the Trans fo rm ru l e s w i l l b e d e a l t w i t h i n t h e
Chap ter 3.
2. 1. 1.
( I ndependen t) Dec l arat f ue C l au s e C f as s ( SUMM A RY
TABLE I I I )
The Cl ass o f ten Dec l a ra t ive Clause Types has the fo l lo wing ident i ­
ficat iona l - cont ra s t ive fea tures and st ructure formu l a :
3
+Pr . . .
+s
...
>'
Th e fo rmu la i s read :
The s t ru c ture o f a Dec l a ra t iv e Clause Typ e c on s i s t s o f a m in imum
nuc l eu s o f an ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s Subj e c t t a gmcme . and an ob l i ga to ry
nuc l eus Pred i ca t e tagmem e .
3
The su spen s i on p o i n t s mean t h a t some Cl ause Typ e s o f the Cl ause Cl a s s i n
q u e s t i on wi ] I
amp l e :
req u i r e o t h e r o b I i g a t o ry n u c l e u s t a gmeme s a s w e I 1 .
Fo r e x­
the Ac t i ve Si n g l e Tr an s i ti v e De c l a r a t i v e Cl a u s e Typ e requ i re s a l so
o b I i g a t o r y n u c l eus Di r e c t Obj e c t t agmem e .
an
Fo r the s t a temen t on the m i n i mum
o b l i g a to ry n u c l eu s formu l a o f e ac h p a r t i cu l a r Cl a u s e Ty p e o f e a c h Cl a u s e
Cl a s s . s e e t h e Summ a ry Tab l e s .
25
The Subj ect tagmeme p recedes the Pred i c a t e t a gmeme . and se l ec t s the
form o f the l a t t e r .
The o b l i g a t o ry se l ec t ion o f t h e fo rm o f t h e P red i c a t e ta gmeme b y
t h e Subj e c t t a gm e m e rema i n s t ru e fo r a l l t h e t en COmp l e t e C l a u s e
Classe s .
2 . 1. 2.
( I ndependent) I mperat i ue C l au s e C l as s ( SUMM ARY
TABLE I I I )
The C l a s s o f e i gh t I mp e r a t i v e C l a u s e Typ e s h a s the fo l l o w l n g
i den t i f i c a t iona l - cont ra s t ive fea tures and s t ruc ture fo rmul a :
K E RNEL STRUCTU R E : Decl Cl
T Imp
+ ImpPr . . .
hpCI
The formu la i s read :
An Impe ra t ive Cl ause Type . ImpCI . i s an Imperat l ve Trans fo rm . T Imp '
o f a Dec l a rat ive Cl ause Typ e .
I t s m in i mum nuc l eus s t ructure cons i s t s o f an ob l i gato ry nuc l eu s
I mperat ive P red i c a t e . wh ich has a Non-Conj uga ted fo rm.
2 . 1 . 2a.
T Imp ' the Imp e ra t i v e Trans fo rm i s a two- fo l d ope ra t i on : the
d e l e t ion o f the Subj ec t t agmeme ; the Non-Conj ugat ion o f the P red I c a t e
t agmeme .
2. 1. 3.
( I ndependent) Ye s - No I nterrogat l ue C l ause C l a s s
( SUMMARY T ABL E I I I )
The Class o f ten Ye s-No I n t e r ro ga t ive Clause Type s has the fo l l ow­
ing iden t i f i c a t iona l - contrast ive features and st ruc ture formu l a :
K ERNEL STRUCTU R E : Dec l CI
T YesNo
Y esNo l n terCI
..
+8
+
+ I n t erPr . . .
The fo rmu l a is re ad:
A Yes -No I n t e r roga t i v e C l a u s e Typ e . Y e sN o l n t e rC I . i s a Yes -No
Tran s fo rm . T Y esNo ' o f a De c l a ra t i v e C l a u s e .
I t s m ln i mum s t ruc t ure con s i s t s o f an ob l i g a to ry nuc l eu s Subj e c t
t agmeme . and a n ob l l gatory nuc l eus I n t e rroga t i ve P red i c a t e t a gmem� .
S U "
I ndependent
D e , ' a r� t l u e .
Y e s -No
� II
T � I L E
I n t e rroga t / u e .
II
III
IV
Intrans t t i v e
Singl e
Active
Trans i t i ve
GrCllMl a tical
Doub l e
A t t ribu t i v e
Subj ect
PasSlve
I
I
Single
Trans i t ive
I
Equat ional
Logical
( tlLere) Stat ive
Subj ect
(It)
Stat i ve
and
I .p e rat / u e
C l au s e C l a s s e s
2.
I .
3
I n depen d e n t C l au se C l asses 1 . 2 . 3
CI auae Type Cl asses
I
I I I
Doub l e
A t t ribut ive
Declarativ e C l ause Types
No.
1
Yes-No Interrocative Clause Types
I
+5 +ActIatrDeclPr
2
3
4
5
+00
+s .ActDbTrDeelPr +10 + 00
+S +ActAtTrDec l P r
+ 00 + A t
+s +PaaDbTrDec l P r
7
+
(�o>
8
+S +EqDeciPr
9
+EqCo
+ ( f;\ef'e) +StDeclPr +StS
10
"'(It>
•
The
UI
+At tAl
+5 +PasAtTrDec lPr
"'StOeclPr +StCo
+5 ·4ctlatrlateJ'fr
+ Ac t l n t r l.pPr
I
+s +ActScTrlDterPr
+ 00
+8 +ActDbTrlDterf'r -10 + 00
"'ActScTrt.pPr
+00
I
+8 +ActAtTrlDterPr
+00 +At
+ActAtTrI.pPr
+00 +At
I
tAl
+8 +PasSc:TrDeclPr
6
I
+s +ActScTrDeclPr
IlOPerati ve Cl ause Types
I
+S +PasS,TrIa terPr
I
+5 +PasAtTrIaterf'r
I
+
+
+S +PasObTrlaterPr
+5 +£qIDterPr
tAl
•
(ro)
tAl
+At
+£qCO
+(!her,) +StlDterPr +StS
+ (I t )
+ActDbTrl.pPr + 10 +00
+StJaterPr +StCo
Pa'ssive Imperative Clause Types S . 6 . 7 are Tery rarely used.
tAl
t A,
+P ••S,Trl.pPr
+f'asDbTrl.pPr
+
(�
+EqI.pPr
'tA,
+ .4.1
+PasAtTrl.pPr
+[qCo
:t A,
1t
"
-
E X A I P L E S
' ndependent
D , c / o r o t i ll e .
R E F L E C T I N G
Y e s -No
' n t e r r o g o t l lll .
CI ause Typ e CI Il.au
II
111
No.
tv
Intran..s \ t Lve
Singl.
A c t ive"
Transi til"
GrWUla t i cal
3
Doub l e
A t tributive"
Subj eet
Pass ive"
Transi t i v,
S.ngle
Doub le
i
�
A t tribu t i u
Equat ional
Logical
Subj ect
e rhere> Stat ivt
(Iel Sta t i v e
•
Th.
4
6
S
10
S V I I A I Y
ond
T A B L E
' '' p e r o t / II '
I I I
C l ou s e
C l os s e s
I . 2.
3
I n d ependen t C l au se C l a s s e s 1 . 2. 3
Yes-No laterro,atiYe Clause Type.
DeclaratiYe Cl ause Types
9,
D i d Ile ,...n ?
1'0r..
G�ide tho tot.1"i sts!
U:.e) ,a� . ';01:". a boo�.
G i Ve" Joh�
Se g i ven
'a.s he e ! ect.� chai rn an ?
i s H r. .:! .
I5 s h e k i n d ?
fh.re a r e s O li e boys.
6,
(b)
7 are very rarely used.
Get yO ....f'.se �f (or
B e Hr.d!
Get
act
Negat.ve:
Yo".J.-rst l j
yot.1"seif
fry no t"
to
The fo l lowing Constnlct ions are more frequent :
- v,.!) i:.i.d.,t! ;y her!
(or -'!Jt$) , { tie... Q boo \.'
(or -!Its) e l ected. p<f"esi.Jc1U (or
� , it4ide.1 ; ) : A i s ; i -f'L !
lry "t c t t o b. fi v,n. a
?oo.t!
fry ".o t to b. e L ect.d. c4ai raan.!
- .! ) !
boo�! f
Ii
..
B e , : ec ted c h a i f"fll anl
I t w.! lohr.. .
( a ) Affirmauve:
boo1c!
5 , i:lided ( by \ f! � ) !
Ie t:.itlS t d e ct�d c.\ainan .
P••• u'c lcperative CLause Types 5.
a
S 1. e c t \ i . c ,ll a i n:r. a�l
John. was g t. ven. a book.
A boo k was ;:l i ve". JQ.'''.r. .
She
lal>erati ye CI_se Types
•
28
T Y e sN o ' the Yes -No Trans fo rm 4
2 . 1 . 3a.
I t i s a two - fo ld ope ra t ion :
e i th e r a do - In t e r ro ga t ive Trans fo rm . T do - I n t e r ' o r an Aux i l i a r y­
Int e r rogat i ve Trans fo rm . T Au x - In ter ;
t h e dep l a c e m en t o f t h e I n t e r ro g a t i v e P r e d i c a t e v i s - a - v i s t h e
Subj e c t tagmeme .
( I ndependent) I nterrogat i ue Sub j ec t C l au s e C l as s
2. 1. 4.
( SUMMARY TABLE I V)
The Class o f e i gh t I n t e r roga t i ve Subj ect Clause Types has the fo l ­
low ing iden t i ficat i ona l - con t rast i v e features and s t ruc ture formu la :
Decl Cl
K E R N E L STRUCTU R E :
T S- I n ter
+ I n t e rS + Dec l P r . . .
I n terSCl
The fo rmula 1 S rea d :
An Inte rrogat ive Subj ect Cl ause Type . I n t erSCl . i s a n I n t e r rogat ive
Subj ect Trans fo rm , T S - I n t e r ' o f a Dec l a ra t ive Clause .
I t s m i n i mum st ruc ture cons i s t s o f an ob l iga t o ry I n t e r ro ga t i v e Sub ­
j e c t t agmeme . and an o b l i gatory Dec la ra t ive P red i ca t e t a gmeme .
T S - I n t e r ' the I n terrogat i ve Sub J ect Tran s form
2 . 1 . 4a .
I t i s the f i l l 1 n g o f the ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Subj e c t s l o t w i th an
I n t e r roga t i ve Subj ect fi l ler c la s s .
+ InterS
2 . 1 . 4b.
I I n t e r SP n
\ I n t e rN - P h r
).
the ob l i gatory nuc l eus I n ter­
rogat f ue SubJ ect tagmeme
I n t e rN - Ph r ( + In t e rArt +NH )
5
fIL L ER S : an ob l i gato ry nuc l eus I n t e r ro g a t i ve Subj e c t s l o t i s fi l l ed
4
The deta i l ed a n a l y s i s o f t h i s Tr an s fo rm wi l l
p age s
a
be de l t wi th i n
3. 1. 1. 1. 4
.•
and
5 The t e rm A r t i c l e i s u s ed in t h i s p a p e r wi th a w i d e r s e n se t h a n i t i s
t r adi t i o n a l l y u s e d .
fi l l ed by t h e ,
Ch a r l e s C .
88-89) .
a, an ,
Fri e s '
An y P a r t i c l e wh i c h f i l l a t h e Oe t e rm i n e r
e tc .
i s a c e r t a i n k i n d o f Art. i c l e .
Wo rd Group A ( The S t ructure of En g l i sh . N . Y.
For fu r t h e r cle t a i l .
p age 8 1. and
sl ot
3. 1. 2. 1. 1. 1. 2.
s ee
a
3. 1. 2. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1.
p ge 8 2 o f thi s p aper.
p age 79 .
u su a l l y
I t i a s i m i l a r to
19 5 2 ,
pp.
3. 1. 2. 1 . 1 . 1. 1. 2.
S V I I A R Y
I ndependent
C l au s e
I
Typ e
II
Trans i t i v e
IV
So .
Trans i t i ve
C l ause
C l ass
4
I n t errogat i v e SUbj ect C l au se Types
E x am p l e s
d n t e r S + Ac t l n t rDec l P r
Sing L e
'2
+ I n t e r S + A c t S,TrDec l P r
Doub l e
3
+ I o t e r S +ActDbTrDec l P r + 1 0 +00
Who g a v e John a boo k �
4
d o t e r S +ActAtT r Dec l P r
Who e ! e c t ed h i ... c h a i n a n ?
5
+ I n t e r S +PasS,TrDec l P r
Doub l e
6
+ l D t e r S +PasDbTrDecl P r
A t t r i bu t i ve
7
+ I n t e r S +PasAt T r D ec l P r
8
+ In t e r S +EqDec l P r
Sing l e
Equa t ional
S ub l e c t
1
A t t r i bu t t v e
Subj e c t
I V
I n d ep en d e n t C I au s e C l a s s 4
III
Gramm a t i ca l
Pass i ve
I n te rroga t i u e
Cl asses
ln t rans t t i ve
Act ive
T A B L E
I
Who ,-ao;�
+ 00
Wh i c h g i. ,- L gui ded the to'J;,-i s t s �
+ 00 +At
tA,
+
(�)
tAe
+At .t Ae
+EqCo
;tho we'-e g " i d e d
by t �e g i '- L �
l;ho W'.lS g i. ve r. a boo k ?
Wha t "-as f! i Hn ( .0 ) J o h n ?
W/:.o was e L e c t e d chai n a"t ?
W h i c h o f t h e g i ,- L s was Ha,-y?
N
<..D
30
by a compo s i t e f i l l er c l ass inc lud ing two a l te rn a t e d i s t r ibut ion- sub­
c lasses :
I n t e r roga t iv e Subj ec t P ronoun : who , who s e , wh i c h , wha t , ho w m any ,
ho w much ;
I n t e r ro ga t i ve Noun -Phrase cpmposed o f an ob l i ga to ry I n t e r roga t iv e
Art i c l e : who s e , wh i c h , wh a t , ho w m any , ho w much . and an ob l i ga to ry
Noun Head .
EXAMPL E :
+ S [ I n terN - Ph r ( + I n terArt +NH ) ]
Who se
ca�
i s b e i ng wash ed t h e �e ?
( I ndependen t) I nterrogat f ue Non - Sub l ec t C l au s e C l as s
2. 1. 5 .
( SUMM ARY TABLE v)
The Class o f e i gh t Inte r roga t iv e Non - Subj ec t Clause Type s has the
fo l lowing iden t i f i ca t iona l - cont ra s t ive fea tures and s t ructure fo rmu l a :
K E RNEL STRUCTU R E : Y esNo I n t erCl
Tnon S- I n t er
I n terNonSCl
+ I n terNonS + [+YesNo I n t e rCl -No n S]
t
Y
The fo rmu l a i s read :
An I n t e r roga t i ve Non - Subj e c t Cl ause Type . I n t e rNon SC l .
i s a Non­
Subj ec t I n t e r ro ga t i v e Tran s fo rm . T n o n S- I n t e r ' o f a Y e s - No I n t e r ­
ro ga t ive Clause Type .
I t s m i n i mum s t ruc t u r e c o n s i s t s o f an o b l i g a to ry Non - Su bj e c t
tagmeme . and an obl i.gatory Yes -No Interro ga t ive Cl ause Type m inus i t s
p a r t i cu l a r rep l ac ed Non- Subj e c t tagmeme .
2 . 1 . 5a.
T n o n S - I n t e r ' the Non - Sub l ect Interrogat f ue Tran s fo rm
I t i s the f i l l ing o f a Non - Subj e c t t a gm e m e s l o t w i th a n I n t e r ­
roga t i v e Non - Subj e c t f d l e r c l a s s . The rep l a c in g t a gm e � e i s t h en
t rans fer red to the po s i t ion a t the beglnning o f the Clause .
2. 1 . 5 b .
+ I n t e r No n S
I n t erDO
I n t erIO
I n t erAt
I n terEqCo
I n terStS
I n t erStco
, the ob l f gatory nuc l eu s
I n terrogat f ue Non - Subj ec t tagmeme
An obl i g a to ry Interrogat i v e Non- Subj e c t t agmeme serves a s an Int e r­
ro ga t i ve Non - Subj e c t C l a u s e I n t roduc e r . a nd a s any C l a u s e l ev e l
t agmeme a c co rd ing to the pa r t i cu la r I n t e r roga t ive Non- Subj ec t Cl ause
SUMM A RY
T A B L E
V
5
I n d e p en d en t I n t e r r o g a t i u e N o n - S u b j e c t C l a u s e C l a s s
C l ause
I
I n d ep en d en t C I au s e C l a s s 5
Typ e C l a s s e s
II
III
IV
Sing l e
.4c t i ve
Trans i t iv e
Gramma t i c a l
Doub l e
No .
2
3
Trans i t i ve
'In te r
A t t ribut i v e
4
+ Inter
Doub I e
6
'Inter
A t t ribut ive
8
Equat ional
Logi c a l
Subj ect
( There )
7
Stat i ve
9
( I t ) Stat i v e
10
�
' I o t eroo
Subj e c t
Passive
· s 'ActS,Trin terP r
(�> � · s
\c tDbTrin t e r P r
•.
(�)
• . s + Ac t At T r i n t e r P r
(�}
' . s 'PasDbTr I n t erP r
' I o terAt
' I n te rEqCo
' I n terStS
' I n t erStCo
t +S
Interrogative Direct Obj ect tagroeme.
. (�) .
.
•
' P as A t l r i n terP r
(�)
>
• ·
s ' E q I n t e rP r
•
•
IIho (m)
· S t I n terPr
·(It)
+StlnterPr
3
and
d i d s l> e g1>i de ?
d i d <he
g i ve ( to ) Jo , � ?
M
W>'o ( . l d i d t ej! 2 i u e <he b o o � t o p
�
What
(�) .
tAg
HgH
"itat d i d
"'0(..,)
ne
e l e c t l i ,, ?
Jd i l t � e;L e ! e c t c lt a'
t..as
the
boo " g i ve n t o ?*
"h a t wa s h e e Z e c t e d ? � ·
lio",
is ."{.,.. S.i tit?
.. a".y
boo�s are thef"e ?
""0 i. s i t ?
6.
1 f the Interrogative Non-Subject tagroeme i s an
the other o b l i gatory nuc leus Object tagmeme 1S an Indirect Object tagmeme . o r
i f the Interrogative Non- Subj ect tagroeme 1S a n Interrogat ive Indi rect Obj ect tagroeme.
gatory nucleus Obj ect tagroeme is a Direct Obj ect tagmeme.
C lause Type 4 .
..... a"? "
What was Joh� g i ve�?
Who (",)
What
+ ( I"!,ere )
* I n the Independent Interrogat ive Non-Subj ect Clause Types
v ice versa.
Exa.p l es
In terro&at i v e Non- Subject Clause Types
Likew i se .
the o ther ob l i­
in the Independent Interro g a t ive Non-Subj ect
if the Interro g a t ive Non- Subj ect t a gmeme i s an Interroga t ive D i re c t Obj e c t t a gmeme .
the o ther
obligatory nucleus Non-Subject tagroeme i s an Att ributive tagroeme. o r vice versa.
4i The Independent Interrogative Non- Subj ect Clause Type
rarely used.
7
The fo llowing pattern i s more frequen t l y used:
(or Passive Attributive Tran s i t ive Clause Type)
To ","a< otti c e ws he e l e c t e d ?
is very
32
Type und e r c on s iderat i on, e x c e pt a s th e Subj ec t , and th e Pred i c a t e
t agmem e , a s i t i s formu la ted above .
2 . 1 . 3b. 1 .
I n t e r DO
/\ ll nn tt ee rrNO P- Pn b r
)
'
al ternate division - subclass
Interrogative Direct Obj ect tagmeme
I n t erN - Pb r ( + lnterArt +NH I
the a l t e rna t e d i v i s i on - 8ub c la s s Interroga t iv e Di rec t Obj e c t
s lo t i s fi l led by a c ompo s i t e f i l le r c l a s s inc lud ing two a l t e rna te
d i s t ribut ion- subc lasses:
fIL L ER S :
I n terroga t ive Obj e c t Pronoun : who , who1ll , who s e , wh i ch , wh a t , ho w
m any, how muc h ;
I n t erroga t i ve Noun Phra s e inc l ud in g an ob l i ga to ry In t e rro ga t iv e
Art i c l e : who s e , wh i c h , wh a t , how m any , ho w 1II u ch , and a n ob l i ga t o ry
Noun Head .
EXAMPL E:
+ln terDO [ l n terN - Ph r ( +ln terArt +NH I ]
Wh i c h
2. 1 . 3 b . 2 .
In terlO
(
typ ewri t e r d i d you use ?
I n t e rO p n
I n t e rN - P h r
/\ ,
alternate division- subclass
Int errogative Indirect Obj e c t tagmeme
InterN - Ph r ( + l n te rArt +NH I
fIL L ERS:
( the fo rmula i s the same a s 2. 1. 3b. 1. above . )
2. 1. 3 b . 2a.
No te on the Indirec t Obj ect Introducer < t o )
The I nd i re c t Obj e c t I n t roduc e r < t o ) , a l though opt i on a l i n th e
p a t t e rn , seems to be m o r e frequent ly presen t than absent . I t s p la c e
can b e e i ther b e fore the Interroga t ive Ind i rect Obj ec t o r a t the end
o f the Clause .
EXAMP L E S :
1.
2.
Tfho (lII ) did you g i ve the boo k to ?
fo who1ll d i d you g i ve t h e boo k?
In the fi rst c a se , e i the r ( who ) o r ( wh01ll ) occur s , but 1n the second
case, on ly < whom ) occurs .
2 . 1 . 3b . 3 .
I n t e r A t [ l n t e rP n ) , al ternate divi sion - subclass
In terrogative Attributive tagmeme
the a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion- subc l a s s I n t e r ro ga t i ve At t r ibu t i v e
t a gmeme i s fi l led b y a s i m p l e f i l l e r c la s s inc lud ing on l y o n e d i s ­
t ribut ion - subc lass :
Interroga t ive Pronoun wh a t .
f IL L ER :
2. I . 5b. 4 .
I n t e rEqCo
(
)
I n t c rAdV
I n t erSPn
I n t e rN - Ph r
33
, al t ernate division- sub cl ass
In terrogative Equational Compl emen t tagm em e
I n t e rN - Ph r ( + I n terArt +NH )
fILL ERS: the a l t e rn a te d i v i s ion - sub c l a s s I n t e r ro ga t i ve Equa t i ona l
Comp l emen t s lot i s f i l led by a compo s i t e fi l l e r c la s s inc luding three
a l ternate d i s t ribut ion - subc Lasses:
Inter rogat ive Adverb : how, wh e n, where , 'why ;
I n t e .!: ro ga t iv e Subj e c t Pronoun : who , who s e , wh i c h , wh a t , ho w m any ,
ho w muc h ;
I nterroga t iv e Noun Ph ra se compo sed o f a n ob l i g a t o ry I n t e r roga t i v e
Art i c l e : who se , wh i c h , wh a t , ho w many , ho w muc h , and a n ob l i g a to ry
Noun Hea d .
EXAMPLE:
+ I n t e rEqco [ I n te rN - Ph r ( + I n terArt +NH ) )
b o o ks af'"e yours?
Wh i c h
2. 1 . 5 b . 5 .
I n t e r S t S [ I n t e r Qu an t N - P h r ) , al t ernate di vision- sub ­
cl ass In terroga t i ve Stative Subj e c t tagmem e
I n t erQu an tN - Ph r ( + l n terQuan tAdv- Ph r +NH )
fILL ERS: the a l ternate d iv i s i on - subc lass Interrog a t i v e Sta t ive Subj ect
s lo t is f i l l ed b y a s i. mp l e fi l l e r c l a s s i n c lud ing on l y one d i s t r i bu ­
t ion- subc lass :
I n te rrog a t i v e Quan t i t a t i ve Noun Ph ra se compo sed o f an ob l i g a t o ry
I n terroga t iv e Quan t i t a t ive Adv e rb Ph ra s e : ho w muc h , ho w .m any , and
an ob l i ga t o ry Noun Head .
EXAMPLE:
+ I n t e rstS [ I n te r Qu an tN - Ph r ( + I n terQuantAdv - Ph r +NH )
boo ks are there ?
Ho w m any
2 . 1 . 5b . 6 .
I n t e r S t Co
(
l n t e r sp n
I n t e r N - Ph r
)
' al t ernat e divi sion - su b ­
class In t errogative Stative Compl em en t tagm em e
I n t erN -Phr ( + l n t erAr t +NH )
fILL ERS: the a l t e rna t e d i v i s i on - subc l a s s I n t e r ro ga t i v e S t a t i v e Com­
p l eme n t s l o t i s f i l l ed by a c ompo s i t e f i l l e r c l a s s i n c l u d i n g two
a l te rn a te d i s t r i bu t i on - subc l a s ses :
I n ter rogat ive Subj e c t Pronoun : who , wh a t ;
I n t e rroga t lv e Noun Phrase compo sed o f an ob l i ga to ry In t e r roga t iv e
Art i c le : who se , what , wh i c h , and an ob l i ga t o ry Noun Head.
34
i, XAMPL E:
+ l n t erStCo [ l n terN - Ph r ( + l n tcrArt + NH I ]
Who se
car is i t ?
2. 1.
6.
( I ndependen t) Extra I n terrogat i ue C l ause C I ass
( SUMM A RY T ABLE V I )
T h e Cla s s o f ten Ext ra Interrogat i ve Cl ause Types h a s the fo l low ing
l.den t i f i c a t iona l - con t ra s t i v e [ed t ures and s t ruc ture fo nnu l a ·
K ERN E L S T RUCTU R E : Y esNo l n t erCl
T I n t e r - add
X l n t c rCl
+ l n tc r I n t rod +YesNo I n t erCl
The fo rmula 1 S read .
An Ext rd [nte r roga t i ve Clause Typ e . X I n t e rCI . i s an l n t e r roga t i v e­
Add 1 t ion Trans fo rm . T I n t e r - add ' o f a Yes-No I n t e r roga t lVe Clause Type .
I t s m i n i mum s t ru c t u r e c on s l s t s o f 1n o b l i ga to ry I n t e r ro ga t i v e
C l a u & e In t ro duc e r . and a n ob l i ga t o ry Yes -No I n t e r ro g a t i v e C l a u se
Type .
2.
1 6a.
T I n t e r - a d d ' t h e I n terrogat i ue Add i t f on Tran s fo rm
I t cons l s t s o f a s i ngle ope ra t ion o f add l t ion o f an Inter roga t ive
Claus.; I n t roduc e r to the k e rne l Yes -No Inte r roga t ive Clause Type .
2 . 1.
6b.
+ I n t e r I n t ro d
(I n t e r Ad V
I n t c l" R e l A x - P h r
),
th e ob I f gat ory
nuc l eu s I n terrogat f ue C l au s e I n troduce r
Intc I"Rel Ax- Ph r [ +Prcp + I n terN - Ph r ( + I n t erArt +NH I ]
fILL ER S : the ob l i ga to r y nuc leus I n t e r roga t iv e Cl ause In t roduc e r s lo t
i s fl l l ed by a compo s i t e f i l l e r c lass includ i ng two a l t e rna te d i s t r i ­
bu t ion· subc l asses :
Inter loga t l ve Adv e rb : how, wh ere , whe n, why ;
l n tt. r ro ga t ive Re l a t o r Ax i s Ph rase c omposed o f an ob l i ga t o ry P r e ­
pO S I t ion : i n , on , e t c . . and an ob l i ga to ry I n t e r roga t ive Noun Phrase
c ompo s ed i t se l f of a n ob l i ga t o r y I n t e r ro ga t i v e A r t l c l e : who s e .
wh i c h , wh a t . and an ob l i gatory Noun Head .
ErAMPL E
+ I n t e rI n t rod [[ I n terRel Ax- Ph r ( +Prep + I n t e rN - Ph r l + I n t e rArt +NH ] ) ]]
anch ai r d i d
wh t c h
In
h e si t ?
S U I M A R Y
' n d e p e n den t Ex t r a
C l au s e
I
Type
C ' au s e
C ' ass
6
Examp l e s
No .
Extra Interrogat ive Clause Types
1
+ I o t e r l n t rod +YesNo l o terAc t l o t rCl
W�y d i d h e 1"ur.
Stng l e
2
+ I o t erl o t rod +Y esNo l n t e r Ac t S,TrCl
wh en d i d s h e g :. i d e t h e to "1" i s t s ?
Doub l e
3
+ I n t e r l o t rod +YesN o l n t e r Ac t DbTrCl
How d i d t h e y g i ve Jo h n a t r o k ?
A t t ribu t i ve
4
+ I o te r l o t rod + Y esNo l o terAc t At T rCl
Wh ere d i d
Stng l e
5
+ I n t e r l o t rod +Y esNo l o t erPasS,TrCl
ilhen 1!.I!1"e the tou,1"i sts guided by he1"r
Doub l e
6
+ I n terl n t ro d +Y es�o I n t erPasDbTrCl
w� en
A t t n bu t i v e
7
+ I o t erl n t rod +Y esNo l o t erPasAtTrCl
W� y .. as h e e l ec ted c h ai 1"'II ar. ?
Equa t i on a l
8
+ I n t e r l n t ro d +Y esNo l o t erEqCl
Why
( T h e1"e ) S t a t i v e
9
+In t e r l n trod +Yes�o I o ter ( f h e �e )StCl
Whe." were t h e1"e some b o y s ?
+ I o terlo t rod +YesNo l n t e r ( I t )StCl
lihen ..as i t John?
IV
III
II
Act ive
Trans i t ive
Gramma t i ca l
Subj e c t
Pas s i v e
Subj e c t
' n t e r ro g a t i u e
V I
I n d e p en d en t C I au s e C l a s s 6
Cl asses
In t ran s i t i v e
Log i c a l
T A B L E
Trans i t i v e
( I t ) Stat i v e
1 1)
;.,as
away ?
t h e y e l e c t him c h a ' M ar ?
John g H e n t he boc k ?
.
boo k 2i ven ('to ) Jo h n ?
wh e n was ne
was s h e
kind?
W
'J'
36
Dependent Sub j ect C l ause C l as s ( SUMM ARY TABLE V I I )
2. 1. 7 .
The Cla s s o f e ight Dependen t Subj e c t Clause Types has the fo l lowing
iden t i f i c a t ion a l - contrast ive fea ture s and s t ruc ture formu l a :
K E RN EL STRUCTU R E : I ndepDecl Cl
T S- dep
+ DepS + Dec l P r . . .
DepSCl
The formula i s read :
A Dep enden t Subj e c t Clause Type . Dep SCI . i s a Dep enden t Subj e c t
Trans form. T s- dep ' o f an Independen t De d a ra t iv e Clause Type .
I t s s t ruc ture cons i s t s o f a m i n imum o f an o b l i ga t o ry Dep enden t
Subj e c t and an ob l i ga t o ry Dec larat ive Pred i c a te t a gmeme .
T S- d ep ' the Dependent Sub j ec t Trans form
2 . 1 . 7 a.
I t cons i s t s o f a s ingle operat i on o f the fl l l in g o f the ob l i ga to ry
Subj e c t s lo t w i th a Dependent Subj ect fi l l e r L l ass .
+ De p S
2 . 1. 7b.
(
),
D ep Spn
Dep N - P h r
ob l i gatory nuc l eu s Dependent
Sub j ec t tagmeme
DepN- Ph r ( + Dep A r t +NH )
fIL L ERS: the ob l igato ry nuc leus Dependen t Subj e c t s lo t i s fi l led by a
c ompo s i t e f i l l e r c l a s s inc lud i n g two a l t e rna t e d i s t r i bu t i o n - sub ­
c l as se s :
Dependent Subj e c t Pronoun : who , whi c h , that ;
Dependent Noun Phrase composed o f an ob l i gatory Dependent Art i c l e :
who s e . and a n ob l iga tory Noun Hea d .
EXAMPLE:
+ DepS [ DepN - Ph r ( + DepArt +NH ) ]
b�o t he� is he�e . . .
( T h e 1II an )
who se
2. 1 . 8 .
Dependent Non - SubJ ec t C l ause C l as s ( SUMM ARY T ABL E VI I I)
The Cl a s s o f five Dependent Non- Subj e c t Clause Type s h a s the fo l­
l ow ing iden t i fi c a t ion a l - con t ra st ive fea tures and struc ture formu l a :
K E RNEL STRUCTU R E : I ndep Oec l Cl
Tnon S- d ep
DepNonSCl
±DepNon S + [+ I n depOecl Cl -NonS]
t
The fo rmu la is read :
Y
S U �I A R Y
Dependent
C l au s e
I
Ty p e
IV
1
2
Trans i t i ve Lbub l e
3
A t t r i but i ve
4
Sing l e
5
Trans i t i v e Lbub l e
6
Sub} e c t
Pas s i ve
So ,
Sing l e
Gramm a t i ca l
A t t r i b u t i ve
Equa t ional
V I I
C l au s e
C l as s
7
Oep e n d en t C I au s e C l a s s 7
In t rans i t i v e
A c t i ve
Sub l ect
C l asses
III
II
T A B L E
7
8
Dep endent Subj ec t Cl ause Types
+DepS
+DepS
+DepS
+OepS
+DepS
+OepS
+DepS
+DepS
E x am p l e s
+ActlntrDeclPr
+DO
+ActS,TrDeclPr
+DO
+ActDbTrOeclPr
+ActAtTrOeclPr
+DO +At
+PasS,TrOecl P r
±A,
+PasDbTrOeclPr + <� )
+At tA,
+PasUTrDeclPr
+EqCo
+EqOeclPr
+10
d,
, , , :vllo
"
f"ar.. .
, wh i c h g i r !
' " who
gave
. . , 1d;,o
e l ec t e d
• • •
JolI ...
a
h i "'.
the
J;o:.-r i s t s ,
boo l< ,
c h a i ", a", ,
iJJn.c we-re g:.£ li e d by the g i -rL
:..:hc
t.JQ;S
gi v ii r�
�'<lS
e : e c J; e d c h a i nr. a"t .
=s
:lo it "t .
a
boo l< ,
, wr. i c h �as � ; ve� ( t :; ) d""O ':. 1:. .
. • •
"
g :. i d ed
• • •
t.,;'o
• • •
'.lAc
S U M M A R Y
T A B L E
Dependent Non - Su b J ect
I
C l au s !'
I
Type
II
4c t i ve
IV
Sing l e
Trilns i t i v e
Gramm a t i c a l
'1 0 .
Trans i t i v e
2
±DepDO
�
+S + Ac t S,TrDec l P r
( n ) +S
Doub l e
3
±Dep
A t t r i bu t i v e
4
tDepDO
Doub l e
6
±Dep
8
±Dep EqCo
Equat ional
(n)
I n the Dependent Non-Subj ec t Clause Types 3 and 6 .
Obj e c t t agmem e .
8
C l as s
E x amp l e s
Dependent Non - Subj ect C l ause Typ es
Sub) ect
Pas s i ve
C l au s e
D ep en Cl en t C I a u s e C l a s s 8
C l asses
III
V I I I
+ActDbTrDec l P r
+
< �Z )
+S + Ac t AtTrDec l P r
+ S +PasDIITrDec l P r
+S +EqDec l P r
�
. . . ( wh o (:IL ) )
s h e gui d e d .
. . . ( t h a t ) t h c h gave ( to ) Jo h n .
. • . ( who (m ) )
t e y g ave a boo k ( to ) .
+At . . . (who ('1t ) ) t h ey e t e c t ed p � e s , d en t .
+
< �)
�
• . .
. .
• • .
{
( t h a t ) Jo h n was
i Ven .
(who ('1t ) ) t h e boo
was "i ven ( to ) .
( t h a t ) H � Sm i th was.
i f the Dependent Non - Subj e c t t a gmeme is a Dependent Direct
the other o b l i ga to ry nucleus Obj e c t ta gmeme i s an Ind i rect Obj ect tagmeme . o r v ice versa ;
Dependent Non - Subj e c t. t agmeme LS a Dependent Ind L re c t Obj e c t tagmem e .
t agmeme i s a DLrec t Obj ect tagmem e .
i f the
then the o ther ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Obj e c t
39
A Dependen t Non - Subj e c t Clause Typ e . DepNon Sr l . i s a Non - Subj e c t
Dependent Tran sfo rw. . TnonS- d ep ' o f an Independent Dec l a ra t i v e Clause
Type .
I t s s t ru c t u re c on 5 i s t s o f a m in i mum o f a n o p t l ona l De p ende n t
Non- Subj ect tagmeme . and a n ob l i gato ry Independent Dec l a ra t ive Clause
Type m inus i ts partlcu i H rep l aced tagmeme.
T n o n S - d ep ' the Non - Sub l ect Dependent Trans form
2 . 1. 8a.
It con s i sts o f a s ingle opera t ion o f t he fi l l ing o f the pa r t i cu l a r
N on - Subj e c t Non - P r ed I c a t e t a gm e me w i th a De p en d en t Non- Subj e c t
t a gmeme . and the t ran s fe r o f tha t t a gmeme to the po s i t i on a t the
beg inning of the Clause
±DepNon S
2 . 1. 8b.
1
Dep DO
Dep l O
Dep EqCo
Non - Sub l ec t tagmeme
I
, the opt I on a l nuc l eus Dependent
An o p t iona l nuc l e u s Depl>nde n t Non - Subj e c t t agmeme s e rv e s a s a
Dependent Clause I n t roduce r . and . a c co rd ing to the p a rt i c u l a r Clause
Type under cons idera t i on . fl l l s the s l o t of a Dl rect Obj ec t . an In­
d i re c t Obj ect . o r an Equat iona l COmp lement .
2 . 1. 8b. l .
Oep OO
/ D ep O P n \ ,
\ DepN - P h r I
al ternate divi sion - subclass
Dependent �rect Obj � c t tagmeme
OepN- Ph r ( +oep Art +NH l
the a l ternate d lv i sion subc lass Dependel . t Di rec t Obj e c t s l o t
i s f i l l ed by a compo s i te fi l ler c la s s inc luding t wo a l e rn a t e d i s t r l ­
bution - sub c l as se s :
FIL L ER S :
Dependent Obj ect Pronoun : who , whom , wh i c h ;
Dependent Noun Ph ra se �omposed o f a n ob l i ga t o ry Dependent Art I c le :
who s e . and an ob l lgato ry Noun Head .
EXAMPLE:
+ Dep OO [ OepN - Ph r ( + Oep Art +NH l ]
� i s t pr we saw. . .
( 'the man)
who se
2 1 . 8b . 2 .
Dep lO
(
o ep o p n
O ep N - P h r
),
alt�rn ate di v i sion - subclass
Dependen t Indi re c t Obj ec t tagmem�
DepN-Phr ( + DepArt +NH l
FILL ERS:
( see 2. 1 . 8b. 1. above . )
40
EXAMPLE:
±Dep IO [DepN-Ph r ( +DepArt +NH l ]
( The man)
who se
bro ther you g ave the boo k to
2 . 1 . 8b . 2a.
•
•
.
No te o n the Indirect Obj ect Introducer ( to )
The Ind i rec t Obj e c t Introduc e r ( to ) , a l though opt ion a l in th i s
p a t t e rn , seems t o b e more frequen t l y present than absen t . I t s p l a c e
c an b e e i ther before the Dependent Ind i rect Obj ect tagmeme , o r a t the
end o f the Clause Type .
EXAMPL ES :
l . (The man) who you gave t he boo k l2.. . .
2 . ( The man) l2.. whom you gave the boo k . . .
.
In the f i rst case , e i ther ( who ) o r ( whom ) occurs, but in the second
case , onl y ( whom ) occurs .
2.
I.
8b . 3.
Dep EqCo
),
I:::::V
\ oePN - P h r
al temate division- subclass
Dependent Equational Complement tagmeme
DepN- Pb r ( +DepArt +NH l
FIL L ERS: the a l terna te divis ion- subc lass Dependent Equa t iona l COmp le­
m en t s lo t i s f i l led by a compo s i t e f i l l e r c l a s s i nc lud ing three
a l ternate distribut ion- subc lasse s :
Dependent Adverb : how, where , why , when;
Dependent Pronoun : that ;
Dependent Noun Phra se composed o f an ob l i gatory Dependent Art i c l e :
wh ich, whose, and an obl i gatory Noun Head .
EXAMPL E:
+Oep EqCo [ OePN - Ph r ( +DepArt +NH l ]
boo k i t was.
(I don ' t
whi ch
. remember)
2. 1. 9 .
Dependent Re l at f ue C l ause C l as s ( SUMMARY T ABLE I X)
The Class o f ten Dependent Re la t ive Clause Types has the fo l lowing
ident i ficat iona l- contrast ive features and structure formu la :
K E RN EL STRUCTU R E : Ind epOec l Cl
T Rel - dep
OepRel Cl
±Rel I n t rod ( that ) +IndepDec l Cl
The fo rmula is read :
A Dependent Re lative Clause Type , OepRel Cl , is a Relat ive Dependent
SUI. ARY
T A B L E
Dependen t Re l at i u e
IV
III
II
Intrans i t i v e
Ac t i ve
Tran s i t l ve
Gramm a t i ca l
Subj e c t
Pas s i v e
Logi c a l
Subj e c t
Trans i t i ve
No .
1
S i ng l e
2
Doub I e
3
A t t r i but i ve
4
Sing l e
5
Doub l e
6
A t t r i bu t i v e
7
Equat ional
8
C fhe".e ) Stat i v e
9
CIt) Stat i v e
C l au s e
Cl ass
9
D ep en d e n t C I au s e C l a s s 9
C l aus e Typ e Cl asses
I
I X
10
Dependent Relative Clause Types
tRel Introd
tRel Introd
tRellntrod
tRel lntrod
tRelIntrod
tRel lntrod
tReI lntrod
tReI lntrod
tReIlntrod
tBeI lntrod
+IndepDeclActIntrCI
+lndepDecl ActScTrCI
+IndepDecl ActDbTrCI
+lndepDeclActAtTrCI
+lndepDeclPasScTrCI
+ludepDeclPasDbTrCI
+lndepDeclPasAtTrCI
+IndepDecl EqCI
+IndepDecI CThere ) StCl
+IndepDecI Clt>StCl
Examp l es
�e ran away.
( that) she guided the touri sts.
. . . ( th a t ) they gave John a boo k.
. . . ( that) they e lected him c h ai n'l an.
. . . ( that) the tourists were guided by her.
. ( that) John was gi ven a boo k .
. . . ( that) the boo k was f!iver. Jo.h .
. ( t'tatJ he was e l ectel! chai m an .
kind .
. . . ( th a t ) sh.e
. . ( that) there were s01'le boys.
( that) i t" wa s John.
· .
. ( th a t )
· . .
·
.
·
.
wa s
·
. . •
42
Tran s fo rm . T Rel - dep o f a kernel Independent Declara t ive Clause Type .
'
I t s s t ructure con s i s t s o f an opt i on a l nucleus Dependent Re l a t iv e
Clause I n t roduce r . ( th at ) . and an obl igato ry nucleus Independent De­
c la ra t ive Clause Type .
2 . 1 . 9a .
T R e l - d ep ' the Re l at f ue Dependent Tran s form
I t con s i st s o f a s ingle ope ra t ion o f the add i t i on o f the Dependent
Re l a t ive Clause Int roducer ( th a t ) wh ich i s op t iona l and nuc leus a t
the beg inning o f the kerne l Independent Dec larat ive Clause Type .
2 . 1 . 9b.
+ Re l I n t ro d , the opt iona l nuc l eu s Dependent Re l at f ue
C l ause I ntroduce r
The re i s on ly one Dependen t Re l a t ive Clause Int roduc e r . the Re l a ­
t iv e Adve rb ( t h a t ) . The I n t roduc e r i s nuc leus b u t op t ion a l when i t
introduc es a Dependent Re l a t iv e Clause Type whi ch fi l ls the Obj ect . o r
Complement s lo t i n the Independent Cl ause Type which governs i t . ( Fo r
the example� . see Summary Tab l e IX. )
But when the I n t roduc e r i n t rodu c e s a Dep enden t Re l a t 1ve C l a u s e
Typ e wh i c h f i l l s the Subj e c t s lo t in the I n de penden t Dec l a r a t iv e
Clause Type wh ich governs 1 t . then i t i s nuc leus and ob l i ga tory .
EXAMPL E:
+ S<DepRe l C l [ + Re l In t ro d ( that ) + I ndep Dec l Cl ] > +Pr [ Decl Au x ( b e ) - Ph r]
That
h e i s honest
is
+ EqCo<N - Ph r>
no doub t t o anyone .
2 . 1 . 10 .
Extra Dependent C l ause C l as s ( SUMM ARY TABLE x)
The Cl a s s o f ten Ext ra Dependen t Clause Types has the idcn t i fica­
t iona l- con tra st ive fea tures and s t ru c ture formula :
K E RNEL STRUCTU R E : I ndepDec l C l
T Dep - add
XDepCl
+Dep I n t ro d + I ndepDec l Cl
The fo rmu l a 1 S read :
An Ex t ra Dep enden t Clause Typ e . XDep C l . 1 S a Dep endent Add 1 t ion
Trans fo rm . T d cp - add ' o f an Independent Dec larat ive Clause Type .
I t s s t ru c tu r e cons 1 s t s o f a m in imum o f a n ob l i ga t o ry Dependen t
I n t roduc e r tagmeme . and an ob l iga to ry kerne l I ndependent Dec l a r a t ive
Clause Type .
S U M M A R Y
T .'\ 8 L E
X
Extra Dep e n d e n t C l au s e C l a s s
O ep en d e n t C I a u s e C l a s s 1 0
C l a u s e Typ e C l a s s e s
I
II
IV
III
Trans L t i ve
Gramm a t L ca l
Sub} e c t
'IS ,
LLe
I
Trans i t i v e
Equ a t i onal
Log i c a l
Sub} e e t
C , e ...e )
Stat ive
( I t > Stat we
No .
E x amp l e s
Extra Dependent Cl ause Types
"'hy �e roan �!.. �.J .
1
·Oep In t rod
· I n depOer. l Ac t I D t rC l
· . .
S i ng l e
2
· O ep l n t ro d
•
I n dep O e c l .�c t s,rrCl
· . •
Doub l e
3
·Oep I n t ro d
+ I ndepOec l Ac t DbTrCl
• • •
A t t ribut ive
4
TDep I n t ro d
+ I n depOec l Ac t A t T rCl
S i ng l e
5
+Oep I n t ro d T I ndepDec l P asS,TrCl
Doub l e
6
+ O ep I n t ro d + I ndepOec l P asDbTrCl
A t tribut ive
7
+Dep l n t rod T I D depOec l P asA t TrCl
. • .
8
+ Oep l n t ro d + I D depOec l EqCl
. . . why s h e
9
+Oep l n t ro d + l ndepDec l ( ! h e ... e ) S t C l
. . . whe� t'tere 'Were SO"ll e boy s .
+Dep l n t r o d + l ndepDecl ( : t ) StCl
. . . when i t
lnt rans l t i ue
A c t i ve
10
10
",/:.en she g '!J, � j e d.
.l.� � �
. . . ;As..,.
t,;ey g � f) e h i; ...
. . . ho w
1 0 :"
a
; o :J.r� s c s .
!l o o .. .
rhey e t � c : e i h i ',,, chai n "" .
. . . tun er" the
· . •
the
:O'Uf"t S ; S ..Jere
5 'J. i ':ed by h e ... .
:)·0 1.'t was 5 £ ue� � ; o ak .
::; h e J�" k ;,as ;i ve" ( to
whe'"t \ e
:.,as
!.I,.(lS
lAS
I Jo ,b .
e l e c ted C � ai M .ln .
k '!. n l .
Jo ;' n .
44
2 . 1 . lOa.
T d ep - a d d ' the Dependent Add f t i on Trans form
I t cons i s t s o f a s in g l e operat ion o f the add i t ion o f a Dependen t
Clause I n t roduc e r t a gmeme a t the beg inn ing o f the k e rn e l Independen t
Dec larat ive Clause Type .
2 . 1 . lOb .
+ D ep l n t ro d
(
),
oePAd V
O e p R e l A x - Ph r
ob i f gato ry Dependent
C l ause I ntroducer tagmeme
DepReI Ax-Phr [+ P rep +DepN- P h r ( +DepArt +NH ) ]
fILL ER S : the obl igato ry Dependent Clause I n t roducer s l o t i s f i l led by
a compo s i t e f i l l e r c la s s inc lud i n g two a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibu t ion- sub­
e l l sse s :
Dependent Adv erb : when, where, why , how;
Dependent Re l a to r-Ax i s Phrase c omposed o f an ob l i g a t ory P repos i ­
t I on : i n , o n , etc . . a n ob l i g a t o ry Depende n t Noun Phrase comp o sed
o f an ob l i ga to ry Dependent Art i c l e : who s e , wh a t . and an ob l i ga t o ry
Noun Head .
EXAMP L E :
+ Oep l n t rod<OepRe I Ax- Ph r [ +P rep +DepN - Ph r ( +DepArt +NH l ] >
(I don ' t rem em ber)
tn
wh i c h armchair he wa s si t t i ng .
2 . 2.
THE TEN COMPLETE CL AUSE CL ASSES AND TH EI R
TRAN S FO RM S
The t L n COmp lete Clause Cla s ses and the i r Trans fo rm rel a t I on ships
c a') be summari zed in the fo l lowing Summary Tab les X l and XI I
2 . 3.
TH E 8 7 COMPLETE CL AU SE TYP E S
Th e r e are 8 7 Complete Clause Types in Engl i sh .
the Summa ry Tab l e XI I I .
They a re s t a t ed in
S U M M A R Y
T A B L E
X I
The s i x I n dependent C l au s e C l as s e s an d the i r Tran s forms
,.-
-
.--
-
E XT RA
E
O GA T I V
I NT ERR
S
S
CLA
C L AU S E
�TI.'",_'dd
Y ES -NO
E
O GAT I V
I NT E RR
S
S
A
L
C
C l AU S E
�T S I
•••
..--
-
_
T y e s",o
OECLAR
¢=:l
C L AU S E
�
CL A S S
�TS- I.W
"",
E
O GAT I V
I NTERR
T
C
E
BJ
NON - S U
CLAS S
C L AU S E
TIIIIP
AT I V E
.--
E
O GAT I V
I NT E RR
T
C
SU BJ E
CLASS
C L AU S E
-
I MP E RAT
C L AU S E
I VE
CLAS S
-
�
V1
SUMMARY
TABLE
X I I
The four Depend e n t C l au s e C l a s s e s an d the i r Tran s forms f rom t h e kern e l
I n depen d e n t
Dec l ar a t i u e C l au s e C l a s s
EN T
DEPEN D
VE
I
T
A
RE l
CLASS
E
S
U
A
L
C
� T" ' _ d "
-
: E N T�-,... ----:�
DEPEND
T
SU BJ E C
_
CLAS S
E
s
U
A
L
C
-
- - -.
"r
I
-
N D ENT
IN DEL PE
A RAT I V E
DEC
CL AU S E
�I
CLAS S
_
-
-
-
- L- -
-
EPEND
E X T RA D
C LAS S
C L AU s E
:
EN T
Tnon S_
dep
�
r--
NT
DEPENDE
J ECT
B
U
S
N
NO
CLAS S
E
C L AU s
S U M I A R Y
Th e 8 7 E n g l i s h
II
I
Wj thou t an
In t erroABt j ve
taiVneme
In dep enden t
Dependen t
III
X I I I
T A B L E
Co.p / e t e
C l au s e
IV
Dec l ara t i ve
Impera t i ve
No .
1
4
Yes-No In terroga t i ve
3
Wj th an
From Dec l a ra t I ve
ke n e l
I n t erroga t I ve
Sub ec t
4
In t errogat i ve
From ln t e r roga-
In t e r ro � a t i ve
Non- Sub ect
;
ta/ineme
t l ve k e rn e l
Ex tra- I n t e r roga t i ve
,.
Wj tho u t an Extra Dependen t
Dependen ' Subj ec t
�
ta/ineme
Dependen t
.Von - Suh ec t
8
Dep en den t Rel a t i ve
9
Wj th an Ext ra Dependen t
tagtneme
Ex t r a Dependen t
I
10
-i.
>
-
Typ e s
1
...
T
+
+
+
T
T
The t en Cl au s e Typ es
-
-
+
+
T
3
+
+
+
+
.
+
...
'"
.�
. ::
�
..,
.!:
+
(T)
..
..
-
"
"
b.,
c;:;
+
+
+
+
..
+
+
+
+
+
+
T
...
+
4
T
-
'"
"
-
+
...
..,
The ten C l au se C l as se s
2
.0
c£
+
+
+
..,.
+
+
;-
...
T
+
+
+
Ie)
6
+
+
...
+
7
8
+
+
+
+
+
T
-
...
+
+
T
+
+
'"
..
b.,
"
r;;
.0
'"
"
c£
T
+
r--
...
+
CO
.0
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
...
�
T
+
+
+
'"
0
"
"
..,
"
"
�
::
..,
"
..
V)
::
..,
"
..,
�
U)
..
..
..
�
�
-<!
..
�
<.>
"
-
Grammat tcal Subject
::!
..
r
�
TranSt tive
Passive
10
...
..
r
9
...
-
::
.....
"
..,
..,
-..:
+
T
..
.0
+
+
+
::
..,
"
Trans t t tve
Ac t tve
5
..
..,
<.>
... .0
�
.....
..3 Ji
Ch ap t e r 3
I N TERN A L S TRU C T URE S O F C L A U SE L E VEL TA G MEME S
3. 0 .
I N TRODU CTO RY
In th i s Chap ter . nuc l eu s and s a t e l l i te Cl ause l eve l tagm em e s w i l l
b e presented w i th a de t a i led ana l y s i s o f the i r interna l s t ructure s .
and a sta tement o f the i r tagmem i c o rdering i n a Clause ma t r i x .
3. 1.
N U CLEU S CLAU SE LEVEL TAGM EME S
3. 1. 0.
I N TRODU CTORY
Nuc leus Clause leve l tagmemes are e i ther ob l iga to ry or opt iona l .
3. 1. 1.
+ P r , the ob l i gatory nuc l eus Pred i cate tagmeme
In a Dec l a r a t ive Clause Typ e . the ob l l ga t o ry nuc l eu s P r ed i c a t e
t a gmeme occup i e s the second nuc leus s l o t wh i ch i s f i l l ed b y a compo­
s i te fi l le r c l a s s inc luding three a l te rn a t e d i s t ri but ion- sub c l as s e s :
Verb Phra se ; Sem i -Auxi l i ary Phra se ; Aux i l i a ry Phrase.
Al so para l l e l ly to the c l a s s i f i c a t ion of the t en Independen t De ­
c l a r a t l v e Clause Type s into l a rg e r and l a rg e r Clause C l a s se s . t h e
d i ffe rent Ve rb . Sem i - Au x i l i a r y . a nd Aux i l i a ry ( b e ) Ph r a s e s can b e
c l assi fied a s fo l lows :
On the f i r s t and h i ghest l eve l o f con s idera t ion . a l l the d i st r i ­
but ion- sub c l a sses o f the Pred icate s lot fl l l e r c l a s s form the Ve rb a l
Hype rc l a s s .
On the second leve l o f con s iderat ion . the Verba l Hyperc l a s s i s subd iv ided into :
the Verb Hype rc lass;
the Semi-Aux i l i a ry Hyperc lass (No . 8 ) ;
the Aux i l i a ry ( be ) (No . 9 ) .
On the thi rd level o f cons ide ra t ion . the Verb Phrase Hyp e rc l a s s i s
subdiv ided ln to:
the Act ive Verb Phrase Hyperc l a ss ;
the Passive Verb Phrase Hyp e rc l a s s .
On
the fourth leve l o f cons iderat ion ( 1 ) the Ac t ive Verb Phra se Hype rc lass i s subd iv ided into :
the Ac t ive Int rans i t ive Verb Phra se (No . 1) ;
the Act ive Transi t ive Verb Phrase Hyperc l a s s .
49
S U M M A RY
TABLE XIV
Th e V e r b a l H � p e r c l a s s
II
I
V
IV
III
Intransitive
Active
Transitive
Verb
Verbal
Hyperclass
Passive
Transit ive
N o.
1
S ingle
2
Double
3
Attributive
4
Single
5
Do uble
6
Attributive
7
Semi -Aux d iary
8
Aux d t ary
9
(be)
( 2) the Pa ss ive Verb Phrase Hyperc lass has on ly one subd ivI sion :
the PaSS ive Tran s i t ive Verb Phrase Hype rc l a s s .
Oh
the fi fth leve l o f con s iderat Ion ( 1 ) the Ac t i ve Tran s i t iv e Ve rb Ph rase Hype rc l a s s i s subd i v i ded
into :
the Ac t ive Single Tran s i t ive Verb Phrasf: (No . 2) ;
the Ac t i ve Dbub l e Trans i t Ive Verb Phrase (No . 3) ;
the Ac t ive Att r ibut i ve Tran s I t i ve Verb Phrase (No . 4) .
( 2) the Passive Tran s i t ive Verb Phrase Hyp e rc l a s s i s subd i v Ided
into :
the Pass ive SIngle Tran s i t ive Verb Phrase (No . S) ;
the Pa ssive Dbub le Tran s I t ive Verb Phrase (No . 6 ) ;
the Pa SS Ive At tribut ive Trans i t Ive Verb Phra se (No . 7 ) .
3 . 1. 1. 1.
In ternal Structure of the Verb Phrase Hyperclass
The ana lys i s inc ludes c lose - kn i t Act ive Ve rb Phrases and c lose-kn i t
Pa ss ive Verb Phrases tha t occur i n the Ac t Ive and the Pas s i v e Pred I ­
c a te s l o t s .
3. 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 .
Close- kn i t Act i ve Verb Phrase
Invo lved in a c l o s e - k n i t Ac t i v e Ve rb Ph r a s e a re the fo l l o w i n g
Phrase l evel tagmeme s :
so
+VII (InTrVt rv\/ ,
ob l i g a t o ry nuc l eus Ve rb Head s l o t f i l l ed by t wo a l t e rna t e
d i s t r ibut ion - subc lasse s : Int ran s i t ive Ve rb ; Tran s i t ive Verb .
M_O_+l_-11 t <� : )
t+...
d
'
t wo a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibut ion- sub c l a s s e s : ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s
Moda l tagmem e ; ob l igatory nuc l eus Ten se t a gm em e .
There a re four p a i red Moda l s and four unp a ued ones :
c an
m ay
sha� �
wi � �
cou � d
m i gh t
s ho u l d
W') u � d
d af'e
ne e d
mus t
oug h t
"The p a i r in g c on s i s t s i n the re l a t i o n s h i p o f non - r e a l i t y and
sequence-o f- t ense w i th cou l d /m i g h t / s ho u � d ft,XJ u l d" . ( W. F. Twadde l l ,
The En g l i sh Verb Auxi l i a r i e s , Brown Un ivers i t y Press , 1960 . p . 10 . )
The Ten se slot i s f i l l ed by a compo s i t e fi l l e r c l a s s i n c lud i ng two
a l tern a t e d i s t r i but i on - subc l a s se s : Pre sent su f f i x ( - S ) , Th i rd Person
S i.ngu l a r suffi x , or d i f fe ren t fo rms o f ( b e ) i n Pre s ent Tens e ; Pa s t
Tense suffix ( - ed ) .
opt ion a l sa te l l i t e "cur rent s i tua t i on" t a gmeme , inc luding an
o b l i g a t o r y nuc l eu s Aux i l i a rY l ( h a v f? ) , a nd an o b l i ga t o ry
nuc leus Part i c ip le su ffix l ( - en ) , o r Pa s t Pa rt i c i p l e su f f i x .
opt ion a l sa te l l i t e " l i m i t ed du rat ion " tagmeme , i nc lud ing an
o b l i g a t o r y nuc l e u s Au x i l i a r Y 2 ( h e ) , a n d an ob l i g a t o ry
n u c l eus Pa r t i c i p l e su f f i x 2 ( - i n g ) , o r P re s ent Co n t i nuous
su ffi x .
t h e two opt i on a l sa t e l l i t e tagmemes c a n co - o c cu r w i t h i n a n
Ac tive Verb Phrase in the tagmem i c o rde r i. n g pre sented abov e .
Th e c lose - kn i t Ac t i v e Ve rb Ph rase c a n b e summa ri zed i n the fo l low­
ing t ab l e : 6
6 " s i m i l a r bu t. n o t. i d e n t i c a l
Mo rpho l o gy and Syn t a x ,
L i n gu i s t i c s ,
Sa n t a An a ,
hy B .
fo rmu l a
E l s o n A n d V.
Ca l j fo rn i a ,
19 6 2 ,
is
p a ge
f o u n d i n An In t roduc t i on to
P i ck e t t ,
107 .
Su m m e r I n s t i t u t e o f
51
( L I NE 1 )
( L I N E 2)
+ Mo
+ VH
+P ar t 1 ( - en ) +VII
( )
( )
I n t rV
TrV
In t r v
TrV
( L I N E 3)
+Part 2 ( - i ng )
(L I NE
tp art ( - i ng )
2
Interp re t. a t ion of the fo rmul a :
Ho r i zon t a l l i nes in the fo rmu l a ind l c a t e that . i n gene r a t ing an
Ac t i ve Verb Phra se. e i the r wha t is above or wha t is be low the l ine i s
cho sen . The / cu t t ing the l l ne from the Moda l . Mo . t agmeme t o the
Ten se . t. t a gmeme ind i c a t e s tha t one or the o th e r is o b l i ga to r i ly
p resent . but no t bo th.
( 1) L I N E 1
Th i s i s t.he Ac t. i ve Ve rb Ph ra se hav i n g on ly the ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus
t agmeme s : a l terna t e Moda l . o r a l t ernate ten s e ; and Verb Head.
EXAMPL ES
w i th +Mo ; w i th + t
« -5) > :
(- e d )
+ VIf <l n t I' V» )
+ 8 + P r [ Ac t In t r Decl V - Ph r ( +Mo
try.
He
1lI u s t
+p r f Ac t l n t rDl'c1 V - I' h r ( t VII<l n t rV>
+8
lva l k s .
l<Xl l k ei! .
+ t.
«(-05) /\
C. ,.d )
))
( 2) L I N E 2
lh i s is the Ac t i ve Ve rb Phrase composed o f the obl igatory nuc l eu s
t.agmemes and the opt i onal sat e l l i te "curren t si tua t ion" t agmeme .
EXAMPL ES
«(-5) > :
w i th +Mo ; wi th + t
(- ed)
�
He
1lI
+
us t
l
+Au x 1 (halle ) +VH<I n trV> +Part 1 ( - en » ) )
tri e d.
have
+P r [ Actl n t rDec I V - Ph r ( +Au X 1 ( h aVe ) + t
has
He
had
+8
±
« (--�e d) ) )
tded.
4)
52
(3) L I NE 3
TIl i s i s the Ac t i ve Verb Ph rase compo sed o f the ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s
t a gmemes and the opt ion a l sate l l i te " l i m i t ed dura t i on" tagmeme .
EXAMPL E S
+s
He
with
+ Mo ;
«(-S) > :
w i th + t
(- e d )
+P r [ Ac t l n t r Dec l V - Ph r ( +Mo
must
be
was
is
He
wa L k i ng .
t<XlL k i ng .
(4) L I N E 4
Th i s i s the Ac t ive Ve rb Phra se compo sed o f the ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus
t agmeme s and the two opt iona l sa t e l.l i t e t a gmemes "current s i t ua t ion"
and " l im i ted dura t ion " toge the r .
EXAMPL ES
w i th +Mo ; w i t h
«(-S) > :
+t
He
( .- e d )
might
h ave
been
--�
+ VH < I n t rV>
+ P a r t 2 ( - i ng » ) )
e a t i ng .
+s
He
.L
+ p r [ Ac t I n t r DecI V - Ph r ( + Au x C h aV e )
1
h as
h ad
b e en
4-
+ VII<In t rV >
+ p a r t 2 ( - i ng » ) )
e a t i ng .
3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 2.
C l ose-kni t Pass i ve V e rb Phrase
Invo lved in the c lose-kn i t Pa s s i v e Verb Ph rase a re :
( a ) a l l the ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus . and the op t i ona l s a te l l i t e Ph rase
l evel tagmemes found in the c lose-kn i t Ac t ive Verb Ph rase . with
t h e d i f fe renc e in the f i l l e r c l a s s of t he Ve rb Head s l o t wh i l e the Ac t i ve Verb Ph rase Head s l o t i s fi l l ed by a compo s i t e
f i l l e r c l a s s inc lud i ng t wo a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibut ion - sub c l a s s e s :
53
Intran s i t ive Verb stem ; Tran s i t ive Ve rb stem , the Pass ive Verb
Phrase Head s lot is fi l led by a s imp le fi l l e r c la s s inc lud ing
on ly one d is tr ibut ion- sub c l a s s : Tran s i t ive Verb stem .
( b ) the ob l igato ry nuc leus Passive t agmeme :
Passive ta gmeme [ � Au x 2 ( be ) +part 1 ( - en ) ]
compo s e d o f an o b l i ga to ry nuc l eus Aux i l i a rY 2 ( b e ) ; and an
o b l i ga to ry nuc l eus Pa rt i c ip l e 1 (- en ) su f fi x , o r P ast ' Pa rt i ­
c ip le suffix. ( Fo r the Passive Tran s fo rm , c f. 1. 2. 2. page 4 . )
The c lo se - kn i t P a s s ive Ve rb Phr a se can b e summ a r i z ed a s in the
fo l lowing tab l e :
(LINE 1)
+Mo
+Au x 1 ( h ave )
+t
<� =:�,)
( L I N E 2)
+ Au x 2 ( b e ) �Part l ( - en ) +VU [ TrV] +Part 1 ( - en )
-____________________(_L_1-N E 3)
_
+ Au x 2 ( b e ) �Part 2 ( - i n g ) +VU [ TrV] �Part l ( - e n )
+ Au x 2 ( b e ) +Part 1 ( - en ) � Au x 2 ( b e ) + P art 2 ( - i ng )
( L I N E 4)
+ VH [ TrV] +Part 1 ( - en )
Interpretat ion o f the fo rmul a :
( 1) L I N E 1
Th i s i s the Pa s s iv e Ve rb Ph rase composed o f o n l y the ob l i ga to ry
nu c l e u s t a g m em e s : a l t e rn a t e Mo d a l , o r a l t e rn a t e Ten s e ; P a s s i v e
t agmeme ; and Verb Head.
EXAMPL ES
w i th +Mo ; with �t
«(-S) >
( - ed)
:
+ S + P r [ PaSSgTrDec l v- Ph r ( +Mo
+ Au x 2 ( be ) +VU [ SgTrV] +Part 1 ( - en» ) ]
mi g h t
It
eaten.
be
+S
+pr [ paSSgTrDecI V - P h r ( + Au x 2 ( be ) +t
is
was
It
«
\ +VU [ SgTrV]
/
(- S)
( - ed )
+part 1 ( - en » ) ]
eaten .
( 2) L I N E 2
Th i s i s the Pa s s ive Verb Phrase compo sed o f the ob l igato ry nuc l eu s
tagmemes and the opt iona l sate l l it e "current si tuat ion" t agmem e .
EXAMPL ES
w i th +Mo ; w i th + t
«(-S) >:
( - ed )
54
+S
It
+Part 1 ( - e n )
might
+ VH [ SgTrV] +Part 1 ( - en ) ) ]
eaten.
+S
± ------,'1,
+Pr [ PaSSgTrDec l V - Ph r ( +Mo
""
h ave
b e en
----«-- -S) ) + i\u x2 (b e ) +Part 1 ( - en )
+p d PasSgTrDecl V- Phr ( +i\u x 1 ( hav e ) + t
±
l
(- ed.)
has
had.
It
b e en
+ VH [ SgTr V] +Part 1 ( - en ) ) ]
eaten.
( 3) L I N E 3
Th i s i s the Pa ss ive Verb Ph rase composed o f the ob l i ga to ry nuc leus
tagmemes . and the opt iona l sate l l i t e " l im i ted durat ion" tagmeme .
EXAMPL ES
+S
w i th +Mo ; w i th + t
« -S) )
( - ed. )
±
J;
----,�
+Part
. )
+i\u x 2 ( be ) + Au x 2 ( b e )
2 ( - tng
+P r [ PaSSgTrDec l V - Ph r ( +Mo
It
:
mus t
be
b e i ng
+ VH [ SgTrV] +Part 1 ( - e n ) ) ]
e aten.
+S
It
+ VH [ SgTrV] +Part 1 ( - en ) ) ]
e at en .
( 4) L I N E 4
Thi s i s the Pa ss ive Verb Phrase compo sed o f the ob l igato ry nuc l eus
t agmemes and the t wo opt iona l sat e l l i t e t agmem es "cur rent s i tuat ion"
and " l im i t ed durat ion" togethe r .
EXAMPL ES
+S
w i th +Mo ; with + t
« -S) )
( - ed. )
+ P r [ PasSgTrDecl v - Ph r ( +Mo
:
"'.,------ ±
+.---- ± -----��
--
+ i\u x 1 ( h ave ) +i\ux 2 ( b e ) +Part 1 (- en )
been
mus t
have
It
+ i\ux 2 ( be )
1+Part
b e ing
2 ( - i ng ) +VH [ SgTrV] +part 1 ( - en ) ) ]
eaten.
ss
�
+ P r [ PaSSgTrDecl V - P h r { +Au x t C have ) +t
+S
( >
±
C- S )
( - ed )
has
had
It
± ---
'"
+Aux 2 C b e )
b e en
l
+ Au x 2 C be )
b e i ng
+Part 2 C - i ng ) +VH [ SgTrV] +Part t c - en » ) )
3 . 1. 1. 1. 3.
e a t en .
Close- kn i t Negated Dec l arat i ve Verb Ph rases7
There a re two a l t e rna t e d i v i s i on- subc l a sse s : Nega t ed Dec l a r a t ive
C don ' t ) Ve rb Phrase ; Nega t ed Dec larat ive C n ' t ) Verb Phra se .
Th e a1 t e rn a t e di vi s i on- subc1 ass Nel1a t ed Dec1 a r a t i ve
3. 1. 1. 1. 3. 1.
Cdon ' t )
Verb Ph rase
Th e a l ternate d i v i s ion - sub c la s s Nega t ed Dec larat ive ( don ' t ) Verb
Ph rase has the fo l lowing st ructu re formu l a :
K E RN EL STRUCTU R E : Af fDecl V - P h r { +VH
.
T N eg Cdon ' t )
)
<
N egDecH don ' t ) V- Ph r : + C do ) + t /C - S )
\( - ed )
I n t rv
T rV
>
+
+t
/Cc -- edS ) )
\
( no O
Lr[ n ' ojl
+VII
»)
( )
I n t rv
TrV
The fo rmu l a i s read :
A C l o se - kn i t Ne g a t ed De c l a ra t i v e ( do n ' t ) V rb Phr a se . N e g D e c l
( do n ' O V - Ph r . i s a Nega t i on C do n ' 0 Tran s fo rm . T N e g ( do n ' 0 ' o f an
Affi rma t ive De c l a ra t ive Verb Phrase that is composed on ly o f an ob l i ­
g a t o ry nu c l eus Ve rb Head and an a l t e rn a t e ob l i g a to ry nuc leus Ten s e
su ffi x .
7
Fo r
a
mo rt' cl t' t ai l ed a n a l y s i s o f Cl o s e - kn i t Nega ted Vt'rb Phrase s , a s wel l
as o ther Nega ted Phrase- I eve I s t ruc tu r e s , see E. K l i m a " Negation in En gl i sh" ,
The Struc ture o f Langual1e: Readi nl1s in the Phl losophy o f Lcrlgual1e , J . A.
Fo do r
and J . J . K a t z ,
19 6 4,
edi to r s , P r en t i ce - H a l l ,
Inc.
En gl ewo o d Cl i f f s , N . J .
p p . 246- 323.
I n t h i s p a p e r , E. K l i m a has fou n d it n ec e s s ary to d e sc r i be n e ga t i ve Verb
Ph r a se s by generat ing a n e ga ti ve morpheme i n t.he Ph rase s tructure .
lilt un de r
a recen t Tran s fo rma t i on a l theory u s i n g p roj ect ion ru l es , J . J . K a t z and P . M .
Po s t a l ( An In tel1ra t ed Theory o f Linl1ui s t i c Descri p t i on s , Th e M . I . T. Pre s s ,
Camb ri dge , M a s sachuse t t s ,
n o t a s an o p t i o n a l
196 4,
p p . 7 3- 7 4 ) vi ew t h e n e ga t i ve t r an s fo rm a t i o n
t r an s fo rm a t i o n , b u t a s a n o b l i ga t o r y one ,
gen e ra t ion o f a nt'gat. i ve morpheme but a s
8
rep o s i t i on
0
and n o t as a
f a negati ve mo rph eme .
56
It i s composed o f:
( 1 ) the ob l i ga t o ry nu c l eus I n t e r ro g a t i v e - Ne g a t i v e I n t ro duc e r
Auxi l i a ry < do ) ;
( 2) an ob l igatory nuc l eus Ten se su ffix s l o t fi l led by a compos i t e
f i l l e r c la s s i n c luding t wo a l t e rnate d i s t r ibu t ion- sub c l a sse s :
Present suffix < - s ) ; Pas t Tense su ffix ( - ed ) ;
( 3 ) an ob l i gatory nuc l eus Negat ion Pa r t i c le inc luding t wo a l t ernate
phonem i c fo rms : ( - no t ) ; <-n ' t ) ;
( 4) an ob l i g a to ry nuc l eus Verb Head s l o t f i l l e d by a compo s i t e
f i l le r c l a ss inc lud ing t wo a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibut ion - subc las ses :
Int ran s i t ive Verb stem ; Trans i t ive Verb st em .
EXAMPL ES
+s
w i th ( no t ) ; with ( n ' t ) :
does
did
He
+s
- --,
+t « -S) ) 1 < no t ) +VH<ln trV» ]
< - ed)
+
oJ'
+Pr [ �c tI n t rDecl V- Phr ( ± (do )
-
fLO r k .
no t
r
«-S»
+ ---,----,'J,
f e n ' t ) + VH <I n t rV» ]
+t
(-ed)
doesn ' t
d idn ' t
+P r [ �ct I n t rOec l V - Phr ( l< dO )
He
3. 1. 1 . 1 . 3. 2.
<n' t)
Th e a l t e rn a t e di vi s i on - subc l a s s NeAa ted Dec l a ra t i ve
Verb Ph r a s e
Th e a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion- sub c l a s s Nega t ed Dec l a ra t ive ( n ' t ) Ve rb
Ph rase has the fo l lowing structure formula :
K E RNEL STRU CTU R E : M fOec l V- Ph r ( +
T Neg ( n ' t )
N egOec l (n ' t ) V-Phr : +
(+MO
+ �u x + t
<::
+
x +t
« -S) )\�
(-ed)
« -S)
(- ed )
+
>V +"')
{ }
en ' t >
(no t )
...
The fo rmu la is read :
A Clo se - kn i t Nega ted Dec l a ra t ive ( n ' t > Ve rb Ph rase . NegOecl C n ' t )
V - Ph r . i s a Nega t i on < n ' t ) Trans fo rm . TN eg C n ' t ) . o f an Affi rma t iv e
Dec lara t ive Verb Ph ra se that beg ins wi th e i ther an a l t e rnate d i s t ribu­
t ion - sub c l ass Moda l . or an a l t erna te d i s t ribu t i on- subc l a s s Auxi l i a ry
fo l lowed by an ob l i ga tory nuc leus Tense tagmeme .
I t i s composed o f:
( 1 ) an a l t ernate dist r i but ion- subc lass Moda l . o r an a l ternate d i s­
t r ibut ion- sub c l a s s Aux i l i a ry fo l l owed by an ob l i gatory nuc l eu s
57
Tense s l D t fi l l ed by a compD s i t e f i l l e r c l ass inc lud ing t wO'
a l t e rnate d i st ribut iDn - subc l a s se s : P resent Ten se suffix ( - s ) .
Pas t Ten se su ffix ( - ed ) ;
( 2 ) an Db l igatDry nuc leus Negat iDn Par t ic le inc lud ing t wO' a l te rna t e
phDnem ic fD rm s . (no t ) and ( n ' t ) ;
( 3 ) a l l the D ther e lemen t s p rev iDusly fDund in the k e rnel Af firma­
t ive Verb Phrase .
-S)
EXAMPL ES wi th +111 0 ; w ith + t
:
( ed )
n ' 0 +VH<Int rv> l )
+
+ S +Pr [ �c t l n t rDecl V-Phr ( +lIIo
( no 0
mus tn ' t
He
go .
mus t no t
«- )
+S
fc1
11
'"
+P r [ �ct l n t rDec l V - Ph r ( +�u x(have )
gone .
h asn ' t
ha.s no t
He
h adn ' t
had no t
3. 1. 1 . 1. 3. 2a.
No t e on
the Fo rm
(n ' t )
The a l t e rnate phDnem i c fDrm ( n ' t ) D f the Nega t i Dn Pa rt i c l e . wh i ch
usual ly un s t ressed . i s ra re ly fDund a ft e r the MDda l s m ay /m i g h t /
sha L t . and nD t fDund a ft e r the Present fDrm ( am ) i n Standa rd Ame r i can
Fngl ish .
1S
3. 1 . 1 . 1 . 4.
-
Close kn i t Interrogati ve Verb Phrases
C1Dse -kn i t I n t e r rDga t ive Verb Ph rases fi l l the Dbl i gat Dry nuc l eus
In terrD g a t ive P r ed i c a t e s l D t in Yes-NO' I nt e rrDga t ive Clause Typ e s .
Ext ra Inte rrO'ga t ive Cl ause Type s . and In t e r rO'gat ive NO'n- Subj ect Cl au se
Types . The r e a re t wO' a l' t e rna t e d i v i s i Dn- subc l a s s e s : In t e r rO'ga t ive
(do ) Ve rb Phra s e ; InterrO' gat ive Aux i l iary ( O' r Moda l ) Verb Phrase .
3. 1 . 1. 1. 4. 1 .
The a J t c rn a t e di v i s i on- subc J a s s I n t e r ro � a t i v e
(do )
Verb
Ph r a s e
The a l t e rn a t e d i v i s i O'n- subc lass In t e r rO' gat ive ( do ) Verb Phrase ha s
the fO' l l O' wing s t ructure fO'rmula :
K ERN EL STRUCTU R E ' + S +Pr [ DeC I V _ Phr( +vn
T l n t e r (do )
-!'
I n t e r (do ) V- Ph r : + (do )
±t«(-S) >
( - ed )
( )
I n t rV
TrV
+
}
- s)
fc
t - ed )
'l-
l)
+ 8 +Pr [ I nt e r (do ) V - Ph r ( + + VH
( )
Intr
TrV
l]
S8
The fo rmula is read:
An In t e rro ga t ive (do ) Verb Phra s e . I n t e r ( do ) V - P h r . i s an Int e rro­
gat ive ( do ) Tran s fo rm . T l n t e r (do ) ' o f an Aff i rma t ive Dec l a rat ive Verb
Phrase that is composed on l y of an ob l i gatory nuc leus Verb Head and an
a l ternate ob l iga tory nuc leus Tense t agmeme .
I t i s composed o f:
( 1 ) the ob l i g a t o ry nuc l eus I n t e r ro g a t i v e - N e g a t iv e In t rodu c e r
Aux i l iary (do ) ;
( 2 ) an ob l i gatory nuc l eus Tense t agmeme ;
( Bo th t h e Aux i l i a ry ( do ) and the Ten s e t a gm em e a r e t ran s­
ferred to the po s i t i on b e fo re the ob l i g a t o ry nuc l e us Clause
level Subj e c t t agmeme . )
( 3 ) a n ob l i g a t o ry nuc l eu s Ve rb Head s lo t fi l l ed by a compo s i t e
f i l ler c l a s s inc lud ing t wo a l t e rna te d i s t ribut ion- subc l a s se s :
I n t ran s i t ive Ve rb stem ; Trans i t ive Ve rb s t em .
EXAMPL E:
'"
+ ( do )
Do e s
Di d
tt /C-S )
\( - ed )
3. 1. 1 . 1 . 4. la.
)
+s
t
+Pr [ I n ter(do ) V - Ph r ( + +VH <I n trV» ]
go ?
he
Nega t i on o f the In t e r roga t i ve
(do )
Verb Ph rase
The Negat ion of the Interroga t ive ( do ) Ve rb Phrase is the add i t ion
o f the ob l i ga t o ry nu c l eus Nega t ion Part i c l e wh i ch ha s t wo a l t e rn a t e
phonem ic fo rms . ( n ' t ) and ( no t ) . according to the fo l lowing s t ru c t u r e
fo rmu l a :
t(dO ) ± t
« >I
-S)
( - ed )
�
+ (n I t ) +8 +Pr [ In ter (do ) V-Phr( + + ( no t ) + vu
I/
( »
I
In t rv
TrV
)]
The formu la is read :
The Neg a t i on Pa rt i c l e c an b e added to an In t e r ro ga t i ve ( do ) Verb
Phra se to negate it . I t s a l ternate phonem ic form ( n ' t ) i s p laced imme­
d i a t e ly a ft e r the ob l i ga to ry nuc le us Ten se t agmeme . and b e fo r e the
o b l i ga to ry nuc l eus Clause l eve l Subj e c t t a gmeme . wh i l e i t s a l t erna t e
phonemic form ( no t ) i s placed a fter the ob l igatory nuc leus Cl ause l eve l
Subj ec t tagmem e .
EXAMPL ES w i th (n ' t ) ; w ith ( no t ) :
""
+ ( do )
Do e sn ' t
D i dn ' t
±t
« -3) >
( - ed )
+ en ' t ) +s
he
�
+Pr [ I n t er (do ) V - P h r( + +VH<I n t rV» ]
go ?
59
'"+ (do) ±t« - S ) > +8 +Pr[Inter(do)V-Phr(+J, +(not ) +VH<IntrV» ]
(- ed)
Do es
D id
no t
he
3. 1. 1. 1. 4. 2.
go?
Th e al t ern a t e di vi s i on - subc L a ss In t e r ro�a t i ve Modal
( o r Auxi l i ary) Verb Ph rase
The a l t e rnate d iv i s ion - sub c l a s s Interrogat i v e Moda l ( o r Aux i l i a ry )
Verb Phrase has the fo l lowing s t ructure formu l a :
K ERNEL STRUCTU R E :
+8 +pr[Oecl V-Phr( + (�t+Aux +i « - s ) » +'... )]
o
(- e d )
T lnter<MOAux)
+ +Aux +t« - S ) >> +8 +P r[Inter (MOAux IV-Phr(�+
Inter Aux V-Phr: J<+MO
\
Mo
+"
( - cd )
The fo rmu la i s read :
A C l o s e - k n i t I n t e r ro g a t i v e Moda l ( o r Aux i l i a ry ) Ve rb Ph ra se .
IniPI. < MOAux )V-Phr.
T l nier<MOAux ) .
i s an Interrogat i ve Moda l ( o r Aux i l i a ry ) Transfo rm .
o f an Af f i rma t i ve De c l a rat i v e Ve rb Ph rase that beg i n s
wI th e i ther an a l ternate d i s t r ibut ion- subc lass Moda l . o r an a l t e rnate
d i s t r l bu t i on - subc l a s s Au x i l i a ry fo l l owed by an ob l i ga to ry nuc leus
Ten se t agmeme .
It
IS
composed o f:
( 1 ) an a l t ernate d i s t r i but ion- subc lass Moda l ; o r an a l ternate d i s­
t r ibu t Lon - subc la s s Aux i l i a ry fo l lowed by an ob l i gat ory nuc leus
Tense s l o t f i l led by a comp o s l t e [ i l l e r c l a s s i n c lud i n g t wo
a l t e rnat e d l s t r Lbut ion- subc l a s se s : Pre sent Ten se su f f i x ( - S ) ;
Pa s t Tense su ffix ( - e d ) .
lhe a l t e rnate Moda l . o r the a l t e rnate Auxi l i a ry fo l lowed by
the ob l i g a t o ry nuc l eus Ten se t agmeme . i s t rans fe r red to the
pos I t ion b e fo r e the ob l i ga t0 ry nuc l eus Clause l ev e l Subj e c t
tagmeme .
( 2 ) a l l t he othe r e l emen t s p rev iously found in the k e rne l Af f i rma­
Dec lara t ive Verb Ph ra s e .
EXAMPL ES
w i th
Mo ;
w i th
i« -S)- > :
( ed)
..
)]
60
fMO
Can
+S
he
+pr [ I n t erMO V - Ph r ( ! +VH<I nt rV» ]
go ?
Cit « - S) >
( - ed )
Has
Had
t
+Pr [ I nterAu xV- Phr ( + +VH <I n t rV> +Part 1 < - en » ) ]
+S
gone?
he
3. 1 . 1 . 1 . 4. 2a.
Nega t i on o f the I n t e r ro ga t i ve Modal ( o r Auxi l i ary) Verb
Ph rase
The Negat ion of the Int errogat ive Moda l (or Auxi l iary) Verb Phrase
is the add i t ion o f the ob l i ga to ry nuc leus Nega t ion Part i c l e wh ich has
two phonem ic fo rms . ( n ' t ) and ( no t ) . according to the fo l lowing s t ruc­
ture fo rmula :
�!\ (�= :�
)
MO
AU X + t
+ <n ' t )
»
+ s +Pr [ I n ter
I
-+
l
_
_
_
_
_
_
'-
( ) :
MO
Au x
_
_
_
V - Ph r (
+ ( no t )
1
_____
_
_
_
_
The formula i s read:
The Negat ion Pa rt i c l e c an be added to a Moda l (or Aux i l ia ry ) Verb
Ph rase to neg a t e the Phra se . I t s phonem ic form ( n ' t ) i s p l a c ed im­
med i a t e ly a ft e r the a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibut ion- sub c l a s s Mo da l . or the
a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibu t ion- subc lass Aux i l ia ry and its ob l i gat ory nuc leus
Tense tagmeme .
E XAMPL E S wi th ( n ' t ) ; w i th ( no t ) :
�
+Mo
+ (n ' t )
+s
Shou � d n ' t
fAux l C h ave )
he
+ Mo
Migh t
+S
he
go ?
)
) + (n '
! t (C - S
( ed )
H asn' t
Hadn ' t
�
l-
+Pr [ In terMoV-Phr ( + +VH <I n t rV» ]
-
he
�
+Pr [ I n t erAu xV- Phr( +
it « - S)
Has
H ad
t) +S
( - ed )
>
+s
he
+ C no t )
no t
gone ?
+VH<I n t rV» ]
go ?
�
+Pr [ In terAu xV - Ph r ( +
+ ( no t )
no t
+VH<In t rV> +Part 1 < - en » ) ]
gone ?
61
tt
Is
3. 1. 1 . 1 . 5.
«-S) /\
( - ed )
l
+S + P r [ I n terAu xV- Ph r ( + + (no t ) +VH<I n t rV > +part z ( - i ng » ) ]
g O i ng ?
he
Verb Phrase SUbst i tutes
In repe t i t ions , and in answer s , en t i re Close- kn i t Verb Phrases and
the i r Obj e c t s and/o r Comp lemen t s a l l togethe r can be sub st i tu t ed o r
"echoed" by an Auxi l i a ry , o r a Moda l . o r a fo rm o f ( do ) a lone . These
Verb Phrase Subst i tutes a re of two a l t e rna t e d t st ribut ion- sub c l a s se s :
Subst t tute ( do ) Ph rase ; Subst i tute Aux i l t a ry ( o r Moda l ) Ph rase .
3. 1 . 1. 1 . 5. 1.
Th e al t ern a t e di vi sion- subcl a s s Subs t i tu t e
(do )
Ph rase
The a l t e rn a t e d i v i s i on- subc l a s s Sub s t i tu t e ( do ) Phr a s e has the
fo l lowing s t ruc ture formu l a :
K ERN EL STRUCTU R E S : Close-kn i t Ve rb Phra s e s , Dec l a rat ive o r Int erroga­
t i v e , tha t do no t c on t a i n a n Aux i l i a ry o r a
Modal .
T Subs t ( dO )
Subst (do ) - Ph r
: + ( do ) + t
«-
- S)
( ed
\,/
The formu la is read :
A Su s o t u t e ( do ) Ph r a se , Sub s t. ( rio ) - Ph r , t S a Sub s t i t u t e ( do )
Trans fo rm, T Su bs t ( d O ) ' o f a Close - kn i t Ve rb Ph ra se , Dec l a ra t ive o r
Inte rrogat i ve, tha t does not conta i n an Aux i l iary o r a Moda l .
I t i s compo sed o f the ob l i g ato ry nuc l eu s In t e rro g a t ive-Nega t iv e
Int roducer' Aux t l i a ry ( do ) ; and a n ob l i gatory nuc leus Ten se ... l o t fd led
by a compo s t t e fi l l e r c l a s s tnc lud ing t wo a l t e rn a t e d i s t r tb u t ion­
subc l a sses : Present Ten se su ffi x ( - s ) ; Past Tense suffi x (- ed ) .
EXAMPL E:
+ S +Pr [ Sub s t ( do ) - Ph r ( + (dO ) + t
«
-S)
\ )]
/
( - (> d )
He
doe s .
dtd.
3. 1. 1. 1 . 5a.
Nega t i on o f the Subs t i t u t e
(do )
Ph rase
The Nega t ion o f the Subst i tute ( do ) Ph rase is the add i t ion o f the
ob l i gatory nuc leus Nega t i on Part i c l e wh ich has two a l te rn a t e phonem i c
forms , (n ' t ) and (no t ) . Th e Nega t f·d Sub st i tute ( do ) Phra se has the
fo l lowing st ruc ture fo rmula :
62
+ (do > +t
UANPL E:
+S
He
+ P r [ Subst c do > - Ph r( + ( do ) +t
do e sn ' t .
do e s no t .
d i dn ' t .
d i d no t .
3. 1. 1 . 1. 5. 2.
{
> {
j(- S»
"( - ed >
«
- s>
( - ed )
�
�
( n , t�
( no t j
(n' t
( no t >
+
+
)]
The a l t e rn a t e di vi s i on - subc l a s s Subs t i t u t e Modal ( o r
Auxi l i ary) Ph rase
Th e a l t e rna t e d i v i s ion- subc l a s s Sub s t i tu t e Moda l { o r Aux i l i a ry }
Phrase ha s the fo l lowing s t ruc ture formu l a :
K E RNEL
T SUbst
SUbst
S T RU C TU R E :
( )
( )
Oecl
Inter
MO
�ux
( )
MO
�u x
- Ph r:
+
(
V-Phr( +
MO
+�u x + t
(
+MO
+ �u x
Y
/(- S)ed j'j\
V-
The formula i s read :
A Subs t i tu t e Moda l ( or Aux i l i a ry ) Phra se . SUbs t
(
( )
MO
�U X
)
- Ph r . i s a
. o r a Clo s eMO
�UX
kn i t Ve rb Ph r a s e . Dec l a ra t i v e o r I n t e rroga t i v e . t h a t b e g i n s w i th
an a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibu t ion - sub c l ass Moda l . o r an a l t erna t e d i s t r ibu­
t ion- sub c l a s s Aux i l i a ry fo l l o wed by an o b l i ga to ry nuc l eu s Ten � e
t agmeme .
I t is composed o f e i ther the a l t e rnate d i st ribution - sub c l a s s Modal
a lone . o r the a l ternate d is t ribut ion-subclass Aux i l i a ry fo l lowed by an
o b l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Ten s e s l o t f i l l ed by a c ompo s i t e f i l l e r c l a s s
inc lud ing two a l t e rnate d i s t r ibut ion- subc lasse s : Presen t Tense suffix
( - s ) . Past Tense su ffix (- e d ) .
Subs t i tute Mod a l ( o r Auxi l i a ry ) Tran s fo rm . TSUb S
ErANPL ES
+S
He
w i th Mo ; w ith �u x + t
+PdSubstMo - Ph r ( .f.Mo ...
«<-- S)ed )>
fe nn ' t )\ ) ]
t o t >J
cou l dn ' t .
cou l d no t .
:
+S +Pr[Subs tAux-Phr( +Aux ( +t «( -S) \!
be )
i sn ' t .
wa sn ' t .
i s no t .
was no t .
"e
3.
+
( - ed )
1. 1 . 1 . 6.
tOel,
{
63
�
oj
(n ' t
(no
)]
the op t i on al satel l i t e Del imi ter tagmeme
The opt iona l sa te l l i t e Phrase level De l im i t e r t agmeme has the func­
t i onal mean ing of De l im i ta t ion of the act i on of the ob l iga to ry nuc leus
Ve rb Head t a gmeme in a c lo se -kn i t Verb Phrase .
Fo rmu la :
t· · ·
fAux1 iOel tAux2 +VU
The
1he
fi l l er
Adv erb
g a to ry
fo rmu la i s rea d :
op t i onal sa t e l l i t e De l im i t e r slo t , wh i ch i s f i l led by a s i mp l e
c l a s s i nc lud ing on l y on e d i s t r i but i on- subc l a s s : De l i m i t e r
( a L mo s t , n e a r L y , scarc e L y , h ard L y , e t c . ) , p recedes the ob l i ­
nu c l eus Ve rb Head s l o t . and fo l lows an opt i ona l sa t e l l i t e
Aux i l i a ry slo t , i f any .
+VH<IntrV> +t «((-- S) > )]
I?X AHPL ES:
+S
/{ e
ed)
..
,:,ri e ..
aLmo s t
G 7" i pd .
t
+S +Pr[Ac tSgTrDecl V-Ph, ( +Aux 1 +t «(.. > :tOe} +VH<SgTrV> +P rt1 - » ]
[N -Ph r]
+S +Pr[Act l ntrDeclv-Phrl tDel +
+VU<IntrV» ]
r-
S)
(/wve )
+ 00
a
( - pd )
has
had
He
'It
a L mo s t
jf, n i ,<; hed
hi ,'; hom e llXJ r k .
"p
a L:no ,� t
3. 1 . 1 . 2 .
+Mo
(n ' t )
cf)U L dn ' t
waL k .
Ve rb s t em c l asses, d i v i s ion - subcl osses, Wi d co ­
o r cu r rence - s"b�l osses8
The Ve rb s t em c l a sses fi l l ing the Verb Head s l o t s of the ob l i gat o ry
nuc leus Pred i c a t e t agmeme s 0 f the t e n CI ause Types inc lude a L t e rn a t e
8 Fo r L he o r e t . i r. a l i mp J i r. a t. i ol l s o f suh- " Il L egori � a t i on o f wo nl c l a s s e s
.
a s p ec t
n f J p ep s L ru c t ll re i n t l' A lI s fo rmo L l o l I ll 1
c (l t e gn r i e s i n Tl' a n s fo rmll t i lJ ll u l
Gramma r s " ,
gl'omm a r ,
i n 1-1.
tile Ni n t h In t ernat i onal COl l ll r('ss o f L i nl1ui s t s .
1964,
p p . 67 2-68 2 .
Lun l
se
..
Emmnn B a r h
as
(In
" So. h­
( .. el. ) , P roceedings o f
The / l oglI "' :
Mo u t on &. ('�l . ,
( en )
64
d i v i s ion- subc lasses , and co -occurrence-subc lasses whose cha ra c te r i s t i c s
a re the capac i ty t o have c e r t a in Prepo s i t ion s , Obj e c t f i l l e r d i s t r i ­
bu t ion - subclasse s , e t c .
These Verb s t em c l asses w i l l b e p resented w i th the i r d i v i s i on- sub­
c lasses, and the i r pert inent co-occurrence- subc lasse s .
3. 1. 1 . 2. 1.
s },
Intrv {�::;�prep
the Int ransi t i ve Verb s t em c l ass
The In t ran s i t ive Verb stem c l a s s , which fi l l s the Verb Head s lot in
the Ac t i ve In t ran s i t i ve Pred i c a t e o f the Ac t ive I n t rans i t ive Clause
Type 1, includes two a l te rna te d i v i s ion- subcla sses :
3. 1. 1 . 2. 1. 1 .
IntrVs'
t h e In t ransi t i ve Verb s t em
s
al t e rn a t e di v i sion­
s u bc l as s
The Int rans i t ive Verb s tem s is chara c t e r i zed by the fac t that i t
c annot be fo l lowed by a Locat ion-Di rect ion Prepo s i t ion .
SAMPL ES:
t ry , fi g h t ,
e tc .
EXAMPL E:
+8 +Pr[ActIntrDecl V-Phr]
Intrvprep '
tri e d .
He
3 . 1 . 1. 2. 1. 2.
the In t ran s i t i ve Verb s t em
a l t e rn a t e
p rep
di vi s i on - subc l a s s
The Intrans i t i ve Verb s t emp rep
1S
cha racteri zed by the fac t that
i t can be fo l lowed by a Loca t ion-Di rec t ion Prepo s i t ion .
S AMPL ES:
run,
wa l k ,
fly,
etc .
EXAMPL E:
+8 +pdActlntrDecl V-Phr]
s },
8gTrV �'t:�;�prep
iL
He
away .
ran
3. 1. 1. 2. 2.
the Singl e Transi t i v e Verb stem c l ass
The S in g le Tran s i t ive Ve rb s t em c lass , wh ich fi l l s the Verb Head
s lo t in the Ac t ive and the Pass ive Pred i c a t e s of the Ac t iv e and the
Pass ive Single Transi t ive Clause Types 2 and 5, inc ludes two a l terna t e
d iv i s ion- subc lasse s :
3. 1. 1 . 2. 2. 1 .
8gTrVs '
the SinA l e Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
s
al t e rn a t e
di vi s i on - su bc l a s s
The Single Tran s i t i.ve Verb stem s i s characteri zed by the fact that
i t cann o t be fo l l o wed by a Loc a t i on - Di rec t ion Prepo s i t i on , and i t
6S
inc ludes twe lve a l ternate co-occurrence - subc lasse s :
3. 1. 1.2. 2. 1. 1. SgTrVs1 '
t h e Si ngl e Tran s i t i ve Ve rb s t em
sl
co - o ccu r ­
renee- subc l as s
The Sing l e Tran s i t ive Ve rb stem s l has the fo l lowing charact e r i st i c s :
+SgTrVs1 +DO<AdvCso»
I t s ob l iga t o ry nuc l eus D i r e c t Obj e c t s l o t can b e f i l l ed by the
Adverb C so ) .
b e � i e ve , d re am , ho p e , i m ag i ne , i nfo rm , say , susp e c t , s t a t e ,
suppo se , understand, e t c .
SAMPL E S :
EXAMPL E:
+S +Pr[ActSgTrDeclv-PhrJ +oo<AdvCso»
3. 1.1.2.2. 1 . 2. SgTrVs2 '
He
t houg h t
so .
the Si n gl e Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
s2
co - oc cu r ­
r enee- subc l as s
The Singl e Tran s i t ive Verb stems2 has the fo l lowing cha racter i s t i c s :
+SgTrVs2 +OO<Adv »
C no t
I t s ob l i g a to ry nuc l eus D i r e c t Obj e c t s l o t can b e f i l l e d by t h e
Adverb n o t ) .
C
+S +Pr[ActSgTrDecl v-PhrJ +oo<AdvCnot »
3. 1. 1 . 2.2. 1 . 3. SgTrVs3'
+SgTrVs3 +oo<c to ) V-Phr(+Prepcto ) +InfV-Phr»
SAMPL E S :
fear , hope , t h i n k , supp o s e , etc .
EXAMPL E:
hoped
He
no t .
the Si ngl e Tran s i t i ve Ve rb s t em
s3
co- occur­
rence- subcl ass
The Singl e Tran s i t ive Verb stem s3 ha s the fo l lowing charac t er i s t i c s :
I t s ob l iga t o ry nuc l eus Di rect Obj e c t s lot can b e fi l led b y a C t o )
Verb Ph ra se , wh i ch i s compo sed o f a n ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s Prepo s i t ion
C to ) and an ob l igato ry nuc leus Infin i t ive Verb Phra se .
car e , d e c i d e , d e s e rve , end e avo r , fo rg e t , hop e , � e arn , m e an ,
p � an , wan t , etc .
S A MPL E S :
EXAMPL E :
+S . +Pr[ActSgTrDecl V-Phr] +oo<C to ) V-Phd +PrepCto ) +InfV-Phr»
He
wan ted
to
go .
66
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 4.
SgTrVs4 '
the Si nAl e Tran si t i ve Verb s t em
eo- o c cu r­
s4
( to) +InfV-Phr) ) )
to ) V-Phr(+prep
+SgTrVs4 +00 «OefeCl
( tO ) [+S<O-x> +Pr« to V-Phr>]
rence- subcl ass
The Single Tran s i t ive Verb stem s4 has the fo l lowing charac terist i c s :
(to)
I t s ob l i gatory nuc leus Direct Obj ect s l o t can be fi l led by a
Verb Ph rase , o r a De fect ive Clause ( to ) Typ e .
Th e De fec t i ve Clause ( t o ) Typ e i s composed o f an ob l iga tory nuc leus
Subj ec t s lo t f il led by an Obj ect expression, and an ob l i gato ry nuc leus
P red icate s lo t fi l led by a ( to ) Verb Phrase .
S AMPL E S :
ad v i s e ,
as k ,
b eg ,
e xp e c t ,
p rom i s e ,
wan t ,
wi s h ,
get,
L i ke ,
e tc .
EXAMPL ES:
to )
+S +Pr[ActSgTrDecl V-Ph r] +OO<C ) V-Ph r( +Prep C +I n fV-Phr) >
+S +Pr[ActSgTrOeclV-Phr] +oo<oefeCl ( to ) [+S<O-x> +Pr<Ctoto ) V-Phr>]>
SgTrVs�'
+SgTrVs� + oo[V (_ i ng ) -Phr(+InfV-Phr p rt C- »)]
c_ )
They
wan ted
T hey
lAXln t e d
to
to
go .
go .
him
3 . 1. 1 . 2. 2. 1 . �.
the Si n g l e Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
eo - occur­
s5
rence- subcl ass
The Single Trans it ive Verb stem s s ha s the fo llowing cha rac t e r i s t i c s :
+
a
2
i ng
I t s ob l i ga t o ry nuc l e u s Di r e c t Obj e c t s l o t c an b e f i l l e d by a
Ve rb i n g Phrase , wh ich i s composed o f an ob l i gato ry nuc leus In fin it ive Verb Ph rase , and a n ob l igato ry nuc leus Pa rt i c i p l e 2
o r Present Part i c ip l e su ffi x .
S A MPL E S :
adm i t ,
ap p r e c i a t e ,
a vo i d ,
con s i d e r ,
deny,
C - i ng )
en j o y ,
su ffi x
e s c ap e ,
+s +Pr[ActSgTrOeclV-Phr] +OO<V _ - Phr( +lnfV-Phr +p rt - »)>
tt .
SgTrVs6 '
c to ) +lnfV-Phr) )
+SgTrVs6 +00 < c tOc_ ) V-Phr(+prep
-Ph (+ n V- hr +P rt C - )
f i ni s h ,
i m ag i n e ,
keep , m i s s ,
s to p ,
etc .
EXAMPL E: .
He
c i ng )
fini shed
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 6.
2C
a
typ i ng t h e l e
the Si nAl e Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
i ng
er
s6
co - o c cu r ­
r en c e - subel a s s
The Sing l e Tran s i t i ve Verb stem s6 has the fo llowing charac t e ri s t i c s :
V
i ng
)
r
l
f
P
a
2
i ng »
67
I t s ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Direct Obj ec t s lo t can be f i l l ed by a
Verb Ph rase , o r by a Verb ( _ i n ) Phra s e .
g
S AMPL ES:
prefe r,
begin,
s t ar t ,
con t i nu e ,
d i s � i k e , d read,
i n t e nd ,
� i ke ,
( to )
n eg � e c t , p � an ,
etc.
EXAMPL E S :
+S +Pr ActSgTrOeclV-Phr +oo« to)V-Phr(+Prep ( to) +InfV-Phr»
+S +Pr Ac tSgTrOecIV-Phr +00 <V (_ ing ) -Phr(+InfV-Phr +Part2 ( »)>
1. 1 . 2. 2. 1.7 SgTrVs7 ,
He
[
]
p � anned
to
[
He
buy a h a t .
- i ng
]
buy i ng a h a t .
p l anned
3.
the S i n g l e Tran s i t j ve V� rb s t em 7 co - oc cu rs
r ence- subc l a :-. s
The Sing le Tran s i t lve Verb s t em s7 has the fo l low ing chara ct e r i st ic s :
+SgTrVs7 +OO<InfV-Phr>
I t s ob l i ga tory nuc leus Di rect Obj e c t s lo t can bc fi l l ed by an In­
f in i t ive Verb Phrase .
.� AMPL ES:
h e l p , h e ar
let,
etc .
Is'XAMPL E':
+S +Pr ActSgTrOecl V-Phr +oo<InfV-Phr>
3. 1 . 1. 2. 2. 1. SgTrVss '
He
[
]
h d p ed
do t h p lIn r k .
th� Sj ngl e Tran "l j l i ve V�rb s t em
8.
sB
co - oc c u r ­
renee- subc l a s s
lhe Single Trans l t lve Verb stem s8 ha s the fo l lowi ng cha ra cte rist i c s :
sS
+SgTrV 1OO<OefeCI.In f +S<O-x> +Pr<InfV-Phr> >
[
]
I . s ob l I ga tory nuc l eus Di rect Obj e c t s l o t can b e fi l l ed b y a De fec­
t i ve Clausc l nf ul l t lve Typ e , wh i ch is composed of an ob l iga to ry nuc l eus
SubJ ect s lo t f i l led by an Obj ect expres ion and an ob l i g a to ry nuc l eus
Pred l ca t e s lo t fi l led by an Infln i t ive Ve rb Phrase .
S AMPL E S :
bid,
have ,
hdp ,
fee l ,
let,
s (' r .
o b � e f' tl e ,
o v erh e llr ,
wa t c h ,
etc
EXAMPL E.
(
J
+S +Pr ActSgTrOecIV-Phr +OO<OefeCl i nf +S<O-x> +Pr<InfV-Phr> >
3. 1.1.2.2.1.9. SgTrVs9 '
He
<:aw
[
]
t h em
go .
the Sj n g l e Tran s i t l ve Verb s t cm
s9
co - o c cu r ­
r enee- subc l ass
The Single Trans l t ive Verb stem s9 has the fo l lowing chara� t e r i st i c s :
68
+SgTrVs9 +DO<DefeCl c_ i ng ) [+S<O-x> +Pr<v c_ i ng ) -Phr>]>
c )
c_
I t s ob l i ga to ry nuc leus Direct Obj e c t s l o t can be f i l led by a De­
fec t i ve Cl ause ing Typ e , wh ich i s composed o f an ob l i ga to ry nuc leus
_
Subj ect slot f i l led by an Obj ect expre s s ion , and an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus
Pred i c a t e slot fi l led by a Verb ing ) Phra se .
S AMPL R S :
ap p r e h end ,
i m ag i n e ,
catch,
con s i d e r ,
d ep i c t ,
k e e p , o b s e r ve , p e nn i t , p re v en t ,
fan c y ,
fe e l ,
remem b e r ,
get,
repo r t ,
h e ar ,
etc .
EXAMP L E :
+S +Pr [ActSgTrDecl V-Phr] +DO<DefeCI
SgTrVs 10 '
o b s e rved
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 10 .
( - ing )
[+S<o-x> +pr<vc_ i np, ) -Phr>] >
them
g o i ng .
the S i n � l e Tran si l i ve Verb s t em
s lO
co ­
occu r r ence- subc l a s s
The Sing l e Trans i t iv e Verb stem s lO ha s t he fo l lowing cha ra c t e r i sl i cs :
+SgTrVs 10 +OO<DepReICI[±( that ) +IndepDeclCI]>
I t s o b l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Di r e c t Obj e c t s l o t c an b e fi l l ed by a
Dep enden t Re l a t ive Dec l a ra t iv e Cl ause Typ e compo sed o f an op t i ona l
nuc leus Dep endent Cl ause Int roducer C t h a t ) and an ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus
I ndependent Dec l a ra t ive Clause Type .
S A MPL B.' S :
'l i s t ,
adm i t ,
judg e ,
b e l i e ve ,
conc l ud e ,
know, o b s e rve ,
think,
deny,
d e t e rm i n e ,
fear,
hop e ,
i n­
etc .
""XAMPL E :
+8
He
that )
+Pr [. o\c tSgTrDecl V-Phr] +OO<DepRel Decl CI [H +IndepDecl CI] >
SgTrVs ll '
adm i t t e d
t h a t he d i d no t un d � f­
s t and i t .
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 1. 1 1 .
the Sin �l e Tran si t i ve Verb s t em
sll
cq­
occur renc e- subc l a s s
The Sing le Transi t ive Ve rb st em s l l ha s t he fo l low ing charac t e r i s ­
t ics:
+S +Pr[ActSgTrDecIV-Phr] +DO<DePReISubjunctCI[±( that ) +SubjunctCI]>
I t s ob l i ga to ry nuc leus Di rect Obj e c t s l o t can be f i l led by a De­
p endent Re l a t i v e Subj unc t iv e Clause Type compo sed o f an opt i on a l
nuc leus Dependent Cl ause In t roduc e r C t h a t ) and a n ob l igato ry nuc leus
Subj unc t ive Cl ause .
S A MPL ES:
as k ,
comm and ,
i n s i s t , urg e , m o v e ,
e x ho r t ,
d em and ,
i n s t ru c t ,
etc .
EXAMPL E:
+S +Pr[ActSgTrDeclV-Phr] +OO<XDepSubjunctCI[± c that ) +SubjunctcI]>
T h ey
a s ked
that
h e be r em o v e d .
69
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 12.
" SgTrVs 1 2'
the Sl n g l e Tran s i t i ve Ve rb s t em
s12
co­
occu r rence- subc l a s s
The Singl e Tran s i t ive Verb stem s 1 2 has the fo l lowing charac t e r i st ic s :
[
d
]
+SgTrVs1 2 +OO<XDepDeclCl +Deplntrod +In epDeclCl >
I t s ob l i gatory n�c leus Di rec t Obj ect slot can be f i l led by an Ext ra
Dependent Dec l a ra t i ve Cl ause Type compo sed of an obl i g a t o ry nuc leus
Dependent Cl ause Int roducer ( i f , wh e t h e �, h o w, wh e � e , et c . ) and an
obl igatory nuc leus Independent Declarat ive Clause Type .
SAMPL l!.'S:
as k , doub t ,
h e a� ,
qu e s t i o n ,
see ,
1LO n d e � ,
et c .
EXAMPL E:
+S +Pr ActSgTrDeclV-Phr] +DO<XDepDeclCl +Deplntrod +IndepDeclCl ] >
SgTrVprep '
He
[
[
asked
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 2.
h e cou l d s e e t h em .
wh e t he �
the Si n g l e Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
al t e rn a t e
p r ep
di vi s i on - subc l a s s
The Single Tran s i t ive Verb stemprep mus t be fo llowed by a Prepos i­
t ion . The Sing le Trans i t ive Verb stemp rep d i v i sion - sub c l a ss inc ludes
two co-occurrel ,ce- sub c lasse s :
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 2. 1 .
SgTrVprePl '
the Si ngl e Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
co­
p rep l
occu r r ence- subc l a ss
Th e Sing le Ti"an s i t i v e Verb s t emp rep l h a s the fo l lo w ing cha r a c ­
t e rist i c s :
+SgTrVprE'P l +Prep +DO
The ob l i gatory nuc leus P repo s i t i on a lways p recedes the obl i g a t o ry
nuc leus Di rect Obj e c t tagmem e .
SAMPL ES:
cal l on,
loo k fo r ,
CO lli I' ac �o s s ,
t ak e af t p, .,- ,
g e t i rt to , g o o ve r ,
run ac�o s s .
s e e abou t ,
keep o n ,
wai t o n ,
l o o k af t e r ,
etc .
EXAMPL E:
+S +Pr rActSgTrDeclV-Phrl +DO
SgTrVprep2 '
He
l oo kf'd f],f t e r
3 . 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 2. 2.
h i s youn g p r b ro t h e r s .
the Si n g l e Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
co­
p r ep 2
o c cu r r en c e- subc l a s s
The S i n g l e Tran s i t i ve Ve rb stem p r ep 2 has the fo l lo wing c h a r a c ­
t erist i c s :
+Prep +DO
I
/
I
+
I
70
The obl igatory nuc leus Prepos i t ion can precede o r fo l low an ob l iga­
to ry nuc leus Clause l eve l Di re c t slot fi l l ed by a long express ion, but
must fo l low the same slot when i t i s f i l led by a monosy l lab i c Persona l
Pronoun , o r a monosy l lab i c Noun .
b r i ng b ac k ,
SAMP L E S :
o'U t ,
h and i n ,
c a t t 'Up ,
ch e c k off,
c ro s s off,
too k 'Up , P i c k 'Up , po i n t o 'U t , p 'U t o n ,
do o v e r , f i g 'U r e
etc .
EXAMPL ES:
+
+8 +PrL�ct8'TrOecl V-Phr] +Prf)p +00
t
He
He
t o o ked
t oo k e d
He
'Up
ObTrV {ObTrv
ObTrvvn'1] ,
too k ed
3. 1 . 1. 2. 3.
I/
t h e lLO rd s .
t h e lLO rd s 'Up .
t h el/l
'Up .
the Doubl e Transi t i ve Verb stem cl ass
The Dbub le Tran s i t ive Ve rb stem c l a s s , wh i ch fi l l s the Verb Head
s lot of the ob l i gato ry nuc leus Predicate of the Act ive and the Pass ive
Doub l e Tr an s i t i v e C l a u s e Typ e s 3 and 6 , in c l udes t wo a l t e rn a t e
divi s ion - subc la sses :
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 3. 1.
ObTrVn ,
the Doubl e Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
al t e rn a t e
n
di vi s i on- subc l a s s
The Dbub le Trans i t ive Ve rb stemn is cha r a c t e r i z ed by the impo s s i ­
b i l i ty o f fi l l ing i t s ob l i gato ry nuc l eus Di rec t Obj ec t s l o t b y a Ve rb
Ph ra se . The Dbub le Trans i t ive Verb stemn d i v i s ion-sub c l a s s inc ludes
three a l ternate co-occurrenc e - subc lasse s :
ObTrVn1 ,
+ObTrVn 1 +10 +00 �
+8gTrV +00 ±IO<Rel�x-Phr(+Prep ( to) +H<O-x» >
3. 1 . 1. 2. 3. 1. 1 .
the Doubl e Tran s i t i ve Ve rb s t em
co- occu r­
nl
r cn c e - sub e l n s s
lne Dbub l e Trans i t i ve Ve rb stemn l has the fo llow ing cha racteri s t i c s :
I t s ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Indi rect Obj ect t a gmeme can be t rans fo rmed
i n t o an o p t iona l sa t e l l i t e Ind i re c t Obj e c t t a gmeme who s e s l o t i s
f i l led by a He l a t o r Axi. s Ph rase c ompo sed o f an ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus
P repo s i t i on ( t o ) and an ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Head s l o t fi l led by an
Obj ect exp re ss ion . ( Fo r the ana lysi s o f the opt iona l sate l l i te Cl ause
leve l Indi rect Obj ect t a gmeme , see 3. 2. 1. page 1 20 . ) The Dbub l e Tran­
s i t i ve Ve rb stem becomes then a Sing l e Trans i t ive Verb stem .
SAMPL ES:
etc.
b r i ng ,
h and , g P. t , o // fl r , p a s s ,
send ,
t ak e ,
re ad ,
t e ac h ,
se n ,
71
E XAMPL E :
+8
+P r [ ActObTrOec l V- P h r] +10 +00
+8
+P r [ Ac t8gTrOecl V - Ph r] + 00
He
�
t h e boo k s .
me
gave
He
±IO [ Rel A x - ph r ( +Prep < to ) +H<PersOPn » ]
t h e boo k s
g av e
ObTrVn Z '
3. 1. 1 . 2. 3. 1. 2.
to
me.
the Doubl e Tran s j t i ve Verb s t em
co- o c c u r ­
n2
renee - subc l a s s
The Dbub le Trans i t ive Verb stemn2 has t he fo l lowing characte r i s t i c s :
)-
+ObTrVn Z + 1 0 '� OO
+00
+8gTrV
±B [ Rel Ax - Ph r ( +Prep < jor ) +H<O- x» ]
I t s ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Ind i re c t Obj ec t t agmemc can be t ran s fo rmed
into an op t iona l sa t e l l i t e Bene fa c t o r t agmeme who se slot is fi l l ed by
a Re l a t o r Ax i s Ph ra se composed of an obl i ga t o ry nuc leus Prepo s i t i on
< jo r) and an ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Head slot fl i led by an Obj ect expres­
s ion . ( Fo r the ana lysis o f the opt i ona l sa t e l l i t e Clause leve l Bene­
fa cto r tagmeme , see 3. 2. 2. page 1 2 1 . ) The Dbub l e Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
b ecome s then a Sing le Trans i t ive s tem .
SAMPL FS:
buy ,
c aL L ,
m a k e , coo k , co p y ,
cu t ,
fe t c h , fram e ,
fi x, etc .
EXAMPL E:
+8
He
+8
He
+P r f Ac t ObTrOecl V - Ph r] +10
her
boug h t
+Pr [ Ac t8gTr Oecl V-Phr] +00
the
b rough t
3. 1 . 1 . 2 . 3. 1 . 3.
ObTrVn 3 ,
+ 00
the
>
f L o wfl'rs .
f � o we r s
± B [ ReI Ax-Phr ( +P rep < fo r) +H<PersOPn» ]
her.
for
the Doubl e Tran s i t j ve Verb s t em
co- occu r ­
n3
renee- subc l a s s
The [Oub l e Trans i t ive Ve rb ste� 3 ha s the fo l lowing cha racte r i st i c s :
+ObTrVn 3 + 1 0 + 00
I t s ob l i g a t o ry nuc leus Ind i re c t Obj e c t t a gmeme canno t b e t ran s ­
fo rmed i n t o a n o p t i ona l s a t e l l i t e I n d i r e c t Obj e c t t a gmeme o r an
opt t on a l sat e l l i te Bene fa ctor tagmeme .
fO 'rg i v e , e n v y , p ardo n ,
et c .
+P r [ Ac tObTrOec l V - Ph rJ + 1 0
+00
SAMPL ES:
EXAMPL E:
+s
T h ey
envi e d
him
h i s pO '1 i t i o n .
72
DbTrV v '
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 3. 2.
the Doubl e Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
v
al t e rna t e
di v i s i o n - subc l a s s
The Dbub le Tran s i t iv e Verb s t emv a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion- sub c l a s s 1n­
e ludes three a l t ernate co-occurrence- subc lasses:
DbTrVv 1 '
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 3. 2. 1 .
the Do ub l e Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
co - o c cu r­
vl
r en ce - subcl ass
The Dbub l e Tran s i t ive Verb stemv 1 has the fo l lowing charact e r i s t i c s :
+ DbTrVv 1 + 1 0
+ OO« to ) V - P h r ( +P r ep ( to )
+ l n fV- Ph r »
I t s ob l igatory nuc leus Dire c t Obj e ct s l o t can b e f i l led b y a ( to )
Ve rb Phrase wh ic h i s composed o f an o b l igatory nuc leus P repo s i t ion
( to ) , and an ob l iga to ry nuc leus Infin i t ive Verb Phrase .
ad v i s e ,
S AMPL E S :
c ause ,
comm and ,
v i t e , o b L i g e , o rder, p e rsuad e ,
enco urag e , jo rce , g e t ,
rem i nd ,
t e ac h ,
i n s t ruc t ,
t e n , urg e , warn ,
i n­
e tc .
EXAMPL E:
+P r [ ActDbTrDec l V - Ph r] + 1 0
+8
They
him
ad v i sed
3. 1. 1 . 2. 3. 2a.
No t e on
+oo« to ) V-Phr (+P rep
( to )
to
+ l n fV - Ph r »
see h e r .
the Doubl e Tran si t i ve Cl au s e Typ e
Th i s Dbub l e Trans it ive Clause Type ( wh ich has an ob l iga to ry nuc l eu s
Indi rec t Obj e c t tagmeme , and an ob l i gatory nuc l eu s Di rec t Obj ec t s l o t
f i l led by a ( t o ) V e rb Ph r a s e ) i s e m i c a l ly d i f fe ren t from b o th t h e
S ingle Tran s i t ive Clause Type who se ob l i gato ry nuc leus Di rect Obj e ct
i s fi l l ed by a ( to ) Verb Phrase ( c f . 3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 3. pa ge 65) , and the
S ingle Tran s i t ive Clause Type who se ob l i gatory nuc leus Direct Obj e ct
s lo t i s fi l l ed by a De fec t ive Clause ( to ) ( c f . 3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 4. page 66)
because o f the fo l lowing reasons :
( 1 ) the Subj e c t o f the In f in i t ive Ve rb Phrase , f i l l ing the ob l i ­
ga t o ry nu c l e us I nd i r e c t Obj e c t s l o t in t he Ac t i ve Do ub l e
Tran s i t iv e Cl ause Typ e , i s conse quen t l y an ob l i g a t o ry and
nuc leus Clause leve l tagmeme .
EXAMPL ES:
+8
T hey
*
*
+P r [ Ac tDb TrDecl V - Ph r] +10
ad v i s e d
him
+oo« to ) V - Ph r( +P rep ( to ) + l n fV - Ph r »
to
go .
Th e Cl ause construct ion i s grammat ica l .
+8
They
+P r lAct DbTrDecl V-Phr]
adv i sed
+ OO « to ) V - P h r (
+P rep ( to ) + l n fV- Ph r »
to
go .
The Clause cons truct ion i s no t gramma tica l .
Whi l e :
+8
+P r [ Act8gTrDecl V - Ph r] +DO<De feCl ( to ) [ + 8<O - x>
T hey
want ed
The Cl ause con s t ruct ion i s g ramma t ica l .
him
]
+ < to ) V - Pb r >
to
go .
73
+S
They
+P r ( ActSgTrDecI V�PhF] + DO« tO ) V- Ph r ( +Pr ep < to ) + ln fV - Ph r »
to
wan t ed
go.
Th e Clause const ruct ion i s gramm a t i c a l too .
( 2 ) the Act iv e Doub l e Trans i t ive Clause Type has a Pass ive Trans­
form , wh i l e the Act ive Sing l e Tran s i t ive Clause Type doe s no t
have a Passive Transfo rm .
E XAMPL ES:
+S
+Pr [ Ac tDbTrDecI V- P h r] + 10
+ 00
+S
+P r [ PasDbTrDecI V -Ph r]
+ 00
T h ey
He
him
ad v i sed
wa s ad vi sed
to go .
�
t o go .
The Pa ssive Clause const ruct ion i s gramma t ica l .
•
•
+S
+Pr [ ActSgTrDecI V - P h r] +DO
+S
+ p r CPasSgTrDec l V - P h r]
They
wan t e d
him
was wan ted
He
�
to
RO .
to g o .
The Pass ive Cl ause const ruc t i on i s no t g rammat i ca l .
DbTrV y 2 '
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 3. 2. 2.
the Doubl e Tr an s i U ve Verb s t em
co- occur­
v2
rence- subcl a.'i S
The Doub le Tran s i t Ive Verb stem v2 ha s the fo l lo wing charac teri s t i c s :
+DbTrV v 2 +10 + OO <l n l V- Ph r>
I t s ob l i gatory nuc leus Direc t Obj ect s l ot can b e f i l led by an In­
fini t ive Verb Ph rase .
S AMPL ES:
see,
Let,
he L p ,
bid,
etc
EXAMPL E:
+S
They
+P r [ DbTrDecl V - Ph r] + 1 0
him
h e L p ed
3. 1. 1 . 2. 3. 2. 3.
DbTrV y 3 '
+OO<In fV- Phr>
do h i s uo -r k .
t h p Doub J r Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
v3
co - o c cu r ­
r en c e - subcl a s s
The Doub le Trans i t ive Ve rb stem v 3 has the fo l lowing cha racte r i st ics :
- Ph r ( + l n fV + part 2 < - ing » ) >
+DbTrV + 10 + DO<V < .
t ng )
I t s ob l t g a t o ry nuc l eu s Dt re c t Ob .l e c t s l o t c an b e fi l led by a
Verb < _ i ng ) Ph rase wh t ch i s composed o f an ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus In fin i t i ve Ve rb s t em , anJ a n obl i Ka l o ry nuc leus Pa rt i c ip l e 2
o r Present Part i c ip l e su f fi x .
S A MPL E S :
wa t ch ,
have,
etc.
p a-rdo n ,
p e rm i t ,
p r� v � n t ,
rempm b e -r ,
< - i ng >
-repo -r t ,
su ffix ,
see ,
se t ,
74
EXAMPL E:
+ oo<V < _ in g ) - Ph r ( +I n fV +part Z < - i ng » ) >
+Pr [ DbTrDec l V - P h r ] +10
+s
T h ey
3 . 1. 1. 2. 4.
subm i t t i ng h i s p ap e r t a t e .
him
p e rm i t te d
�tTrV, the Attributi ve Transi t i ve Verb stem cl ass
The Att r ibut ive Trans it ive Verb stem c lass fi l l s the Verb Head s lo t
o f t h e ob l i ga t o ry nuc l e us Pred i c a t e t a gmeme o f the Ac t i ve and the
Passive At t r ibu t ive Tran s i t ive Clause Types 4 and 7 . I t inc ludes on ly
one d i v i s ion - s ub c l a s s wh i ch inc ludes in i t s turn 3 co-occu r renc e­
subclasses :
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 4. 1 .
AtTrvp ar t '
the A t t ri bu t i ve Tran si t i ve Verb s t em
co­
par t
occu r r ence- subc l as s
�
e At t r ibut ive Trans i t ive Verb stempart has the fo l lowing cha rac­
.
te rlst lCS:
+AtTrVpart +00 +At<V < _ en) - Ph r ( + I n fV - P h r +part t < - en » ) >
I t s ob l igato ry nuc leus At t r ibut i ve s l o t i s fi l led by a Ve rb < _ e n )
Ph rase composed o f an ob l i gatory nuc l eus In fin i t i ve Verb Phrase and an
ob l i.gato ry nuc leus Part i c ip le l su ffix ( - en ) o r Past Pa rt i c l e su ffi x .
S A MPL E S :
i m ag i n e ,
a L L o w,
keep,
as k ,
b e ho l d ,
b e L i e ve ,
l i k e , o b s erv e , p e rm i t ,
EX AMPL E:
+P r [ �c t �tTrDcc l V- Ph r ] +00
+s
They
him
co n s i dered
3 . 1. 1 . 2. 4. 2.
AtTr adj ,
conce i v e .
e xp e c t ,
fee l ,
ge t,
etc .
+�t<V < _ en ) - Ph r ( +l n fV-Phr +pa r t 1 < - en » ) >
k i l l ed .
t h e A t t r i bu t i ve Tran s i t i ve Verb s t em
adj
co­
occurren c e - subc l a s s
The At tribut ive Trans i t ive Verb s temadj h a s the fo l lowing charac­
teristics:
+�tTrV adj + 00 + At<Adj - Ph r>
I t s o b l igato ry nuc leus At t r ibu t ive s lo t is fi l led by an Adj e c t ive
Ph rase .
S AMPL E S :
shoo t ,
adm i t ,
t o as t ,
caL L ,
co n s i d e r ,
wash , p ai nt ,
keep,
ge t ,
'l"ai se ,
beat,
set,
stri ke,
etc .
EXAMP L E S :
+s
T hey
+P r [ �c t AtTrDecl V-Ph r] +00
b e L i eved
3 . 1. 1 . 2. 4. 3.
AtTrVn ,
him
+U<Adj - Phr>
g 'l"e a t .
co- o c cu r ­
the A t t r i bu t i ve Tran si t i ve Verb s t em
n
r en e e- subc l a s s
The At t r i bu t ive Tran s i t ive Ve rb stem n has the fo l l o wing charac-
75
teri s t i c s :
+AtTrVn +00 +At<N-Phr>
Its obl igatory nuc leus Att ribut ive s lot i s fi l led by a Noun Phra s e .
SAMPL ES:
e l e c t , nom i n a t e , coun t ,
E XAMPL E :
]
[
appo i n t ,
choo se ,
et� .
+s +Pr ActAtTrOeclV-Phr +00 +At<N-Phr>
Eqv \'UXC
;I�::::::) ,
e l ec ted
They
3, 1. 1 . 2. 5.
him
Pre <; i d en t ,
th e Equat ional Verb stem cl ass
be)
The Equ a t iona l Ve rb s tem c l a s s fi l l s the Ve rb Head s l o t o f the
ob l iga t o ry nuc leus Pred i cate o f the Equat iona l Cl ause Type 8 . I t In­
e ludes three a l t e rna�e di st ribution- subcla sses :
3.
1.
1. 2. 5. 1.
Eqln trV,
the Equ a t iona1 In t ran s i t .i ve Ve,.b s t em a1 t e rna t e
di s t r i bu t i on - subc l as s
The Equat ion a l In t ran s i t ive Verb s t em d i s t r i bu t ion - sub c l a s s in­
c lude s only on e d i v i s i on- subc l a s s wh ich inc ludes in i t s t u rn th ree
a l ternate co -occur renc e- subc la sses :
3. 1. 1 . 2. 5. 1 . 1.
EqlntrVpart '
the. Equ a t ional In t ran si t i ve Verb s t em
par t
co - oc cu l" r en c e · subc 1 a ss
Th e Equa t i on a l I n t ran s i t i v e V e rb s t. e m p a r t ha s th e fo l lo w i n g
cha rac te rist i cs :
+EqlntrVpart +EqCO<VC _ en ) -Phr{+Infv-Phr +Part 1 C-en ) )>
I t s ob l i gato ry nuc leus Equa t i on a l Comp lement s l ot i s fi l l ed by a
Verb C _ e n ) Ph rase composed o f an obl i ga t o ry nuc leus In f in i t i ve Ve rb
Phrase , and an ob l i ga to ry nu c l eus Part i c i p l e l C - en) su ffix , o r Pa s t
Pa rti c ip l e su ffi x .
S A MPL foi S :
no t i c e d ,
go
a r m e d. ,
s t ar !? f a s c i n a t e d , com e
etc.
h a c k d ru n k e n ,
p a s s un­
EXAMPL E:
+S +Pr<EqlntrDeclV-Phr> +EqCO<Vc _ en , -Phr{+InrV-Phr +Part l C--n »)>
EqlntrVadj ,
They
a nn e d .
we n t
3 . 1. 1 . 2. 5. 1 . 2.
the Equ a t i onal In t t'll n s i t i ve Verb s t em
adj
co - occu r rence- subc l ass
The Equa t iona l Int ran s i t ive Verb s t emadj ha s the fo l lo wing charac­
teristics:
+EqlntrVadj +F,qCo<Adj-Phr>
76
I ts ob l i gato ry nuc leus Equat ion a l � mp lemen t s l o t is fi l led by an
Adj ec t ive Ph rase.
co m e b ac k h o m e si c k ,
S AMPL E S :
k e ep we L L ,
s t o p d e ad , f i g h t fa i r ,
co n t i nu e g o o d ,
etc.
EXAMPL E:
+S
He
+P r<Eqln t rDec l V - P h r> +EqCo<Adj - Ph r>
mo t i o n L e s s .
sat
Eql n t rVo '
3. 1. n. 2. �. n. 3.
the Equ a t i onal In t r an s i t i ve Verb s t em
co­
n
occur rence- subc l a s s
The Equa t iona l I nt rans i t ive Ve rb st emn has the fo l lowing charac­
teristics:
+ EqlntrVn +EqCo <N - Ph r>
I t s ob l i ga to ry nuc leus Equa t iona l COmp lement slot i s fi l l ed by a
Noun Ph rase .
S A MP L E S :
d i e a p o o r m an ,
home a drunk e n so t ,
EXAMPL E:
+S
T hey
+ P r [ Eql n t rDec l V - P h r
p ar t ed
3. 1. 1 . 2. 5. 2.
Sem i Au x.
]
p ar t f r i e n d s ,
go o ff a h ap p y m an ,
re t u rn
etc .
+ EqCo<N - Ph r>
enem i e s .
the Semi - Auxi l i a ry s t em a l t e rn a t e di s t r i bu t i on ­
subc l as s
Th e Sem i-Aux i l i a ry st em d i s t r ibut ion- subc lass inc ludes t wo a l t e r­
na te d i v i s ion- subc l a s se s , each o f wh ich inc ludes In i t s turn on ly one
co-occurrence- subc l ass :
3. 1 . 1. 2. 5. 2. 1.
Sem i Au xn _ adj •
the Semi - Auxi l i ary s t em _
co - occu r­
n adj
r ence- subcl ass
< � )]
The Sem i -Auxi l ia ry ste� _ adj has the fo l lowing cha racte rist i c s :
+ Sem i Au xn _ adj +EqCO [ ± ( +P r ep ( t o ) +Au x ( be » ) +
�� �;h r
V _ en ) - P h r
V < _ en ) - Ph r( + I n fV- Phr +Part t < - en » )
I t s ob l i ga to ry nuc leus Equa t iona l COmp l emen t s lo t 1 S fi l led by a
compo s i t e f i l l e r c l a ss inc lud ing th ree a l t e rnat e d i st r ibu t ion- sub­
c lasses : Noun Phrase ; Adj ect ive Phras e ; Ve rb ( _ en ) Phrase wh ich is compo sed o f an ob l iga t o ry nuc leus Infin 1 t iv e Verb Ph ra s e , and an o b l i ­
g a to ry nuc l eus Pa r t i c ip l e ( - en ) su ffi x o r P a s t P art i � lp l e su f f i x .
Th i s fi l l e r c lass can b e p rec eded b y an op t iona l sa te l l i te Ph rase com-
77
posed of an o b l i g a to ry nu c l eus Prepo s i t ion
nucleus Aux i l iary C b e ) .
ap p e ar ,
SAMPL ES:
Loo k ,
s e em ,
C to )
and an o b l i g a t o ry
etc.
EXAMPL ES :
+S
He
He
+S
He
He
+S
+P r [Oecl Sem i Au x- Ph rJ
se em s
s e em s
�ooks
�oo k s
Looks
Loo k s
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 5. 2. 2.
+ EqCo <± ( + P r ep C to ) + Au x C b e ) ) +Adj - Ph r >
to
+ P r [ O e c l Sem i Au x- Ph rJ
frai � .
frai L .
be
- Phr>
+ EqCo < ± ( +P r ep C to ) + Au x C b e ) ) + V C en )
dj
,
defe a t e d .
defe a t e d .
be
to
Sem i Au x a
a good m an .
a goo d m an .
be
to
+P r [Oecl Sem i Au x- P h rJ
He
If e
+ EqCo <± ( +P rep C to ) + Au x C b e ) ) + N - Ph r>
the Semi - Auxi l i ary s t em
adj
co - oc cu r r en c e­
subc l a s s
The Semi-Aux i l i a ry s tem adj has the fo l lowing characte ri s t i c s :
+ Sem i Au x a
dj
+ EqCo<Adj - Ph r>
I t s ob l i ga tory nuc l eus Equa t iona l COmp l emen t
j ec t ive Phra se .
fe e L ,
SAMPL ES:
t as t e ,
sme n ,
turn, g ro w, g e t ,
1S
f i l l ed by an Ad­
etc .
EXAMPL E:
+S
He
+ P r <Oec l Sem i Au x - Phr> + EqCo <Adj - Ph r>
fee L s
3 . 1 . 1 . 2. 5. 3 .
fi n e .
Au x C b e ) ,
the Auxi l i ary C b e ) s t em al t e rn a t e di s t r i bu t i on ­
subc l a s s
The Auxi l iary C b e ) s tem cons t i tutes by i t se l f an a lt e rn a t e d i s t r i ­
bu t ion- subc lass o f the Equa t ional Predicate fi l le r c lass.
Its o b l i ga t o ry nuc leus Equa t iona l COmp lement s l o t c an be f i l led by
any of the three a l t e rnate d i s t r ibu t ion- subc l a sses of the Equa t ion a l
Comp l ement fi l l e r c l a s s : Noun Phra s e ; Adj ec t ive Phra s e ; Ve rb C e n )
Phrase.
_
EXAMPLES:
+S
+ P r <Oecl Au x C b e ) - Ph r > + EqCo<N - Ph r>
+S
+P r<Oec l Au x C b e ) - Ph r> +EqCo<Adj - P h r >
+S
- Ph r>
+Pr<O ec l Au x C b e ) - Ph r> + EqCo<V _
C en)
He
He
He
is
is
is
an h.o n e s t m an .
h.one s t .
t i re d .
78
3. 1 . 1 . 2. 6 .
Au x ( be ) , the Auxi l i ary ( be ) stem
The Auxi l i a ry ( be ) stem const itutes a l so by i t se l f the fi l le r c l a s s
o f the Ve rb Head slot o f the S t a t i v e P red icate tagmeme o f t h e ( There )
Stat ive Clause Type 9 , and the ( I t ) Stat ive Cl ause Typ e 10 .
EXANP L E S :
+ 8(The�e ) + P r [ Oec l Au x ( be ) - Ph r] + StS
a fe w stude n ts.
There
were
+ 8(I t )
It
3 . 1. 2.
+Pr [ Oecl Au x ( b e ) - Ph r] +8tCo
John .
was
+ 8 , the o b i f gatory nuc l eu s Sub l ect tagmeme
The Subj ect tagmeme . ob l i gatory and nuc leus to a l l the e i ght Gram­
m a t i c a l Subj e c t Cl ause Typ e s . se l e c t s the fo rms o f the Predi c a t e
t agmeme . and . in Ind ependen t Dec l a r a t ive Cl ause Type s . o c cup i e s the
f i rst ob l i ga to ry nuc leus s lo t .
I n the fou r Ac t i ve Clause Type s 1-4 . the Subj e c t tagmeme h a s th e
func t iona l meaning o f Pe r fo rmer o r Part i c ipant in the a c t ion o f the
Ac t ive Pred i ca te tagmeme . In the thre e Pa ssive Clause Types 5- 7 . i t
h a s the funct iona l mean ing o f Go a l o r Und ergoer o f the Act i on o f the
Passive Trans i t ive Pred icate t a gmeme . And in the Equa t iona l Cl ause
Type 8 . it has the funct iona l mean ing of that "wh i ch is desc r ibed" by
the Equa t iona l COmp lement int roduc ed by the Equat iona l P red i cate .
In t he Chap t e r I . pages 1 - 20 . the d i f fe rent ob l i g a t o ry nu c l eus
Subj ect s lo t s in the di fferent Clause Types we re seen to be fi l led by
a compos ite fi l l e r c lass inc luding a number o f a l ternate d i s t r ibu t ion­
subc l a s ses varying accord ing to the Cl ause Type in wh ich the tagmeme
o c curs . Fo l lowing is the formu la showing a l l the poss i b l e a l tern a t e
d i st r ibut ion - subc lasse s :
N - Ph r
Pn - Ph r
Rei h - P h r
+8
V-Phr
DepCl
OefeCl
The obl igatory nuc leus Subj ect slot is fi l led by a compos i t e
f i l l e r c l a s s inc lud ing a va ry ing numb e r o f a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibu t ion­
subc l a s se s a c co rd ing to the p a r t i c u l a r Clau se Type mat r i x . w i th a
maximum o f s i x : Noun Ph ra se ; Pronoun Phrase ; Re lato r Axis Phrase; Verb
Ph rase ; Dependent Clause.; Defec t ive Clause .
fILL ERS:
N n - Ph r
3 . 1 . 2. 1 .
N - Ph r
N Adj -Ph r
N V( _ en ) -Phr
N V( _ i ng ) - Ph r
, th e Noun Phrase al t ernate dis­
tribu tion - subclass
79
The Noun Ph rase d i s t r i bu t i on- sub c l a s s inc ludes fou r a l t e rna t e
d iv i s ion- subc l a s se s : Nou�oun Phr a se ; Nom ina l i zed Adj ec t i ve Ph ra s e ;
Nomina l i zed Verb < _ n ) Phra se; Nom ina l i zed Verb < _ i n ) Ph rase .
e
g
3. 1. 2. 1. 1.
N n - Ph r {
co N n - Ph r
} . the NounNoun Phrase al t ernate d i m
PropN n - Ph r
vi sion - subcl ass
The COmmon NounNoun Phrase d iv i s ion- subclass inc ludes two a l t e rna t e
sma l l e r d i v i s ion- sub c l a s ses : Common NounNoun _ Coun t Ph r a s e ; Common
NounNoun-Mass Phrase .
3. 1. 2. 1. 1. 1 .
ComN n - Ph r
{
ComN n - c - Ph r
ComN n _ m - Ph r
} .
the Corrmon Noun
Ph r a s e
Noun
al t erna t e di vi s i on - subc l a s s
The COmmon Nou�oun Phrase d i v i s ion-subc lass inc ludes two a l t ernate
s ma l l e r d iv i s ion- sub c l a s se s : Common NounNoun - Co unt Ph ra s e ; Common
NO�oun-Ma s s Phrase.
omN n c . S i n g - Ph r
ComN n _ c - Ph r {c
_
} .
ComN n _ c . P l - Ph r
3. 1. 2. 1 . 1. 1 . 1 .
t h e Common
Noun
Ph rase al t e rn a t e di vi s i on - subc l as s
Noun _ Coun t
The Common NounNo un _ Co un t Ph r a se d i v i s ion- subc l a s s i n c ludes t wo
a l t e rn a t e c o - o c c u r r e n c e - s ll b c l a s s e s :
Phra se; COrnmon
Common Noun
No unNo un - Coun t . P l u r a l Phr a se .
3. 1. 2. 1 . 1. 1 . 1. 1.
ComN n -_ c . s i n g - Ph r .
Noun -Coun t . S ingu 1 a r
t h e Common NounN oun- Coun t . S I' n�u l a r
Ph rase co - occu r ren c e - subc L a s s
The Common NOLU1Noun - Co un t . S ing u l a r Ph ra se has the fo l lowing m l n lmUm
nuc leus and expanded maximum fo rmu l a e :
M I N I MUM N U CL EU S FORMUL A :
Num A r t
De U r L
IndeUrt
Dcm Ar t
P o sArt
PosCa s e
I n detArt
No u n - Co un t . S i n gu l a r Ph r a se ha s i t s m i n imUm
compo sed 0 f:
fIL L ER S : The Common
nuc 1 eus s t lUC tu l'e
NOlin
80
( 1) an ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s De t e rm in e r s lo t fi l l ed by a compos i t e
fi l l er c la ss inc luding seven a lternate d i s t ribut ion- subc lasse s :
Nume ral Art i c l e ; De fin i t e Art ic l e ; Inde fin i t e Art i c l e ; Demon­
s t rat ive Art ic le; Po ssessive Art i c l e ; Possess ive case ; Inde ter­
m inate Art i c l e .
( 2) a n o b l i g a t o ry nuc i e u s N0un H e a d s l o t f i l l e d b y a Common
Nou�oun-COunt . Singular stem .
Numeral Art i c l e : one
De fin i t e Art i c l e : t h e
Indefin i te Art i c l e : al an
Demons tra t ive Art i c l e : t h i s , t h a t
Po sse ssive Art i c l e : m y , your, h i s , h e r , i t s ,
Indeterm ina t e Art i c l e : so m e , an y , no , etc .
our,
the i r
Po sse s s ive ca se : the Po s s e s s i v e Ca s e h a s the fo l l o wing m in imum
nuc leus st ructu re fo rmu l a :
Po sCase ( +Posr [ An i mate N - P h � +Po sI n d C - ' s » )
fIL L ER S :
the a l ternate distribut ion- subclass Po ssessive Case Phrase
is composed of an ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Po s se s so r s l o t fi l led by a
s imp l e fi l l e r c l ass inc lud ing on ly one dist ribut ion- subc l a s s : An i ­
m a t e Noun Phra s e ; and an ob l i gato ry nuc l eus Po ssessive Ind ic a to r
s lot fi l l ed by a Po ssessive Indicator su ffix (. - ' s ) .
EXAMPL E:
comNn _ c. s i ng - Ph r [ + Det<Poscase ( +Po sr [ An Jmate N - Ph r ] +Po slndC- ' s » ) >
Jo hn ' s
T h e bo y s '
T he c h i l d ren ' s
to y .
E XAMPL E:
+ S<ComNn _ c . s i n g - Ph r ( +Det
One
The
A
Som e
Hi s
The au t ho r ' s
Ei t h e r
boo k
i s go i ng to b e read .
EXPAN DED M A X I MUM FO RMUL A :
CO.N n _ c . s i n g - Ph r [ ±p reDet +Det fO rd tMod ±Mo d +NH ±Po stMod]
The fo rmu la is read:
"Ihe Common No�oun-COunt . Singu la r Ph rase ha s i t s expanded max imum
s t ructure composed o f seven tagmemes : an op t ional satel l i te Pre-De t e r­
m in e r ; an o b l i g a t o ry nu c l eu s De t e rm in e r ; an o p t i ona l sa t e l l i t e
81
Ordina l ; an optiona l sate l l i t e Modi fier 1; an op t iona l sate l l it e Modi ­
f i e r 2 ; a n ob l i ga t o ry nu c l eus Noun Head; and a n op t iona l sa t e l l i t e
Post-Mod i fi e r .
EXAMPL E:
ComNn - c. s · n g - Ph r [ ±preDet +Det �rd
.
OnLy
3. 1. 2. 1. 1. 1. 1 . 2.
the
fi rs t
ComN n _ c. p 1 - Ph r ,
±Mod I
wooden
±Mod 2
+NH
buL Lock
c ar t
iPo stMo d]
of t h e
tli L L ag e .
the COmmon Noun
Noun - COun t . Pl ur a l
Ph rase co - o c cu r rence- subc l a s s
( )
The COmmon Nou�oun-COunt . P lura l Phrase has the fo l low ing m in imum
nuc leus and expanded maximum s t ruc ture fo rmu l a e :
M I N I MUM NUCL EU S F O RMU L A :
ComNn _ c. p 1 - P h r [ ±Det
DefArt
DemArt
Po sArt
PosCase
Inde t Ar t
+NH{ +comN n _ c. sing + Pl ( - z ) } ]
fIL L ER S : the CO mmon NounNoun- COun t . P l u ra l Ph r a s e h a s i t s m in imum
nuc l eu s struc ture composed o f :
( 1) a n op t iona l nu c l eu s De t e rm i n e r s l o t f i l l ed by a compo s i t e
f i l l er c l as s inc luding five a l ternate d i st ribut ion- sub c l a s se s :
Defin i t e Art i c l e ; Demons t ra t iv e Art ic l e ; Po ssessive Art i c l e ;
Possess ive case ; and Indeterminate Art i c l e .
( 2) a n ob l i g a t o ry nuc l eus Noun Head s l o t f i l l ed b y a n o b l i ga t o ry
nuc l eus COmmon NO �oun- COun t . Si ngu l a r stem and an o b l i g atory
nuc l eus Plura l i ze r su ffix
-
(-z) .
De fini te Art i c l e : t h e
Demonstrat ive Art i c l e : t h e s e , t ho s e
Possessive Art i c le : m y , your, h i s , h e r , i t s , our, t h e i r
Po ssessive case :
Jo hn ' s , t h e b o y s ' , e t c . ( c f . 3 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 1. 1. 1. 1. page 79
EXAMPL ES
above)
Indetermina t e Art i c l e :
enoug h ,
aL L ,
som e ,
any , no , fe w,
a few, mo s t , m o r e ,
severa L , m an y ,
a L o t o f,
etc.
EXAMPL E:
+ S<ComN n _ c. P 1 - Ph r ( ±Det
The
These
Hi s
T h e au t ho r ' s
Some
:NH{ +comN n _ c . s i n g
boo k s
+Pl C - z ) } »
are g o i ng to b e
b ann e d .
82
Exp ANDED M A X I MUM tORMUL A :
ComNn _ c. p . - Ph r [ ±p reDet ±Det fOrd iNu ±Mod i ±Mod z + NH ±Po stMo d J
1he fo rmu la is re ad:
The Common NounNoun - Count . P 1 u ra 1 Ph rase ha s i t s max imum e xpanded
s t ruc ture compos ed o f e i gh t t a gmemes : an op t ion a l sa t e l l i t e P re - De ­
t e rm in e r ; an o p t i on a l nu c l eus De t e rm i n e r ; an op t ion a l s a t e l l i t e
Ord ina l ; an op t iona l s a t e l l i t e Numera l ; an op t iona l s a t e l l i te Mo d i ­
f i e r 1 ; a n opt iona l s a te l l i t e Mod i fi e r 2 ; a n ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Noun
Head; and an opt iona l satel l i te Po st-Mod i fi e r .
EXAMP L E :
comN n _ c. p , - Ph r [ ±p reDet ±Det fO rd
OnLy
3 . 1. 2. 1 . 1 . 1 . 2.
the
ComN n _ m - Ph r ,
±Nu
ji n t
t tLO
±Mod l
±Mo d Z
tLOoden
buL L o c k
±Po stMo dl
+NH
c a1' t s
oj t h e
v i L L ag e .
t h e COmmon Noun
_
Phrase al t e rn a t e
Noun Mass
di vj s i on - subc l as s
The Common NO �oun-Mas s Phrase divis ion- subc lass inc ludes on ly one
c o -occu rrenc e - subc l a s s wh ich ha s the fo l l owing m ini mum nuc l eus and
max imum expanded formu l a e :
M I N IMUM N U CL EU S FORMUL A : ,
DeUrt
DemArt
PosArt
PosCase
I n deUrt
f' l f, L R R S :
t he Co mmon NounNoun _ Ma ss Ph ra se has i t s m i n i mum nuc leus
st ructure composed o f:
( 1 ) an o p t iona l nuc l e u s De t e rm i ne r s l o t fi l l ed by a compo s i t e
[ i l l er c l a ss inc lud ing five a l t ernate d i s t r ibut ion- subc la sse s :
De fin i t e Art i c l e ; Demonst ra t ive Art i c l e ; Po sses sive Art i c l e ;
Posses si ve case; and Indeterm inate Art i c l e .
( 2 ) a n ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Noun Head s l o t f i l led b y a Common Noun
Noun-Mass stem .
De fin i t e Art i c l e : t h e
Demonst rat ive Art i c l e : t h i s , t h a t ·
Possess ive Art i c l e : m y , yOU1', h i s , h e 1' , i t s , OU1', t h e i 1'
Possessive case ( c f. 3. 1. 2. 1 . 1. 1 . 1 . 1 . page 79 )
Indete rm ina t e Art i c l e : m 0 1' e , l e s s , m o s t , enoug h , a l L 9 ,
eaCh.9 , (J v9 1'y9 , e i t h e 1'9 , n e i t h e 1'9 , etc .
9 A l L wa t e1' me an s al ] k i n d s o f water.
same number
ano t h e 1'9 ,
The o t h e r Arti c l e s mark ed wi th t h e
(9) ronvey t h e same con c rete meaning.
83
EXAMPL E:
S<comNn _ m - Ph r( + Det
The
Thi s
i s co L d.
soup
My
Jo hn ' s
Som e
EXP AN DED M A X I MU M FORMULA:
ComN n _ m - Ph r [ ±P reDet ±Det ±Mo d! ±Mo d2 +NH ±Po stModJ
The formul a i s read :
The COmmon NO�oun-Ma ss Phrase has i t s expanded max imum s t ructure
c ompo s ed of s i x t a gmeme s : an o p t ion a l s a t e l l i t e Pre-De t e rm i n e r ; an
o p t ion a l nuc l eus De t erm ine r ; an o p t iona l s a t e l l i t e Mod i f i e r 1 ; an
opt iona l s a t e l l it e Mod i fi e r 2; an ob l igato ry nuc leus Noun Head; and an
opt ion a l sat e l l i t e Po s t-Mod i f ie r .
EXAMPL E:
ComNn _ m - Ph r [ ±P reDet ±De t ±MO d I
OnLy
3. 1. 2. 1. l. la.
the
rai ny
±Mod 2
Saigon
+ NH
we a t h e r
±Po stModJ
t h a t you know.
Op t i on a l s a t el l i t e ta�emes o f the Common NounN
oun
Ph rase
3. 1 . 2. 1 . 1 . la. 1.
±P reDet ,
the op t i onal
s a t el l i t e Pre- De t ermi n er
t agneme
The opt iona l s a te l l i t e P re - De t erminer t a gmeme has the fo l lo w ing
s t ruc ture fo rmu l a :
±PreDe t [preDet- Phr( ±De l +PreDet ) J
F IL L ER : the o p t iona l s a te l l i t e Pre - De t e rm in e r s l o t i s f i l l e d b y a
P re - De t e rm in e r Ph rase compo sed o f an o p t i on a l s a t e l l i te De l im i t e r
and an ob l igatory nuc leus Pre-De te rm iner .
De l imi t e r : no t ,
Pre-De te rm ine r :
no t ,
10
so L e L y ,
n e ar L y ,
a b so L u t e L y , p rac t i c a L L y l0 , etc .
wh a t l l , bo t h l 2 , h a L f , o n L y ,
suCh l l , 1II any l l ,
simp L y ,
even,
t wi c e ,
etc .
N o t a l l t h es e De l imi t e r P a r t i c l es c an occur b e f o r e a n y P r e- De t ermi n e r
P ar t i c l e .
11
These P a r t i c l e s o c cu r onl y b e fo r e the P r e - De t ermin e r s l o t f i l l ed by the
I ndefin i t e Arti c l e alan.
1 2 (both )
Phr a se .
occurs on l y i n a Common Nou�,
l'oun- Co u n t o Pl u r a 1
84
EXAMPL ES:
C omN ,, _ C . s i n , - Ph r [[ iP reDe d P reDet-Phr( iDel +PreDet ) ] +Det<lndefArt>
No t
+NH{ ComN n _ c S i n , } ]
•
a
many
m an .
ComN n _ c p l -Phr [[ iPreDet [ P reDet-Phr ( iDel +PreDet ) ] iDet<OefArt>
.
No t
the
an
+P H - z ) } ]
+NH{ +ComN n _ c . s i n ,
boo k s .
ComNn _ m - Ph r IT iPreDe d P r eDet-Phr( iDel +PreDet ) ) iDet<DemArt>
No t
+ N H { CODlN n _ lI }
this
even
]
wa t e r- .
3.
I.
2. I.
I.
la. 2.
fO rd ,
the op t i onal
sa t el l i t e Ordi n a l
t aAmeme
The op t iona l s a t e l l i t e Ordina l t agm eme , wh i ch occurs on l y in a
COmmon NO�un _COunt Phrase, ha s the fo l lowing structure formul a :
iO rd [O rd - Ph r ( +Nu
+Ord(- th » ) ]
FI L L ER : the opt iona l s a t e l l i t e Ord ina l s lo t i s fi l led by an Ord i n a l
Ph rase compos ed o f a n ob l i gatory nuc l eu s Nume ra l and a n ob l i gatory
nuc leus Ordina l suffix ( - t h ) '
Ord inal s: fi �s t , second , t h i �d, fou� th , fi f t h , si x t h , etc .
EXAMPL ES:
ComNn _ c . s i n g - Ph r [[ +Det<DefArt> iOrd [Ord-Ph r ( +Nu
fint
The
+NH { comN n _ c. S in ,
}
+O rd ( - t h ) ) )
]
m i ss i � e .
ComN n _ c. pl [[ iDe t<OefArt> fOrd [O r d - Ph r ( +Nu
fi rs t
The
+NH { + ConN n - C . 8 i nl .
+O rd ( - t h ) ) ]
+PH - z ) } ]
m i ss� l e s .
3. 1 . 2. 1. 1 . la. 3.
±Nu ,
the op t i on al s a t el l i t e Numeral
t aAmeme
The optiona l satei l l te Numeral tagmeme . wh ich ( except (on e » ) occurs
o n l y in a COmmon NounNoun -COun t . P l u ra l Phra se . has the fo l lo w in g
s t ructure formu l a:
iNu [ Nu - Phr]
85
FIL L ER : t h e o p t ion a l s a t e l l i t e Nume r a l slo t
Phrase .
1S
fi l l ed by a Nume r a l
Numera l Phrases : two , three , t en , t wenty jour, etc .
ComN n _ c p l - P h r [[ ±Det<I n detArt> ±Nu [Nu - Ph r] +NH { +ComN n c . s l. n g +P l C- z ) } ]
.
t h i rty
Som e
steps.
±Mo d 1
3. 1 . 2. 1 . 1 . 1a. 4.
Modi fi e r 1
< :��::_ )
�
V(
�Ph r
i ng ) - Ph r
,
t h e op t i on a l
s a t el l i t e
t agmeme
_
FIL L ER S : the opt iona l s a t e l l i t e Mod i fi e r 1 s l o t i s fi l led b y a com­
posite fi l le r c l as s inc luding three a l ternate d i s t r ibu t ion- subc lasse s :
Adj ec t ive Phra se ; Verb C _ en ) Phra se ; and Verb ( i ng ) Phras e .
3. 1. 2. 1 . 1 . 1a. 4. 1 .
Adj - Ph r ,
t h e al t e rn a t e di s t r i bu t i on - subc l a s s
Adj ec t i ve Ph rase
The a l t e rn a t e d i st r ibut ion- subc lass Adj e c t ive Ph rase has the fo l ­
lowing s t ruc ture fo rmu l a :
Adj - P h r [ ±Mod
<�::�� )
Ph r
M Adv - Ph r
+ Adj ]
Sup- {Sup-pcle <��:::�» }
X
{
Sup- Su fe - e s t )
Comp - Ph r ( ±N e g ±I n t en s +Comp - x
M Adv - Ph r ( ±Ne g ±In tens +MAdv )
Comp - Pc l e
<��:::�) }
Comp - Su f ( - er)
The formu la i s read :
An Adj ect ive Phrase i s composed o f ( 1 ) an o p t ion a l s a t e l l i t e Mod i fi e r s l o t f i l l ed b y a c o mpo s i t e
fi l le r class inc luding three a l t ernat e d i s t ribu t ion- subc l asses:
Sup e r l a t iv e e xp r e s s i on ; Comp a r a t ive Ph r a s e ; Mann e r Adv e r b
Phrase .
( 2) an ob l iga to ry nuc l eus Adj e c t ive stem .
The a lt e rnat e d i s t ribut ion- subc lass Super l a t ive expression inc ludes
t wo a l t e rn a t e d iv i s ion- sub c l a s se s : Supe r l a t ive Part i c l e (mo s t ) , and
( l e as t ) ; Supe rl a t ive suffix ( - es t ) .
The a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibut ion- subc l a ss COmp a rat ive Phrase i s compo sed
o f an opt iona l sa t e l l i t e Negator ( no t ) , an opt iona l sat e l l i te Intensi­
f i e r (much ) . and a n ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus COmp a ra t iv e exp r e s s ion wh ich
86
i n c l ud e s t wo a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion- subc l a s s e s : CO mp a ra t iv e P a r t i c l e
(more ) , and ( L e s s ) ; COmparat ive suffix ( - er) .
The a l te rna t e d i s t r ibut ion - sub c l a s s Manne r Adverb Ph rase i s com­
posed o f an opt ion a l s a te l l i te Nega to r ( no t ) , and op t iona l sate l l i t e
I nt en s i fi e r ( v e ry , qui t e , e tc . ) and a n ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Mann e r
Adverb .
EXAMPL ES:
comN n _ c . Si n g - Ph r [+Det<De fArt> iMO d 1 <Adj - Ph r ( iMO d<Sup - P c l e> +Adj »
The
b eaut ifu l
most
+NH{ co mN n _ c. S i n g } ]
s t ar.
ComNn _ c . P I - Phr [ ±Det <De fArt> ±Mo d<Adj - Ph r (( ±Mo d<Co mp - Ph r ( ±N e g ± I n t en s
no
The
+Comp - P c l e ) + Adj )) >
more
N H { co mN n _ c . P I } ]
b e au t i fU l
t
much
s t ars.
CO IINn _ II - Phr [ ±Det <De fArt> ±Mod 1 <Adj - Ph r (( ±Mod<MAd v - Ph r ( ±N e g ±I n te n s
no t
The
+Adj )) > +NH{ comN n _ m }]
+ MAdv »
3. 1. 2. 1 . 1 . 1� 4. 1�
{
wat er.
s tri k i ng L y c l ear
Adj - Ph r
Clu al i ty Adj
S i zeAdj
Co lou rAdj
}
,
very
the Adj ec t i ve s t em c l ass
The Adj e c t ive s t em c l a s s inc ludes three a l t e rna t e co-occur rence­
subc l as se s : Qua l i ty Adj ect ive ; S i ze Adj ec t ive ; CO lour Adj e c t ive .
When a l l the three co -occurrenc e- subc la sses mod i fy the same Noun
Head , the regular unemphasi zed ordering would b e :
Qual i t y Adj ect ive
S ize Adj ect ive
CO lour Adj ect ive.
EXAMPL E:
comN n _ c . Sin g - Ph r [ + De t<De fArt> +MO d 1 <Adj - Ph r { Clu al i tyAdj } >
The
modern
+MO d 1 <Adj - Ph r { S i zeAdj }> +MO d 1 <Adj - Ph r { coloU rAdj } > +NH { COIIN n _ c . Si n g } ]
narrow
3.
I.
2.
I. I.
la. 4 . 2 .
Verb _
( en )
V ( en ) - P h r,
b L ac k
fram e .
th e a l t e rn a t e di s t ri bu t i on - subc l a s s
Ph rase
The a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i but i o n - subc l a s s V e rb ( _ en ) Phra s e h a s the
fo l l owing s t ructure formula :
87
fIL L ER S :
the Verb < _ en ) Ph rase has i t s st ruc ture composed o f:
( 1) an o p t i on a l s a t e l l i t e Mo d i f i e r s lo t f i l l ed by an o p t i o n a l
sa t e l l i t e Nega to r < no t ) , a n op t i on a l sa t e l l i t e Int e ns i f i e r
( ve ry , qui t e , e tc . ) , and an ob l i gato ry nuc leus Manner Adverb .
( 2) an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eu s Ve rb < _ e n ) c o mp o s ed o f an ob l i ga to ry
nuc leus Infin i t ive Verb , and an ob l i gatory nuc leus Part i c ip l e l
su ffix ( - en ) , or Pas t Part i c ip le su ffix.
EXAMPL E :
CO IIN n _ c . s t n , - Ph r [[ +Oet < OefArt> ±Mod 1 « V < - en ) -Phr [ ±Mo d < iN e g ±I n ten s
no t
very
The
]
}
N
C
c
,
{
]
O
+MAdv>
+ V < _ en ) ( + I n f V
+NH
_
n
<
en
»
)
n
»
.
II
+P art 1
si
m e e t i ng .
o rg ani zed
p ro p e r t y
V<_
3 . 1. 2. 1 . 1. la. 4 . 3.
Verb <
.
- 1- ng )
i ng )
Ph rase
- Ph r ,
the al t e rn a t e di s t r i bu t i on - subcl a s s
13
Th e a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i but i on - sub c l a s s Ve rb ( _ i ng ) Ph ra s e h a s the
fo l low ing s t ruc ture fo rmu la :
V (_
i ng )
- Ph r
fiL L ER S :
by :
(( ±Mod [ ±N t' g ±I n ten s +MAdv ]
+V < _
i ng )
( + I n fV +p ar t 2 < - ing »
) ))
the a l t e rna te d i st ribut ion- subclass Verb < _ i ng ) slot i s fi l led
( 1 ) an o p t i ona l s a t e l l i t e Mod i f i e r s l o t f i l l e d by an op t i on a l
s a t e l l i t e Nega t o r < no t ) , an op t i ona l s a t e l l i t e In t ens l fi e r
( ve ry , qui t e , et c . ) , and an obl i gato ry nuc leus Mann e r Adve rb .
( 2) an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eu s Ve rb < _ i ng ) composed o f an ob l i ga t o ry
nuc leus In fin i t ive Verb stem and an ob l i ga tory nuc l eus Pa rt i ­
c ipl e 2 suffix < - i ng ) , o r Presen t Part i c i p l e suffix.
EXAMPL E :
CO IINn c . s i n g - Phr [[ +Oet <Oe CArt> ±Mo d 1 <V < _ i ng ) - Ph r(( ±Mo d [ iNe g il n t en s
no t
v e ry
The
+MAdv ] +V < - i ng ) ( + l n f V +P art 2 < - i ng » ) ) ) > +NH { ComN n _ c . S i n g }
_
rap i d l y
tra i n .
advanc i ng
3 . I. 2 . I . 1 . la. �.
±Mo d 2 ,
the- op t i onal
])
sa t e l l i t e Modi fi e r 2 t agtneme
The o p t i o n a l s a t e l l i t e Mo d i f i e r 2 t a gmeme h a s the fo l l o w i n g
13
Fo r fu rther d e t a i I
on
the Ve rL < _ i
Grmmar of EnA l i sh Nomilla l i zation s ,
ng )
1960 ,
Ph r a s e ,
see Ro b e r t B. Le e s , The
p a ge s 9 5 - 97 , an d 1 36 £ £ .
88
structure fo rmu l a :
i\dj - Ph r
- Ph r
C - en )
V
+NH ) )
I'IL L ER S : the opt iona l sa t e l l i te Mo d i f i e r 2 s l o t i s fi l l ed b y a Noun
Phrase composed o f an opt lona l sat e l l i t e Mod i f i e r s lo t fi l led by a
compo s i t e fi l l e r c l a s s , inc lud ing four a l t e rna t e d i s t ribut ion - sub­
c l asse s : Adj e c t i v e Ph ras e ; Ve rb C _ e n ) Phra se ; Verb c _ in ) Ph rase ; Noun
g
Ph ra se, and an ob ligatory nuc l eus Noun Head .
EXAMPL ES:
ComN n _ c . s t n g - Ph r r[ + Oet<Oe fArt> ±Mod 2 [N - Ph r( +Mo d 1 <i\dj - P h r> +NH ) )
+ NII { CORl N n _ c. s t n }
g n
pri v a t e
The
schoo l
t each e r .
ComN n _ c . s t n g - P h r [[ +Oe t<Oe fi\rt> ±Mod2<N - Ph r ( ±Mo d [ V c _ e n ) - Ph r) +NH »
f NII { comN n _ . R i n }
c
g n
The
c h i pped
s tone
hou <; e .
+NII { Co mN n _ c. s t n }
g n
The
runn ing
wa t e r
d i s t ri /)'u t i on .
The
New York Impro tl€'m e n t
+NII { comN n _ c . i n g }
S
]
Comm i ss i o n .
3. 1. 2. 1 . 1 . 1a. 6 .
±Po stMo d
Comp i e"Mo d l
Udv - P h r
Re i h - P h r
N - Ph r
C to ) V- Ph r
OepCI
i\p - P h r
Re H P n - Phr
,
the op t ional
s a t e l l i t e Po s t - Modi fi e r t sgmeme
FIL L ERS: the opt iona l sate l l i t e Po st -Mod i fi e r s l o t is fi l l ed by a com­
pos i te fi l le r c l ass inc luding e i ght a l t erna te d i s t r ibut ion-subc lasses :
89
Comp lex Mod i f i e r 1 ; Loc a t ion Adve rb Phrase ; Noun Phr a s e ; C t o ) Ve rb
Phrase ; Dependent Clause ;- Appos i t ive Phras e ; Re flexive Pronoun Phra se .
ComplexMod l •
3 . 1 . 2. 1 . 1. l a. 6 . 1 .
the al t ern a t e di s t r i bu t i on - subcl as s
Camp I e x Modi fi e r 1
�:::: :::�:: / :;� :::�Pb , )4 +PostMod]
The a l t e rna t e d i s t r i bu t i on- subc l a s s Comp l e x Mod i fi e r 1 h a s the
fo l lowing < t=
'
,
- Ph r
\V _
C i ng )
fILL ERS: the a l t erna t e d i s t ribut ion - sub c l a s s Comp lex Mod i fi e r 1 s lo t
i s fi l led by ( 1) an ob l i ga to ry nuc leus Head s l o t f i l led by a compo s i t e fi l l e r
c l a s s in c lud i n g t h r e e a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i bu t ion- sub c l a s s e s :
Adj e c t ive Phra se ; Verb C _ e n ) Phrase ; Verb c _ in ) Phra s e .
g
( 2 ) a n ob l i gatory nuc leus Post -Mod i fi e r to the p rev ious Head .
EXAMPL ES :
ComNn _ c. s in g -Phr [ +Oet<PosArt> +NH{comNn _ c.si ng } ±PostMod
« Compi exMod l ( +H<Adj -Ph r> +Po stMod<RelAx-Phr» »]]
ComNn _ c . sl ng -Phr +Oet<OefArt> +NH{comNn_ c . Si ng} ±PostMod «Compi ex
Hi s
b ag
o f s t f'ang e o bj e c t s .
fu l l
[[
The
boy
b e a t en
by
h i s c � as sm a t e s
•
COMNn _ c. si ng -Phr [ +Oet<OefArt> +NH{comNn _ c.si ng} ±PostMod
«compIexMod 1 ( +H<V C- ing > -Phr> +PostMod<RelAx-Phr[ +PrepCin> +NH] »]]
LAdv-Phr.
The
m an
»
i n t h e s t f'e e t .
3 . 1. 2. 1 . I . la. 6 . 2 .
the al t e rna t e di s t r i bu t i on - subc l as s
Loca t i on Adverb Ph rase
The a l ternate d i s t ribut ion-subclass Lo cat ion Adverb Phrase has the
fo l lo wing s t ructure fo rmula :
14
The term Phrase h a s a sp ec i a l conn o t a t i o n in thi s p a r t i cu l a r con t ex t .
I t inc l udes the Head t B gmeme and t h e opt ion a l satel l i te Pre-Modi fier t agmeme.
and i t does not incl ude the Pos t - Modi f i e r t agmeme .
90
Adv-Phr(±Prec +LAdv)
j'IL L ERS: the a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibut ion- sub c l a s s Lo c a t ion Adve rb Ph ra se
s lo t i s c6mpo sed o f an opt iona l s a t e l l i t e Pre c i s e r and an obl igat o ry
nuc l eus Loc a t ion Adverb .
Prec iser: righ t
Loca t i on Adve rb : here, t here , b e lo w, abo v e , e t c .
EXAMPL E:
ComNn _ c. s i ng-Phr [+Oet<OefArt>
<LAdv-Phd ±Prec + LAdv
Ax-Phr,
+NH { comNn _ c
man
The
rig h t
3. 1 . 2. 1 . 1.
Ia.
6 . 3.
.S
i g ±Po s tMod
n }
» )
t h ere .
LRel
the al t e rn a t e di s t r i bu t i on- subc l as s
Loc a t ion Re l a tor Axi s Ph rase
1he a l t e rnat e d i s t ribut ion- subc l a s s Lo c a t ion Re l a to r Ax i s Ph rase
has the fo l lowi ng s t ruc ture formu l a :
LRelAx-Phr(+LPrep
+H<O - x »
fILL ER S: the a l t e rna t e d i s t r i but i on - sub c l a s s Lo c a t ion Re l a to r Ax i s
Phra se i s compo sed o f an ob l igato ry nuc l eus Lo cat ion Prepo s i t ion ( i n ,
o n , a t , e t c . ) and an ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Head s l o t fi l l ed b y a n Obj ect
expre ssion .
EXAMP[, E:
ComNn _ c . S i n - h r l + o p t <Oe f A r t > +NII { comNn _ c .
gP
Th p.
<LRe l A x - P h d +LP r ep +II<N - Ph r» »
i t'
t h e s t re e t .
3. 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . Ia. 6 . 4.
m an
N-Phr {SizcN-Phr}
T i m eN - Ph r
•
S i ng}
tPo s t Mod
the il l t e rna t e di s t r i l)u t i o,,- sub­
c l a s s Noun Ph rase
The a l t e rna t e d i s t r i but ion- sub c l a s s Noun Ph r a s e i n c lud e s t wo
a l ternate div i s ion- subc la sses : Ti me Noun Ph ras e ; S i ze Noun Ph rase .
EXAMPL ES:
ComNn _ c. s t ng-Phr[+Oet<'DefArt>
+ NII { comNn _ c .
S
ig
n } tPo s Uto d { T l m e N - Ph r} )
� as t we e k .
acci den t
n
ComNn _ c . s i n - P h r r[ + Oe t < I d e f A r t > +NII { comNn _ c . S i n g } ±Po s tMod [ S i zeN - Ph r J JJ
g
An
anima�
t h i s s i z t" .
The
3 . I . 2. 1 . 1 . 1a. 6 . 5 .
Verb Ph rase
c to ) V -
Pr
h .
the a l t e rn a t e di s t r i bu t i on - subc l ass
( to )
Th e a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i bu t i on - subc l a s s ( t o ) Verb Ph r a s e h a s the
91
fo l lowing st ructure fo nnul a :
(to)V-Phr(+Prep(to) +I n fV-Phr)
FIL L ERS: the a l t e rna t e d i s t ribu t ion- sub c lass ( to ) Verb Phrase i s com­
posed of an ob l i g a t o ry nuc l eus P repo s i t ion ( to ) , and an ob l i g a t o ry
nuc leus Infi n i t ive Verb Phrase .
EXAMPL E:
comNn _ c . si ng -Phr[+Det<DefArt> +NH{comNn _ c. Si n g} ±PostMod
to ) V-Phr( +Prep c to) +In fV-Phr)]
Ap-Phr,
m an
The
«
see.
to
the al t e rn a t e di s t r i bu t i on- subc l a s s
3 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1a. 6 . 6 .
Appo s i t i ve Ph rase
Th e a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibu t i on - sub c l a s s Appo s i t iv e Ph r a s e h a s the
fo l lowing s t ru c ture fo nnu l a :
Ap-Ph r [N-Ph r]
FIL L ERS: the a l ternate d i s t ribut ion- subc lass Appo s i t ive Phrase s l o t i s
f i l led by a Noun Phrase wh ich has the same Re fe rent a s the mod i fied
Noun Head.
EXAMPL ES:
[[
ComNn _ c. s in g -Phr +Det<DefArt> +NH{comNn _ c • Si ng } ±PostMod
<Ap-Phr [N -Phr] >]
ComNn _m -Phr [ ±Det<DefArt> +NH{ComNn _ m } ±PostMod<Ap-Phr [N -Phr] >]
ReflPn -Phr,
a'f"c h i t e c t ,
The
M'f" Jo hn Sm i t h o
The
3 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . la. 6 .
7.
wi n d ,
p'f"i nc i p a L SOU'f"ce
of energy .
the al t e rn a t e di s t r i bu t i on - subc l a s s
Re fl exi ve P ronoun
The a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibut ion- subc l a s s Re flexive Pronoun Phrase ha s
the fo l lowing s t ru c ture formu l a :
ReflPn -Phr( +PersOPn +Refl {
( SeLf)
( - se L v e s )
})
FIL L ERS: the a l ternate d i s t r ibut ion- subc lass Re flexive Pronoun Phras e
i s composed o f a n ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Pe rsona l Obj e c t Pronoun , and an
o b l i ga to ry nuc l eus Re flexive su ffix which has two a lt e rna t e div i s ion­
subc l a s se s : Singu l a r ( - se Lf) ; P lura l ( - se L ve s ) .
Re flex ive Pronoun Phrases : myse L f , yourse L f, h i m se L f , h e rs e Lf, i t­
se L f , ourse L ve s , you'f"se L ve s ,
t h em se L ve s .
92
EXAMPLES:
[
{
COmNn _ C . P 1 -Phr ±Oet<OefArt> +NH +COmNn _ c . Sln g +PIC-z) ±PostMod
<ReflPn -Phr(+PersOPn +ReflC Zv »)>
ComNn _ m -Phr ±Oet<oefArt> +NH comNn _m ±PostMod<ReflPn -Phr(+PersOPn
+Refl
}
i nhab i t an t s
The
-
se
]
es
themse l ve s .
{
[
The
( - se l f)
}
i tse Zf.
wi nd
» ]
No t e : Becau se th e Re f l e x i v e P ronoun Ph rase can a l so fo l lo w the
o b l i g a to ry nuc l eu s Clause l eve l Pred i c a t e t a gmeme . o r the Obj e c t
tagmeme . o r some o the r Cl ause leve l t agmeme . i f any . i t m ight a l so b e
con s i de red a s a Cl au s e leve l tagmeme rathe r than as a Ph rase l ev e l
t agmeme as in th is ana lys i s . Neverth e l e s s . �ue to i t s close re l a t ion
to the Noun Head o f the Subj e c t tagmeme l t is mo re su i tab le to con ­
s ider i t a s a Phrase level tagmeme mod i fytng the Noun Head.
EXAMPL E:
I ndepActI n trOeclCl +S<ComNn _ c . si ng -Phr +Oet<OefArt> +NH comNn _ c . Si n,
±PostMod<ReflPn -Phr(+PersOPn +ReflC »)> > +p ActIn trOecl V-Phr
±L<ReUx-Phr> ±
SC
OepCl { XOepCl
:::NO:SCl}
[[
{
[
m an
The
]
se l f
h tmse l f
I
r,[
wi n
]
go
]]
t o t h e stot"e
h imse l f ·
3. 1. 2. 1. 1. la. 6. 8.
•
the B i t ern :J t f' di st ri bu t ion- sub­
c l a s s Dep enden t C l au se
The a l t e rnate dist ribut ton - subclass Dependent Clause inc ludes three
a l t e rna t e d i v i s ion- sub c l a s s e s : Dependen t Subj e c t Clau s e ; Dependen t
Non - Subj e c t Claus e ; Ext ra Dep endent Cl ause { c f . 2 . 1 . 7 . - 9
pages
36 - 4O } .
.
•
XAMPL ES:
•
[
]
tomNn _ c . 81 n ,-Phr +oet<oefArt> +NH{Co.Nn _ c. si n ,} ±PostMod<OepSCl>
" an
The
±P( stMod<DepNonSCl>
m en
]
( th a t ) you saw y e s t et"day .
who came he t"e .
}
93
comNn _ c.sing -Phr +oet<oefArt> +NH COmNn _ c.stn g ±PostMod<XDepCl>
persproPNn -Phr-Phr ] ,
3. 1. 2. 1. 1.2. PropNn -Phr { NonPersPropN
n
{
[
The
}
t im e
]
when they were
young .
the Proper Noun
Noun
Phrase al t e rn a t e di vi s i on - subc l a s s
The Proper NounNoun Ph rase d I v i s ion- subc l a ss inc ludes two a l ternate
c o - o c cu r ren c e - sub c l a s s e s : P e r sona l Prop e r NounNoun Ph ra s e ; Non ­
P e rson a l P rope r NounNoun Ph ra se .
3 . 1. 2. 1. 1. 2. 1. PersPropNn -Phr,
t h e P e r so n a l P r o p e r Noun
N o un
Ph rase co - oc c u r r en c e- subc l ass
The Pe rsona l Prop e r NounNoun Ph rase has the fo l l owing m in i mum
nuc leus and maximum expanded st ructure fo rmu l a e :
M I N IMUM N U CL EU S FO RMU L A:
persProPNn-Phr ±Ti tle +persProPNn
{
}
fI �L ERS: The Pe rsona l Prop e r NO �oun Ph rase has i t s m in imum nuc leus
s t ruc ture composed o f an opt ion a l nuc l eus Ti t l e , and an o b l i g a to ry
nuc leus Persona l Proper Nou�oun stem.
Tit l e : Mr , Mrs , M i s s , Dr, Professor , e t c .
EXAMPL E:
{
+s<PersproPNn -Pb r ±Title +persproPNn >
}
Mr
Jo hn B . Br01.<kl i s
a
good fri end of ours .
EXP AN DED M AX I MUM FORMULA:
persProPNn -Phr tpreoet ±Oet ± Mod I ±Ti tle +NH ±PostMod
[
]
The formu la i s read:
The Persona l Proper NounNoun Ph rase has its expanded Maximum st ructure composed of s ix t agmemes : an option a l sa t e l l i t e Pre-De t e rminer;
an opt iona l sa tel l i te Determ ine r; an opt iona l satel l i te Mod i fier 1 ; an
o p t l ona l nuc l eu s Ti t l e ; an o b l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s Noun H ea d ; and an
opt ional sat e l l i te Po st-Mod i fi e r .
No t e : Bec.ause o f the unproduct ive cha ract e r o f maximum fo rmu lae o f
P roper Noun Ph ra s e s , i t i s unin t erest ing t o ana lyze tho rough l y the
interna l s t ructures o f the op t iona l sate l l i t e tagmemes of the Phrase s .
.Pbr
}
1
n
3. 1.2. 1.1.2. 2. NonPersPropNn -Phr {NonpersPfoPN
NonPersPfOPNn2-Phr ,
the Non-
Personal Proper Noun
Phr a s e al t ern a t e di vi s i on- subc l a s s
Noun
94
The Non-Persona l Prope r Nou9Noun Phrase d i v i s ion- subclass inc lude s
t wo a l t e rna t e co - oc currence-sub c l a s se s : Non-Persona l Proper NounNoun l
Phrase; Non-Pe rsona l Prope r NounNoun2 Phra s e .
3. 1. 2. 1 . 1 . 2. 2 . 1.
NonPersProPNn 1 -Phr.
t h e Non -Person al P roper
Ph rase co- o ccu r r en c e- subc l a s s
Noun
Noun l
The Non-Persona l Proper NounNoun l Phrase has the fo l lowing m in i mum
nuc leus and expanded maximum s t ruc ture formul a e :
M I N IMUM NUCLEU S FORM U L A :
NonpersproPNnl -Phr +NonPersproPNnl
{
}
{I' I L L E R : the Non -Pe rsona l Prop e r NounNoun l Ph rase ha s i t s m i n imum
n uc l eus s t ru c t u r e compo sed o f an ob l i g a t o ry nuc l eus Non - P e r son a l
P rope r NO�oun l stem .
NonPersProPNn1 :
+S<NonpersproPNnl-Phr +NonpersproPNnl >
Ch i cag o , Cal i fo �n i a, New Yo �k, Sydney . e t c .
!:XANPL E:
{
}
A u s t �al i a
i s si tuated i n t h e Sout h e �n
He'lll i sphe�e .
EXP ANDED M A X I MUM FO RMU L A :
[
NonPersproPNn1 -Phr ±preDet ±Det ±Mod 1 +NII ±PostMod
)
The fo rmu 1 a is read :
"The Non -Pe rson a l Proper Nou9Noun l Phrase has i t s expanded maximum
s t ruc ture composed o f five tagmemes : an opt iona l sa t e l l i te Pre-De t e r­
m i ne r ; an opt iona l sa t e l l i t e De t e rmine r ; an op t i on a l sa t e l l i t e Mod i ­
f l c r 1 ; an ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Noun Hea d ; and an opt i ona l s a t e l l i t e
Po st -Mod i f i e r .
F.'IANn E:
r
NonP�rRProPNnl -Phr tprcDet ±Oet iMod . +NII
NonPersProPNn Z -Phr.
No t
b e au t i fll l
the
e ven
N e w Yo �k
±Post,Mod
)
t h a t h e �e­
'III P1!I b e 'f' e. d .
the CO - O CCll r r ellce- subcl a s s Non .
3. 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 2 .
- Ph r a se
P e r sona l Proper Noun
Noun 2
"The Non -Persona l Proper Nou9Noun 2 Phrase ha s the fo l lowing m ln l mum
nuc l eus and expanded maximum fo rmu l a e :
M I N I MUM N U CL EU S FO RM U L A :
[
]
NonpersProPNnz-Phr +Det DefArt tNonpersproPNn z
{
}
9S
fILL ERS: the Non-Pe rsona l Proper NounNoun 2 Phra se has i ts m tn imum nu­
c leus s t ructure compo sed o f an o b l i ga to ry nuc l eus De t e rm in e r s l o t
f i l led b y a De fin i t e Art i c l e . and an o b l iga t o ry nuc leus Non-Pe rsona l
Proper Nou�oun 2 s tem .
N o n P e r sP ro p N n 2 - Ph r :
t h e A rg e n t i n e , t h e Cong o , t h e H ague , t h e
Danube , the Pacifi c , t h e P h i l ippines, t h e Rocki e s , e t c .
EXAMPL E :
+ S<Nonpersp roPN n 2 - Ph r{ +oet [ oe fAr t ] +Nonp ersP roPN n 2 } >
The
i s t h e cap i tal o f
t h e N e t h e r � ands .
Hague
EXP AN DED M A X I MUM FORMU L A :
NonPe rsP roPN n 2 - Ph r [ ±preOet + Oe t ±Mo d 1 +NH ±Po stMo d]
The formul a i s read:
The Non-Pe rsona l Prop e r NounNoun2 Ph rase h a s i t s expanded max imum
s t ruc ture composed o f flve t a gmeme s : op t iona l s a t e l l i t e P r e - De t e r
m in e r ; ob l igatory nucl eus De t e rm in e r ; op t iona l s a te l l i t e Mo d i f i e r 1 ;
obl igatory nuc leus Noun Head; and opt tonal sate l l i t e Post -Mod t fi e r .
EXAMPLE:
±Po stMod]
+NH
+Oet ±Mo d 1
No t pven t h e roman t i c Danube of Jo h ann S trauss ' s
IILusi c .
Nonp ersp roPN n 2 - Ph r r tpreoet
3 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 2.
N Adj - Ph r. the Nomi n al i 7�d Adj ec t i ve Ph rase al t ern ate
d i v i sion subc l ass
Th e NO ln l n d i :z. ed Adj e c t i v e Ph r a s e h a s the fo l l o w ing s t ruc t u re
fo rmu l a :
N Adj - Ph r [[ +Oet [ OefArt ] +NH<Adj - Ph r ( ±Mo d
S
up-
x
/ �::� �Ph r
\ MAdv- Ph r
{ - <�s��::�)}
SU P P e l e
-
x{
Sup Su f ( - e t )
Comp- Ph r ( m eg ± I n t en s +Comp -
comp - P e l e
)
+ Adj ) > n
<��:::�)}
Comp - Su f ( - e r )
M Adv - Ph r( tNeg tI n t en s +MAdv )
fIL L ERS: the a l t e rna te d i v l s i on - sub c l a s s Nom ina l i :z.ed Adj e c t i v e Ph rase
composed o f .
1S
( 1 ) a n ob l i gd t o ry nuc leus De t e rm in e r s l o t fi l l e d by a De f i n i t e
Art tc l e .
96
( 2 ) an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Noun Head s lo t fi l led by an Adj ec t l ve
Ph rase compo sl·d of an opt iona l s a te l l i te Mod i fi e r s lo t fi l led
by a compos i te f i l l er c l a ss including three a l ternate d is t r i bu­
t ion-sub c l a s se s : Sup e r l a t lve expre s s i on ; Compa ra t ive exp re s ­
s ion ; Manne r Adverb Phra se . and a n ob l i ga to ry nuc leu s Adj ect ive
s tem .
The Supe r l a t i ve expre s s i on inc ludes t wo a l t e rn a t e d i v i s i on - sub ­
c l a s se s : Supe r l a t i v e P a r t i c l e ( m o s t > . < l e as t > ; Supe r l a t i v e su f f i x
( - est ) .
The Compa rat ive Ph rase i s compo sed o f an opt iona l sat e l l i te Negator
an opt ion a l s a t e l l i t e Intens l f i e r (much ) . and an ob l i g a t o ry
nucleus Compa rat ive express ion wh i ch . nc ludes two a l t e rn a t e d i v l s ion­
subc l asse s : Comp a ra t ive Part i c le (1II 0 .,.P ) . ( l e s s ) ; Compa ra t ive su f f i x
( ,.. .,. ) .
lhe Manner Adve rb Phrase i s composed o f an opt iona l sat e l l i t e Nega­
qui t e , et c . ) ' and
t o r (no t ) . an op t i ona l sa te l l i t e Intens i f ier ( ve.,.y,
an oh l i gato ry nuc leus Manne r Adve rb .
( no t > .
[s' XAME L ES:
N Adj - Ph r [[ +DedDe fArtJ +NH {Adj - Ph r ( ±Mod<Sup Pcl e> + Adj ) } ]
beaut ifu L
1II0 , t
Thp.
N Adr Ph r [ [ +Det [ DefArt ] +NIJ { Adj - Ph r ( ±Mod<CoIIP - Ph r [ +Neg ilntens
Thll
no t much
+ COIlP P c l e] > +Adj ) } ]
b e au t t jul .
mo.,.,..
N Adj - P h r n +Det [DefArtl +NIJ { Adj - Phr( tMod<)"'dv - Ph r [+Neg iln tens
Thp.
no t ve.,.y
+MAdv ] ;'·; t d ki nf
3. 1 . 2. 1.
ly
2a.
+ Adj ) } ]
b e au t i fu l .
N "d J' - Ph r
{
N Adj . S i n K - Ph r
N Adj . p l - Ph r
}
. the Nom inal i zed Adj ect i ve
Phrast' al ternate d i v i sion - subc l ass
The a l t � rn a l e d i v i s ion- subc lass Nom ina l i zed Adj e c t ive Phra s e in­
c l udes two a l c rna t e co occur renc e- subc lasse s : S lngu l a r Nom ina l i zed
AJj cct ive Ph ra ' e ; Plura l Nom ina l i zed Adj ect ive Ph ra s e .
N Adj . si n g - Ph r : b a d , b r. au t i ju l , co l ,I , c t e.,.na l , good , i d e a l , o .,.d i ­
na.,.y, po s '1i b l e , t .,.UI� . M"ong . elc .
N Adj . p l - Ph r : brave . deaf . young . ri ch . poor, etc .
I!'XAMPL ES:
+ S<N Adj . 8 i n g - Ph r [[ +Det [ De l'ArtJ +NII { Adj } TI >
Th(!
good
U '1 t o h i g h e r
accomp l i �hmcn t s.
l e ad s
97
+ S<N adj . p l - P h r [[ + Det EDefArtJ +NH { Adj } ]
The
poor
3 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 3.
>
are som e t i m e s h app i e r than
the rich.
N V <_ en ) - Ph r , the Nominal i zed Verb <_ e n ) Ph rase al ternate
division - subcl ass
Th e No m i n a l i zed Ve rb < _ e n ) Ph r a s e h a s the fo l l o w ing s t ruc t u r e
formula :
N V C - en ) - Ph r IT +DedDe f A r t] +NH {v<_ en ) - Ph r ( ±Mo d [ ±N e g ±I n tens +M Adv]
+ V < _ en ) [+ I n fv +p ar t t C- en ) ] ) } ]
FILL ERS: the a lt e rn a t e d lv l sion - subclass Nom ina l i zed Verb <_ e n ) Ph rase
is composed o f :
( 1 ) an ob l i g a to ry nuc leus De t e rm in e r s lo t f i l led b y a De f i n l t e
Art i c l e .
( 2) a n ob l i g a t o ry nuc l eu s Noun H e a d s lo t f i l l e d by a V e r b < _ e n )
Phra s e wh i ch i s c ompo s e d o f an op t lona l s a t e l l i t e Mo d i fi e r
s lo t ( fi l l ed b y an o p t iona l s a te l l l te Nega t o r < n o t ) , a n op­
t iona l satel l i t e I n t en s i fler ( very , qui t e , e t c . ) , and an ob l i­
g a t o ry nu c l eu s Mann e r Adv e rb ) , and an o b l i g a t o ry nuc l eu
V e rb <_ e n ) composed o f an ob l i ga to ry nuc leus I n f in i t i v e V e rb
s t em , and an ob l ig a t o ry nuc leus Pa rt i c ip l e 1 C- en ) su f f i x , o r
Past Part ic iple su ffi x.
EXAMPL ES:
N V <_ en ) - Ph r IT +Det [DefArt] �NH{V<_ en ) - Ph r ( ±Mo d [ iN eg ±I n t en s +MAdv]
The
no t
b ad � y
<
)
en
] )} ]
+V<_ en ) [ +In fV +p a r t t i njured .
+S<N V < _ en ) - Ph r [[ + Det [DefArt] +NH {v<_ en ) [+ I n fV +par t t < - en ) ] } ] >
The
injured
t aken to t h e ho spi t a � .
3. 1 2 . 1. 4 .
N VC - i ng ) - Phr, the Nominal i zed Verb < _ i ng ) Phrase al ternate
d i v i sion- subcl ass
The Nom ina l l z ed Ve rb c _ i n ) Ph r a se ha s the fo l lo w i n g s t ructure
g
fo rmu l a :
N . c_ i ng ) - Ph r [ + Det (posArt ) +NH{Vc_ i ng ) Ph d + I n f V +p a r t z < - i ng » ) }]
Po sCase
FIL L ERS .. the a l te rn a t e div i s ion- sub c lass Nom ina l ized Verb <_ i ng ) Phrase
lS composed o f:
( 1) an ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus De t e rm ln e r s lo t fi l led by a compo s l t e
f i l l e r c l a ss inc lud ing t wo a l t e rn a t e d i s t r lbut ion- subc l a s �e s .
98
Po ssess i ve Art i c l e ; Pos sessive ca se .
( 2) an ob l i g a t o ry nuc l eus Noun Head s lo t f i l le d by a Ve rb c
i ng )
Phrase composed o f an obl i ga tory nuc l eus In fin i t ive Verb { wh i ch
.can con t a ln o p t i on a l s a t e l l i t e Ph rase l ev e l t agm emes such as
t he "current s i tuat ion" t agmeme , the " l im i ted dura t ion" t agmeme
( c f. page SO) , and the Pa ssive t agmeme ( c f . page 53) , and wh i Lh
c an have Clause l evel t agmemes such as Obj ects and Comp l emen t s )
and a n ob l igatory nu c leus Par t i c ip l e 2 <- ing ) su ffix, o r Pre sent
Part i c ip l e su ffix.
_
EXAMPLE .
+ S<N v < i ng ) Ph r [ +Det<Po sArt> +NH { V < _ i ng ) - Ph r ( + I n fV
_
-
His
no t �u � n h i s he a � t h .
did
3. 1 . 2. 1. 4a.
+part < - i ng» ) } J
2
b e � ng h i t o n t h e h e ad
Note on the Nomi nal i zed Verb < _ i ng ) Ph rase
Th i s Nom ina l i z ed
Ve rb < _
>
15
Ph ra se i s dl f fe ren t from th� regu l a r
i ng )
Common Noun
Noun- Co unt . S ingu l a r Ph rase wh ich has a Noun s t em end i ng
w i th an < - i ng ) su ffix.
EXANPL ES:
N n _ c . s 1 n g - Phr:
N VC
-
i ng >
3. 1. 2. 2.
-
Ph r :
His c a�efu � wri t i ng .
H i s wr i t i ng c a�efu l l y to h i s p a�en t s .
PersSPn - Ph r
I ndetPn - Ph r
Pn -Ph r DemPn - Ph r
Po sPn - Ph r
Po sCase - P h r
, the Pronoun Phrast" al t emate
dis tribu tion - subcl ass
The a l t e rna t e d i st r ibut i on- I>ubc l a ss P ron lun Ph n l s l nc.. Ludes fJ v e
a l t e rn a t e d i v i s lon - subc l a s s e s : Per sona L Sub · ect P rone un Ph ra s e ; I n­
determ ina t e Pronoun Ph rase; Demonst ra t i ve Pronoun Ph ras� · Po ssesslvc
P ronoun Phrase ; Po ssessive case Phra se .
3 . 1. 2. 2. 1. P e rsSPn - Ph r, the Personal Subj t"c t P ronoun Ph rase al tt"rna
d i v i sion- 8Ubc l as�
e
The a l ternate d i v i s ion- subcl ass Persona l SuhJ ec t Pronoun Ph ra se hal>
the fo l low lng s t ruc ture fo rmula :
15
Fo r fu r th e r d e t a I l on t h e Nom i n a l i 7. a t i o n ,
Grarmar o f Engl i sh Nominali zations ,
lI e e Ro be r t. B
1960 , p a ges 6 4- 66 .
Le e s , Th e
99
PersSPn - Ph r ( Pe rsSPn )
fIL L ER : the Pe r son a l Subj e c t P ronoun Ph rase 1 S c ompo sed o f o n l y a
Person a l Subj e c t Pronoun .
Persona l Subj ec t Pronoun : I , You , h e , she , i t , we , t h e y .
EXAMPL E:
+ S<PersSPn >
He
wo rks every d ay .
3. 1 . 2. 2 . 2.
I n detPn - Ph r. t h e Indeterm inate P ronoun Phrase al tern at e
d i v i sion- subc l ass
The a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion - sub c l a s s Inde t e rm in a t e P ronoun Phrase h a s
the fo l lowing st ruc ture fo rmu l a :
I n d t tPn - Ph r
{::::�::�
Art] + l n detPn 2
}
± Det f l ndefAr t] + l nd etPn 3
fIL L ER S : the Indet e rm ina t e P ronoun Ph rase i s fi l l e d by a compo s i t e
c l a ss o f I nde te rm 1n a t e Pronoun s i nc lud ing three a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion ­
sub c l a sses : Ind e t e rm ina t e P ronoun 1 ; Inde t e rm i n a t e P ronoun 2 wh i ch
c an be p rec eded by an opt iona l s a t � l l i t e De t e rm1ner s l o t f i l l ed by a
De fin i t e Art ic l e ; Indet e rm inate Pronoun 3 wh ich can be p r ec eded by an
opt 1on a l sat e l l 1 te Det erm iner s l o t fil led by an Inde f1n i t e Art i c l e .
I ndeterm inate Pronoun 1 : some , any , no , much etc .
I ndet erm in a t e P ronoun 2 : ( t h e ) j e w, ( t h e ) s e v e ra l , ( th e ) l i t t l e ,
t h e ) most , e tc .
I ndet e rm inate Pronoun 3: ( a) jew.
EXAMPL E :
+S<I ndetPn - Ph r{ ±Det [ De f Art] + I ndetPn} ±Po stMo d [ DePNon SC l ] >
The
that I boug h t w re very
few
goo d .
3. 1 . 2 . 2 . 3.
DemPn - P h r. t h e Demonst rat ive P ronoun Phrase al tern at e
d i v i s ion- subcl ass
The a l t e rna t e d 1v i s ion- subc l a s s Demon s t r a t ive P ronoun Phrase h a s
the fo l lowing s t ruc ture fo rmu l a :
DemPn - Ph r ( DemPn )
fIL L ER : the Demon s t ra t ive Pronoun Ph rase s lo t 1 S fi l l ed by a De mon­
s t ra t ive Pronoun .
Demonstrat iv e P ronoun : t h i s , t h e s e , t ha t , t ho s e .
EXAMPL E:
+S<DemPn >
These are good.
100
3 . 1 . 2. 2 . 4.
Po sPn - Ph r. the Possessi ve P ronoun Phrase al tern ate
d i v i sion- subcl ass
The a l t e rnate d i v l s lon- subc l a s s Po ssesslv e Pronoun Phrase has the
fo l lowing structure fo rmu la '
Po sPn -Phr ( Po sPn )
fIL L ER. the Pos sess i v e Pronoun Ph rase s l o t i s fi l l ed by a Po sse s s i v e
Pronoun
Possess ive Pronoun : m i n e , you�s, h i s , he�s, i t s
ou�s, t h e i �s .
EXAMPL E:
+ S<Po sPn>
Mine is a L ri g h t .
3. 1 . 2. 2 . 5.
Po sCase- Ph r. the Possessi ve Case Ph rase al t�rnat�
d i v i sion- subcl ass
( Fo r the ana lys l s . see
3. 1 . 2 . 1 1 . 1 . 1 . 2. ,
page 8 1 . )
EXAMPL E:
+ S<Po sCase- Ph r>
was sto L en .
Jo hn ' s
3. 1. 2. 3.
Rel Ax- Phr, the Rel ato r Axis Ph rase al t ern a t e
distribu t ion - subclas s
The a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibu t i on- subc l a s s Re l a to r Axis Ph ra se h a s the
fo l lowing st ruc ture formu l a :
Rel Ax-Phr [ +P rep Cj-rom ) +NII . + Prep C to ) +NH 2]
fIL L ERS: the Re l a t o r Ax i s Phra se i s composed o f an ob l i ga t o ry Pre­
p o s i t ion s lo t f i l l ed by Cj�om ) , an ob l igatory nuc leus Noun Head 1, an
ob l i gatory nuc leus Prepo s i t ion slot fi l led by C to ) , and an oh l i gatory
nuc leus Noun Head 2 .
EXAMPL E:
+ S<ReUx - Ph r>
f-rom Sai gon to Sydney i s a Lo ng way .
3 . 1 . 2 4.
V - Ph r
{c
to ) V - Ph r
V C t. ng ) - Ph r
-
}
'
the Verb Ph rase al ternate
dis tribu tion - subclass
The a l t e rn a t e d i st r i bu t l ol - <;ubc l a s s Verb Ph ra se inc ludes t wo
a l t erna te d iv i sion- subc lasses . C to ) Verb Ph rase ; Verb C _ in ) -Phrase .
R
( to ) V- Ph r. the ( to ) Verb Ph rase al t�rnate d i v i sionsubcl ass
3 . 1 . 2. 4. 1
10 1
The a l t e rn a t e d iv i s ion- sub c i a s s C to ) Verb Phrase has the fol lowing
s t ruc ture formu l a :
Cto)V-Phr(+PrepCto) +InfV-Phr)
Cto )
+S<Cto)V-Phr(+PrepCto) +InfV-Phr»
)
)
V C _ i ng ) -Phr(+InfV-Phr +part 2C » )
c )
fIL L ER S : the a l t e rna t e d i v i s i on - sub c l a ss C to ) Ve rb Ph r a s e i s com­
p o sed of an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eu s Prepo s i t i o n
and an ob l i ga to ry
nuc leus In fini t ive Verb Phra se .
EXAMPL E:
To
b e engag ed i n t h i s business m e ans a l o t of
tl'oub l e.
V C _ i ng ) - Ph r . t h e Verb c i ng
subcl ass
3 . 1 . 2. 4. 2.
_
Phrase al ternate d i v i sion­
The a lt e rna te d i v i s ion- subc lass Verb c i ng
s truc ture formula :
_
Phrase has the fo l lowing
-
i ng
i ng Phrase 1 S composed
o f an ob l i g a to ry nuc l eu s I n f in i t i ve Verb Ph ra s e . and an ob l i g a to ry
nuc leus Par t i c ip l e 2 su ffix C - i ng ) . o r Present Part ic iple suffix.
FILL ERS: the a l t ernate d i v i s ion- subclass Verb
_
EXAMPL E:
+S<V c_ i ng ) -Phr(+InfV-Phr +part 2C g » )>
{ }
- in
B e i ng sent to the p l ace was tl'ag i c fol' h i m .
3. 1. 2. 5 .
� SCl '
DepCl :::��
XDepCl
DepRel Cl
the Dependen t Clause al t e rnate
distribu tion - subcl ass
The a l te rna t e d i s t r ibut ion - subc lass Dependent Clause inc lude s four
a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion- sub c l as se s : Dependent Subj e c t Cl aus e ; Dep enden t
Non- Subj ect Clause ; Ext ra-Dependent Cl aus e ; Dependent Re lat ive Clause
( c f. 2. 1. 7. 10. . pages 36 -42 ) .
-
EXAMPL ES:
+S<DepSCl>
+S<DepNonSCl >
+S<XDepCl>
+S<DepRelCl>
Who evel' goes
wi I I
b e SOl'l'y .
Whatevel' he sees i s go i ng to be ol'del'ed l'emoved.
Why he goes i s a myst el'Y .
That he i s ho nest i s no doub t to any body .
102
DefeCl ,
-Phr]
]
>
+pr[v
[
+8<O_
_
n
c
X
n
g)
g)
i
i
C
DefeCI { DefeCl
ReUx-Phr( +PrepCjo,.-) +DefeCl Cto) [ +8<O-x> +P r[Cto) V-Phr] ] })
c i ng )
i ng)
Cjor).
3. 1 . 2. 6 .
th e Defe c t i ve Clause dist ribu tion - subcl ass
fILL ERS: the a l t e rna te d i s t r ibut ion-sub c lass Defect ive Cl ause inc ludes
( wh i ch i s
t wo a l t e rna t e d i v i s ion - subc l a s se s : De fec t ive Clause
_
composed o f an ob l i gatory nuc leus Subj ect slo t fi l led by an Obj ect ex­
p r e s s ion . a n d an o b l i g a t o ry nuc l eus P r e d i c a t e s l o t f i l l e d by a
V e rb c
Ph r a s e ) ; Re l a t o r Ax i s Ph ra s e ( wh i ch i s comp o s e d o f an
_
o b l i g a t o r y nuc l e u s P r epo s i t ion
and an o b l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s
De fec t iv e C l a u s e C t o ) ' wh i ch in t u rn i s comp o s e d o f an o b l i g a t o ry
nuc leus Subj ect slot f i l led by an Obj e c t express ion . and an obl igatory
nuc leus Predicate s lo t fi l led by a
Verb Phrase ) .
c to)
n
g
i
C
+S<DefeClc_ ing ) [ +8<O-x>
+pr[vc_
-Phr(
+InfV-Phr
+part
))]
]
>
2
n
g
i
)
n
n
g
e
i
He
marr
y L
n 't seem to p L easeBi LLthem.
did+8<ReIAx-Phr(+PrepCjor
) +DefeCl CtO ) [ +8<O-x> +Pr[Cto)V-Phr
him
for
(+PrepC toto) +InfV-Phr)]
is incredibLe.
fai L
+DO,
EXAMPLES:
] »
3 . 1 . 3.
the ob l i gatory nuc l eu s D i rect Obj ect tagmeme
The Di rec t Obj e c t t a gmeme . ob l i ga t o ry and nuc leus to the Ac t iv e
Tran s i t ive Cl ause Types 2 , 3 and 4 , and a l t e rnat e ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s
t o t h e Pass i v e Doub le Tran s i t ive Cl ause Type 6 . h a s t h e func t iona l
mea nin g o f " t h a t wh i ch und e r go e s the a c t ion" o r "unde r go e r o f t he
a c t ion " o f the Trans it ive Predica t e .
I n the s t ruc ture fo rmu l a e o f the Cl ause Typ e s in quest ion . p a g e s
7 - 8 . 8 - 10 . 10- 1 1 , and 13- 14 the obl iga tory nuc leus Di rec t Obj ec t s l o t
i n the d i f fe ren t Cl ause Typ e s wa s seen to be f i l l ed b y a compo s i t e
f l i l e r c l a s s inc luding a number o f a l t e rn a t e d i st r i but ion- sub c l a sses
v a ry ing acco rd ing to the Trans l t iv e Cl ause Type in wh ich the t agmeme
o c curs . Fo l lowlng is the formu la show ing a l l the p o s s i b l e a l t e rn a te
d i st ribut ion- subc lasses :
N-Phr
Pn-Phr
Adv-Phr
+00 V-Phr
DepCI
DefeCI
fIL L ER S : t he ob l l ga t o ry nuc l e u s D i re ct Obj e c t s l o t is f i l l ed by a
c o mpo s i t e fi l l e r c l a s s inc lud i n g a v a ry i n g numb e r o f a l t e rn a t e
103
d is t ribut ion- subc l a sses acco rding to the p a r t i cul a r Trans i t be Clause
Type m a t r i x . w i th a m a x i mum o f s i x : Noun Ph ra s e ; P ronoun Ph ra s e ;
Adverb i a l Phrase ; Ve rb Phra s e ; Dependent Cl ause ; Defect ive Clause .
3 . 1 . 3. 1 .
N - P h r , Noun Phrase al t e rn a t e dist ribu tion - subclass
( Fo r the ana lys i s of Noun Phrases . see
3. 1 . 2 . 1 .
pages 78-98 . )
EXAMPL ES:
+ s [P e r sSPn ] +p r [ActSgTrOec l V- P h r] +00 { comN n _ c . S i ng - Ph r}
The:;'
an ai rp L an e .
wan t ed
{ comN n _ c. P 1 - Ph r }
some a i 1'1' L an e s .
{ comN n _ m - P h r}
som e water.
{ N Adj . S i n g - P h r}
t h e bes t .
{ N Adj . P I - Ph r }
t h e ri c h .
{ N v c _ en ) - Ph r}
t h e accus ed.
{ N v C _ i ng ) - Phr}
o bj ec t ed to
They
3. 1 . 3 . 2.
Pn-Phr
PersOPn - Ph r
Refl Pn - Ph r
I nd etPn - P h r
OemPn- Ph r
Po sPn - Ph r
Po sCase- Ph r
h i s go ing to to wn .
, the Pronoun Phras e a l t,ern a t e
dis tribu t ion- sub class
The a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibut ion- subc l a s s Pronoun Phrase inc lud e s S i X
a l t e rn a t e d iv i s i o n - subc l a s s e s : P e r sona l Obj e c t Pronoun Ph r a s e ;
Re flexive Pronoun Phra se ( c f. 3. 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . la. 6 . 7 . . page 9 1 ) ; Ind e te rm i ­
n a t e Pronoun Ph ras e ; Demon s t ra t ive Pronoun Ph rase ; Posses s i ve Pronoun
Phra se ; and Possess ive Case Phra se ( for the ana lys i s o f the l a s t four
Ph ra se s . s ee 3. 1 . 2. 2. p ages 98- 100) .
.
3 . 1 . 3. 2 . 1 .
P ersOPn - Ph r. the Pe rsonal Obj ect P ronoun Phrase al t ernate
d i vi s i on - subcl ass
The a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion - sub c la s s Pe rsona l Obj e c t Pronoun Phrase h a s
the fo l low ing structure fo rmu l a :
P ersOPn - P h r ( PersOPn )
104
FILL ER : the Persona l Obj e c t Pronoun Ph r a s e i s comp o s ed o f on l y a
Pe rsona l Obj ect Pronoun .
Persona l Obj e c t Pronoun : m e , you, h i m , h er , i t , u s , t h em .
n
-Phr>:
+OO<P
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActSgTrOeclv-PhrJ +OO{PersOPn }
{ReflPn -Phr}
hndetPn }
{OemPn}
{PosPn }
{PosCase-Phd
Adv-Phr ,
Adv-Phr(Adv)
EXAMPL ES o f
T he y
found
him .
t hem se L ves .
a few.
these.
his.
Jo hn ' s .
3 . 1 . 3. 3.
Adverb Phrase al t ernate di st ribu tion - subcl ass
The a l te rna t e dist r ibut ion- sub c l ass Adverb Phrase has the fo l lowing
s t ructure formu l a :
FIL L ER : the a l t e rnate d i st ribut ion- sub c l a s s Adverb Ph rase i s composed
o f only an Adve rb ( so , no t ) .
( Fo r the Sing l e Tran s i t ive stem co -occu rrence-subc lasse s wh i ch c an
h a v e t h e i r D i r e c t Obj e c t s l o t fi l l ed b y ( s o ) a n d ( n o t ) s e e
3 . 1. 1 . 2. 2 . 1. 1 . and 3. 1 . 1. 2. 2. 1. 2 . . page 65. )
EXAMPL E:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActSg TrOeclv-PhrJ +OO<Adv>
T hey
3 . 1 . 3. 4.
hoped
V-Phr {�:�;:V;�Phr�Phr } ,
( to )
so .
no t .
the Verb Phrase al ternate
-
distribut ion - subcl ass
The a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibut ion- subc l a s s Ve rb Phr a s e inc lude s three
a l te rn a t e d i v i s ion- subc l a s s e s : I n f in i t iv e Ve rb Phra se ; Ve rb ( _ i n )
g
Phra se ; ( to ) Verb Phra se. ( For the ana lysis o f these Verb Phrases. and
the Sing l e Trans i t iv e . and Lbub l e Tran s i t ive Verb stem co-occurrence­
subc l a s ses tha t can have the i r Di rec t Obj e c t slot f i l led by the Verb
Ph ra s e s . see 3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 4. - 7 . p a ges 66-67 . and 3 . 1 . 1 . 2 , 3. 2 . p a g e s
72-74 . )
lOS
EXAMPL ES:
+ S<PersSPn> +P r [ Ac tSgTrDec l V- Ph r] +DOh n fV- Phr}
do t h e lAX)r k .
he lped
He
+ S<PersSPn> +Pr [ ActSgTrDec l V - Phr] + OO { V C - i ng ) - Ph r }
buy i ng a h at .
p l anned
He
+ S<PersSPn> +Pr [ Ac tSgTrDecl V - Ph r] +DO { C to ) V - Ph r }
t o buy a h a t .
He
p l anned
+ S<PersSPn> +P r [ Act DbTrDecl V- Ph r] + 1 0 +DO h n fV-Ph r}
He
h er
do h er lAX)r k .
he lped
+ S <PersSPn> +P r [ ActDbTrDecl V - P h r ] + 10
+DO {V C _ i ng ) - Ph r}
t h em
g o i ng to t h e conce r t .
He
penn i t t e d
+ S<p ersSPn> +Pr [ ActDbTrDec l V- Ph r] + 1 0 + DO { < to ) V- Ph r}
h er
to see t h em .
He
to ld
3. 1. 3. 5.
Deptl
{
Decl DepCl
Subj unctDep Rel Cl
},
t h e Depen den t Clause a l t e r -
nate di stribu t ion - sub c l ass
The a l t e rna t e d i s t r i but i on - subc l a s s Dependent Clause inc ludes t wo
a l t erna te div i s ion-subc l a s s e s : Dec l a ra t ive Dependent Cl ause ; Subj unc­
t ive Dependent Re lat ive Clause .
3. 1 . 3. 5. 1 .
Dec l DepCl
{
:�:::�� SCI
�::
Oecl Dep Rc l CI
Decl XOepCI
}
•
the Dec l arat i v e Dependen t
Cl au·s e Typ e al ternate d i v i sion - subcl ass
( Fo r the ana l ys i s o f these Cl ause Types . see the Cbap t e r· 2 . 1 . 7. - 10 .
p ages 36 -42 . Fo r the S i n g le Tran s i t ive Ve rb stem co-occurrenc e­
s ubc l a s s es th a t c an have the i r Di rec t Obj e c t s l o t s f i l l ed by a
pages
Dependent Dec l a ra t ive Clause Typ e . see 3. 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 10 . - 1 2
68-69 . )
.
•
EXAMPL ES:
+S<Pe rsSPn> +P d Ac t SgTrDecl V- Ph r] +DO {Dec l Oep SCt }
They
boug h t
wh atev er p l eased t h em .
[
+ S<Pe rsSPn> +P r Ac tSgTrDcc l V - Ph r] + DO { Decl OepNo n SCl }
They
boug h t
wh atever t h e y l i ked .
+ S<Pe rsSPn> +P r [ Ac tSgTrDec I V- Ph r] +DO {Decl XDepCl }
wh e t h er h e had com e .
They
asked
[
+ S<P e r sSPn> +Pr ActSgTrDecl V- Ph r] + DO { Decl Dep Rel Cl }
( t h a t ) t h ey d i dn ' t see i t .
They
adm i t t ed
.
106
Sub j un c tDep Rel Cl . the Subj unc t i ve Dep endent Rel ati ve
C l ause al ternate d i v ision- subcl ass
3 . 1 . 3. 5 . 2 .
( Fo r the Sing l e Tran s i t ive Ve rb s t em co -occurrence- subc l a s s wh ich
c an ha ve it s Di rec t Obj e c t s lo t f i l le d by a Dep enden t Re l a t iv e
page 6 5 . )
Subj unc t ive Clause . see 3. 1 . 1 . 2. 2. 1 . 1
.
•
EXAMPL E:
+S<P e rsSPn> +P r [Ac t SgTrDec l V- Ph r] +OO {DeP Rel Subj unctCl }
that he be �emoved.
asked
T h ey
DefeCl
3. 1. 3. 6.
(�
DefeCI 1 n f
DefeC I C _ in g )
l De feCl ( to )
}
, the Defec tive Clause al t e rn a t e
d i stribu t ion - subcl ass
The a l t erna te d i s t r ibut ion- subc lass De fect ive Clause includes three
a l te rna t e d i v i s lon- subc l a s s e s ; Defec t iv e Clause In fin i t ive ; Defec t ive
_
Clause C i ng ) ; De fec t ive Cl ause C to ) . ( Fo r the ana lysis of the De fec t iv e
Claus e Typ e s . a n d the co - o c cu r rence- sub c l a s s e s o f Sing l e Tran s i t ive
Verb s t em s th a t c an have t he i r D i re c t Obj e c t slot fi l l ed by a De­
fec t ive Clause . see 3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 2. 1 . 8 . - 9 . . pages 67- 68. and 3. 1 . 1. 2 . 2 . 1 . 4
page 66 . )
.
•
EXAMPL ES:
+ S<P e rsSPn> +P r [ ActSgTrDecl V- Ph r ] + DO { De feCl In f }
He
h e Lped
t hem do th e w: nk .
+ S<PersSPn> +Pr [ActSgTrDec l V-Phr ] +DO {DefeCl c _ i ng ) }
He
o b se�ved
t h em g o i ng .
+S<P e r sSPn> +Pr [ Ac t SgTrDecl V- Ph r ] + DO { De feCl ( to ) }
He
3. 1 . 4.
wan t e d
t h em to g o .
+ 10 , the ob l i gatory nuc l eu s I nd i rect Ob j ect tagmeme
The Ind i re c t Obj ec t t agmem e . ob l i ga t o ry and nuc leus to the Ac t i ve
Doub le Trans i t ive Clause Type 3 . and a l t e rnate ob l i ga to ry nuc leus to
the Pass ive Doub l e Trans i t ive Clause Type 6. has the funct iona l mean­
ing of " that to or fo r wh i ch an ac t ion is pe r fo rmed".
In t he s t ruc t u re fo rm u l a e o f the Ac t i v e and the Pass ive Do ub l e
Tran s i t i v e Clause Typ e s in qu e s t i on on p a g e s 8 - 10 and 13- 14 . the
ob l iga t o ry nuc l eus Indi rect Obj e c t tagmeme wa s seen to have the fo l­
lo wing s t ruc ture fo rmul a :
N - Phr
Pn - Ph r
+10
DepCl
( )
107
fIL L ERS: the ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus I nd i r ect Obj e c t s lo t i s f i l led by a
c ompo s i t e fi l l e r c l a s s inc lud ing three a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibut i on - sub ­
c l asse s : Noun-Phra se ; Pronoun-Ph ra se ; Dependent Clause .
3 . 1 . 4. 1 .
N _ Phr 16
tbe Noun Phrase al ternat e distribu t ion -
subclass
( For the ana lysis o f Noun Phra ses . see
3. 1 . 2. 1 .
.
pages 78-98 . )
EXAMPL ES:
+ S<Pe rsSPn> +P r [ Ac tDbTrDecl V - Ph r] + I o { comN n _ c . S i n g - Ph r} +DO<comN n _ c. P 1 - Ph r>
They
boug h t
t h e boy
pre sen t s .
}
{ comN n _ c . P 1 - Ph r
the bo ys
{ N Adj . PI - P h r}
the deaf
{ N v < _ en ) - Ph r }
the impri soned
+ S<ComNn - C. Slng
. - Phr> +Pr [ Ac tDbTrDec l V- Ph r ] + I O {ComN n _ m - Ph r }
t h e !<.Ood
g ave
Th e hll11l m er
. -Phr>
+OO<ComN n- c . sIng
an inden t at i o n .
3 . 1. 4 . 2.
Pn - Ph r
PersOPn - Ph r
Re f l Pn - Ph r
I n detPn - Ph r
DemPn - Ph r
Po sPn - Ph r
, the Pronoun Phrase al t ernate
dis tribu t i on - subclass
.
The a l t e rn a te d i s t r ibu t I on- sub c l a ss Pronoun Ph rase i n c lude s f ive
a l t e rn a t e di v i s i on- subc l a s s e s : Pe rsona l Obj e c t P ronoun Ph rase ; Re ­
f l exi v e Pronoun -Ph ra s e ; Inde t e rm in a t e P ronoun Phrase ; Demon s t ra t i v e
Pronoun Phrase ; Po ssessive Pronoun Phra s e .
(No t I ce tha t the Po ssessive Case do es no t fi l l the Ind I re c t Obj e c t
s lo t . Fo r the ana lys i s o f the a l ternate div i s ion - subc lass Pronoun
Phra se . see 3 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . l a. 6 . 7 . . pa ges 9 1 - 9 2 . and 3 . 1 . 2 . 2 . . p a ge s
98- 100 . and 3. 1. 3. 2. 1 . . page 103 . )
16
Th e Nom i n a l i z ed Ve r b < _ i
Obj ec t s l o t .
-Phrase
ng )
IS
not
8
f i l l e r o f the I n d i re c t
108
EXAMPL ES:
+ DO <ComN n - c . s i n g - Ph r>
presen t s .
+S<P e r sSPn > +P r [ActDbTrDec l V- Ph r] + I O {PersOPn }
him
boug h t
T h ey
{ Re fl Pn - Ph r}
t h em s e L ves
hndetPn - Ph r }
t hose h e m e t
L as t year
DepC)
3. 1 . 4. 3.
{
Dep SCI
DepNon SCI
{Po sPn }
t h e i rs
},
di s t ribution - subcl ass
the Dep en den t Clause al ternate
-
The a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibut ion - sub c l a s s Dependent Clause inc lude s t wo
a l te rn a t e d i v i s ion- sub c l a s se s : Dependen t Subj e c t Clause ; Dependen t
Non-Subj ec t Clause ( c f . 2. 1 . 7 . 8 . . pages 36 - 40 ) .
EXAMPL ES:
+ S<PersSPn> +Pr [ Act DbTrDecl V-Phr] +IO { DepSCl }
They
who e ve r
m e t t h em
g ave
+ DO<ComN n - c. p 1 - Ph r >
presen t s .
{ DepNonSCt }
who e ver
t h ey m e t
3 . 1. 5.
+At , the o b l i gatory nuc l eus Attr i bu t i ue tagmeme
The At t r ibut ive t agmem e . o b l igato ry and nu c l eus to the Ac t i ve and
t h e Pass ive At t r ibu t iv e Trans i t ive Cl au se Typ e s 4 and 7 set out on
p a g e s 10- 1 1 an d 1 5 -· 16 . h a s the func t i on a l m e an in g o f " t h a t wh i ch
resu l t s from the act ion upon an unde rgo e r" .
I n the s t ruc t u re fo rmu l a e o f the Cl ause Typ e s in qu e s t ion . t h e
o b l igato ry nuc l eus At t r ibu t ive t agmeme w a s seen to have the fo l l ow ing
s t ruc ture fo rmu l a :
N - Phr
Adj - Ph r
+At
V ( - e n ) - Phr
)
(
_
F IL L ERS: the ob l igatory nuc l eus At t r ibut i v e s lo t i s f i l led by a com­
p o s i t e f i l l e r c l as s inc luding three a l t e rnate d i st r ibu t ion- subc l a s se s :
Noun Phrase ; Adj ect ive Phra se; Verb ( en ) Ph ra se.
.
( Fo r the At t r ibu t ive Tran s i t ive Verb stem co - o ccurrence- subc l a s se s
wh ich have the i r At t r ibu t ive s l o t fi l l e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r fi l l e r
d i st r ibut ion - subclass . see 3. 1 . 1 . 2 . 4 . pages 74-7 5 . )
3. 1. 5 . 1.
N-Phr { N-Phr
AtN-Phr }
109
,
the Noun Phrase al t ern ate di stribu ­
tion- subcl ass
The a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i bu t i on- sub c l a s s Noun Ph r a s e inc l u d e s t wo
a l ternate div i s ion- sub c l as se s : Noun Phra s e ; At t r ibu t ive Noun Phrase.
3 . 1 . 5 . 1 . 1.
the Noun Phrase al ternate d i v i sion - subcl ass
N-Phr,
Thi s i s the regu l a r Noun Phrase , i . e . � t can and must inc lude the
De t e rm i ne r t agmeme when necessary and ot h e r opt iona l sa t e l l i t e t a g­
memes . ( For the ana ly s i s . see 3. 1. 2. 1 . . pages 78-98 . )
EXAMPL ES:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActAtTrDecIV-Phr] +DO<Refl Pn-Phr> +AdN-Phr}
+S<Per sSPn> +Pr[PasAtTrDeclV-Phr] +AdN-Phr}
AtN-Phr.
He
s ty l e d
h im se II
He
was co nsi dered
an exc e l l en t companion.
a Marine off i c e r .
the Att ribut i ve Noun Phrase al ternate d i v i sion ­
3 . 1. 5. 1 . 2.
subcl ass
The a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion- sub c l a s s At t r ibu t i ve Noun Phr a s e has the
fo l lowing st ruc ture formul a :
AtN-Phr(+NH)
fILL ER: the a l t e rn a t e di v i s ion- sub c l a s s At t r i bu t i ve Noun Phrase i s
c ompo sed o f a m i n imum nuc l eu s Noun Head . i . e . i t does no t inc lude a
De term ine r t agmeme whe re a regu l a r Noun Phrase must have one .
EXAMPL ES :
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActAtTrDecIV-Phr] +DO<PersOPn> +At{AtN-Phr}
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[PasAtTrDeclV-Phr] +At{AtN-Phr}
Adj -Phr
They
e l e c t ed
him
She
was nom i nated
s e c re tary .
,
3. 1 . 5 . 2.
c hai rm an.
the Adj e c tive Phrase al t e rn a t e di s t ribu t ion­
subcl ass
( Fo r the ana lysi s . see
3. 1 . 2. 1 . 1 . la. 4. 1 . .
page 8 5 . )
EXAMPL ES:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActAtTrDecIV-Phr] +DO<Per sOPn> +At<Adj-Phr>
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[PasAtTrDeclV-PhrJ +At<Adj-Phr>
They
t houg h t
him
He
wa s b e l i eved
very i n t e l l ig e n t .
3. 1. 5 . 3.
g reat .
v < _ en ) - Ph r , the Verb < _ e n ) Phrase al t ern a t e di s t ribu ­
tion - subcl ass
( Fo r the ana ly s i s . see
3. 1 . 2. 1 . 1 . 1a. 4 . 2 . .
pages 86-87 . )
1 10
EXAMPL E:
+S<PersSPn > +Pr[ActAtTrDeclV-Phr] +DO<PersOPn> +At<V( _ en ) -Phr>
+EqCo ,
The Equational
Complementhas tagmeme,
obligatory
andof nucleus
to the
Equational
Clause
Type
the
structure
meaning
"characterist­
.
ics Inof theidentification
or
equation"
structureEquational
formula Complement
of the Equational
Clause
Type
the
nucleus
was
seen
to
have
the
follow­
obligatory
ing structure formula:
N-Phr
n -Phr
PAdj-Phr
V
Phr
+EqCo LAdv-Phr
V-Phr
LRelAx-Phr
DepCl
DefeCl
the obligatory
nucleusdistribution-subclasses:
slot is filled by a composite
filler
class
including
nine
alternate
Noun
Phrase;
Pronoun Phrase; Adjective Phrase; Verb ( _ en) Phrase; Verb Phrase; location AdverbClause
Phrase;. Location Relator Axis Phrase; Dependent Clause;
Defective
N-Phr ,
(For the analysis, see . . pages
+S<PersSPn > +Pr[OeclAux(oe ) -Phr] +EqCo{comNn _ c. Si n g -Phr}
{comNn _ c o pl -Phr}
{comNn _ m -Phr]
<OemPn >
{persProPNn -Phr}
<PersSPn >
{N Adj . st ng-Phr}
<NAdj -Phr>
He
th em
b e L i eved.
3. 1. 6.
caug h t .
the obI i gatory nuc l eus Equat i onal Comp l emen t
tagmeme
8.
8,
( - en )
-
f ILL ER S :
3. 1. 6. 1 .
the Noun Phrase al t e m a t e di st ribu t ion ­
subc l ass
3. 1 . 2. 1
78-98. )
EXAMPL ES:
He
is
a fi sherman .
They
a1"e
Ame1"i cans.
That
is
u..o o d.
She
is
Ma1"y .
The good.
is
th e beau t i fu L .
•
111
These
3 . 1 . 6 . 2.
the accused.
are
P n - Ph r
PersOPn - Ph r
ReflPn-Phr
I ndetPn - Ph r
OemPn - Ph r
Po sPn - P h r
P o sCase- Ph r
, the Pronoun Phrase al t ern at e
dist ribu t ion - sub c l ass
Th e a l t e rna t e d i s t r i but ion- sub c l a s s Pronoun Phr a s e inc lude s S I X
a l t e rn a t e d i v i s i on - sub c l a s s e s : Pe r son a l Obj ec t P ronoun Ph r a se ; Re ­
f l ex i v e Pronoun Phr a s e ; Inde t e rm in a t e Pronoun Phra s e ; Demon s t ra t i v e
Pronoun Phrase ; Po ssessive Pronoun Phrase ; Po ssess i ve ca s e Phra se .
( Fo r the ana l y s i s o f these Pronoun Phra s e s . see 3 . 1 . 2 . 1 . I . I a . 6 . 7
p a g e s 9 1 - 9 2 . 3 . 1 . 2 . 2 . . p a g e s 9 8 - 100 . and 3 . 1 . 3 . 2 . 1 . . p a g e s
103- 104. )
.
•
EXAMPL ES:
+ S<Pe rsSPn> + P r [ Oecl Au x( be ) - Phr] +EqCo { I n d e tPn - Phr }
t h e fe w I have m e t .
we re
They
{ OemPn }
t h e se .
{ Po sPn }
hers.
{ Po sCase }
Mary ' s .
+ S<OemPn > +Pr [ OecI Au x ( b c ) - Ph r ] + EqCo { Pe rsOPn }
That
u�s
him .
{ Re f ) Pn }
myse l f ·
3 . 1 . 6 . 3.
Adj - Ph r ,
the Adj ec t i v � Phrase al ternat e di s tribution ­
subc l ass
( Fo r the ana l y s I s . see
3 . 1. 2 . 1 . 1 . Ia. 4. 1 .
. pages 8 5 - 86 . )
EXAMPL E:
+ S<PersSPn> +Pr [ Oecl Au x( b c ) - Ph r] +EqCo <Adj - Ph r>
He
�s
very k i n d .
3 . 1 . 6 . 4.
v ( _ e n ) - Ph r , th e Verb ( _ e n ) Ph rase al tern a t e dist ribu­
t ion - subcl ass
( Fo r the ana lys i s . see
3. 1. 2. 1. 1 . Ia. 4 . 2 . .
pages 86-87 . )
112
EXAMPL E:
+ S<PersSPn> +Pr [ Oec l Au x C be ) - Ph r] + EqCo<V C- e n ) - Ph r>
He
{
was
3. 1 . 6 . 5 .
V-Phr
C tO ) V - Ph r
. ) - Ph r
V C - tng
bu t ion - subclass
}
gon e .
, the Verb Phrase al t ernate di stri -
Th e a l te rnate d i s t r ibut ion- sub c l a ss Ve rb Phrase in c ludes t wo a l ­
t e rn a t e divis ion- sub c l a sses: ( to ) Verb Phra s e ; Verb c _ i n ) Phra se.
g
pages 100 and 10 1. )
( Fo r the ana lyses . see 3 . 1 . 2 . 4
.
•
EXAMPL ES:
+ S<C to ) V- Phr>
+ P r [ Oecl Aux C be ) - Ph r] + EqCo<C to ) V- Ph r>
To see
is
+S<N - Ph r>
The pro b l em
3. 1. 6 . 6 .
to kno w.
+Pr [Oecl Au x C be ) - Ph r] + EqCO<V C _ i ng ) - Ph r>
is
try i ng to g e t t h e t i c ke t s .
L Adv - P h r , the Location Adverb Phrase al t ernate
di s tribution - subcl ass
The a l te rnate d i st r ibut ion- sub c l a s s Loc at ion Adve rb Phrase has the
fo l l owing st ructure formu l a :
L Adv- Ph r ( ±Prec i ser tLAdv )
FILL ERS: the a l ternate d i s t ribut ion- subclass Locat ion Adverb Phrase i s
composed o f an op t iona l satel l i t e Prec i se r C ri g h t ) . and an ob l igatory
nuc l eus Lo cat ion Adverb .
EXAMPL E:
+ S<P ersSPn> + P r [ Oecl Au x C be ) - Ph r] +EqCo<L Ad v - Ph r( ±Preci ser +LAdv »
They
3 . 1. 6 . 7 .
rig h t
are
t h ere .
LRel A x - Ph r , th e Locat ion Rel a tor Axi s Phrase al t ernate
dis t ribution- subclass
The a l t e rnate d i s t r ibut i on subc l a s s Lo c a t ion Re l a t o r Ax i s Phr a s e
h a s the fo l l owing s t ructure fo rmu l a :
LRel Ax- Ph r ( +LPrep +11<0 - x»
FILL ER S: the a l t e rn a te d i s t r ibut ion- subc l a s s Lo c a t i on Re l a t o r Ax i s
Phra se i s compo sed o f an ob l igatory nuc leus Locat ion Prepo s i t ion ( i n ,
o n , a t , o v e r , e t c . ) and an ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Head s lo t fi l led b y an
Obj e c t express ion .
EXAMPL E:
+ S<Pe r sSPn> +Pr [ Oec l Au x C b e ) - Ph r] +EqCo <L Rel Ax- Phr ( +LP rep +H<N - Phr» >
They
were
in
t h e fi e l d .
3. 1. 6 . 8.
oepC l
113
{ }
:::��� SCl
' the Depen den t Clause al t e rn at e
XOep C l
Op.p Re l Cl
di s trihu t ion - subclass
The a l ternate d i s t r ibut ion - subclass Dependent Clause inc lude s four
a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion- sub c l asses : Dependent Subj e c t Cl ause ; Dependent
Non-Subj ect Clause ; Ext ra Dependent Cl ause ; Dependent Re lat ive Clause.
( For the ana ly s i s , see 2. 1 . 7 . - 10. , pages 36-42 . )
EXAMPL ES:
My opinion
+P r [Oecl Au x ( b e ) - Phr] + EqCo { OeP Re l Cl }
t h a t h e shouL d s t ay .
is
+Pr [ Oec l Au x ( be ) - Ph r] + EqCo { XOepCl }
+ S<N - P h r>
whe ther h e wan t s to g o o r no t .
The pro b L em
is
+ S<PersSPn > +Pr [ Oecl Au x ( be ) - Ph r] +EqCo{ OePNonSC I }
was no t
He
who h e seemed to be .
+pr COecl Au x ( be ) - Phr] +EqCo { OepSCt }
wh a t m ade him ang ry t h e o t h er
mu s t b e
day .
+S<OemPn >
l'hat
3. 1. 6. 9.
OefeCl
{ Oe feCI ( i n " )
_
F;
Rel A x - Ph r ( +P rep (jo r ) +OefeCl ( to ) [[ + S<O- x> +Pr [ ( to ) V - P h r]
the Defective Cl au se al tern a t e dist ribu t ion - subclass
The a l te rnate d i s t r ibu t i on- subc l as s Defec t i v e Clause i n c lude s t wo
d i v i s i on- subc l a s se s : De fe c t i v e Clause ( i ng ) ; Re l a t o r Ax i s Ph rase ,
_
wh i ch i s compo sed o f an ob l i ga to ry nucleus Prepo s i t ion ( j o r ) , and an
o b l i gatory nuc leus De fect ive Cl u e ( t O ) .
as
EXAMPL E'S:
+S� - Ph r>
The d i jJt ­
c uI ty
is
,Jo hn L e aving too SOOIt .
+P r r Dec l Au x ( bc ) - Ph � +EqCo <Re l A x - P h r ( +P rep (jor) +oereCl ( tO ) ) >
to
jo r you
My d e s i rl!
meet htm.
+ Sts . the ob I i gato ry nuc l eu s Stat i ue Sub j ec t tagmeme
The Stat ive �ubJ ect t agmemc , obl iga t o ry and nuc leus to the ( Th ere )
Sta t ivc Clau�c lypc 9 ( c f. pages 17- ] 8 ) , occup i e s the t h i rd ob l i ga t o ry
nuc leus slot i n the Clause Type , and selects the fo rm o f i ts preceding
P red ' cat e t n gmeme
The St a t i v c Subj ec t t a gmeme ha s the fun c t I onal mean ing o f "that
wh l ch i s qua l i I' l t. J , s t n t c d , o r enum e r a t e d " . I t h as t h e fo l lo w i n g
3. 1
7.
1 14
s t ructure fo rmul a :
+Sts
( �:�;��/
OepCl
fIL L ER S : the o b l i g a t o ry n c leus Sta t ive Subj e c t s l o t i s fi l l ed by a
c ompo s i t e fi l l e r c l a s s lnc luding three a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ib u t i on - sub­
c l a s se s : Noun Phra se ; Pronoun Phras e ; Dependent Claus e .
3. 1. 7 . 1.
N - Ph r , t h e Noun Phrase al ternate distribu tion ­
subcl ass
( For the ana l y s i s of the Noun Phra s � . see
3. 1 . 2 . 1 . .
pages 78-98 . )
EXAMPL ES:
+ S ( T h e f" e )
Th ef"e
+ P r [Oec l Au x ( be ) - Ph r] +sts{comN n _ c . 8i ng - Ph r}
was
a s tuden t .
{ comN n _ m - Ph r }
some watef".
{N V ( _ en ) - Ph r }
the accused .
{�rsP ropN n - Ph r}
Jo hn Sm i t h .
{Non p ers p roPN n l - Ph r}
M e xi c o .
{NonPe rsP roPN n z - Ph r}
Th e Hague .
{ N V ( _ i ng ) - Ph d
h i s Wf"i t i ng that l e t te f" .
+ S( Thef"e ) +Pr [ Oecl Au x ( be ) - Ph r ]
Thef"e
wef"e
{ ComN n _ c . P I - Ph r}
a jew s tuden t s .
{ N Adj . P I - Ph d
t h e pOO L
3 . 1. 7 . 2.
Pn - Ph r
{�::;!�;�� }
:;
PosPn - Ph r
PosCase - P h r
di s tribu t ion - subcl ass
{ N v c - en) Phr }
t h e accused .
, the Pronoun Phrase al ternate
. 11S
The a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibu t ion � subc l a s s Pronoun Phra se inc ludes five
a l t e rnate div is ion- subc lasse s : Pe rsona l Subj ec t Pronoun Phras e ; Inde­
t e rm in a t e P ronoun Ph ra se ; Demon s t r a t ive Pronoun Phra s e ; Po ssess ive
Case Phrase .
( Fo r the ana lys i s , see 3. 1 . 2. 2. , pages 98- 100 . )
EXAMPL ES:
+ S C T h ere ) +Pr [ Dec l Au x C be ) - Ph r] +StS{PersSPn }
he.
There
was
{ I ndetPn - Ph r}
so'm e .
+ S C There ) +Pr [ Decl Au x C be ) - Ph r ] +StS{ DemPn}
these .
There
were
{ Po sPn }
m i ne .
DepCl
3. 1. 7 . 3.
{ DepSCl
},
DepNon SCl
{ Po sCase}
Jo hn ' s .
the Dependen t Cl ause distribu tion -
sub cl ass
Th e a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibut ion-subc lass Dependen t Clau s e inc ludes t wo
a l t e rn a t e div i s i on- subc l a s ses : Dependen t Subj e c t Cl ause ; Dependent
Non- Subj ect Cl au s e .
( Fo r the ana lys i s , see 2. 1. 7 . - 10 . , pages 36 - 42. )
EXAMPL ES:
+SC T he re ) +Pr [ Dec I Au x C b e ) - Phr] + St S { DepSCl }
wh atever c an p l e ase you.
There
wi n be
{ DepNon SCI }
wha teve r you wan t .
3. 1. 8.
+ StCo . the ob I i gatory nuc l eu s Stat i ue Comp l emen t
tagmem e
Th e Sta t ive COmp l emen t tagmeme , ob l i gatory and nuc leus to the C I t )
S ta t ive Clause Type 10 ( c L pp . 18- 19 ) , occup i es the th i rd o b l igato ry
nuc leus s l o t in the Cl au se Type , and ha s the func t i on a l m e an ing o f
" that wh i ch i s s t a t ed o r d e fined" . I t has the fo l lo w ing s t ru c t u re
formu l a :
+ StCo
<;����)
Dep Cl
fILLERS: the ob l igatory nuc leus Stat ive COmp lement s l o t is f il led by a
c o m po s i t e f i l l e r c l a s s inc l u d i n g t h r e e a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i b u t ion­
subc lasse s : Noun Ph rase ; Pronoun Ph ras e ; Dependent Cl ause .
1 16 -
N - Ph r , the Noun Phrase al ternate di s tribu t ion - subclass
3. 1 . S . 1.
( Fo r the ana ly s i s of Noun Phra se . see
3 . 1 . 2. 1 .
.
pages 78-98 . )
EXAMPLES:
+ S< I t ) +Pr Oecl Au x< b e ) - P h r] +StCo { comN n _ c. 8 i n - Phr}
g
a studen t .
It
was
[
{ comN n _ m - Phr}
som e wate'/".
{N Adj . p I - Ph r}
t h e POD'/".
{ N V < _ en ) - Ph r}
t h e i nju1"f!d .
{persp roPN n - P h r}
Jo hn Sm i I, ll. .
{ ComN n _ c. P I - Ph r}
a ' jew s tuden t s .
{ N v < _ in ) - Ph r }
g
h i s W1"i t i ng t h e � e t t e'/"s qui c k � y .
PersOPn - Ph r
I ndetPn -Phr
R c f l Pn - Ph r
OemPn - Ph r
Po sPn - Ph r
Po sCase- Ph r
3. J . 8 . 2.
17
the Pronoun Phrase al ternate
d I s t r ibu tion - subel ass
'[b E.'
a l t e rn a t e
d i s t r ibu t i on - sub c l a s s Pronoun Phr a s e inc lu,d e s s i x
( Fo r the an a l y s i s . s e e 3 . 1 . 2 . 2 .
3 . 1. 2. 1 . 1 . l a. 6 . 7 . . pages 9 1- 9 2 . )
a l t e rn a t e d i v i S I o n - subc l a s s e s .
p ag e s
98- 100 ,
and
[U AM P Lfi) S:
.
+ S ([ O + p d Oec I Au x C be ) - Ph r] + StCo { P ersOPn }
It
wa s
me.
h ndetPn - Ph r}
a je w.
{ oemPn}
that .
17
A P e r l';o n a l
Obj ect Pronou n .
Subj e c t P ronoun i s a l s o u s ed i n t h e P l a c e o f a P e r so n a l
EXAMPL E:
+8( [ 0 +Pr [ Oecl AuxC be ) -Phr]
It
was
1 17
+SCIt ) +Pr[OeclAuxCbe)-PhrJ +stCo{Po sPn}
{Po sCase}
{ReflPn -Ph r}
OepCl { oepSCl
OepNonSCl } ,
It
was
mine.
John ' s .
myse l f ·
the al t emate di s t ri bu t ion- subclas s
3. 1. 8 . 3.
Dependen t Cl ause
The a l t e rnate d i s t r ibut ion- subc l a s s Dependent Clause inc ludes t wo
a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion- sub � l a s ses : Dependent Subj e c t Cl ause ; Dependent
Non- Subj ect Cl ause .
( Fo r ana lys l s , see 2 . 1 . 7 . - 8 . , pages 36 39 )
-
.
EXAMPL ES:
+SCIt)
It
+Pr[OecIAuxCbe ) -PhJ +StCo{OepSCl}
{ OePNonSCl}
tAg,
what p L e ases you mo s t .
wi L L be
wh at you L i k e mOs t .
3. 1. 9.
the opt i on a l nuc l eus Agent tagmeme
The Agent t a gmeme , opt iona l and nuc leus to the Pass ive Trans i t ive
Clause Types 5, 6, and 7 ( c f. pages 1 1- 16} , occup i e s the pos i t ion a ft e r
t h e ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Pred i c a t e t a gmeme , and a ft e r t h e obl i g a t o ry
nuc l eus Obj ec t , o r At t r ibut ive COmp lement tagmeme , i f any . I t h a s the
funct iona l mean ing of the Subj e c t tagmeme in the Act ive Clause Typ e s ,
i . e . o f "Pe r fo rm e r " o r "Pa r t i c ipant in t h e a c t ion " o f the Pa s s i ve
Trans i t ive Pred lcate t agmeme .
I t has the fo l lowing structure fo rmula ;
ug[RelAx-Phr( +PrepCby) +H<;�����
oepCl '/ ) ]
,'IL L ERS: the op t lona l nuc leus Agent slo t i s fi l led by a Re l a t o r Ax i s
Ph ra s e composed o f an ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Prepo s i t ion c b y ) , and an
ob l i ga to ry nuc leus Head slot fi l l ed by a compo s i t e fi l l e r c l a s s inc lu­
d ing three a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i bu t ion- sub c l a s s e s : Noun Ph rase ; P ronoun
Phra se ; Dependen t Cl ause .
3 . 1. 9 . 1 .
N-Phr ,
the Noun Phrase al ternate di s tribu tion­
subcl ass
( Fo r the ana lys i s , see
3 . 1 . 2. 1 . ,
pages 78-98 . )
1 18
EXAMPL ES:
+S +pr[PaSSgTrDeclV-Phr] ±Ag[RelAx-Phr(+PrepCby)by +H{N Adj . s i ng -Phr})]
+S +Pr[PasDbTrDeclV-Phr] +DO ±Ag[RelAx-Phr(+PrepCby)by
+H{comNn _ c. sin g-Phr})]
+Pr[PasDbTrDeclV-Phr] +00 ±Ag[RelAx-Phr(+Prep(by)by
+H{comNn _ c . P 1 -Phr})]
+S +Pr[PasDbTrDec lV-Phr] +DO ±Ag[RclAx-Phr(+prepCby)by
+u{persProPNn -Phr})]
+S b y+Pr[PasDbTrDecIV-Phr] +10 ±Ag[RelAx-Phr(+PrepCby)by
+H{ comNn _ c.s i ng-Phr} ) ]
+S +Pr[PasAtTrDcclV-Phr] +At iAg[RclAx-Phr(+Prepcby)
+U{N Adj . PI -Phr})1
+S +Pr[PasAtTrDeclV-Ph� +At iAg[ReIAx-Phr(+PrcpCby)by
+H N _ ) -Phr})]
+S +Pr[PasSgTrDeclV.Phr] iAg[ReIAx-Phr(+Prcp(by) +U{Nv C _ i ng ) ·Phr}))
by
pn _ PhrlrPosPn-Phr
����:�::; ,
PosCase-Phr
He
the beau t i fu L
was moved
She
was g i ven
f l o wers
the aud i en c e .
+S
She
was g i ven
f l o wers
t h e aud i en c e s .
She
was g i ven
f l o wers
Jo hn .
A
o
wa s g i ven
the mo ther
t h e asso c i at i o n .
He
was e l e c t ed
Pre s i den t
by
t h e ri c h .
He
{
was be l i eved
k i nd
c
en
t h e impri son ed .
He
was sur/)'ri sed
3. 1 . 9. 2 .
}
her go i ng to t o wn .
t h e Pronoun Phrase al ternate
dis tribu tion- subcl as s
T h e a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibu t ion- subc l a s s Pronoun Ph r a s e inc ludes f i v e
a l ternate div i s ion- subc la sses : Pe rsonal Obj ect Pronoun Phra se ; Inde te r­
m in a t e P ro no un Ph r a s e ; Demon s t r a t i v e P ronoun Ph ra s e ; Po s s e s s i ve
1 19
P ronoun Phrase; Pos se s s ive case Phrase .
(No t i c e t hat the Re flex ive P ronoun Ph r a se do e s not f i l l the Head
s l o t of the Agent t a gmeme . Fo r the ana lys i s o f the P ronoun Ph rase s .
see 3. 1. 2. 2
pages 98- 100 . and 3. 1 . 3. 2 . 1
page s 103 and 104 . )
.
•
.
•
EXAMPL ES:
+S +Pr[PaSSgTrOeclV-Phr] ±Ag[RelAx-Phr(+prep(by)by +H{persOPn } )]
hndetPn }
{DemPn }
{PosPn }
{PosCase}
DepCl { DeDepSCl
nNon SCl} ,
He
th em .
was h e � ped
som e bo dy .
these.
his.
Jo hn ' s .
th e De p enden t Cl aus e at tenIate
3. 1 . 9 . 3.
di s t ri bu tion - subclass
The a l t e rnate d i s t r i bu t i on- sub c l a s s Dependent Cl ause inc ludes t wo
a l t e rna t e d iv i s i on - subc l a s s e s : Dependent Subj ec t Cl aus e ; Dependent
Non- Subj ect Clause ( c f . 2 . 1 . 7 . - 8 . . pages 36 - 39. )
EX AMPL ES:
+s
+pr[pasSgTrOeclV-Phr] ±Ag[RelAx-Phr(+prep C by) +H{DepSCI})] by.
+8 +Pr[PasSgTrDeclV-PhJ ±Ag[RelAx-Phr(+PrepCby) +H{OePNon SCl})]
wi t
It
They
by
who eve,.. p asse s
by
wi l l b e l i ked
who e ver t h ey
he l p .
O P T I O N AL SATELL I TE CL AU S E L E V EL TAGM EM E S
3. 2.
3 . 2.
l b e ad1lL i ,..e d
O.
I N TRO DU CTO RY
As i t wa s s t a t ed in 1 . 3 . 0 . 2 . page S . the expans ion o f the b a s i c
nuc l eus o f the ten Cl ause Types inc ludes t en opt ional satel l i t e Clause
level tagmemes wh i ch can fu rthe rmo re be g rouped into two c l a sse s :
( 1) t he c l a s s o f fou r op t i ona l sa t e l l i t e Comp l ement a ry t a gmeme s :
Ind i re c t Obj ec t
1 0 ; Accompan imen t
A; Bene fa c t o r
8 ; and
I.
Inst rument
.
-
-
-
-
( 2) t he c l a s s o f s i x o p t i on a l sa t e l l i t e Ci. rcum s t ant i a l t a gm eme s :
Frequency - F ; Lo c a t i on-Di. re ct i on - L ; Pu rpo se
Time
Manner
M ; and cause - c .
-
T;
-
P;
-
Each o f the t en op t i on a l sat e l l i t e Cl ause l e v e l t a gmem e s w i l l be
s t a ted w i th a s t ruc t u re formu l a p resen t ing the al te rna t e d i st r i but i on-
120
subc l a sses of its f i l ler c l a ss . and i t s p l a ce . o r p l aces re l a t ive to
o ther nuc leus Cl ause leve l t a gmemes . and op t iona l s a te l l i te Cl ause
level tagmemes in the Clause matrix.
3. 2 . 1 .
±IO ,
the opt i on a l s ate " i te I nd i rect Obj ect tagmeme
The opt ion a l satel l i te Indirect Obj ect tagmeme . which i s d i ffe rent
from the ob l igatory nuc leus Ind i rect Obj ect tagmeme of the Ac t ive . and
the Pa ss ive Dbub le Tran s i t i ve Clause Types 3 and 6 ( c f. 1. 3 . 3 . page
8 . and 1 . 3. 6 .
page 13 . and for further de t a i l on the d i f ferences o f
the two t agmemes . see 1 . 3. 3a . page 9 ) . occurs in the Act ive . and the
Pass i ve Single Tran s i t ive Cl ause Types 2 and 6 . and has the fo l lowing
st ructure fo rmu l a :
.
.
.
iIO[IORelAx-Phr(tPrep c to) tH<O-x» ]
c to).
fIL L ER : t he op t ion a l sate l l i te Indi rec t Obj e c t s lo t i s f i l led by an
Ind i rect Obj ec t Re l ator Ax i s Phrase . wh ich i s composed o f an ob l iga­
t o ry nuc l eus Prepo s i t ion
and an ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Head s l o t
f i l led b y an Obj ect express ion . l 8
PL ACES:
( 1) The op t io n a l s a te l l i te Indi rect Obj ect t a gmeme is regu l a r l y
p l aced a fter the ob l i gatory n� c leus Di rec t Obj ect t agmeme .
EXAMPL E:
tS<PersSPn> tpr[ActSgTrDeclV-Phr] +OO<N-Phr>
iIO[IORelAx-Phr(tPrepCto) tH<PersOPn» ]
He
the � e t te 'r
'reje'r'red
to
me.
( 2 ) The o p t i on a l s a te l l i t e Ind i re c t Obj e c t t a gmeme i s . on the
cont rary . regu l arly p l aced before the ob l igato ry nuc leus Di rect
Obj ec t slot fi l led by a long express ion .
EX AMPL E:
+S +Pr
He
18
Fo r a l l
'reje'r'red
iIO +00
to m e
a� � the � e t t e'rs that we're add're ssed
t h e fo l l o wi n g o p t i o n a l
s a t e l l i t e Cl a u s e l e v e l t a gmem e s ,
a l so f o r some o p t i o n a l s a t e l l i te P h r a s e l e v e l
to
him .
an d
t agmeme s e l sewhe re . t h e com­
p l e t e fi l l e r c l a s s o f t he i r H e a d s l o t i s n o t s t a t e d in o r d e r to avo i d a
l en gt h y d i s c u s s i o n on a po i n t wh i c h i s n o t i m p o r t a n t to t h e co n t r a s t i v e
p u rpose o f thi s paper.
I n s t ead. thei r Head s l o t is sta ted to be f i l l ed by an
An Obj e c t exp r � s si o n can b e
Obj ec t e xp r e s s i on . or by a Subj e c t exp r e s s i o n .
a n y Noun Ph r a s e . o r a n y P ronoun Ph r a s e . i n c l uding a Personal Obj e c t Pronoun
(me, you, him, he'r, them , i t ) .
A Subj e c t exp r e ssion can be any Noun Ph r a s e ,
o r any Pronoun Phrase , i n c l uding a Person a l Subj ect Pronoun
they, i t ) .
(I, you, he , she ,
121
3 . 2. 2 .
fA ,
the opt i on a l sate l ' i te Accompan i men t tagmeme
The opt iona l satel l i te Ac companiment t agmeme usua l ly oc curs on ly ln
the Act ive Int ran s i t ive Clause Type 1 , a l though i t can occur in other
Clause Types as we l l . It ha s the fo l lowing st ructure fo rmu l a :
U[. Uelt\x-Phr( +Prep(with) +H<o-x>J]
f IL L ER : t he op t iona l s a t e l l i t e Ac comp a n i men t s lo t i s f i l l ed b y an
Accompan iment Re l a t o r Ax i s Ph rase wh ich is composed o f an ob l i ga t o ry
nuc l eus Prepo s i t ion ( wi t h ) , and an ob l i ga to ry nuc leus Head s l o t f i l led
by an Obj ect exp ress ion .
PL A CE: t h e o p t ion a l sa t e l l i t e Ac compan imen t t a gm eme i s re gu l a r l y
p laced a fte r the Pred icate tagmeme .
EXAMPL E:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[Actl
nwe t n trDecIV-Phr] +A[AReIAx-Phr(+Prep(with) +H<PersOPn » ]
tB,
tB[BRelAx'Phr(+Prep(jor) +H<O-x» ]
wi t h
He
her.
the op t i on a l s ate l l i te Bene factor tagmeme
3 . 2 . 3.
The opt ion a l sa t e l l i t e Bene fa c t o r t agmeme has the fo l lowing s t ruc­
ture formu la :
fIL L ER : the op t iona l sat e l l i te Bene fa ctor slo t is f i l l ed by a Bene fac­
tor Re l a t o r Ax i s Phrase , wh i ch i s composed o f an o b l i g a to ry nuc l eus
P repo s i t ion ( ja r ) , and an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Head s l o t fi l led by an
Obj ec t express ion .
PL A CE: the opt ional sat e l l i t e Benefa c t o r t agmeme i s re gu l a r ly p l aced
a fter the Pred i c a te t a gmeme , o r a fter the Obj ect tagmeme , if any .
EXA/fPL A':
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActSgTrDeclV-Phr] +DO<N-Phr> iB[BRelAx-Phr(+prep(jorjar)
+H<XDePNonSCI» ]
IReUx-Phrl (+Prep( +H<O-x» ,
h as boug h t
He
the s t amps
whom he m e t y e s t erday .
by )
3 . 2. 4 . 1 .
th e al ternate di vision ­
subcl ass In s t rum en t Rel ator Ax i s Phrase I
The a l t e rna t e d i v i s i on - sub c l ass Inst rumen t Re l a t o r Ax i s Ph ra se 1
i s composed of an o bl iga to ry nucleus Prepo s i t ion ( b y) , and an obl iga ­
t o ry nucleus Head s l o t f i l led b y an Obj ect exp ression .
PL A CE : t h e a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion- subc l a s s I n s t rumen t R e l a t o r Ax i s
Phrase 1 i s regularly p l aced a fter the Pred i cate t agmeme , o r the Obj ect
tagmeme , i f any .
EXAMPLE:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr [ActI n trDecl V-Phr] tdIRel Ax-Ph r ( +Prep( +H<N-Phr» }
He
wen t
1
by )
by
t r ai n .
122
3. 2. 4. 2.
IRelAX-Phr2 ( +PrepCwi th ) +0<0 -x» ,
tbe al t erna t e divi sion ­
sub cl ass In s trumen t Rel a to r Axi s Phrase 2
The a l ternate d i v i s ion- subc lass Inst rument Re lato r Ax i s Phrase 2 i s
and an o b l i ga­
composed o f an ob l igatory nuc l eus Prepo s i t ion
t o ry nuc leus Head slot fi l l ed by an Obj ec t express ion .
.
PL A CE : the a l t ernate d iv i sion- sub c l a s s Inst rument Re l a t o r Ax i s Phrase
2 i s regu l a r ly p l a c e d a ft e r t he Pre d i c a t e t a gmeme . o r the Obj e c t
tagmeme . i f any .
Cwith ) .
EXAMPL E:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActSgTrDeclV-Phr] +DO<PersOPn> ±I{IRelAx-Phr2 (+PrepCwith )
+II �-Phr» }
±T ( ;�:::
XDepTCl:�;n)
He
wi
it
opened
a kni f e .
3. 2. 5.
the opt i on a l sate l l i te T i me tagmeme
fIL L ERS: the o p t iona l s a t e l l i t e Time s l o t is fi l l ed by a compo s i t e
f i l l e r c l ass inc luding th ree a l t erna t e d i s t r ibut ion- sub c l as se s : Time
Adverb Phra se ; Time Locut ion ; and Ex t ra Dependent Time Clause .
3. 2. 5. 1 .
� ::::} ,
TAdV-Phr { ::::
TAdv-Phr3
t he al ternate d i stribu t ion - sub­
cl ass Time Adverb Ph rase
The a l t e rna t e d i s t r i but ion- subc l a s s Time Adve rb Phr a s e inc ludes
three co- occurrence - subc lasse s:
3. 2. 5. 1. 1.
TAdv-Phr l.
th e co- occu rrence- subcl ass
Time
Adverb Ph rase 1
(al,..e ady,
PL A CES: the c o - o c cu r renc e - sub c l a s s Time Adv e rb Ph r a s (' 1
fi nal l y . e t c . ) i s regu l a r l y p l a ced be fo re the Pred i c a t p t agmeme . o r
be fo re the Ve rb Head o f a comp l ex Pred i c a t e tagmeme ( i . e . a Pred i c a t e
t a gmeme t h a t con t a ins a t l e a s t one Moda l . o r one Aux i l i a ry ) . I t can
a l so b e p l a c e d a f t e r t he Pred i c a t e t a gmeme . o r a f t e r the Obj e c t
t agmeme . i f any .
EXAMPL ES :
'"
'"
+S<PersSPn> ±T{TAdv-Phr 1 } +Pr[ActSgTrDeclV-Phr] +DO<N-Phr>
+Pr[ActSgTrDeclV-Phr] +OO<N-Phr> ±T{TAdv-Phr 1 }
He
has
a l ,.. e ady
has co�.p l e t ed
comp l e t " d
his pap e,..
his pap e1".
a l ,.. e ady .
th
123
3. 2. �. 1 . 2.
the co - occu rrence- subcl ass Time Adverb Ph rase
TAdv-Phr2•
2
P L A CES: the co-oc cu r rence- sub c l a ss Time Adve rb Phrase 2 ( soon , no w,
�ecen t Ly , imm ed i a t e L y . et c . ) can be p l a ced e i ther be fore the Pred ic ate
t agmeme . and be fore the Verb Head o f a comp l ex Pred i ca t e tagm eme . o r
a fter the Predicate tagmeme . and a ft e r the Obj ect tagmeme . i f any .
EXAMPL ES:
+
+,
]
+S<PersSPn> ±T TAdv-Phr 2 +Pr ActIntrDecl V-Phr il,<LRelAx-Phr>
+S<PersSPn> +Pr ActIntrDeclV-Phr ±L<LRelAx-Phr> ±T TAdv-Phr2
TAdv-Phr3•
I
}
{
wi L L
to the a i rpo r t .
go
]
[
I
[
soon
{
}
soon .
to the a i rpo � t
wi L L go
the co- occurrence- subcl ass Time Adverb Phrase
3. 2. �. 1 . 3.
3
P L A CES: the co-occurrence- sub c l a ss Time Adve rb Ph rase 3 ( ye t , L a t e L y ,
b efo � e . e t c . ) i s regu l a r l y p l a c ed a f t e r the Pred i c a t e t a gm eme . o r
a ft e r the Obj e c t tagmeme . i f any . Bu t . i t can a l so be p l ac ed b e fore
the Pred i c a t e tagmeme . o r be fo re the Verb Head of a comp l ex Pred i cate
t agmeme .
EXAMPL ES:
]
h aven ' t t houg h t of
+S<PersSPn> +Pr ActSgTrDecIV-Phr +DO<N-Phr ±T rAdv-Phr3
+ S<PersSPn> ±T TAdv-Phr3 +Pr ActSgTrDecIV-Phr +DO <N-Phr>
TLocution,
[
They
}
{
T h ey
haven ' t
ye t
+
{
the m at t e r
}
ye t .
]
[
thoug h t o f
t h e mat t e r.
the al ternate di stribution- subcl ass Tim e
3 . 2 . �. 2.
Lo cu t ion
PL A CE: the a l t ernate d i s t ribu t i on- subc lass Time Lo cut ion i s regu larly
p l aced a ft e r t he Pred i c a t e t a gmeme . or a ft e r the Obj e ct tagmeme . i f
any .
SAMPL ES: today , ton i g h t , y e s t e rday , t h i s morni ng . e t c .
EXAMPL E:
]
+S<PersSPn> +Pr ActSgTrDecIV-Phr +DO<N-Phr> ±T<TLocution>
XDepTCI +DepIntrod(wheTl) +IndePDeclCI ,
[
He
L eft
3 . 2. �. 3 .
[
Saigon
the d ay befo re
y e s t e rday .
]
the al ternate
di s tribu t ion - subcl ass Extra Dep enden t Tim e Cl ause
The a l t e rn a t e dist ribu t i on - subc l a ss Ex tra Dependent Time Cl ause is
compo sed of an ob l iga tory nuc leus Dependent Cl ause Int roduc e r ( wh en) .
and an ob l i g.l tory nuc leus Independent Dec l a ra t ive Clause ( fo r fu rthe r
d e t a i l on the Ext ra Dependent Cl ause Cl ass . see 2. 1. 10 . page 42) .
.
1 24
PL A CE S : the a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibu t lon - sub c l a s s Ext ra Dep enden t T i m e
Cl ause can be p l �ced e i ther a ft e r o r befo re the In dep enden t Cl ause
that it mod i fies.
EXAMPL ES:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActlntrDeclV-Phr] ±T<XDepTCl>
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActlntrDeclV-Phr]
±T<XDepTCl>
hr ) ,
�
3.2.6. ±F < :��;�
FLocuti on
befo r/?
l ef t
He
Befo,,-e
we
arri ved.
l ef t .
he
a,,-ri ved
we
the opt i onal sate l l i te Frequency
tagmeme
fILL ERS: the op t ion a l sate l l i te Frequency slot is fi l l ed by a compo s­
i t e fi l l e r c l ass inc ludin g three a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibu t i on- subc l a sse s :
Frequency Adve rb Phra se ; Frequency Noun Ph ras e ; and Frequency Locu­
t ion .
3. 2.6. 1. FAdv-Phr( ±Intens +FAdV{ FAdFAdvV21 } ) ,
the al ternate
di s t ri bu tion - sub cl ass Frequ ency Adverb Phrase
The a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibu t i on - sub c l a s s Frequency Adv erb Ph r a se i s
composed o f an op t ion a l sate l l i t e In tens i fier ( very , ext,,-eme l y , e t c . ) .
and an ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Frequency Adve rb wh i ch can be e i ther a Fre­
quency Adverb 1 ( a l ways , usual l y , se l dom , never, e t c . ) . or a Frequency
Adv e rb 2 (f,,-e quen t l y , rare l y , som e t im p. s , o c casional l y , e t c . ) .
PL ACES:
( 1 ) The co-oc currence- subc l a s s Frequency Adve rb Phrase 1 is regu­
l a r ly p l aced b e fore the Predicate tagmeme . or be fo re the Verb
Head o f a comp lex Pred icate tagmeme in o the r Cl ause Type s than
the Equa t iona l Cl ause Type 8. In the Equat iona l Cl ause Type 8 .
i t i s regularly p laced a ft e r the Equa t iona l Pred ic a te tagmeme .
EXAMPLES:
+S<PersSPn> ±F{FAdV-Phrt(±Intens +FAdv)} +Pr[ActSgTrDeclV-Phr]
+DO<N-Phr>
( b e )-Phr] ±F{FAdv-Phrt( ±Intens +FAdV1)}
+Pr[DeclAux
+S<PersSPn>
e
H
+EqCo<Adj -Ph r>
He
very
usual ly
did
h i s hom e W? r k .
was
l at e fo r W?rk.
very
usual l y
1 25
( 2 ) The co-oc curren ce - sub c l a s s Fre quency Adv erb Phrase 2 i s regu­
l a r ly p l aced e i ther a ft e r the Pred i c a t e tagmem e . and a ft e r the
Obj ec t t a gmeme . i f any . or b e fo re the P red i c a t e t a gmeme . o r
b e fore the Verb Head o f a comp l ex Pred i c a te t agmeme . In the
Equ a t i on a l C l au se Typ e 8 . i t i s regu l a r l y p l a ced a f t e r the
Equat ion'a l Predicate t agmeme .
EXAMPL ES:
]
+S<PersSPn> -I-pr [,-\ctSgTrDecl V-Phr -I-DO<Per sOPn> iF{FAdv-Phr2
( iInten s +FAdv 2 )}
+S<PersSPn> iF{FAdv-Phr2 (iInten s +FAdV2 )} +Pr[ActSgTrDeclV-PhrJ
+OO<PersOPn>
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[DecUuxCbe)-PhrJ iFbAdv-Phr2( ±Inten s +FAdv2 ) }
+EqCO<Adj -Phr>
FN-Phr( +FAdj +TN)
He
met
very
them
jre quen t L y .
He
very
jre quen t � y
met
t h em .
He
was
very
rare l y
h appy wi t il. the joo d .
C e very )
3. 2. 6 . 2 .
, t h e al t ern at e dis tribu tion -
subcl ass Frequen cy Noun Phrase
The a l t e rnate d i st r ibu t ion- sub c l a s s Frequency Noun Phrase i s com­
p o s ed o f an o b l i gatory nuc l eu s Frequency Adj e c t ive ( e v e ry ) . and an
ob l i gatory nuc l eus Time Noun ( d ay , we e k , mo n t h , e tc . ) .
PL A CE: the a l t e rna t e d i st r ibu� ion- subc l a s s Frequency Noun Ph rase i s
r e gu l a r l y p l a c ed a f t e r the P r ed i c a t e tagmeme . o r a f t e r the Obj e c t
t agmeme . i f any .
EXAMPL E:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActSgTrDeclV-PhrJ +DO<PersOPn> iF<FN-Phr(+FAdj +TN»
FLocution ,
We
saw
3. 2 . 6 . 3 .
him
every
day .
t h e al t ern a t e di stribu tion- subclass
Fre quency Lo cu ti on
PL A CE: the al ternate d i st r ibu t ion- sub c l a ss Frequency Locut ion i s regu­
l ar l y p laced a ft e r the Pred i c a te t agmeme . or a fter the Obj ect t agrneme .
i f any .
SAMPL ES: no w and t hen , o jj and o n, once i n a whi � e , etc .
EXAMPL E:
+S<PersSPn> +pr[ActSgTrDeclV-PhrJ +OO<PersOPn> iF<FLocutton>
He
v i s i ted
th em
o nc e in a wh i l e .
1 26
±L( �XDepLCl
::;�:�; hr) ,
3 : 2. 7 .
the opt i on a l s ate l l i te Locat i on ­
D i rect i on tagmeme
fIL L ERS: the opt ion a l s a t e,l l i te Loc at ion-Di re c t i on s lo t is fi l led by a
c ompo s i t e fi l l e r c l a s s i nc lud ing three a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibut ion- sub­
c l a s se s : Loc a t ion Adv erb Ph rase ; Lo c a t ion Re l a t o r Ax i s Ph ra s e ; and
Extra Dependent Loc a t ion Cl ause .
3. 2. 7 . 1.
LAdv-Phr( tPree +LAdv) ,
the al t ernate di s t ri bu tion ­
subcl ass Lo cat ion Adverb Ph rase
The al terna te d i s t r ibut I on- subc lass Locat ion Re l ator Axi s Phrase i s
composed o f an opt iona l sate l l i t e P rec ise r ( rig h t ) . and an ob l igato ry
nuc l eus Locat ion Adve rb ( th e re , here , o ver t here , b e t o w, e t c , ) .
PL A CE: the a l t e rn a t e d is t ribut ion - subc l a s s Lo cat ion Adve rb Ph rase i s
r e gu l a r l y p l a c ed a ft e r the P r ed i c a t e t agmeme . o r a f t e r t h e Obj e c t
t agmeme . i f any .
EXAMPL E:
[
+S<PersSPn> +Pr AetIntrDeeIV-Phr ±L<LAdv-Phr( tPree +LAdv»
l.RelAx-Phr{+LPrep +II<O-x» ,
He
]
s at
right
3. 2. 7 . 2.
there .
the al t ern a t e di stribu ti on ­
subc l as s Lo cation Re lator Axi s Phrase
The a l teln a t e d i st r ibut i on - subc l ass Locat i on Re l a to r Axi s Ph ra se i s
composed o f an obl iga tory nuc leus Locat ion Prepo s i t ion . and an obl i ga­
tory nuc l eus Head s lo t f i l led by an Obj e c t expre s s ion .
P L A C E : the a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n - sub c l a s s Lo c a t i on Re l a t o r Ax i s
Ph rase is regu l a r ly p l aced a ft e r the Pred i c a t e t agmeme . o r a ft e r the
Obj ect tagmeme . i f any .
EXAMPL E:
J
+S<PersSPn> +Pr ActIntrDecl V-Phr ±L<LRel Ax-Phr( +LPrep +1I<PersOPn» >
XDepl.CI +Depln trodC +IndepDeel Cl ,
[
T hey
3. 2. 7 . 3.
ran
[
wil e 1"P )
toward s
]
h im .
the al ternate
distri bu t i on - subcl ass Extra Dependen t Lo c ation Cl au s e
The a l t e rnate d i s t r ibut ion- subc l a s s Ext ra Dependen t Locat ion Cl ause
i s compo sed o f an o b l ig a t o ry nuc l eu s Depende n t Cl ause I n t roduc e r
< where ) . and an obl i gatory nuc leus Independent Dec l a rat ive Clause ( fo r
fur the r de t a i l o n the Ext ra Dependent Cl ause Cl a s s . s e e 2. 1 . 10 . page
42) .
.
PL A CE: the a l t e rn a t e J i s t r i but i.on - sub c l a s s Ex t ra Dependen t Lo c a t ion
127
Cl ause i s regu l a r l y p l aced a ft e r the Pred i c a t e tagmem e . o r a ft e r the
Obj e c t tagmeme . i f any .
EXAMPL E:
+S<i>ersSPn> +Pr [,o\ctIn trDecl Phr] iL<XDepLCI [+DeplntrodCwhere)
+IndepDeclCI]
V -Phr )
iM (MAdMRelAx-Phr
v-
they
where
wen t
He
c am e
from .
the opt i ona l sate l ' i te Manner tagmeme
3 . 2. 8 .
•
FILL ERS: the opt ion a l sa te l l i t e Manner s lo t i s f i l led by a compo s i t e
f i l l e r c l a s s inc lud in g t wo a l t e rnate d i st r ibut ion-subc l asses : Manne r
Adverb Phra se ; Manner Re l ator Axi s Phrase .
3 . 2. 8 . 1 .
MAdv-Phr(±Intens +MAdV {MAdMAdvrV C- Ly )} ),
the al t ernate di s­
t ribu t ion - subcl ass Mann er Adverb Phrase
The a l t e rna t e d i s t r ibut i on - subc l a ss Mann e r Adverb Ph rase i s com­
po sed of an op t ion a l sat e l l i t e Int ens i fi e r ( very , qui te, e tc . ) . and an
o b l i ga to ry nuc l eus Mann e r Adv erb wh i c h c an be e i t h e r a Manne r Ad­
verb C _ L y ) ( c L ead y , qui e t l y , smoo t h L y , b e au t ifu L L y , e t c . ) . o r a Manner
Adverb f ( fas t , hard , we l l , etc . ) .
PL ACES:
( 1 ) The a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i bu t ion - subc l a s s Mann e r Adve rb Ph ra se i s
r egu l a r l y p l aced a f t e r the Predi c a t e t agmeme . o r a ft e r t h e
Obj ect tagmeme . i f any .
EX AMPL ES:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActIntrDeclV-Phr] ±M<MAdv-Phr C_ Ly ) ( ±Inten s
+MAdv
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActSgTrDeclV-Phr] +DO<N-Phr>
( ±Intens +MAdV r»
He
very
spo ke
)>
C- L y »
h e s i t an t l y .
f i n i shed
He
very
h i s u.ork
fas t .
( 2 ) The c o - o c c u r renc e - subc l a s s Mann e r Adv erb Ph r a s e C _ l ) ( w i th
y
except ions l ik e bad L y , poo r L y , n i c e L y , et c . ) can a l so be p l aced
b e fo re the Pred i c a t e t a gm em e . o r b e fo re the Verb Head o f a
comp lex Pred i c a t e tagmeme . I t usua l ly occurs in th i s pos i t ion
when there a re o t h e r o p t i on a l s a t e l l i t e t a gmemes a ft e r t he
Pred i c a t e tagmem e .
1 28
EXAMPL E:
+S<PersSPn> :tM{MAdV -Phr (_�y) ( ±Intens +MAdV (_ Ly » ) }
+Pr[ActSgTrDeClV-Phr] +DO<N-Phr>
MRelAx-Phr(+MPrep +H<O-x» ,
He
ve".y
answe".ed
qui e t L y
aL L the quest ions add".e ssed to him .
th e al t ern ate di strihu tion ­
3 . 2. 8 . 2 .
subcl ass Manner Rel ato r Axi s Phrase
The a l t e rna t e d i s t'r ibut i on - subc l a s s Mann e r Re l a to r Ax i s Ph rase i s
compo sed o f an ob l i ga to ry nu c l eus Mann e r Prepo s i t i on ( i n , o n , b y ,
wi t h . e t c . ) . and an ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Head s l o t f i l l ed by an Obj e c t
expreSS ion .
P L A CE: the a l ternate d i s t r ibut ion - subclass Mann e r Re l a to r Ax i s Ph rase
i s regu l a r ly p l a ced a ft e r the Pred icat e t a gmeme . o r a fte r the Obj e c t
t agmeme . i f any .
EXAMPL E:
+S<PersSPn> +pr[ActIntrDecl V-Phr] ±M<MRelAx-Phr( +MPrep +H<N-Phr» >
wen t
He
±p ( ::::
:XDepPCl:� :::: ) ,
3 . 2. 9 .
on
foo t .
the opt i on a l sate l I i te Purpo s e
tagmeme
fIL L ERS: the op t iona l sate l l i t e Purpose s lo t is fi l led by a compo s i t e
f i l l e r c l a s s i n c l ud in g t h r e e a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n - sub c l a s s e s :
Purpose Re l a t o r Ax i s Ph rase 1 ; Purpo se Re l a to r Ax i s Ph r a s e 2 ; and
Ext ra Dependent Purpo se Clause .
3. 2 . 9 . 1.
PRelAx-Phr 1 (+Prep(!0".) +H<O-x» ,
the al t erna t e dis tribu­
t ion - subcl ass Purpose Rel ator Axi s Phrase 1
The a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibu t ion- sub c l a ss Purpose Re l a to r Ax i s Ph rase 1
i s composed o f an ob l i ga to ry nuc leus Prepos i t ion
and an obl i ga­
tory nucleus Head slot f i l led by an Obj ect express ion
(fo",),
PL A CE: the a l ternate d i s t r lbut ion - sub c l ass Purpose Re lator Axi s Ph rase
i s regu l a r l y p l aced a ft e r the Pred i c a te t agmeme . o r a f t e r the Obj e c t
t agmeme . i f any .
EXAMPL E:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActIntrDeclV-Phr] ±L<LRelAx-Phr> ±P<PRelAx-Phr l(+Prep(for)
f
O
'"
+H<N-Phr» >
She
som e bread .
wen t
to t h e s tore
129
3. 2.9.2. PRelAX-Phr2 (+prep-Phr { <<itOn )
order to )
} +H<InfV-Phr»
,
the
al t ern ate di s tri.bu tion- subclass Purpose Rel ator Axi s
Phrase 2
The al terna te d i s t r i but ion- subc l a s s Purpo se Re l a tor Axi s Phrase 2
i s composed o f an obl i ga tory nuc leus Prepo s i t ion Phrase , wh ich can be
e i th e r ( t o ) o r ( i n o r d e r to ) , and an o b l i g a t o ry nuc le us Head s l o t
fi l led b y an In fin i t ive Verb Phrase . The two Prepos i t ion Phra ses ( to )
and
o rd e r to ) are sub s t i tutab le when the fo l lowing Infin i t ive Verb
o rd e r t o ) i s
Phr a s e is a f f i rma t iv e ; but on l y the P repo s i t ion
possible when the Infini t ive Ve rb Ph rase 1 S negat iv e .
< in
(i n
PL A CE: the a l ternate dist r ibut ion- subc lass Purpose Re lator Axi s Phrase
2 i s regularly p l aced after the Pred icate t agmeme , or a fter the Obj ect
t a gmeme, if any .
EXAMPL ES:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr [ActIn trDecl V-Phr] ±L<LRelAx-Phr> ±P<PRelAx-Phr 2
+Prep-Phr <itn
+H<InfV-Phr» >
+Pr[ActIntrDeclV-Phr] ±P<PRelAx-Phr2(+Prep-PhrCin
+H<InfV-Phr»
his >
3. 2. 9 . 3. XDepPCI [+Deplntrod(so +IndePDeclcIJ,
fhey
we n t
( o)
to t h e s t o re
order to )
to
i n order to
buy som e c i g are t t e s .
order to )
L ef t
meet
i n order no t t o
opponen t .
that )
the al tern a t e
distribution - subcl ass Extra Depen den t Purpo se Cl ause
The a l t e rnate d i st r ibu t ion- subc lass Extra Dependent Purpose Cl ause
1 S compo sed o f an ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Dependent Clause Introduc e r ( so
t h at ) , and an obl igatory nuc l eus Independen t Dec l a ra t ive Cl ause ( fo r
p age
fu rther de t a 1 l on the Ext ra Dependen t Clause Cl a s s , see
42) .
2. 1.19. ,
PL A CE: the a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i but ion - s ub c l a s s Ext ra Dependen t Pu rp o s e
Clause i s regu l a r l y p l a ced a ft e r the Pred i c a t e tagmem e , o r a ft er the
Obj ec t tagmeme , i f any .
EXAMPL E:
+S<PersSPn> +Pr [ActIn trDecl V-Phr] ±P<XDepPCl [+Dep In trod <
+IndepDeclCl] >
He
L ef t
h e wo u L d no t m e e t h i s opponen t .
so t h a t )
so t h a t
130
±c(CRelA
XDepCClX-Phr) ,
3 . 2. 1 0 .
the opt i ona l s ate r I i te Cause tagmeme
FIL L ER S : the op t i ona l s a t e l l i t e cau se s l o t is fi l l ed by a compo s i t e
f i l l e r c l a s s inc luding t wo a l t e rn a t e d i s t r ibu t i on- subc l a s s e s : Cause
Re lator Ax i s Phrase ; and Ext ra Dependent cause Cl ause .
3 . 2. 10. 1 .
CRelAx-Phr(+Prep-Phr(because +H<O-x» ,
oj)
the al t erna t e
distri bu t ion - subcl ass Cause Rel ator Axi s Phrase
The a l t e rnate d i s t r ibu t ion - subc l a s s Cau se Re l a t o r Ax i s Ph rase i s
composed o f an ob l l gatory nuc leus Prepo s i t ion Phrase ( b e c ause oj) , and
an ob l i gato ry nuc leus Head slot f i l led by an Obj e c t exp re ss ion .
PL A CE: the a l t ern a t e d i s t r ibut ion - subc l ass Cause Re l a t o r Axi s Phrase
is regu l a r ly p laced a ft e r the Pred i c a te t agmeme , o r a ft e r the Obj ect
t agmeme . i f any .
EXAMPL E:
+S<l'ersSPn> +Pr [ActIntrDecl V-Phr] ±C<CRelAx-Phr( +Prep-Phr(
+II<N· Phr» >
XDepCCl [+DePlntrod( +IndepDecl cd,
He
d i dn ' t
work
b e c ause oj)
b e c ause o j
the heat .
3. 2 . 10 2 .
the al t ernate
b e c ause )
di s tribu t ion - subcl ass Extra Dependen t Cause Cl ause
The a l ternate di s t r ibu t lon- subc l a ss Ext ra Dependen t cause Clause is
c ompo sed o f an ob l i gatory nuc l eus Dependen t Cl ause Int rodu c e r ( b e ­
c au s e ) . and an ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Indep enden t Dec l a r a t i v e Cl ause .
( Fo r fu rthe r deta i l on the Ext ra Dependent Cl ause Cl a s s . see 2 . 1 . 10
page 42 . )
.
•
PL A CE : the a l t e rn a t e d i s t r i bu t ion - s ub c l a s s Ext ra Dep endent Cau s e
Cl ause i s regu l a r ly p l aced a ft e r the P redic a t e tagmeme . o r a fter the
Obj ec t t agmem e , if any .
EXAMPL !!,' :
+S<PersSPn> +Pr[ActSgTrDeclV-Phr] +Do<N-Phr> ±C<XDepCCl[+DepIntrod(be cause)
+IndepDeclCtJ >
He
cou L dn ' t ji n i sh
the
wo1" k
b e c ause
i t was a d i ffi cu L t o n e .
3. Za.
EMPH A S I ZED P L A C E O F A N OPTI ON AL SATELL I TE
CL AU S E L E VEL T AGM EM E
Al l o f the p re v i ou s l y s t a t ed op t i on a l sa t e l l i t e C l a u s e l e ve l
tagmemes can be emphasi zed by be ing p l a ced befo re the Subj e c t tagmeme .
131
EXAMPL ES:
+Pr
+00
+s
±IO
To John , they gave an the ir boo k s .
+s +P r
fA
Wi th h i s bro t her, he wen t
+s + P r
iM
Ve".y s � o w�y , h e wa � ked
±L
do wn to un
iT
at seven 0 ' d o c k .
±L
do wn the st".ee t .
iT
+00
+S +Pr
iF
UsuaHy , h e do e s h i s homeUXJ".k at n i g h t .
-+-S +P r
+00
iT
final Ly , h e h as comp � e ted hi s p ape"..
-+-S
iB
fo". you, I
+00
iIO
+Pr
h ave s en t t h e boo ks to him .
iL
+S +Pr
iP
In orde r to s e e t he movi e s , he wa � ked to to wn .
+00
+S +P r
±I
Wi t h a kn ife , h e opened t h e box.
+ S +P r 18
iL
Out , h e wen t .
3. �.
TH E OP T I ON AL SATELL I T E CL AU S E L EVEL TAGM EM E
ORDER I N G ( S U M M A R Y
TABLE
XV)
The opt iona l satel l i t e Cl ause leve l tagmeme o rde r ing in Engl i sh can
be �umma r i zed a s :
( 1 ) An opt iona l sa te l l i te Clause lev e l t agmeme can b e emphas i zed by
be ing p l a ced b e fo re the Subj ect tagmeme.
( 2 ) Th e fou r op t i ona l s a te l l i te Cl au se l eve l t agmemes : Lo c a t i on­
Di re c t ion . Mann e r . Frequency . and Time . when all o f them oc cur­
r ing a fter the Pred i c a t e tagmeme . or a fter the Obj e c t tagmeme .
i f any . have the i r usua l relat ive po s i t ions in the o rde r : L . M .
F . and T.
( 3) The f i v e op t iona l s a t e l l i t e Clause l eve l t agmeme s : Ind i re c t
Obj ect ( wh i ch occurs on l y i n the Single Tran s i t ive Ac t ive . and
th e S ing le Tran s i t i v e Pas s ive Clause Typ e s ) . Ac compan imen t .
I n s t rum en t . Bene fa c to r . and Purpose . a l though o c curr ing a l so
a ft e r the Pred i c a t e tagmeme . o r a ft e r the Obj e c t t a gm eme . i f
any . seem to hav e no fi xed orde r ing re l a t ionsh ip v i s- a - v i s the
o th e r o p t i on a l s a t e l l i t e Clause l ev e l t a gmemes men t ioned in
p a ragraph ( 2) .
18
The word o rder is po e t i c r a ther than of o rdin ary spoken l anguage.
l3 2
( 4) The op t iona l s a t e l l i t e Cl ause l ev e l Cau se t a gm em e . i f no t
p l aced b e fo re the Subj ect tagmeme . i s a l ways p l aced a t the end
o f a Clause .
SUM M ARY
T A BL E X V
Th e opt I on a l sate l l i te C l au s e l eue l tagmeme orde r i n g
r " - - -.
J.
·
u
..
.�
...
�
·
,
,
to :
"
..
...
"
. ,
.� ,
:: .
" ,
I •
L _ _
,
.iii :
_
J
C>
;;
.
·
u
II
..
'
,
,
...
l
'
,
..
...
"
...
.�
...
..
..
...
u
..
..
..
\
"
.2
•
u
...
.�
-
...
"
8
"
....
�
u
II
a
l!
�
..
Ii
•
II
•
�
..
..
...
...
- ..
• u
"
"
..
..
.. ...
.. a
co -
....
!-
_
�
,�
--!----J I
_
_
_
-------
Br.n o fac to r
I
II
..
2
'"
M ...
-------�
C h ap t e r
4
L I N K I N G TA G M EM E S A N D C RO S S - L E V E L C O N S T R U C T I O N S
4. 0 .
I N T RO DU CTO RY
Th i s Chap ter dea l s w ith Link ing tagmemes , and Cro ss- l ev e l COnst ruc ­
t ions , i . e . COn s t ruc t ions tha t inc lude tagmemes o f di f fe rent grammat­
i c a l l eve l s such a s the Clause leve l , the Ph rase l eve l , e t c . It i s
fe l t tha t i t i s more econom i c a l t o g roup these L ink ing tagmem e s and
Cross- leve l COns t ruct ions in th i s single Chap t er than to have the same
t a gmemes and COns t ruc t ion s sca t t e red in the who l e ana l y s i s o f En g l i sh
Syntax.
Coord
4. 1.
O ord
{SgC
\. ,
DbCoo rdJ
TH E COO RD I N ATO R TAGM EM E
The CO ord inator t a gmeme i s used to coo rd inate two o r more s im i l a r
t agmemes , i . e . tagmemes hav ing the same func t iona l slot ( fo r exampl e s :
t h e Subj e c t s l o t . the Di rec t Obj e c t s l o t . e tc . ) , b e i n g o f the same
g ramm a t i c a l l e v e l ( Cl ause l e v e l . Ph rase l e ve l , e t c . ) , and usua l ly
hav ing the same in terna l st ructure .
The COordin a t o r s l o t i s f i l l ed by a s imp l e f i l le r c l a ss inc lud in g
t wo div i s ion- subc lasses : Single COordinator; Dbub le COordinato r .
4. 1. 1.
SgCo o rd , the a l ternate d i u i s i on - subc l as s S in g l e Co ­
o rd i nato r
FIL L ER : the a l t e rn a t e d iv i s ion - sub c l a ss Sing l e CO o rd ina t o r s l o t i s
f i l l ed b y a monomo rphem i c COo rd ina tor Part i c l e ( and , o r , but ) p l aced
i n b etween the two coo rd ina ted tagmeme s .
EXAMPL ES :
( 1 ) Clause COo rd ina t ion -
+ SgCoord +CI 2 [ I n dePDec I C l
+CI 1 [ I ndeP Decl Cl
he d i dn ' t buy any t h i n g .
H e went there but
]
]
( 2) Phrase COordinat ion -
+SgCoord +N - Ph r 2
+N - P h r 1
These o � d cars
and
these new b i cyc � e s .
+ Adj - P h r 1 + SgCoord + Adj - P h r 2
Young
and
h e a � t hy .
133
134
+MAdv - P h r l +SgCoo rd +MAdv- P h r 2
sure L y .
bu t
S LowLy
+pr t [ Act l n t rDec l V- Ph r] +SgCoord +pr 2 [ ActSgTrDeC l V - P h r]
wen t
(He)
t h ere
any t hing .
but
d i dn ' t buy
+P ersSPn l ±SgCoord +PersSpn 2
I.
and
You
4 . 1 . 2.
DbCoo rd , the a l ternate d i v i s i on - subc l as s Doub l e Co­
ord i nato r
fIL L ER S : the a l t e rna te d iv i s ion- sub c l a ss Doub l e Coord in a to r s lo t i s
f l l led by a dou b l e mo rphem i c exp re ss ion compo s ed o f two P a r t i c l e s
( e i t h e r o r ; n e i t h er no r ) . 1be f i r s t Pa r t i c l e i s p l aced b e fore the
f i r s t coo rd in a t e d t a gmeme . and the se c ond P a r t i c l e i s p l a ce d in
be tween the two coo rdina ted tagmemes .
EXAMPL ES:
( 1 ) Cl ause COord inat ion -
+DbCoord +Cl 1 [ lndePDec l Cl ]
+DbCoord +C1 2 [ lndePDe c l C l ]
Ei ther
Jo hn wi L L s t ay o r
Bi L L wi L L ( s t ay) .
( 2) Phrase COordina t ion -
+DbCoo rd +N - Ph r 2
+DbCoo rd + N - P h r 1
N e i ther
no r
the girt s
+DbCoord + Adj - Ph r 2
+DbCoo rd + Adj - Ph r 1
N e i ther
the boy s .
no r
young
heaL thy .
+DbCoord +M Adv - Ph r l +DbCoord +MAdv - P h r 2
care L e ss Ly .
no r
[
+DbCoo rd +pr l Ac tl n t rDecl V - Ph � + DbCoo rd +pr 2 [ Act l n t rDec l V-Ph � ±L
( H p ) nei ther
fLew
no r
drove
do wn .
N e i ther
fas t
+DbCoord +PersOPn l +DbCoo rd +persOPn 2
N e t ther ht
no r
her.
4. 2.
Comp
{
Equal comp
SupComp
In fe rComp
}
,
TH E COMP ARA T I V E TAGMEM E
The Comparat ive s lo t i s fi l l ed b y a s imp le fi l l e r c l a s s inc luding
three a l te rna te d l v l s ion- subc lasse s : Equa l i ty COmparat ive ; Supe riorlty
COmpara t ive; Infe r io r i ty Compara t ive .
4. 2 . 1 .
Equal Comp [ + EqUal Comp +
(
Adj - Ph r
Adv - Ph r
)
+ Equ a l Comp +
s- x
/
"IndeP Dec l c l
the a l ternate d i v i s i on - subc l as s Equa l i ty Comparat i ve
tagmeme
)
]
l 35
fIL L ERS: the al ternate Equa l i ty COmpa rat ive slot i s fi l l ed by a doub l e
morphem ic express ion inc lud ing two ident i c a l Pa rt i c l es ( as as ) . Th e
f i rs t Part i c l e i s p l aced be fo re the f i rs t comp a red t agmeme wh i ch can
b e e i th e r an Adj e c t i v e Ph r a s e o r an Adv e rb Phra s e . Th e s e c ond
P a r t i c l e i s p l a ced b e fo r e the s econd comp a red t a gm em e wh i ch c an be
e i the r a Subj ect exp ress ion o r an Independent Dec l a ra t ive Clause .
EXAMPL ES:
+ Equal Comp + Adj - Ph r
young
As
+ Equal Comp +PersSPn
as
she.
+Equ a l Comp + FAdv - P h r +Equal Comp + IndepDecl Cl
As
f�e quen t ty as
they cou � d .
+ Equal Comp +M Adv-Phr + Equal Comp
ca�efu � t y as
As
l
SupComp { +SuP pcl e +
4 . 2. 2.
+
Is- x
\I ndePDec l cl
)
\
+ I ndepDec l Cl
i t was �e qui red .
Adj - Ph r
/ Adv - P h r
h
>
+ SupSu f ( - e � ) +Dep l n t ro d ( t h an )
I
} . t e a l ternate d i u i s ion- subc l as s
Super i o r i ty Comparat i ue tagmeme
}'IL L ERS: the a l t e rnate d i v i s ion - sub c l ass Sup e r i o r i ty COmp a ra t ive s l o t
i s f i l l ed by a doub l e mo rphem i c exp re s s ion inc lud ing a n a l t e rn a t e
Superi o r i t y Pa r t i c l e (mo re ) o r an a l ternate Sup e r i o r i t y su ffix ( - er ) .
and a Dependen t Cl ause I n t ro duc e r ( t h an ) . The a l t e rna t e Super i o r i ty
Part i c l e emo �e ) i s p l aced b e fo re the first compa red tagmeme wh ich c an
be e i ther an Adj ect ive Phrase o r an Adve rb Phra se . wh i l e the a l t e rn a t e
Super i o r i ty su ffix ( - e� ) i s added to the Adj ect ive o r the Adverb .
The Dep endent Cl ause I n t roduc e r i s p l aced be fo re the se cond com­
p a red tagmeme wh i ch can be e i the r a Subj e c t express ion o r an Indepen­
dent Dec lara t ive Clause .
EXAMPL ES:
+ SupPcl e + Ad j - Ph r
+Dep I n trod ( t han ) +PersSPn
Mo �e
i n t e �es t i ng
t h an
she .
+ SuPPcl e +MAdv - Ph r
Mo re
qui c H y
+Dep ln tro d e than ) + I ndepDec l Cl
t h an
t hey d i d .
+ Adj - Ph r +SupSu f ( - cn + Dep l n t ro d ( than ) + I n depDecl CI
Young e �
she i s .
than
4 . 2. 3.
I n fe rComp { + I n ferPcl e
+ /s- x
y ndePDecl Cl
)}.
+
( )
Adj - Ph r
Adv - Ph r
+ Dep l n tro d e than ) +
the a l ternate d i u i s i on - subc l as s
I n fe r i or i ty Comparat i ue tagmeme
1 36
fILL ERS: the a l ternate divi s ion - subclass I n fe ri o r i ty COmpa rat ive s lo t
i s fi l l ed b y a doub l e mo rphem i c e xpress ion inc lud ing an I n fe r io r i t y
P a r t i c l e ( L e s s ) and a Dependen t Cl ause I n t roduce r ( th an ) . Th e I n ­
f e r io r i ty Pa r t i c l e i s p l aced b e fo r e the fi rst comp a red tagmeme which
c an b e e i ther an Adj e c t iv e Phrase o r an Adve rb Phrase . The Dependent
Clau se I n t roduce r ( th an ) is p l a c ed be fo re the second compa red tagmeme
wh l c h c an b e e i the r a Subj e c t exp ress ion or an I ndependen t Dec l a ra t ive Clause .
EXAMPL ES:
+Dep ln t ro d ( t han ) +PersSPn
+ In f erPcl e + Adj - P h r
she .
than
comp e tent
L ess
+Dep ln t rod ( than ) + IndepDecl C l
+ I n ferPcl e + Adj - Ph r
she i s .
than
comp e t en t
L ess
+ I n ferP c l e +MAdv- Ph r + Dep I n t ro d ( th an ) +PersSPn
he.
t h an
care/u ny
L ess
+ I n ferP c l e +MAdv- P h r +Dep I n t ro d ( than ) + I ndepDe c l C l
than
he d i d .
carefu L L y
L ess
( th an ) +In dep Decl C l
he h as.
than
+ I n ferPc l e +N -Phr +Dep l n t ro d
mon ey
L ess
4 . 3.
Resu l t
{ ::::: ::} ,
TH E RESULTAT I V E TAGM EM E
Resu l t 3
The Re sul t a t i v e t a gmeme i n c lud e s three a l t e rn a t e d i v i s ion- sub c la s ses :
4 . 3 . 1.
Resu l t . [ +Resu l t ( so ) +
(
Adj - Ph r
Adv - Ph r
>
+ Dep l n t ro d ( t h a t ) + I n depDecl Cl ] .
the a l ternate d f u i s f on - subc l as s Re su l tat f ue , tagmeme
FILL ERS: the a l te rnate d i v i s ion- subclass Resu l t a t ive 1 s l o t i s ft l led
by a doub l e mo rphem i c exp re s s ion inc luding a Re su l t a t iv e P a r t i c l e
( so ) and a Dep endent C l a u s e I n t roduce r ( t h a t ) . Th e r e su l t a t i v e
Part ic l e ( SO ) i s p l a c ed b e fore the f i rst Re su l t a t ive counterpart wh i ch
c an be an Adj ect ive Ph rase or an Adve rb Phrase . The Dependent Clause
Introducer ( th at ) is p laced befo re the se cond Resu l t a t ive coun t e rp a r t
whi ch i s an Independent Dec l a rat ive Clause .
EXAMPLES:
+ Resul t ( so ) + Adj - P h r +Dep l n t ro d ( t ha t ) + I ndepDec l C l
So
they cou L d n ' t !;.O r k .
that
ho t
+ Resu l t ( so ) + M Adv - P h r +Dep l n t ro d ( t h a t ) + l ndepDecl Cl
So
no i s i L y
t hey cou L d n ' t !;.O r k .
that
Resul t 2 [ +Resu l t ( So ) +
4 . 3. 2.
(+Det<I+Det<IndeUrt(
ndeUrt(
+Depln trod(that) +IndepDeclCiJ,
)
137
( m any » >
( j ew)
(much )
( l i tt le)
+comNn _ C• P 1
» +ComNn m
_
the a l ternate d i u f s i on ­
subc l as s Re su l tat i ue 1 tagmeme
fIL L ERS: the a l t e rnate div i s ion- sub c l a s s Resu l t a t ive 2 s l o t i s fi l l ed
by a doub le mo rphem i c express ion inc luding a Resu l ta t ive P ar t i c l e ( so )
and a Dependent Cl ause I n t roduc e r ( t h at ) . The Re su l t a t i ve Pa r t i c l e
( so ) i s p l a c ed be fo re the fi r s t Resu l t a t ive coun t e rp a r t wh i ch c an b e
e i the r a COmmon NounNoun -COun t . P lura l p re ceded b y a De t e rm in e r s lo t
f i l l ed b y a n Ind e fin i t e Art i c l e ( m an y , jew) , o r a COmmon Nou�oun _Mass
p receded by a De t e rm in e r s l o t fi l l ed by an Inde f in i te Art i c l e (muc h ,
l i t t l e ) . Th e Dependen t Cl ause Int roduc e r ( t h a t ) i s p l aced befo re the
s e cond Re su l t a t i ve coun t e rp a r t wh i ch i s an Ind ependen t Dec l a ra t i v e
Cl ause.
EXAMPL ES:
+Det<IndeUrt «
m any »
( jew)
m any
>
t hey cou l dn ' t go to the conc e �t .
»
+ Resul t( so )
So
n+I depDeclCI
+Det<I ndefArt (
+IndepDeclCI
+ Resul t ( so )
So
( t ha t )
t hat
(much )
(little)
much
l
+ComNn _ c. pI +D p ntrod
e
assignm en t s
( t hat )
that
+ComNn-m.si n g +Dep l n trod
wo � k
( to do)
h e cou l dn ' t go to t h e mo vi e s .
+ ( + Det<IndeUrt(a» ) +i\dJ -Phr
( ComNComNnn__ c.c. plSing ) +DepIntrod(th at) +Indep DeclcIJ ,
Resu l t 3 [ + Resul tPcl e ( SuC h )
4 . 3. 3.
+
th e
a l ternate d i u i s i on - subc l as s Resu l tat i ue 3 tagmeme
fILL ERS: the· a l t e rn a t e div i s ion- subc lass Re su l t a t ive 3 s lo t i s fi l l ed
b y a doub l e mo rphem i c e xp r e s s ion in c l ud in g a Re su l t a t i ve P a r t i c l e '
( such ) and a Dependent Cl ause Int roducer ( th at ) . The Re su l t at ive Par­
'
t ic l e ( such ) is p t aced be fo re the fi rst Resu l ta t ive coun t e rp a r t wh i ch
c an be e i ther a Singu l a r COun t Noun Phrase ( compo sed o f an ob l ig a to ry
nuc l eu s De t e rm in e r s l o t fi l l ed by the Ind e t e rm in a t e Ar t i c l e ( a ) , an
o b l i ga tory nuc leus Adj ec t ive Phrase , and an obl igato ry nuc leus COmmon
NO�oun - COunt . S ingu l a r ) or a Plural COun t Noun Phrase { composed o f an
1 38
obli g a to ry nuc l eus Adj ect ive Phrase and an ob l i ga tory nuc leus COmmon
Dep endent Clause Int roduc e r
NounN
is
oun -COunt . P lur a l ) ' The
p l aced b e fo re the s econd Resu l t a t ive COun terpart wh i ch i s an Indepen­
dent De c larat ive Clause .
(that )
EXANPL ES:
+Result(such)
+[+Det<DefArt(a» +Adj-Phr +ComNn _ c. si ng]
Such
n
)
+DepIn trod(that
depDeclCI
+I
that
ndepDeclCI
+ResultCsuchch ) +[+Adj-Phr +comNn _ c . p1] +DepIn trodCthat)
+I
that
a
�ai ny
day
I fe e l l i ke s t ay i ng hom e .
Su
f�i end ly
n e i g h bou�s
e ue�yone l i ke s
them .
Ch ap t e r 5
E N G L I S H S EN T E N C E T Y P E S A N D S EN T E N C E L E V E L
S T R U C TU R E S '
5. O.
I N T RO DU CTO RY
En g l i sh Sen t en c e s a re gramm a t i c a l un i t s wh i ch p o t en t i a l ly o ccur
a lon e a s comp l e t e u t t e r an ce s . They r ange i n l en gth from a s in g l e
word ( such a s Dependent Response . Voc a t ive . Exc lama t iv e Sentence s ) . to
lengthy COo rdina te or Non-COo rdinate s t ruc ture of mo r e than one Clause
o r Pyramid ing s t ruc ture of Clause w i th in Clause .
5. 0. 1 .
CL ASSI F I CATION
En g l i sh Sen t en c e Type s a re c l a s s i f i ed in t e rms of the i r inte rn a l
s t ruc ture s . a n d a l so in t e rm s o f the i r d i s t r i bu t ion i n the l a rg e r
m a t rix.
In t e rm s o f the i r in t e rn a l s t ru ctures . Sen tence Typ e s a re g rouped
into two Cl asses:
Maj o r Sent ence Typ e s . i . e . those con t a in ing a t least one Clau se ;
Minor Sentence Types . i . e . tho se no t conta ining a Clause .
Mino r Sentence Types are.
( 1 ) Dependent Response Sentence Typ e s .
BXANPL ES: Y e s . No . Ri g h t . e t c .
( 2) Voc a t ive Sentence Typ e s .
EXAMPL ES: H e � en . Bi � � . e t c .
( 3 ) Exc lamat ive Sen t ence Type s .
EXAMPL ES: G e e . Ouc h . Wo w.
Ah.
etc .
Minor Sen tence ljpes wi l l no t be di scussed in deta i l in th i s pape r .
Maj o r Sent ence Type s a re furthe rmore c la s s i fied t r i - dimen s i on a l ly :
( a ) I n t e rm s o f the i r inte rn a l s t ructures only . they are c la s s i fied
into 1 . S imp l e Sen t ence Type s . i . e . those con t a i n ing on ly one Clause;
2. Compound Sen tence Type s . i . e . tho se cont a in ing two or mo re
-Independent Clauses wh ich may be coo rdina ted o r no t ;
3 . COmp l ex Sen tence Typ e s , i . e . those whose interna l s t ruc ture
is a py ram id ing s t ruc ture of Clause w i th in Clause .
( b ) I n t e r m s o f the i r i n t e rn a l s t ru c tu re s , and a l so in t e rm s o f
139
140
the i r exte rn a l dist r ibu t ion in larger l ingu i s t i c o r ext ra- l in­
gu i s t i c ma t rixes . Maj o r Sentence Types a re c l a ss i fied into 1.
2.
3.
4.
Dec l a ra t ive Sent ence Type s ;
Int e rr� gat ive Sentence Type s ;
Imp e ra t ive Sentence Types;
Suppos i t ion a l Sen tence Types .
( c ) Equa l ly in terms o f the i r int erna l s t ruc ture s . and in t e rms o f
the i r externa l d i str ibut ion in the l a rger l ingu i s t i c and ext ra­
l ingui s t i c matrixe s . Maj o r Sentence Type s a re c l assi fied into 1 . I ndependen t Sen tence Typ e s . i . e . tho se wh i ch a r e ab l e to
begin a di scourse ;
2. Dep enden t Sen tence Type s . i . e . those wh i ch do n o t usua l ly
beg in a di scourse un i t . and when they do . they must be s t i l l
d e p en d e n t o n t h e p re s en c e o f some fo rm o f n on - v e r b a l
b ehav iour .
In t h e fo l l owing di scus s ion . the Class i fi c a t ion o f Maj o r Sen t ence
Typ e s in t o the Maj o r I ndependen t Sen t ep c e Cl a ss . and t he Maj o r De­
pendent Sen tence Cl a ss is cons i dered as primary . the Cl assi fi c a t ion o f
them into Simp le . Compound. and Comp l e.x Sentence Cla sses i s considered
as seconda ry . and the Cl a ss i ficat ion of them in to Dec l a r a t i v e . Inter­
roga t ive . Impe rat ive . and Suppo s i t ion a l Sentence Cl asses i s con side red
as t e r t i a ry .
M AJ O R I N DEPENDENT SEN TEN CE TY P E S ( SUMM ARY TABLE XVI )
5 . 1.
S i mp l e Maj o r I ndependent Sentence Type s
5 . 1. 1.
5 . 1. 1 . 1 .
Simp l e Maj o r Indep enden t Sen t en c e Type 1: Simp l e
Maj o r Indepen den t Decl arative Sen t en c e Typ e
The Sen t ence Typ e has the fo l l owing iden t i fi c a t iona l - con t ra s t ive
features and s t ruc ture fo rmu l a :
it
it
1S
1S
no t necessarily preceded by anything;
not necessa r i ly fo l lowed by anything .
SimMaj I ndep Decl Sn [ + I ndepDecl Cl +Fal I In ]
The fo rmu la i s read :
A S imp l e Maj o r Independent Dec l a rat ive Sen tence Type has i t s s t ruc­
ture compo sed of an obl igatory nuc leus Independen t De c l a ra t ive Clause
Type . and an ob l i ga to ry nuc leus Fa l l ing Intonat ion Pa t te rn . (A Fa l l in g
Intonat ion Pattern i n Eng l i sh ends w i th [ 3- 1 � ] .
EXAMPL ES:
+Fal l I n ]
SimM aj I n dePDecl Sn [ + I ndepAc t I n t rDecl Cl
They wen t th ere y e s t e rday . +Fal I In
141
SimMaj I n depDec I Sn [ +I ndep Ac t DbTrDecI Cl +Fal l In]
He g ave h e r a boo k . + Fai l ln
Simpl e Maj o r Independen t Sen t en c e Type 2: SiMpl e
5. 1. 1. 2.
Maj o r Indepen den t In t er roga t i ve Sen t en c e Typ e
The Sen tence Typ e inc ludes t wo a l t e rna t e div i s ion- sub c l a s se s : the
S i mp l e Maj o r Independen t Ye s -No I n t e r ro g a t i v e Sen t en c e Type ; the
Simp l e Maj o r Independent In format ion Interrogative Sent ence Type .
Simp l e M aj o r Independen t Sen t en ce Type 2 .
Independent Yes - No Int erro gat i v e Sen tence Type
5 . 1 . 1 . 2. 1 .
1. :
Simp l e Maj o r
The Sen t enc e Typ e has the fo l l owing ident i f i c a t iona l - con t ra s t ive
fea tures and s t ruc ture fo rmula :
i t is not nece ssa r i ly preceded by anythin g ;
i t i s necessar i ly fo l lowed by a Yes-No Respons e .
SimMaj IndepYe sNo In terSn [ + I ndepYeSNO I n terCI +
{
}
Fal l I n
RisIn
]
The formu l a i s read:
A S imp l e Maj o r Independen"t Ye s-No Interroga t ive Sen t ence Typ e h as
i t s s t ruc ture compo sed o f a n o b l i g a t o ry nuc l eus Independent Ye s -No
In t e r ro g a t i v e Cl au s e Typ e . a nd an ob l i ga t o ry nuc l e u s I n t on a t ion
P a t tern wh ich has t wo a l t e rna t e d i v i s ion- subc l a sses : Fa l l ing Intona­
t ion Pat t e rn ; Ris ing Intonat ion Pa t t e rn . ( A Ri s ing In ton a t i on Pattern
ends wi th [ 3- 3 t ] .
EXAMPL ES:
SimMaj IndepYesNo I n t erSn [ + I ndepAc t l n t rY esNo l n t erCI
D i d you go
[
SimMaj l ndepYesNo l n terSn + I n depPasDbTrYesNo l n tercl
Were you g i ven a bo o k
+Fal l In ]
+Fai l ln
+R i s I n ]
+Risln
Simp l e M aj o r Independen t Sen tence Type 2 . 2. : Simp l e Maj o r
Independen t In fo rmation Interro ga t i v e Sen tence Type
5. 1 . 1 . 2. 2.
The Sen tence Type has the fo l lowing iden t i fi c a t iona l - cont ra s t ive
features and s t ructure fo rmu l a :
{
}
i t i s no t necessa r i ly preceded b y anyth ing ;
i t i s necessa r i ly fo l lowed by an Info rma t ion Respons e .
SimM aj I n deP l n fo r I n t erSn [ +
I nd ep xI n t ercl
I ndep l n terSCI
Indep I n t erNonSCI
+Fai I In ]
The formul a i s re ad:
A Simp l e Maj o r Independent In fo rma t ion Inte rroga t ive Sent ence Typ e
has i t s struc ture composed o f an obl igatory nuc l eus Cl ause s lo t fi l l ed
by a s imp l e f i l l e r c l a s s in c lu d i n g three a l t e rn a t e d iv i s ion - sub -
S l mp l e
"
=
e
�
�
<{
� i +ladepYeaNo laterCl
� f···. · ," }
.,
��
0
oS
" ..
�
-
'
"
=-=
0
-"
-.;"
"
<>.
..
'"
"
.....
"
..
.: ii
� ... l.deplaterSCl
� t
l.deplaterNoaSCl
,, �
"" "
�
Fal l l. }
lish
.Fall h
+1.depypCl +Fa1 1 1a
a
�
.i
"
o
tll
-<:
�
�
-
DepNoaSCI
DepaelCI
lIIepCI
+1.depDeclCI
+ladepYeaNo taterCl J ... ( %COord +llIdepY eaNolate"CI Z ) . { Fal lla }
Ilal.
+1.d�YeaNol.terCl
+
{'. .. .
"" .
Indeplot erSCl .
Jadep IDterHoaSCl 1
+t
'l
,r
( %Coord +
l
....... .
led... loterSCI z
ladeplaterHoaSCl Z
.
..
..
IDdeplaterSCI
ladeplaterNoaSCI
) <Fal l I.
+lad ep lapCl
�ord .lodeplapCl z ) +FaI l la
< lado,Dod CI <EelloCI
�
eo_p i
+ladectDeclCl l +( !Coo r4 +ladepDecl Cl z) +Fall t.
+(adep t.PCI .
I.:! �
.....
E•
r
t� }
f . , ". }
{' . "''' } {� }
t� }
Co.pound
+ladepDeel Cl +Fal l h
"
�
}
) Fai l l a }
, liala
��
t
i
ex
<Fai l le
DepNoaSCl
ICI
D...
..
lDeprt
I
DepNo DSCl
Dep.olCI
u.., CI
DepNoaSCI
:::�: CI
<{ Fallla }
11al.
+Fai l la
.
.Fal l la
I
+lD... CI « DeplotrodCi!' <ladepDecl ci l <ladepDeclCI <Fai l la
o "
<>. 0
<>. �
Jl Dtptndt n t
• Some of the sentences generated accord1.og to these fOl'lmJ.iae are perfectly gcaamaa t l c a l . al thouWt they
are not necessarily acceptable.
i . e.
wi thout paper- and-penc i l analys l s .
page 1 1 .
•
see Noam OtolDsky. Aspe c t s of a Theory of Syn tax. The M . l . T.
1965. pages 10- 15.
versus acceptab d i t y of sentenc e s .
Press. Cambrldge. Mass .
they are not necessarily natural and immediately comprehensi'Ye
For further detall on the different degrees of grllDDa t icalness
the study of performanc e .
He defines: "Acceptabi l i ty is
•
concept that belongs to
whereas grammat lcainess bel"ngs to the study of competence "
�.C1t.
[IA.PLES
. E F L E C II N I
S i .p l e
�
�
�
�
.!'
.
c
�
�
i.
��
-.; ;; ...
!�
{"'"
��
�
<>.
�
.Did "'] r
j
,
"'!he,
)0' '0
.{Fal l l '
}
"aJ.
d " "., :all '0' .0
-"':0 :0 L � )0\0 so
•.� ( . } ;iii! :hy ten .so fO
.re l ! �i, so
�
�
oll
"'faJ l l.
�
:"" 1.
�
fA.LE
}
.rai l ia
:o�d )'Ov so,
'JU th.)
...
{
r o l l YO " $0,
.... did
1r'''� told
)0" :lid
( tNt)
(""d) , ..
no t tI,l i ctie tAft .fai l l.
yO"
,. l i ...
)010 so,
+1." Iu. �. ( b-.. t )
.t ...
{ Fal l lo
.
}
ron!} ""y did yo> •• l i .. rhea
(tu'.4.) v.o HI! r.(l t ten )lOt. so
reI � .$0 to, (0I\d) -.iLo(.) did thy not t e l ! so
"'Y t e l l ,0> $0,
arho (.l �i:! t'tC)
....
try
.
1'.0: to b,..: It:.! t . H�ls .'a1I1.
'''') , o l d ) 0 " so , d i d.. ',
r h.) .
{
'.I I lO
'"
.'al 1 l.
to
...
Dt P t "1 Q. t 11 t
u\.:) .at :1;."". is low
an
the scale of acceptability but high.
(tht)
to1:! you Vio l a )
«I
tell
YO" i
... ...
l',."" told yo!"
no(.) did they
t"
}
Ital.
•
did t.ra,,)' :eU
thy
+DU th.,
c
.. The- generated sentence:: VJ...c (.J
'01. '0" .roO .or
thy :o'd yo ...
rh..
the,
at!
}
H.
thy u t hit
l,.,y to!c! yolO u\erl thy s e t
%=
I
r"
Co.p l el
{ - }{ }
} {no "." �H ,- }
i-
,
" "
o
I V I
Co. p o u n d
"':,"C) :olJ )0-" $0 ""all ..
�� 1?
SV • • • • ,
.ral ll.
• .. ".
I..ho (.)
.
{tho;} they .ct !aa
1iJi,�
I
t.n
they ut
...
Pall ..
lial.
they .c: h i•
� .. . .
IIAQ(.J thy ut
r e h t ) th., u t hi •
:.hat tia, tlley .c: Id.
. . .,
,," ". -. <, , ••,
1 lO.!'\oClU) t e Z : .Ht so, if 1 /sat/If ",,"O Uf Il
: w,:: t. Z4 hat/If toIj IIi_ so, if ; we"e yow
I �,"l.1 IICI," told "i_ .so, it I h� ben
ti.If
}
• •
I
.'.1 1 1
.'.U I.
tlle"e
the scale of gr--.aticalness (cf. footnote in s..-ary Table
XVI ) .
f-'
.l>­
v;
1 44
c l a s s e s : I ndependen t Ex t ra I n t e rroga t ive Cl ause Typ e ; Indep enden t
I n t e rro ga t i ve Subj e c t Clause Typ e ; I ndepende n t In t e r ro ga t i ve NOn­
Subj ec t Cl ause Typ e . and an ob l i g a t o ry nuc l eu s Fa l l in g In tona t i o n
P a t t e rn .
EXAMPL ES:
SimMaj IndepInforlnterSn [+IndepXIntercl +Faill
+FallIn]n
+FallIn]
SimMajlndeplnforlnterSn[+lndepIntersCl
+FallIn
SimMaj Indep In fo rlnterSn [+lndeplnterNonSCl ++Fall
Fall In]In
When we re you t h ere
Who was h ere y e s t erday
Wha t d i d y o u g i ve h im
5. 1. 1. 3.
Simp l e Major Indepen den t Sen t en c e Typ e 3: Simpl e
Maj o r Indepen den t Imperative Sen t en c e Typ e
The Sent ence Type h a s the fo l l owin g iden t i f i c a t i ona l - con t ra s t ive
fea tures and s t ruc ture fo nnula :
i t i s no t necessa r ily preceded by anyth ing ;
i t i s usua l ly fo l lowed by a verba l o r non-ve rbal re spon s e .
SimMajIndepImpSn[iPolitenessFormula +IndepImpCl +Failln]
The fonnu la i s read:
A S imp l e Independen t Imp e r a t ive Sen tence Type h as i t s s t ructure
composed of an op t i on a l sa t e l l i t e Po l i t eness Fo rmu l a ; an o b l i g a to ry
nuc leus Independen t Impe ra t ive Cl ause Typ e ; and an ob l i gatory nuc leus
Fa l l ing Intonat ion Pat tern .
Po l i t eness Fo rmul a :
Wou l d you k i nd L y ;
P L e as e ;
Wo u L d you p L e as e ;
Cou L d you p l e as e ;
etc.
EXAMPL ES :
SimMajIndepImpSn[+PolitenessFormula +IndepActIntrImpCl +Fall
In]
+FallIn
Si mM aj Indep Imp [+Po I tenessFo rmu a + Indep ActSgTrImpCI +FaiIIn
+FallIn]
g o to t h e next coun t e r
P l e as e .
So
5. 1 . 2 .
i
I
Wo u l d you, p L e as e ,
send
me
a t axi
Compound M a j o r I ndependen t Sentence Typ es
Sen t en c e s o f the thre e Maj o r Independen t Sen ten c e Type s . n a m e l y
Dec l a ra t ive . I n t e rro g a t i ve . and Impe ra t i ve Sen t ence Types . a re Com­
pound when they have a leng thy coo rd inate o r non- coo rd in a t e s t ruc ture
composed of mo re than one Clause . Al l of them have the same st ruc ture
fo nnu l a :
i sIn }]
CompdMaj IndepSn [+IndepCIl + ( iCoord +IndepCI Z ) + {RFallIn
The fo rmula i s rea d :
145
A COmpound Maj o r Independent Sentence has i t s struc ture compo sed o f
t wo or mo re Independent Cl ause Type s which are op t iona l l y coo rdinated
by a Single or a Dbub le COordinato r . and an ob l i gato ry nuc l eu s Intona­
t ion Pat tern wh ich inc ludes two a l t e rnate d iv i s ion- subc l a s s e s : Ris ing
Intonat ion Pat tern wh ich may o c cu r in a Ye s-No Interrogat ive Sen t ence
Type ; Fa l l ing Intona t ion P a t t e rn wh i ch occurs in a De c l a ra t ive or an
Impera t ive Sen t ence Type . and wh i ch may occur in a Ye s-No Interroga­
t ive Sen tence Type .
EXAMPL ES:
+FaIIID]
COmPdMajIndePDeclsn[+IndePDecICI 1 +(tCoord +IndePDecICI 2 ) +FaiIIn
n]
CompdMaj IndepYesNo InterSn [ +YesNo InterCI 1 +( tCoo rd +YesNo Intercl 2J +Fall
I
+Failin
+Fall
In]
COmPdMajlndePImpsn[+lmpCI 1
+Failin
H e go t up
and
Di d you d ri v e
Go t h ere
� . 1 . 3.
and
h e s a t do wn
or
d i d you f L y
t ry to f i n d h i m
Comp l ex M a j o r I ndependen t Sen tence Type s
Sen t en c e s o f the three Maj o r Independent Sen tence Typ e s . nam e l y
Dec l ar a t ive . Int e r ro gat ive . and Impe rat ive Sentence Typ e s . a r e compl e x
when t h e y have the i r i n t e rn a l p y ram id ing st ruc t u r e s o f Cl ause o r
Cl ause s with in Claus e . They have the same s t ruc ture fo rmula :
Ri sIn } ]
:XDepCI!�� SCI } +{ FallIn
CompxMaj Indep Sn [+IndepCI ±{::DepRelCI
The fo rmu l a i s read :
A Comp l ex M aj o r I n d e p en d e n t Sen t e n c e Typ e h a s i t s s t r u c t u r e
composed o f an ob l i gato ry nuc leus Independent Clause Type ; an ob l iga­
t o ry nuc l e u s o r op t i on a l s a t e l l i t e Dep endent Cl ause Typ e ; and an
o b l i gatory nuc leus Intonat ion p a t t e rn .
The Dependen t Clause Type i s ob l i gatory and nuc leus when i t fi l l s
an ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Clau se l eve l s l o t in the govern ing Independent
C l ause Typ e . I t i s opt ion a l and sa t e l l i t e when i t f i l l s an opt ion a l
sat e l l i t e Clause l eve l s l o t i n the gove rning Independent Cl ause Type .
I t inc lud e s fou r a l t e rn a t e d i v i s i on- sub c l a s s e s : Dependen t Subj e c t
Clause Typ e ; Dependent Non - Subj ect Cl ause Type ; Ext ra Dependent Clause
Type ; and Dependent Relat ive Cl au se Type .
The ob l i ga t o ry nuc l eus Intona t ion p a t te rn inc ludes two a l t e rna t e
d i v i s ion - sub c l as se s : Ris ing Intonat ion p a t t e rn wh i ch may occur in a
Yes-No Inte rro ga t ive Sen tence Type ; Fa l l ing Inton a t ion p a t te rn wh ich
o ccu rs in a Dec l a rat ive . or an Imperat ive Sen tence Type . and may a lso
occu r in a Ye s-No In terroga t ive Sentence Type .
146
EXAMPL ES:
+Fal l In ]
COmp xMaj IndepDecl Sn [ + I n depDecl Cl + DepNonSCl
I boug h t
wh at y o u L i ked +Fai I In
Comp xMaj IndepDecl Sn [ + I ndep Dec l Cl + DepSCI
I found
wh at used
t o p L e ase h i m
Comp xMaj In dep DecI Sn [ + I ndepDecI CI + XDepCI
They kno w
wh en you a�e go i ng
COmp xM aj I n dep Decl Sn [ +Indep Dec l Cl + Dep Rel C l
They knolV
t h a t you are go i ng
+Fal l In ]
+ Fai I In
+Fal l In ]
+ Fal l In
COmp xM aj IndepYeSNo I n t e rSn [ + I ndepYeSNo In t erCI +DepSCl
D i d you see
Comp xMaj Indep ImpSn [ + I n deP ImpCl + DepSCI
( P L e ase)
5. 1 . 4.
te L L me
who too k i t
+ Fal l In ]
+ Fal l In
who too k i t
+ R i sIn]
+ R i sIn
+Fal l In]
+ Fal l In
The Compound Maj or I ndependent Echo I nterrogat i ue
Sen tence Type
The COmpound Maj o r Independent Echo Interro ga t ive Sen tence Type has
the fo l lowing i den t i f i c a t i ona l - con t r a s t iv e fe a tures and s t ruc ture
fo rmu l a :
i t i s no t necessa r i ly p rec eded b y anything ;
i t i s nece ssa r i ly fo l lowed by a Yes-No Response .
CompdM aj I n dep Echo I n t e rSn [ + I ndepDec I Cl + EchoCI +
{
Fal l I n
RisIn
}
]
Th e fo rmu l a i s read :
A COmpound Maj o r Independen t Echo In t e r ro g a t ive Sen t ence Type has
i t s st ruc ture compo sed of an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eu s Independen t De c l a ra­
t ive Cl ause Type, an obl igatory nuc leus oppo s i te Echo Clause Typ e , and
an ob l i ga tory nuc l eus Inton a t ion pa t te rn whi ch inc ludes two a l ternate
d i v i s ion- subc l a sses : Fa l l ing . I n ton a t ion p a t t e rn ; Ris ing Inton a t ion
p a t t e rn .
The Echo Clause Type i s s a i d to be oppo s i t e because when the p re­
ced ing Independen t Dec l a rat ive Clause Type i s Affi rm a t iv e , the Echo
C l au s e Typ e m u s t be Ne ga t i ve , and v i c e ve rs a .
( Fo r t h e ana l y s i s
o
f
the
Sub
s
t
i
tu
t
ing
Verb
Phra
se
i
n
the
Echo
Typ
e
, see 3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 5 . ,
,
p ages 61-63. )
The Fa l l ing In tonat ion Pat t e rn confe rs the mean ing o f:
( a ) ' a sty l ist i c var i a t ion o f the s t a t emen t ' ;
( b ) ' to a sk for con f i rma t ion or agreemen t ' ;
( c ) ' to p romote conversat ion ' . 19
19
Ro b e r t L a do and Ch a r l e s C.
Fr i e s , Engl i sh Sen tence Pat tern s .
v e r si ty o f M i c h i gan Press, Ann Arbo r , Michigan ,
1957 , p age 244.
Un i ­
147
The Ris ing Inton a t ion Pat t e rn i s used ' when the sp e ake r doe s n o t
necessa r i ly expect the ans we r to agree w i th h i s st atemen t , 19 ( see pre­
v ious page) .
IXAMPL ES:
CompdMaj Indep Echo I n t e rSn [ + I ndePDecl Cl
Iou L i ked i t ,
d i dn ' t you
Io u d i d n ' t L i ke i t ,
did you
Co.p dM aj In dep Ech o I n t erSn [ + In depDecl Cl
�. l. �.
+Echo Cl
+ Echo Cl
Iou d i dn ' t see h i m ,
did you
Iou s aw him ,
d i dn ' t yo u
+Fal l In ]
+Fal l I n
+Fal l In
+Ri sIn ]
+Ri sIn
+ Rl sIn
The Comp l ex Ma j o r Independen t S uppo s i t i on a l Sentence
Type
The COmp l ex Maj o r Independent Suppo s i t iona l Sen t en c e Typ e h as the
fo l lo w ing iden t i fi c a t iona l - cont ra s t ive fe ature s and st ruc ture formu l a :
I t is not necessa r i l y p rec eded by anyth ing ;
i t is no t necessar i ly fo l lo wed by anyth ing .
Comp xM aj Indep SuppSn [ + XDepCl [ +DeP I n t ro d ( i f > + I ndePDecl Cl ] + Indep Dec l Cl
+ Fal l In ]
The formu la is read :
The COmp lex Maj o r Independent Suppos i t iona l Sen tence Type has i t s
s t ructure composed o f an ob l i ga to ry nu c l eu s Ext r a Dependen t Cl ause
Type int rodu ced by an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Dependent Clause Int roduce r
( i f > . an ob l i gato ry nuc leus Independen t Dec l a r a t ive Clause Type . and
an o b l i gatory nuc leus Fa l l ing Intonat ion Pat t ern .
The Sentence Type has three a l ternate d i v i s ion- subc lasses :
( 1)
When the Supposed si tua t ion s t a t ed in
Ext ra Dependen t Clause Typ e i s or can be ea s i ly re a l i z e d .
V e rb Ph r a s e in the Ex t ra Dep end en t C l a u se Typ e i s in
P re s en t t en s e . a n d t h e Ve rb Ph r a s e in t he Indepen den t
c larat ive Clause Type i s in the Future t ense .
EXAMPL E:
CompxM aj In dep SuppSn [ + XDepCl [ +Dep I n tro d ( i f> + I n dep Dec l Cl ]
If
I h ave t i m e ,
+ IndepDecl Cl +Fal l ln ]
I ' �L s e e you +Fal l In
( 2)
Di vi s i on - s u q c l a s s 2:
Di v i s i on - s u bc l a s s 1 :
the
t he
the
De­
When the Supposed s i tua t i on i s h ab i tua l ly
o r custom� r i ly rea l i zed unde r the c i rcum s t an c e s s t a ted in the
Ex t r a De p enden t C l a u s e Typ e . the S i mp l e P r e s e n t t e n s e i s
o rd in a r i ly u sed in the Independen t Dec l a ra t iv e Clause Typ e .
EXAMPL E:
148
Comp xM aj lndep SuppSn [ + XDepCl [ +Dep l n t rod C if ) + l n depDec l Cl ]
If h e has enough
+Fai l ln ]
+l ndepDecl l':l
he usua l l y do e s h i s hom e- wo rk we l l +Fai l ln
Vthen the Supposed s i tuat ion i s un re al . o r
con trary to fac t . the Verb Phrase in the Ex t ra Dependent Clause
Type i s necessa r i l y in the Pa st tense . and the Ve rb Phrase in
the Independent Dec l a ra t ive Cl ause Type con t a i n s n e c e s sa r i ly
one of the fo l lowing Moda l s : wou l d , cou l d , m i g h t .
EXAMPLES:
Comp xM aj I ndep SuppSn [ + XDepCl [ +Dep l n t ro d C i j ) + lndepDecl cd
If I we re you ,
+ lndep Dec l Cl
+Fal l I n ]
I wo u l d s e e him + Fai l ln
CompxMaj lndep SuppSn [ + XDepCl [ +Dep l n trod C if ) + l ndepDecl Cl ]
( 3)
DI vi s i on- subc l as s 3:'
+ IndepDec l Cl
I wo u l d have
5 . 2.
t im e ,
me t him
+ Fal l ln ]
+ Fal l In
If
I
had been t h ere ,
M AJ O R DEP ENDENT SEN TEN CE TYP ES
Maj o r Dependen t Sen tence Type s a r e g rouped into three Cl a s se s :
Sequenc e Sen tence Type Cl a s s ; Parenthe se s Sen t ence Type Cl a s s ; Sho r t
Re spon se Sentence Type Cl ass .
Major Dependent S equence Sentence Types
5 . 2. 1.
Maj o r Dependent Sequence Sent ence Type s a re int roduced by Sentence
Int roducer . which may be :
( 1)
Adverb Ph rases
SAMPL ES:
( 2)
e tc .
P repo s i t i onal Ph rases
S AMPL ES:
etc .
( 3)
Undou b t ed l y ; natural l y ; apparen t l y ;
On t h e co n t r ary ;
in cons e qu e nc e ; o n t h e o t h e r hand;
Adj ec t i ve Ph rases
SAMPL ES:
Curious enoug h ; n e ed l e s s to s ay ;
etc .
EXAMPL E:
SimMaj Dep Sn [ +Dep I n t rod
Con se quen t ly ,
5 . 2 . 2.
+ SimMaj l n depDecl Sn [ + I n dePDecl Cl + Fal l In ] ]]
i t wa s fine + Fal l I n
Ma j o r Dependent Parentheses Sentence Type s
Maj o r Dependen t Paren t he se s Sen tence Type s are :
etc .
t hat i s ;
T h a t i s to s ay .
149
Maj or Dependen t Short Respon s e S en tence Type s
5 . 2. 3 .
The Maj o r Dep enden t Sho r t Re spon s e Sen tence Typ es a re sho rt Re­
spon s e s to Ye s-No In t e r ro ga t iv e . o r Echo I n t e r roga t iv e Sen t en ce s .
They have the fo l low ing structure fo rmu l a :
M aj DepgeSpon sesn [ +
{ } {
< Yes)
( No )
+
A f f ECh O Cl
N e,EchoCI
}
+ Fal l ln ]
Th e formula is read :
A Maj o r Dependent Sho r t Response Sentence Typ e has i t s s t ruc ture
compo sed o f an ob l i gatory nuc l eus Affi rmator <y e s ) o r Negator ( no ) . an
o b l i ga t o ry nuc l eu s Aff i rm a t iv e . o r Ne g a t ive Echo Cl ause Typ e ( c f .
p a g e 1 46 ) . a n d a n ob l i g a to ry nuc l eu s Fa l l i n g I n t o n a t ion
5 . 1. 4
Pat t e rn .
.
.
EXAMPL ES:
M aj Dep RespSn [ + ( Ye s ) + A f f EchoCl
Yes, they did
M aj Dep Resp Sn [ + (No )
No ,
+Fai l ln]
+Fai l ln
f N e , EchoCl
+Fal l In ]
they d i dn ' t +Fai l ln
Ap p en d i x
O U TL I N E O F G RAMM A T I C A L S T R U C TU R E S I N EN G L I S H
Th i s Ou t l ine is int ended to se rve a doub le theo ret i c a l and app l i ed
purpo s e . From the theo re t i c a l po int o f v i ew, i t i s to summ a r i ze the
d i s cu s s i on s in the p r ev i o u s Ch ap t e r s by p r e s en t i n g a s c h em a t i c
analy s i s o f mo s t rep re sen t a t ive g ramm a t i c a l s t ruc tures on Sen t en c e ,
Cl ause , and Phr a s e l eve l s in En g l i sh . I t i s a l so t o demon s t ra t e a
t en t a t ive theo re t ic a l combina t ion o f a Tran s fo rmat iona l represen t a t ion
o f Ph rase- S t ruc t ure Ru l e s , 1 and a Tagmem i c rep re s en t a t ion o f g ram­
mat ica l un i t s of any gramma t i c a l level as s l o t s p lus fi l le r c la s se s . 2
Thi s comb ina t ion o f a Tran sfo rmat ion a l mode l and a Tagmem i c mode l h a s
p roved e fficac ious i n the wr i t ing o f Engl i sh gramm a t i c a l p a t te rn s fo r
Vie tnamese , 3 as we l l as in the wr i t ing o f Engl i sh p a t t e rn p rac t i c e fo r
V i e tn am e s e . 4 I n fa c t , the Tran s fo rma t lon a l mo de l o f p r e se n t i n g
Phrase-Struc ture Rules and Tran s forma t iona l Ru les i s the theory behind
the wr i t in g o f Transforma t i9n a l d r i l l s , and the Tagmem i c presentat ion
o f tagmemes as s l o t s p lus fi l l e rs is the theory beh ind the w r i t ing o f
sub s t i tu t ion dr i l l s . 5 Also the tagmem i c qua l i fi c at ion o f tagmemes a s
b e ing ob l i ga to ry nu c l eus , op t i ona l nu c leu s , o r opt i on a l s a t e l l i t e
t a gmem es p e rm i t s t he wr i t ing o f exp ans ion dr i l l s . Thu s , from t h e
p ra c t i c a l point o f v i ew, th i s Out l ine i s int ended to give a hint to a
l ingui s t ic theory behind the wr i t ing of Engl i sh Grammar text book s .
1
Fo r fu r t h e r theo r e t i c a l
e x amp l e ,
Emmon Bac h ,
Rin eh ar t and Wi n s ton ,
2
Fo r
d i scu s s i o n s o n Ph r a s e - St ru c tu r e Ru l e s ,
see ,
fo r
Pike
" On
An In t rodu c t i on to Tran s fo rmat ional Grmrnar s , H a l t ,
I nc . ,
t h eo r e t i c a l
1964,
Chap t e r
discussions,
Systems o f Gramm a t i c a l
Struc t u r e " ,
see ,
in H.
3,
pp .
33- 57 .
fo r ex amp l e ,
Ke n n e th L .
Lun t ( e d . ) , Proceedings o f the Ninth
19 6 4,
In t e rn a t i onal Cong ress o f Li ngui s t s , Mou t o n and Co . , Th e H a gu e ,
pp.
1 45- 1 5 4.
3
See Ngu y en Dan g L i em ,
U . S. O . M . ,
4
Sa i gon ,
A.
S. E. A . R. E. P . ­
See Nguyen Dang L i em , En g l i sh Pat tern Prac t i c e fo r Vi e tnamese ,
E. P . -U. S . O. M . ,
5
Eng l i sh Gr amm a r fo r Vi e tnamese ,
196 3 .
Sai gon ,
See Wi l l i am G.
M a u l to n ,
" Wh a t i s St ru c t u r a l
Dr i l l " ,
i n F. W.
Val dman ( ed . ) , Struc tural Dri l l and the Language Laboratory ,
v e r s i ty ,
Bl oom i n gton ,
S. E. A . R.
196 3 .
I n d i an a ,
and Mouton an d Co . ,
151
Th e Hagu e ,
G r a v i t and
I n d i a n a Un i ­
196 3 , pp. 3- 18 .
1. 1.
S i mp l � Maj o r I ndepen den t Dec l arat i ue Senten c e Type .
The Sen tence Type examp l i fied here i s compo sed o f an ob l igatory nuc l eus Independent Dec l ara t ive Act ive
Intran s i t ive Cl ause Type . and an ob l i gatory nuc leus Fal l in g Intonat ion Pat t ern .
SimMaj I ndep Dec l So
+ Fai l in
+ I ndepDecl Act ln t rC l
+Pr [ ActI n t r Decl V - Pb r]
/\
V
±L<Adv- Ph r >
+ VH [ l n t rV] + t « - ed »
they
went
t h e re
+Fal i in
1 . 2.
S i mp l e Ma ; o r I ndep enden t Dec l arat i ue S enten c e Type .
The Sentenc e Type examp l i fied here i s composed o f an o b l i gatory nuc leus Independent De c l a rat ive Act ive
S ingle Tran si t ive Clause Type , and an obl igatory nuc l eus Fa l l ing In tonat ion Pattern.
+Fal l lD
+P r ( ActScTrDecl V- Pbr
/\
+VH [ScT rv]
fo
seek
the
good
lII e 1"i ts
+Do<N - Phr>
+t« - s »
\
+NH { ComN n _ c s i n }
,
.
adr.I'i. 1"a t i o n
+Fal l in
1 . 3.
S i mp l e Ma j o r I n dep enden t Dec l a rat i ue Sen tence Typ e .
The Sentence Typ e examp l i fied here is composed o f an ob l igatory nuc l eus Independent De c l ara t iv e Act i v e
Cbub l e Tran s i t iv e Clause Type . and a n obl igato ry nuc l eus Fa l l ing Inton a t ion Patt e cn .
�
�d ep D e c I So
_____________
__
__
__
__
__
__
- +Fai l la
+I n depDecl ActDbTrCI
+Pr [ ActDbTrDec I V- P h r]
/\
+Mo
+VB [ DbTrV]
+ oo« t o ) V - Pbr>
�
�
+ In f V- Phr
+Prep ( to )
+
Som eone
I
llIUSt
to
I
be
" qCo<'dJ - Pb '>
e ad y
+Fai I In
1 . 4.
S i mp l e M a j o r I ndependent Dec l arat i ue S en tence Typ e .
The Sentence Type examp l i fied he re i s composed o f an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Independent Dec l arat ive a t t rib­
u t ive Tran s i t ive Clause Type . and an obl lgatory nuc leus Fa l l ing Intonat ion Pa t tern .
SilllM aj Ind epDecl So
+Fai I In
+S<P e rsSPn>
+Pr [ ActAtTrDec I V - Ph rJ
.6" « 0" »
�
+OO<PersOPn> + At<AtN - Ph r.>
'
. ...(Of)�
'." l 'f" ' >
They
e l ec t ed
hi.
'I '>' Pb'>
P�es i den t o f
I
the
. H(!'"
.
..
C l�b
.
. . ..
.,}
+Fai l l n
1 . 5.
S i mp l e M a j o r I ndependent Dec l arat i ue S en ten c e Type .
The Sentence Type examp l i fied here i s composed o f an ob l i gatory nuc leu s Independen t Dec larat ive Passive
Single Trans i t ive Cl ause Type . and an obl i ga to ry nuc l eus Fa l l in g Intonat ion Pat te rn .
SimMaj lndep Decl Sn
+ Fai l ln
+ I ndep Decl PasSgTrCl
+Pr [pasSgTrDecl V - Ph r]
±L<Ad v- Pbr>
th.ere
+ Fal l ln
1. 6.
S i mp l e Major I ndependent Dec l arat i ue Sen tence Typ e .
The Sentence Type examp l i fied h e re i s composed of an ob l iga to ry nuc leus Independent De c l a ra t ive Pass ive
Doub l e Tran s i t ive Clause Type . and an ob l igatory nuc leus Fa l l ing Inton a t ion Pat t e rn .
SimMaj IndepDecl Sn
�------�
+ IndepDec l PasDbTrCI
�--=?--
+Pr [P asDbTrDecl V- Ph r]
She
was
g i ven
+ Fal l In
1. 7.
S i mp l e Ma j o r I ndependen t Dec l arat i ue S e n ten ce Typ e .
The Sentence Typ e examp l i fied here i s compo sed o f an ob l igato ry nuc leus I ndependent Dec l a ra t iv e Pass ive
Att r ibut ive Tran s i t ive Cl ause Type . and an obl i gato ry nuc leus Fa l l ing Intonat ion Pat te rn .
SimMaj IndepDecl Sn
+Fal l In
+ I ndepDec l P asAtTrCl
+ S<P ersSPn>
+Pr [PasAtTrDecl V - Ph r]
+Mo
�he
-might
" 'X" " ,
be
+At<AtN - Phr>
+VH [AtTrV]
+P art t C - en )
�
appo i n t e d
�
f
... d < dJ . Phr>
'
pri vate
.N H { ·· N . . e . Si . , }
I
se cre t ary
+ Fal l In
1. 8.
S i mp l e M a j o r I ndependen t Dec l a rat i ue Sen ten ce Typ e .
The Sen t en c e Type examp l i f i ed he re i s c omp o s e d o f a n ob l i g a t o ry nuc l eus Independen t Dec l a r a t i v e
Equat ional Clause Type . and an o b l i ga to ry nuc leus Fa l l ung Intona t ion Pat t e rn .
SimM aJ I 'l depDecl Sn
+ I ndepDecl EqCl
+ S<DemPn>
+Pr [Decl Au x( be ) - Pb r]
/\
+ Au x ( b e )
+ t« - ed»
+Fai l ln
+ EqCo<N - Pbr>
+Det<De fArt>
±Mo d 2 [N - Pb r]
�
�
- P" l
+NH { comN n _ c . s i n g}
+NR { eo.No _ c .
•, ••
}
+NH {Nonpersp roPNn }
That
was
the
I
Me kong
p 'ro } ec t
comm i ssion
+ Fai l ln
I-'
\J\
1.0
1. 9 .
S �p l e Ma j o r I ndepen den t Dec l arat i ue Sentence Type .
The Sentence Type examp l i fi ed he re i s compo sed o f an ob l iga to ry nuc leus Independen t De c l ar a t ive ( There )
Stat ive Clause Typ e . and an ob l i gatory nuc l eus Fa l l ing In tonat ion Pa t tern .
SillM aj In depD ecl So
+Fal l In
+S(There)
There
+Pr [ Decl Au x C b e ) - Pb r]
.6
are
.t« - s »
A
+Det<IndefArt>
+ N H [ + N - Pb r 1
/
� -2>
'�
+NH { comN n _ c. P 1 }
s01l e
boy s
+ Fal l I n
S imp l e M a j o r I n dependen t Dec l arat i ue Sen ten c e Typ e .
1 . 10 .
Th e Sen t ence Type examp l i fied here i s composed o f a n ob l igatory nuc leus Independent Dec l a ra t ive (I t )
Sta t iv e Clause Typ e . and an ob l igato ry nuc l eus Fa l l ing Intonat ion Patte rn .
SimMaj l ndepDecl Sn
+Fai l l n
+ I ndep Decl (I t ) StCI
+S(I t )
It
's
the
Of
Canb erra
h i g h- schoo �
+ Fal l In
2.
S i mp l e M a j o r I n dependent Ye s -No I nt e rrogat i u e Sen ten c e Type .
The Sen t ence Typ e examp l i fi ed h e r e i s compo sed o f an o b l i ga to ry nuc l eus Independent Ye s-No In t e r­
roga t ive Act ive At t r l bu t i v e Tran s i t iv e C l au s e Typ e . and an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eu s Fa l l i n g , o r Ri s in g
Intonat ion Patte rn .
SimMaj I ndepYesNo InterSn
+I ndepYesNo I n t er Ac tAtTrCI
+
{
+
{
Fal l In
Ri s I n
}
+ S<Pe rsSPn > +P r [ActAtTr I n t e r C do ) V- Ph rJ
Di d
+�
they
T I n terCdo )
+VH [ AtT'Vl
\
b e t i eve
hi.
i nno c e n t
}
F al l In
Ri s I n
S i mp l e Ma j o r I ndependent I n fo rmat i on I nte r rogat i ue S en tence Typ e .
3 . 1.
The Sent ence Typ e examp l i fied here is compo sed o f an obl iga to ry nuc leus Independent Ex tra- Inte rrogat i ve
Clause Type . and an ob l igato ry nuc l eus Fa l l ing Intona t ion Pat te rn .
SimMaj lndep l n forlnterSn
+Fai l ln
+ I nd epXInterCI
+�"'
[nd" Y'SN. [nt., ••tS'T'CI
+ S<PersSPn> +pr [ ActSgTr l n t e r C dO ) V- Phr]
When
did
I
you
TInter(do )
+�
+" [ SgT'Vl
I
meet
�I
+ OO <N - Ph r>
+
+ N. { " N n _ '. Sln. }
that
m an
+Fal l In
3.
2.
S i mp l e Ma j o r I ndependen t I n fo rmat i on I n terro ga t i ve S en ten ce Typ e .
The Sen t ence Typ e examp l i fied here i s compo sed o f a n ob l i ga t o ry nuc leus Independen t In t e r ro ga t i ve
Subj ect Act ive Dbub le Transit ive Clause Type . and an obl igato ry nucl eus Fa l l ing Intonat ion Pat t e rn .
SimMaj l n dep l n fo rl nterSn
+ Fai l ln
+ I ndep l n t erSAct ObTrCl
+ I n terS<In t erSPn>
+P r [ActObTrOecl V- P h r]
�
�
+IO<PersOPn>
+ OO <Adv - Ph r >
+VH [ ObTrV] +t« - ed »
Who
to l d
he�
so
+ F ai l ln
3. 3.
S i mp l e Ma j o r I ndepende n t I n fo rmat i on I n te rro gat i ue Sen t en c e Typ e .
The Sentence Type examp l i fied here is compo sed o f an o b l i ga to ry nuc leus Independent Interro ga t i ve Non­
Subj e c t ( In t e rrogat ive Ind i rect Obj e c t ) Clause Type . and an ob l i g a t o ry nuc leus Fa l l ing Intonat i on
Patte rn .
SimMaj I n d ep I n fo r I n terSn
+ Fal l I n
+ I ndepN onSI nterCl
+ S<Pe rsSPn >
+ I n t e r I O<InterOPn>
liho (lIL)
did
t h ey
T I n t e r C do )
+Pr [ ActDbTr I n te r C do ) V- Pb r]
'� " H(.bn'l
\
ten
+OO <Adv - Pb r>
so
+ Fal l In
4.
S i mp l e Ma j o r I ndependen t I mp e rat i v e Sentence Typ e .
The Sen t ence Type examp l i fied here i s composed o f an opt iona l sat e l l i te Po l i tene s s Fo rmu l a . an obl i ­
gatory nuc leus Independent Imp e rat ive Ac t ive Dbuble Trans i t ive Clause Type . and an obl i ga to ry nuc l eu s
Fa l l ing In tona t ion Pat tern .
SimMaj l n dep I.p Sn
�----�=-
iPo l i tenessFormul a
+Ind ep lmpAc t ObTrCl
+ Fai l in
+P r [ActObTrlmpV- Ph r]
/
+VH [ObTrV]
I
tett
h im
+Fai l i n
5.
Compound Ma j o r I n dependen t Dec l arat i u e S en te n c e Typ e .
The Sentence Type examp l i fied here i s compo sed o f two ob l i ga to ry nuc leus Independent Dec larat ive Act i ve
Int rans i t ive Cl ause Types . an opt iona l sat e l l i t e Single COo rd inato r tagmeme . and an obl i ga to ry nuc leus
Fa l l ing Intonat ion Patte rn .
+ Fal l I n
+ F al l I n
6 . 1.
Comp l ex Ma j o r I n dependen t Dec l arat i u e Sen ten ce Type .
The Sentence Typ e examp l i fied here i s composed o f an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Independent Dec l a ra t iv e Act i v e
Sing l e Trans i t iv e Cl ause Typ e . and o b l i g a to ry nuc l eu s Dep enden t Re l a t i v e Cl ause Typ e . and a n o b l i ­
gatory nucl eus Fa l l ing Intonat ion Pat te rn .
ColDp xMaj I n d ep Decl Sn
+ I n depDecl Act SgTrCl
+P r [ ActSgTrDec l V - Ph r]
+S<Dep ReI Cl >
A
+ Re l In tro d
A
+ VH [ SgTrv] + t « - s »
+ IndepDec l Act I n t rCl
�
+S<PersSPn>
+ P r [ Actl n t r DecI V - P h r]
.
that
he
+ oo<pe rsOPn>
�.
V
t« - 'd»
c ClIII e
s ttuil p S
ae
+ Fal l I n
Comp l ex Ma j o r I ndependent Dec l arat i ve S en t en c e Typ e .
6. 2 .
The Sen tence Type examp l i fi ed he re i s composed o f an o b l i gatory nuc leus Independent De c l a rat ive Act i v e
Single Transi t ive Cl ause Typ e . a n o b l i gato ry nuc leus Dependent Subj ect Cl ause Type . and an o b l i ga to ry
nuc leus Fa l l ing Intona t ion Patte rn .
Comp xM a j I n dep Decl Sn
+Fal l I n
+ lndepDecl ActSgTrCI
+ Dep S<Dep SPn > +p r [ Actln t rDecI V - Ph r]
A
±L<Ad v - Ph r>
+ VH [ l n trV] + t <C - ed »
She
knows
who
V
wen t
there
+ Fal l I n
Comp l ex M a j o r I ndepen den t Dec l arat i ue S en tence Typ e .
6 . 3.
The Sentence Typ e examp l i fied he re i s compo sed o f an ob l i gatory nuc l eus Independent De c l a ra t ive Act i ve
Intran s i t ive Clause Type . an opt ion a l sat e l l i t e Ext ra-Dependent Cl ause Type . and an ob l i gato ry nuc l eus
Fa i l lng Intonat ion Patte rn .
Co.p IM aj In depSn
+ Fal l I n
+ I ndep Decl Act I o t rCl
±T<XDepCl >
+ S<P ersSPn>
�
+DepI o t ro d
+ Io depDec l ActI n t rCl
A
+ S<P e r sSPo>
+Pr [" C t I o t rDecl v- Pb r ]
A
V
+VU [ I o t rV]
I
com e
when
he
com e s
+t« - s»
+ Fai l lo
......
-.)
o
7.
Compo und M a j o r I ndependent Echo I n terro gat i ue Sen ten c e Typ e .
The Sent ence Type examp l i fied here is compos ed o f an ob l i gatory nuc leus Independent De c l a r a t ive Act i ve
I n t ran s i t ive Cl ause Typ e . an ob l i ga to ry nuc l eus Echo In t e rro g at ive Clause Typ e . and an ob l ig a t o ry
nuc l eus Fa l l ing. or Ris ing Intonat ion Pa t t e rn .
�
CompdM aj l ndep Ecbo I n t erSn
d" • •CI Act l n t ,cl
/\
+S<PersSPn > +Pr [ Actl n trDecl V - P b r]
A
V
+S<P ersSPn
+ VH [ I n trV] +t« - ed»
They
came
+
+ Ecbo I n t erCl
{
Fal l I n
R i sIn
+Pr [ I n terNegSubst ( do ) - Pb r]
.�"n'"
I
d i dn ' t
they
T l n t e r ( do )
}
+
!Fal l ln
lRi SIn
}
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Th e Teach i n A 0 f Modern L an Au a A e s , Repo r t on the Unesco Re ­
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B ach , Emmon
1964
" Su b c a t e go r i e s in Tran s fo rma t i on a l Gramma r s " , H . Lun t
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An aly s i s " , L i ngui s t i c s 10 . 5- 14 .
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Carro l l . John B.
Th e Study o f Languag e .
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1957
196 1
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Pren t ice-Ha l l . Engl ewoods Cl i ffs . New Jersey . 1964,
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Aspec t s o f a Th eory o f Syn t ax .
The M.
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To ton t ep ec M i xe Phono t a gmem i c s .
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gu i s t i c s . No rma . Ok lahoma . 197pp .
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"Gene ra l I n t roduc t ion to the Ser i e s " . in Wi l l iam G. Moulton .
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The Uni ve rsity o f Chic ago
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174
F r i es, Char l es C.
Teach i n g an d L ea rn i n g En g l i sh a s a Fo r e i gn L an gu a g e .
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versi ty o f Michigan Press . An n Arbo r , Mi ch i gan. 153pp .
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The S t ru c t u r e o f En g l i sh .
Un i ­
Harcourt , Brace and Wo r ld Inc . .
New Yo rk . 304pp .
Har ri s, Zel l i g S.
S t ru c t u r a l L i n gu i s t i c s .
195 1
Ch i cago . xv i + 384pp .
1957
Th e Un i ve rs i t y o f Ch i c a go Pre s s ,
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L anguage
Haudricou rt, Andre G.
19 53
"La p l ace du Vie tnam i en dans les l angues aus t ro a s i. a t i ques" .
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1954
"Two Mode l s o f Gramma t i c a l De sc rip t ion" . Wo r d 10 . 2 10- 23 1 .
Rep r i n t ed i n M a r t i n Joo s ( ed . ) . Readi n g s i n L i n g u i s t i c s .
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19 58
A Cou r s e i n Mode rn L i n g u i s t i c s .
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Hodge, Carl e ton T.
1963
"Th e I n f l u en c e o f L i n gu i s t i c s on Lan gua g e Te a c h i n g " .
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Fundamen t a l s o f Languag e . Mouton and Co . . The Hague . x+87pp .
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The M . I . T.
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"Nega t ion in En g l i sh" . Jerry A. Fodo r and Jerro ld J . Kat z
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( ed i to rs ) . Th e S t ru c tu r e o f L an guage: Readi n g s i n the Phi l o ­
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Lado , Robert
19 57 L i ngui s t i c s a c ro s s Cul t u r e s .
Ann Arbo r . Mich igan . 141pp .
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L an guage Tes t i n g .
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Un i ve r sit y o f M i ch i gan Pre s s .
Th e Con s t ru c t i on and U s e o f Fo r ei gn L an ­
MacGraw-Hi l l . New Yo rk . xxi i i + 399pp .
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