Synopsis
page 11
Synopsis of the Register
The following synopsis should be read in conjunction with
the full introduction to the Register in Volume One.
page 12
The Linguasphere Register
1999 / 2000 edition
Table One
LINGUASPHERE REGISTER: LAYERS OF CLASSIFICATION
Between the planetary linguasphere and the voice of each person,
the Linguasphere Register 1999 / 2000 identifies, classifies and codes 13,840 inner languages
(plus 8,881 constituent dialects) within 693 linguistic sets
1. Numerical framework of worldwide reference
Each set is classified and coded within one of 100 referential zones within one of 10 referential sectors (one
of 5 phylosectors or 5 geosectors).
linguasphere key
= a fixed two-digit
numerical code
(99 as an example)
marking two layers of worldwide
reference
for an inventory of sectors and zones
see Table Two
(uncoded)
(LINGUASPHERE)
= totality of the world's languages
9=
SECTOR
= phylosector (odd digit 1, 3, 5, 7, 9) or
geosector (even digit 0, 2, 4, 6, 8)
99=
ZONE
= phylozone or geozone
TOTALS
1
10
100
2. Alphabetical scale of linguistic proximity
Each set comprises two successive layers of close relationship:
chain (within each set) and net (within each chain) = upper-case alphabetical code (-AAA-)
+ an alphabetical
code comprising
three upper-case
(majuscule) letters
marking three layers of
close relationship
ideally, the following minimum of basic
vocabulary may be shared by languages
in the same set, chain
or net
TOTALS
694
99-A
SET
substantial minority (say 25-30%+)
99-AA
CHAIN
intermediate proportion
1,410
99-AAA
NET
substantial majority (say 65-70%+)
2,694
Each net comprises two or three successive layers of immediate relationship:
outer language, inner language and (optionally) dialect = lower-case alphabetical code (-aaa)
+ two or three
lower-case
(miniscule) letters
marking two or three
layers of immediate
relationship
up to three layers of relative proximity
composed of largely inter-intelligible
spoken (and/or written) idioms
99-AAA-a
Outer language
= basic demographic unit
99-AAA-aa
inner language
= basic unit of classification
99-AAA-aaa
dialect (as required)
= local, social or written variety
(uncoded)
(voice)
= the total linguistic repertoire and
competance of each person in
any language or languages
TOTALS
4,994
13,840
(< 8,881)
6,000,000,000
Synopsis
page 13
THE LINGUASPHERE REGISTER
The 1999 / 2000 framework edition of the Linguasphere Register has the following aims:
•
to provide the first planetary outline of humankind's linguistic environment or linguasphere, at the beginning
of a new era of global communication;
•
to compile a first transnational classification or "roll-call" of human speech communities, at the end of the
th
20 century;
•
to establish a stable framework of worldwide reference for the documentation and mapping of the world's
st
languages and speech communities, from the beginning of the 21 century;
•
to establish a flexible scale of linguistic proximity for the expansion and adjustment of a worldwide corpus of
data on individual languages, independently of their demographic importance;
•
and to begin the enumeration and transnational monitoring of all human communities, however small,
isolated or socially disadvantaged, within a common framework of global relationship.
The starting-point of the Register is the recognition of the linguasphere as a global environment.
The linguasphere is the environment of spoken communication created around the globe by successive
generations of humankind. It comprises a growing continuum of millions of words, organised within
thousands of alternative patterns of speech-sounds and grammatical rules, and manipulated by billions of
continuously renewed human voices. The weaving of this planetary mantle of speech is humankind's most
important and most collective creation.
This spoken surface of the linguasphere, supplemented by written and other derivative forms of
communication, is composed of thousands of interactive sub-systems or languages, all in a state of gradual
change and interchange among succeeding generations and within the minds of plurilingual speakers. The
complexity and fluidity of relationships among languages requires the establishment of a finely meshed
system of reference. It also requires a shift in the emphasis of linguistic classification away from the
reconstruction of distant levels of prehistorical relationship, often hypothetical, towards the observation and
cataloguing of close layers of contemporary relationship among modern languages and dialects. Small
variations of language are often very significant in marking the identity of neighbouring communities, and it
has proved useful to replace the traditional dichotomy of language and dialect with a sequence of three layers
of immediate relationship: outer language, inner language and dialect. Although these three layers form the
base of a relatively complex system of reference (see Table One), it must be emphasised that this system
has been designed as a practical device to assist the observation and cataloguing of the contemporary
linguasphere, and not as an end in itself.
The modern linguasphere has thus been classified in the Register in the form of over 13,800 inner languages
(plus their internal dialects), organised within almost 5,000 outer languages and approximately 700 sets of
related languages. These sets are in turn classified within 100 reference zones within 10 major sectors,
which together cover the entire linguasphere. These ten sectors comprise five phylosectors, corresponding
to the five well documented linguistic "families" which together cover the majority of the world's population,
and five geosectors, corresponding to five well defined continental areas within which all remaining languages
are classified.
Numerical codes provide a stable framework, and alphabetical codes a flexible scale of relationships.
The 100 reference zones are coded, and their components identified, by pairs of digits [00 to 99] within the
ten sectors [0 to 10]. This provides a stable framework of worldwide reference for the location of languages,
as set out on Table Two (overleaf). Reference names are provided in the Register for all known languages,
which are always unique within the relevant zone. Any reference name preceded by a code in the form of a
bracketed pair of digits, e.g. [51] Italiano, may therefore be readily located within the relevant zone and also
within the Index to the Register (in Volume One).
Within each zone, all component languages are classified according to a flexible scale of alphabetical codes,
which may be modified between successive editions of the Register to reflect new or improved data and
research. Sets within each zone are coded by means of a single alphabetical letter (A to a maximum of Z)
suffixed to the numerical code of that zone, and further letters are added for narrowing layers of linguistic
relationship within each set, through to the component outer and inner languages (and where necessary, also
dialects). The full system of coding is set out on Table One.
page 14
The Linguasphere Register
1999 / 2000 edition
Information on each layer of linguistic relationship is presented in a series of tabulated columns.
The Register provides an overview of the modern linguasphere in a continuous table of five columns,
th
covering all languages known to have been spoken during at least part of the 20 century. Also included are
written languages inherited from earlier centuries, but which are still read as literary or liturgical languages
(and which thus still form part of the modern linguasphere). Entries have likewise been included for certain
th
languages known to have become extinct during the previous four centuries (from the late 15 to the end of
th
the 19 century), since these are directly relevant to any consideration of the modern impact of European
languages on the state of the linguasphere.
A raised star * is suffixed to items of data which are unreliable or which require corroboration.
The five columns of the Register (compressed to three in the Synopsis) are organised as follows:
Column 1 presents a coded classification of the world's language-groups (sets, chains and nets) and
idioms (outer languages, inner languages and dialects). This classification is constructed around the
numerical and alphabetical codes presented in Table One.
Column 2 presents a list of selected reference-names for all language-groups and idioms, their
classificational hierarchy being visually apparent from sequences of typography (ranging from bold
capitals to normal lower-case). The reference-names of idioms represent wherever possible speakers'
own-names or autoglossonyms for their primary forms of speech. Most reference-names of languagegroups in the Register are constructed from a combination of the names of two of their component
elements, rather than utilising existing, often artificial or foreign "cover-names". Names of languages
which are today read rather than spoken are prefixed by the icon of a book , whereas spoken
languages modelled at least partially on the written word are preceded by the icon of a writing hand ✍.
For this first framework edition of the Register, names have been recorded only in the Latin script.
Column 3 presents the alternative names recorded for many language-groups and idioms, including
alternative reference-names in bold type. Other names applied to languages and communities are
distinguished by the use of lower case initials, as opposed to initial capitals for geographical names.
(This typographical convention does not apply to textual notes, printed in italics.) Notes are categorised
by a series of icons:
⊕
¶
notes on locations or epicentres
notes on scripts or written models
notes on speech communities
č notes on bilingual communities
notes on languages
# notes on nomenclature
notes on contacts and relationships among languages
Cross-references to other languages are preceded by a zonal reference in square brackets, e.g. [49]
Telugu (i.e. classified in zone 49=, see Table Two).
Column 4 lists the nation-state or states in which an idiom is spoken (with provinces in brackets), with
any official status indicated by the icon of a flag . Use in two or more states is marked by the icon of
crossed flags ”.
Column 5 presents a single-digit scale of voices (i.e. speakers) for individual languages, and for the
combined languages of each zone. This digit records the order of magnitude of the number of primary
and alternate speakers of every outer language in the Register (and of some inner languages), as known
or estimated at the end of the 20th century. This estimate is expressed on a scale from 0 (extinct since
1900) through 1 (less than 100), 2 (100+), 3 (1000+), 4 (10,000+), 5 (100,000+), 6 (1,000,000+), 7
(10,000,000+), 8 (100,000,000+) to 9 (over one billion). The icon à marks complete nets, chains or sets
th
of idioms which were extinct before the end of the 20 century, while the icon marks idioms known or
th
believed to be extinct before the end of the 19 .
The Register and its synopsis make reference to the world's arterial languages, totalling at least 28.
Arterial languages are defined in Volume One as all those outer languages (or networks of largely
interintelligible outer languages) which are each understood by at least 1% of the world's total population and
which therefore play a major role in the circulation of the world's speechways.
PLEASE CONSULT VOLUME ONE FOR A MORE DETAILED INTRODUCTION
TO THE LINGUASPHERE REGISTER AND TO ITS TERMINOLOGY AND CONVENTIONS.
Synopsis
page 15
Table Two
THE LINGUASPHERE: REFERENTIAL SECTORS & ZONES
The Linguasphere Register 1999 / 2000 enumerates & classifies 4,994 outer & 13,840 inner languages within
694 sets. Each set is assigned to one of 100 referential zones, within one of 10 geosectors or phylosectors.
5 GEOSECTORS = 22 phylozones + 28 geozones
0=AFRICA geosector
00=MANDIC
01=SONGHAIC
02=SAHARIC
03=SUDANIC
04=NILOTIC
05=EAST-SAHEL geozone
06=KORDOFANIC
07=RIFT-VALLEY geozone
08=KHOISANIC
09=KALAHARI geozone
2=AUSTRALASIA geosector
20=ARAFURA geozone
21=MAMBERAMO geozone
22=MADANGIC
23=OWALAMIC
24=TRANSIRIANIC
25=CENDRAWASIH geozone
26=SEPIK-VALLEY geozone
27=BISMARCK-SEA geozone
28=NORTH-AUSTRALIA geozone
29=TRANSAUSTRALIA geozone
4=EURASIA geosector
40=EUSKARIC
41=URALIC
42=CAUCASUS geozone
43=SIBERIA geozone
44=TRANSASIA geozone
45=EAST-ASIA geozone
46=SOUTH-ASIA geozone
47=DAIC
48=MIENIC
49=DRAVIDIC
6=NORTH-AMERICA geosector
60=ARCTIC
61=NADENIC
62=ALGIC
63=SAINT-LAWRENCE geozone
64=MISSISSIPPI geozone
65=AZTECIC
66=FARWEST geozone
67=DESERT geozone
68=GULF geozone
69=MESO-AMERICA geozone
8=SOUTH-AMERICA geosector
80=CARIBIC
81=INTER-OCEAN geozone
82=ARAWAKIC
83=PRE-ANDES geozone
84=ANDES geozone
85=CHACO-CONE geozone
86=MATO-GROSSO geozone
87=AMAZON geozone
88=TUPIC
89=BAHIA geozone
total 487 sets
44 sets
4
1
3
2
3
16
4
4
2
5
223 sets
26
22
23
11
22
25
22
26
21
25
35 sets
1
3
3
4
3
3
11
1
1
5
63 sets
5 PHYLOSECTORS = 50 phylozones
1=AFRO-ASIAN phylosector
10=TAMAZIC
11=COPTIC
12=SEMITIC
13=BEJIC
14=CUSHITIC
15=EYASIC
16=OMOTIC
17=CHARIC
18=MANDARIC
19=BAUCHIC
3=AUSTRONESIAN phylosector
30=TAIWANIC
31=HESPERONESIC
32=MESONESIC
33=HALMAYAPENIC
34=NEOGUINEIC
35=MANUSIC
36=SOLOMONIC
37=KANAKIC
38=WEST-PACIFIC
39=TRANSPACIFIC
5=INDO-EUROPEAN phylosector
50=CELTIC
51=ROMANIC
52=GERMANIC
53=SLAVIC
54=BALTIC
55=ALBANIC
56=HELLENIC
57=ARMENIC
58=IRANIC
59=INDIC
7=SINO-INDIAN phylosector
total 207 sets
43 sets
1
1
1
1
7
2
6
7
9
8
72 sets
11
18
5
1
7
9
6
4
8
3
10 sets
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
22 sets
1
3
3
2
3
1
26
5
8
11
70=TIBETIC
71=HIMALAYIC
72=GARIC
73=KUKIC
74=MIRIC
75=KACHINIC
76=RUNGIC
77=IRRAWADDIC
78=KARENIC
79=SINITIC
1
3
2
4
1
2
4
3
1
1
121 sets
9=TRANSAFRICAN phylosector
60 sets
1
16
2
20
13
10
16
22
10
11
90=ATLANTIC
91=VOLTAIC
92=ADAMAWIC
93=UBANGIC
94=MELIC
95=KRUIC
96=AFRAMIC
97=DELTIC
98=BENUIC
99=BANTUIC
16
9
3
2
2
1
13
2
11
1
page 16
The Linguasphere Register
0= AFRICA geosector
1999 / 2000 edition
pages 38 to 80
This geosector covers 44 sets of languages (237 outer languages, composed of 763 inner languages) spoken by
communities across the African continent south of the Sahara, from West Africa to East Africa, and in southwestern
Africa. These sets comprise all languages of Africa and its adjacent islands which are not covered by phylosectors
1=Afro-Asian, 3=Austronesian, 5=Indo-European and 9=Transafrican.
Zones 00= to 07= cover many of the languages spoken within an area of considerable linguistic variation extending
across Africa from Senegal in the west to Tanzania in the east. Zones 08= to 09= cover languages spoken in
Southwestern Africa, in and around the Kalahari desert.
00= MANDIC
phylozone
covers the Mande grouping (part of the "CongoKordofanian", "new Niger-Congo" hypothesis; and part
of the "Mande+ Songhai" hypothesis); comprising 4
sets of languages (= 35 outer languages) spoken by
communities within or around the Niger basin of West
Africa:
00-A MANDINKA+ MENDE
00-C SEMBLA+ JUNG
01= SONGHAIC
phylozone
languages spoken in:
Burkina Faso; Côte d'Ivoire; Gambia;
Ghana; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau;
Liberia; Mali; Mauritania; Nigeria;
Senegal; Sierra Leone
scale of voices
page
38
7
00-B SONINKE+ SOROGAMA
00-D DAN+ SYA
covers the Songhay+Sahaq set (part of the "NiloSaharan"
hypothesis;
and
part
of
the
"Mande+Songhai" hypothesis); comprising 1 set of
languages (= 5 outer languages) spoken by
communities in West and Northwest Africa, along the
Middle Niger valley and on the Saharan fringes:
languages spoken in:
Burkina Faso; Mali; Niger; Algeria
scale of voices
page
47
6
01-A SONGHAY+ SAHAQ
02= SAHARIC
phylozone
covers the "Saharan" or "East-Saharan" grouping (part
of the "Nilo-Saharan" hypothesis); comprising 3 sets of
languages (= 5 outer languages) spoken by
communities in northern Central Africa, on the
Saharan fringes and oases from the Chad Basin
northeastwards:
02-A KANURI+ KANEMBU
02-C BERI+ BERTI
03= SUDANIC
phylozone
04= NILOTIC
phylozone
48
6
languages spoken in:
Cameroon; Central African Rep.;
Chad; Congo-Zaire; Sudan; Uganda
scale of voices
page
50
6
03-B MANGBETU+ MORU
covers the "Nilotic" grouping (part of the "EastSudanic" hypothesis within the "Nilo-Saharan"
hypothesis); comprising 3 sets of languages (= 45
outer languages) spoken by communities in Northeast
and East Africa, along or near the Nile and Rift
valleys:
04-A LUO+ NAATH
04-C NANDI+ BARABA
scale of voices
page
02-B TUDA+ DAZA
covers the "Central-Sudanic" grouping (part of the
"Nilo-Saharan" hypothesis); comprising 2 sets of
languages (= 37 outer languages) spoken by
communities in northern Central Africa, from Lake
Chad to the Upper Nile:
03-A NGAMBAI+ BAKA
languages spoken in:
Chad; Niger; Nigeria; Sudan
04-B TESO+ MAASAI
languages spoken in:
Congo-Zaire; Kenya; Sudan;
Tanzania; Uganda
scale of voices
7
page
56
Synopsis
05= EAST-SAHEL
geozone
page 17
covers the "East-Sahel" reference area (part of the
"Nilo-Saharan" hypothesis); comprising 16 sets of
languages (= 57 outer languages) spoken by
communities in northern Central & Northeast Africa,
near the Saharan fringes:
05-A MABA+ MIGE
05-C FOR+ ANDANG
05-E SAARONG+ LIGURI
05-G AMA+ AFITTI
05-I KUFO+ AIGANG
05-K BARKA+ ILIT
05-M AKA+ GAAM
05-O KWAMA+ ANEJ
06= KORDOFANIC
phylozone
07= RIFT-VALLEY
geozone
08= KHOISANIC
phylozone
09= KALAHARI
geozone
languages spoken in:
Sudan
scale of voices
page
71
5
languages spoken in:
Ethiopia; Tanzania; Uganda
scale of voices
page
74
4
languages spoken in:
Angola; Botswana; Namibia; South
Africa; Zambia
scale of voices
page
75
5
08-B KWADI
covers the Kalahari reference area (within the "wider
Khoisan" hypothesis), composed of the "NorthKhoisan" set 09-A plus the remaining sets within the
"South-Khoisan" hypothesis; comprising 5 sets of
languages (= 14 outer languages) spoken by huntergatherer communities in southwestern Africa, in and
around the Kalahari desert and Orange basin:
09-A XUNG+ Q'O-Q'XUNG
09-C NC'HU+ L'KUL'E
09-E C'XAM+ 'KATKOP'*
6
07-B ICIE+ SO
07-D SANDAWE
covers the "Central Khoisan" grouping (part of the
"wider Khoisan" hypothesis); comprising 2 sets of
languages (= 14 outer languages) spoken by herding
or hunter-gatherer communities in southwestern
Africa, in and around the Kalahari desert:
08-A NAMA+ HAINL'UM
63
06-B TORO+ WARNANG
06-D TEGALI+ TAGOI
covers the "Rift-Valley" reference area (composed of
sets not covered by any phylozone); comprising 4 sets
of languages (= 7 outer languages) spoken by huntergatherer or former hunter-gatherer communities in
Northeast Africa, along the Rift Valley:
07-A ONGOTA
07-C HADZA
scale of voices
page
05-B MIMI
05-D TAMA+ MARARIT
05-F NOBIIN+ TIDNAAL
05-H RONGE+ JIRRU
05-J HIGIR+ MOGAREB
05-L BAXA*
05-N BERTHU+ GOBATO
05-P SURI+ MAJANG
covers the "Kordofanian" grouping (part of the "CongoKordofanian",
"new
Niger-Congo"
hypothesis);
comprising 4 sets of languages (= 18 outer languages)
spoken by communities in Northeast Africa, in and
around the Nuba Hills:
06-A KALAK+ OMURIKI
06-C NGILE+ TALODI
languages spoken in:
Central African Republic; Chad;
Egypt; Eritrea; Ethiopia; Sudan
09-B C'WI+ NC'USAN
09-D L'XEGWI+ L'XOGWI
languages spoken in:
Angola; Botswana; Lesotho;
Namibia; South Africa
scale of voices
4
page
78
page 18
1999 / 2000 edition
The Linguasphere Register
1= AFRO-ASIAN phylosector
pages 81 to 122
This phylosector covers 43 sets of languages (276 outer languages, comprising 683 inner languages) spoken by
communities across the northern half of the African continent and in western Asia, constituting the "Afro-Asiatic" or
"Hamito-Semitic" intercontinental affinity. The component phylozones are numbered in approximate clockwise order,
beginning in Northwest Africa.
Zones 10= and 11= cover 2 sets of languages spoken or formerly spoken in northern Africa, otherwise known as
"Berber" and "Egyptian". Zone 12= covers the set of "Semitic" languages spoken over an extensive area from
northwest Africa to southwest and central Asia and northeast Africa: Zones 13= to 16= cover 16 sets of languages
spoken in northeast Africa (formerly treated together as "Cushitic"), at the eastern end of the African Fragmentation
Belt. Zones 17= to 19= cover 24 sets of languages spoken in the central part of the Fragmentation Belt, constituting
three groupings within a wider "Chadic" affinity, which itself forms the most complex component of the "Afro-Asiatic"
intercontinental affinity.
10= TAMAZIC
phylozone
Berber, "Tamazic" or Tamasheq+Qabaylith set of languages;
part of "Afro-Asiatic" or "Hamito-Semitic" inter-continental
affinity; comprising 1 set of languages (= 4 outer languages)
spoken by communities in the highlands, oases and urban
areas of northern Africa:
10-A TAMASHEQ+ QABAYLITH
11= COPTIC
phylozone
covers the "Egyptian" or "Coptic" set, part of the "Afro-Asiatic"
or "Hamito-Semitic" intercontinental affinity; comprising 1 set
(= 1 outer language) formerly and perhaps still spoken by
communities in Northeast Africa, along the River Nile; still in
liturgical use:
languages spoken in:
Algeria; Egypt; Libya; Mali;
Mauritania; Morocco; Niger;
Tunisia; plus migration> France;
Israel
scale of voices
81
7
languages spoken in:
Egypt
scale of voices
page
page
84
2
11-A 'COPTIC'
12= SEMITIC
phylozone
covers the "Semitic" or 'Aramita+ Amarinya set, part of the
"Afro-Asiatic" or "Hamito-Semitic" intercontinental affinity;
comprising 1 set of languages (= 24 outer languages) spoken
by communities in northern and northeastern Africa and
western Asia, from the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean to
the Black Sea and the Indian Ocean:
12-A 'ARAMITA+ AMARINYA
including 1 arterial language: 'Arabiyya Mashriqi with 'Arabiyya
Maghribi (Eastern Arabic with Western Arabic)
languages spoken in:
Afghanistan; Algeria; Bahrein;
Chad; Comores; Cyprus;
Djibouti; Egypt; Eritrea;
Ethiopia; Iran; Iraq; Israel;
Jordan; Kenya; Kuwait;
Lebanon; Libya; Malta;
Moldova; Morocco; Oman;
Palestine; Qatar; Russia; Saudi
Arabia; Senegal; Somalia;
Sudan; Syria; Tajikistan;
Tanzania; Tunisia; Turkey;
Uganda; Ukraine, United Arab
Emirates; Uzbekistan; Western
Sahara; Yemen; plus worldwide
migrations, including France;
Sweden…
scale of voices
13= BEJIC
phylozone
covers the Beja, Bedauye or "North Cushitic" set within the
"Afro-Asiatic" or "Hamito-Semitic" intercontinental affinity (and
part of the former "wider Cushitic" hypothesis within that
affinity); comprising 1 set (= 1 outer language) spoken by
nomadic communities in Northeast Africa, inland from the Red
Sea coast:
13-A BEDAUYE
85
8
languages spoken in:
Egypt; Eritrea; Sudan
scale of voices
page
6
page
95
Synopsis
14= CUSHITIC
phylozone
page 19
covers the "Central & East Cushitic" grouping, within the "AfroAsiatic" or "Hamito-Semitic" intercontinental affinity (and part of the
former "wider Cushitic" hypothesis within that affinity); comprising 7
sets of languages (= 25 outer languages) spoken by communities in
Northeast and East Africa, from the southeastern Sahara through
the Horn of Africa to the East African coast:
14-A BILIN+ AWNGI
14-C SIDAAMO+ BURJI
14-E YAAKU
14-G SOOMAALI+ DASENACH
15= EYASIC
phylozone
16= OMOTIC
phylozone
17= CHARIC
phylozone
18= MANDARIC
phylozone
19= BAUCHIC
phylozone
18-B LAGWAN+ JINA
18-D SUKUR
18-F DABA+ GAVAR
18-H NYIMATLI+ GA'ANDA
covers the "West Chadic" grouping, part of the "Chadic" affinity
within the wider "Afro-Asiatic" or "Hamito-Semitic" intercontinental
affinity; comprising 8 sets of languages (= 82 outer languages)
spoken by communities in West Africa, most centered on or around
the Bauchi plateau:
19-A TANGLE+ DERA
19-C JALALUM+ PAKARO
languages spoken in:
Kenya, Tanzania
scale of voices
page
101
5
languages spoken in:
Ethiopia, Sudan
scale of voices
page
102
6
languages spoken in:
Cameroon; Chad
scale of voices
page
105
5
17-B MOKIL+ MEZIM
17-D SOMRAI+ MILTU
17-F MASA+ ZIME
covers the "Biu+ Mandara" or "Central Chadic" grouping, part of the
"Chadic" affinity within the wider "Afro-Asiatic" or "Hamito-Semitic"
intercontinental affinity; comprising 9 sets of languages (= 62 outer
languages) spoken by communities in North Central Africa, in and
around the Mandara highlands:
18-A MUSKUM+ MBARA
18-C MORA+ ZALADAVA
18-E MADA+ MARVA
18-G BURA+ PSIKYE
18-I GBWATA+ GUDU
7
16-B WELAITTA+ KAFA
16-D DIDESSA+ MAO-KOOLE*
16-F GANZA+ ASOSA
covers the "East Chadic" grouping, part of the "Chadic" affinity within
the wider "Afro-Asiatic" or "Hamito-Semitic" intercontinental affinity;
comprising 7 sets of languages (= 41 outer languages) spoken by
communities in North Central Africa, in and around the ChariLogone basin:
17-A MUBI+ DANGLA
17-C SOKORO+ BAREIN
17-E KWANG+ KERA
17-G GIDAR+ LAM
96
15-B GARIMANI
covers the "Omotic" or former "West Cushitic" grouping within the
"Afro-Asiatic" or "Hamito-Semitic" inter-continental affinity (and part
of the former "wider Cushitic" hypothesis within that affinity);
comprising 6 sets of languages (= 30 outer languages) spoken by
communities in Northeast Africa, in the Omo basin of the western
Ethiopian highlands, between Lakes Tana and Turkana:
16-A HAMAR+ AARI
16-C DIZI+ SHEKO
16-E HOZO+ SEZO
scale of voices
page
14-B SAHO+ 'AFAR
14-D WAZE+ TSAMAKULA
14-F BORENA+ DIRASHAT
covers the "South Cushitic" or "Paracushitic" grouping within the
"Afro-Asiatic" or "Hamito-Semitic" intercontinental affinity (and part of
the former "wider Cushitic" hypothesis within that affinity);
comprising 2 sets of languages (= 6 outer languages) spoken by
communities in East Africa, between the Indian Ocean and Lake
Eyasi:
15-A IRAQW+ MBUGU
languages spoken in:
Djibouti; Eritrea; Ethiopia;
Kenya; Somalia
19-B PIKA+ DENO
languages spoken in:
Cameroon; Chad; Nigeria
scale of voices
6
page
109
page 20
The Linguasphere Register
2= AUSTRALASIA geosector
1999 / 2000 edition
pages 123 to 224
This geosector covers 223 sets of languages (1162 outer languages, composed of 2258 inner languages) spoken or formerly
spoken by communities in Australasia in a geographic sequence from Maluku and the Lesser Sunda islands through New
Guinea and its adjacent islands, and throughout the Australian mainland to Tasmania. They comprise all languages of
Australasia (Oceania) not covered by phylosectors 3=Austronesian or 5=Indo-European.
Zones 20= to 24= cover all so-called "Papuan" languages, spoken on Maluku and the Lesser Sunda islands and the New
Guinea mainland, which have been previously treated within the Trans-New Guinea hypothesis. Zones 25= to 27= cover all
other so-called "Papuan" languages, on the New Guinea mainland, Bismarck archipelago, New Britain, New Ireland and
Solomon islands, which have not been treated within the Trans-New Guinea hypothesis. Zones 28= to 29= cover all languages
spoken traditionally across the Australian mainland, on the offshore Elcho, Howard, Crocodile and Torres Strait islands
(excluding Darnley island), and formerly on the island of Tasmania.
20= ARAFURA
geozone
covers the "Arafura+ Torres" reference area (within the "Trans-New Guinea"
hypothesis); comprising 26 sets of languages (= 104 outer languages) spoken by
communities on the Alor, Timor, Leti, and Maluku islands, in southern New Guinea
and on the Torres Strait islands:
20-A LAMMA+ KELON
20-D BUNAK
20-G OIRATA
20-J RIANTANA+ NDOM
20-M IDI+ WAIA
20-P KIWAI+ KEREWO
20-S PURARI+ IAI
20-V IKOBI+ OMATI
20-Y FOLOPA+ DADIBI
21= MAMBERAMO
geozone
21-C TAWORTA+ FOAU
21-F ORYA
21-I PAGI+ KILMERI
21-L SAUSE
21-O MOLOF
21-R UNA+ SIRKAI
21-U ANGOR+ MENGAU
22-B PAYNAMAR
22-E BIYOM+ FAITA
22-H ABASAKUR+ KOGUMAN
22-K WASKIA+ KORAK
22-N BARGAM
22-Q GARIA+ URIGINA
22-T ANJAM+ SONGUM
22-W WASEMBO
22-C NEND+ ATEMBLE
22-F PILA+ TANI
22-I USAN+ PARAWEN
22-L BUNABUN+ MALAS
22-O KARE
22-R SAUSI+ DUMPU
22-U PULABU+ SIROI
covers the "Owalamic" or "East Trans-New Guinea" grouping (part of the "TransNew Guinea" hypothesis); comprising 11 sets of languages (= 57 outer languages)
spoken by communities, centered on Owen Stanley (including Owalama) Range &
Peninsula in eastern New Guinea:
23-A SUENA+ GUHU-SAMANE
23-D KWALE+ HUMENE
23-G YAREBA+ MAGI
23-J UMANAKAINA
24= TRANSIRIANIC
phylozone
21-B BARUA+ SIKARI
21-E MAWES
21-H WARIS+ MANEM
21-K MORWAP
21-N KAURE+ NARAU
21-Q TOFAMNA
21-T YAFI+ EMUMU
covers the "Madang-Adelbert" grouping (part of the "Trans-New Guinea"
hypothesis); comprising 23 sets of languages (= 101 outer languages) spoken by
communities around the Madang-Adelbert Range in New Guinea:
22-A IKUNDUN+ KATIATI
22-D APAL+ MUSAK
22-G MAUWAKE+ HINIHON
22-J AMAIMON
22-M DIMIR
22-P GARUS+ GIRAWA
22-S OGEA+ RERAU
22-V SAEP+ YABONG
23= OWALAMIC
phylozone
20-C KOLANA+ ADABE
20-F MAKUA
20-I KONDA+ YAHADIAN
20-L NAMBU+ YEI
20-O BITURI+ KUPERE
20-R MINANIBAI+ MAHIGI
20-U TATE
20-X FIWAGA+ FOI
covers the "Mamberamo" reference area (within the "Trans-New Guinea"
hypothesis); comprising 22 sets of languages (= 78 outer languages) spoken by
communities centered on the Mamberamo Basin in New Guinea:
21-A TURU+ KIRIKIRI
21-D BERIK+ KWESTEN
21-G AWYI+TAIKAT
21-J NIMBORAN+ GRESI
21-M KAPORI
21-P USKU
21-S DUBU+ TOWEI
21-V OKSAPMIN
22= MANDANGIC
phylozone
20-B TANGLAPUI
20-E FATALUKU
20-H PURAGI+ TOMU
20-K YELMEK+ MAKLEW
20-N TIRIO+ LEWADA
20-Q IPIKO
20-T OPAO+ UARIPI
20-W KAIRI
20-Z PAWAIA+ AURAMA
23-B FUYUGE+ WERI
23-E MULAHA
23-H ONJOB
23-K GINUMAN+ KANASI
24-B BAHAM+ KARAS
24-E DEM
24-H KAYGIR+ ATOHWAIM
24-K KAWENAK+ DUNA
24-N MEDLPA+ KUMAN
24-Q KENATI
24-T TIMBE+ TOBO
scale of voices
133
page
140
4
languages spoken in:
Papua New Guinea
scale of voices
page
4
languages spoken in:
Indonesia; Papua New
Guinea
scale of voices
123
4
languages spoken in:
Indonesia; Papua New
Guinea
scale of voices
page
5
page
148
23-C KOIALI+ BARAI
23-F MARIA+ DOROMU
23-I DAGA+ MAIWA
covers the "Transirianic" or "West-Central Trans-New Guinea" grouping (part of the
"Trans-New Guinea" hypothesis); comprising 22 sets of languages
(= 251 outer languages) spoken by communities spread across New Guinea, from
Bomberai Peninsula to Umboi Island:
24-A MOR
24-D WOLA+ UHUNDU
24-G BUYAKA+ DEMTA
24-J GOGODALA+ SUKI
24-M KALAM+ PINAI
24-P USARUFA+ TAIRORA
24-S NAHU+ URII
24-V KOVAI
languages spoken in:
Indonesia; East Timor;
Papua New Guinea;
Australia
24-C TANAMERAH+ MER
24-F ILAGA+ KWERBA
24-I OKABA+ YAQAY
24-L AUGU+ ENGA
24-O ASARO+ FORE
24-R SIMBARI+ANGATIHA
24-U KATE+ MONGI
languages spoken in:
Indonesia; Papua New
Guinea
scale of voices
5
page
154
Synopsis
25= CENDRAWASIH
geozone
page 21
covers the "Cendrawasih" or "North Central New Guinea" reference area,
composed of sets not covered by any phylozone (nor by the "Trans-New Guinea"
hypothesis), within the wider reference area of the "Papuan" hypotheses;
comprising 25 sets of languages (= 76 outer languages) spoken by communities
on Cendrawasih Bay & (Bird's Head) Peninsula, extending from the Halmahera
Islands in the west to Central New Guinea in the east:
25-A TOBELO+ TERNATE
25-D YACH+ BRAT
25-G MEAH+ MANTION
25-J TUNGGARE+ BAPU
25-M BURMESO
25-P KWOMTARI+ FAS
25-S YURI+ USARI
25-V AMTO+ MUSAN
25-Y BIBASA*
26= SEPIK-VALLEY
geozone
26-C NAMIA+ AWUN
26-F KWANGA+ KWOMA
26-I SANIO+ HEWA
26-L MARAMBA
26-O ALFENDIO+ MEAKAMBUT
26-R BOREI+ BOSNGUN
26-U RAO
covers the "East New-Guinea+ Solomons" reference area, within the wider
reference area of the "Papuan" hypotheses; comprising 26 sets of languages (=
101 outer languages) spoken by communities in Australasia, centered on the
Bismarck Sea and Archipelago, extending from eastern New Guinea through
New Britain, New Ireland and North Solomon islands to the Solomon Islands:
27-A PAPI+ SUARMIN
27-D ANGORAM+ CHAMBRI
27-G AUNALEI+ SETA
27-J KOMBIO+ MUHIANG
27-M MONUMBO+ LILAU
27-P KOL+ SUI
27-S TAULIL+ BUTAM
27-V BUIN+ NASIOI
27-Y KAZUKURU
28= NORTHAUSTRALIA
geozone
26-B ABAU+ IWAM
26-E KALOU+ MAYO
26-H AMBULAS+ IATMUL
26-K ALAMBLAK+ KANINGRA
26-N MONGOL+ LANGAM
26-Q BANARO
26-T IGOM+ MIDSIVINDI
27-B WALIO+ PEI
27-E MURIK+ KOPAR
27-H YIS+ MITANG
27-K URIM
27-N ANEM
27-Q SULKA
27-T KUOT
27-W YELE
27-Z AYIWO+ NEA
covers the "North-Australia" reference area (within the "Australian" hypothesis);
comprising 21 sets of languages (= 85 outer languages) spoken or formerly
spoken by hunter-gatherer communities (or descendants of former huntergatherers) across the far-north of Australia:
covers the "Transaustralia" reference area, composed of the "Pama-Nyungan"
hypothesis (sets 29-A to 29-X, within the wider "Australian" hypothesis) plus the
"Tasmanian" notional set of extinct languages (29-Y); together comprising a total
of 25 sets of languages (= 213 outer languages) spoken or formerly spoken by
small hunter-gatherer communities, originally occupying the whole of Australia
and Tasmania (except the far-north, covered by geozone 28=):
29-A DJAMBARR+ DJINANG
29-D MURUWARI
29-G WUURONG+ KOLAKNGAT
29-J PALLANGAN-MIDDANG
29-M THAWA+ WORIMI
29-P YAGARA+GOWAR
29-S GALIBAMU
29-V WAGAYA+ WARLUWARA
29-Y MARRAWAH+ KAOOTA*
29-B WARLPIRI+ PITJANTJA
29-E BAAGANDJI+ MARAWARA*
29-H NULIT+ THANG
29-K YOTA+ YABULA
29-N GUMBAYNGGIR+ YAYGIR
29-Q WAGA+ GABI
29-T LARDIL+ JAKULA
29-W WARUMUNGU
175
5
languages spoken in:
Papua New Guinea;
also Indonesia (Irian
Jaya frontier)
scale of voices
182
5
languages spoken in:
Papua New Guinea;
Solomon Islands
scale of voices
page
page
190
4
27-C YABIO+ TUWARI
27-F GAPUN
27-I BELI+ ARINUA
27-L MANDI+ BUNA
27-O WASI
27-R SIMBALI+ MALI
27-U KUNUA+ EIVO
27-X BILUA+ SAVO
28-A BAADI+ YAWURU
28-B BUNABA+ GUNIANDI
28-C WORORA+ NGARINYIN
28-D KITJA+ MIRIWUNG
28-E DJAMINDJUNG+ NUNGALI 28-F MURRINHPATHA+ NANGIOMERI*
28-G KUNGARAKANY
28-H LARAGIA+ WULNA
28-I TIWI
28-J UMBUGARLA+ BUGUNIDJA* 28-K GAGADU
28-L ERRE+ MANGERR
28-M IWAIDJA+ AMARAG 28-N DJEEBBANA+ GUJINGALIA 28-O WAGEMAN+ GUNWINGGU
28-P ANINDILYAKWA
28-Q ALAWA+ GARYIMAR
28-R YANYUWA
28-S JINGILI+ WAMBAYA 28-T GARAWA+ WANJI
28-U MINGIN
29= TRANSAUSTRALIA
geozone
scale of voices
page
25-C ABUN
25-F BORAI+ HATAM
25-I YAWA+ TARAU
25-L PAUWI
25-O VANIMO+ WARAPU
25-R PYU
25-U BUSA
25-X POROME+ KIBIRI
covers the "Sepik Valley" reference area, coterminous with the "Sepik+ Ramu"
hypothesis (less the "Sepik+ Ramu Marginal" sets, see 27-A to 27-F), within the
wider reference area of the "Papuan" hypotheses; comprising 22 sets of
languages (= 101 outer languages) spoken by communities in Australasia,
centered on the Sepik and Lower Ramu valleys in New Guinea:
26-A BIKSI
26-D BOUYE+ KAMNUM
26-G YERAKAI
26-J BISIS+ KAPRIMAN
26-M MEKMEK+ BIWAT
26-P BOTIN+ ABU
26-S KIRE+ MIKAREW
26-V ANOR+ AIOME
27= BISMARCK-SEA
geozone
25-B MOI+KALABRA
25-E MPUR
25-H AWERA+ SAPONI*
25-K WAREMBORI
25-N MASSEP
25-Q BAIBAI+ NAI
25-T YADE
25-W AMA+ NIMO
languages spoken in:
Indonesia; Papua New
Guinea
29-C ARABANA+ YARLI
29-F NGARINYERI+ YITHAYITHA
29-I DHUDOROA
29-L WIRADHURI+ GAMILA
29-O BANDJALANG+ YUGUM
29-R MARGANY+ MUNGKAN
29-U KALKUTUNG+ YALARNNGA
29-X ARANDA+ GAIDIDJ
languages spoken in:
Australia (N.T.; W.A.;
Queensland)
scale of voices
198
3
languages spoken in:
Australia
scale of voices
page
4
page
205
page 22
1999 / 2000 edition
The Linguasphere Register
3= AUSTRONESIAN phylosector
pages 225 to 330
This phylosector covers 72 sets of languages (1,179 outer languages, comprising 3,182 inner languages) spoken by
predominantly island-dwelling communities, located from the western Indian Ocean to the eastern Pacific and
constituting the Austronesian intercontinental affinity. They extend more than half-way around the planet (eastwards from
43º E to 109º W), and have also been associated with the languages of phylozone 47=Daic, within the "Austro-Tai"
hypothesis.
Zone 30= covers languages spoken on the island of Taiwan (Formosa), and zone 31= covers languages spoken by
communities situated on most of the islands from the Philippines and the Celebes through Java, Southeast Asia
(including Hainan island in China), Borneo and Sumatra to Madagascar: Zones 32= to 39= cover languages spoken on
most of the islands from the Nusa Tenggera archipelago through New Guinea and across the Pacific, as far as New
Zealand / Aotearoa, French Polynesia and Hawaii.
30= TAIWANIC
phylozone
covers the "Formosan" grouping, part of the "Austronesian"
intercontinental affinity; comprising 11 sets of languages (= 24
outer languages) spoken by communities on Taiwan island
(Formosa):
30-A SQOLEQ+ SEDEQ
30-C SAISIYAT+ TAOKAS
30-E TSOU+ KANABU
30-G PAIWAN
30-I BUNUN+ BUKUN
30-K AMIS+ NATAORAN
31= HESPERONESIC
phylozone
scale of voices
page
225
5
30-B BASAY+ KAVA*
30-D THAO
30-F HOANYA+ SIRAYA*
30-H RUKAI
30-J PIYUMA+ PIMAMBA
covers the "Hesperonesian" grouping, part of the
"Austronesian" intercontinental affinity; comprising 18 sets of
languages (= 462 outer languages) spoken by communities
from western Pacific to Indian Ocean, on most islands from
Philippines and Celebes through Java, mainland Southeast
Asia, Hainan, Borneo and Sumatra to Madagascar:
31-A ARTA*
31-C TAGALOG+ ILOCANO
31-E SAMA+ BAJAW
31-G TAMBANUA+ SUMAMBUQ
31-I BINTULU+ BURUSU
31-K JAGOI+ AHE*
31-M MALAYU+ CHAM
31-O SANGIR+ TONDANO
31-Q YAP
laguages snpoken in:
China (Taiwan)
31-B DITAYLIN+ KABALUWEN*
31-D BLAAN+ GIANGAN
31-F IDA'AN+ BAGAHAK
31-H LUNDAYE+ KELABIT
31-J MODANG+ TUBU
31-L MAANYAN+ MERINA
31-N BUGIS+ GORONTALO
31-P PALAU
31-R CHAMORRO
languages spoken in:
Brunei; Cambodia; Guam;
Indonesia; Madagascar,
Malaysia; Micronesia; New
Caledonia / Kanaky; Northern
Mariana Islands; Philippines;
Singapore; Sri Lanka;
Thailand; Vietnam; with
migration to Surinam; French
Guiana
scale of voices
page
230
8
including 3 arterial languages: [31-C] Tagalog (Filipino);
[31-M] Malayu (Malay) with Indonesian; [31-M] Jawa (Javanese)
32= MESONESIC
phylozone
covers the "Mesonesian" grouping, part of the "Austronesian"
intercontinental affinity; comprising 5 sets of languages (= 136
outer languages) spoken by communities in Oceanic Asia &
Australasia, on islands of the Nusa Tenggara and Maluku
archipelagos:
32-A BIMA+ SUMBA*
32-C WAIMA'A+ HABU*
32-E RANA+ FAGUDU
scale of voices
page
272
6
32-B TETUN+ SIKKA*
32-D YAMDENA+ TELUTI
33= HALMAYAPENIC covers the "Halmahera+ Yapen", Makian+ Biak set, part of the
"Austronesian" intercontinental affinity; comprising 1 set of
phylozone
languages (= 42 outer languages) spoken by communities in
Oceanic Asia / Australasia, from Halmahera island in Maluku
to Yapen island in Irian Jaya:
33-A MAKIAN+ BIAK
languages spoken in:
Indonesia (Nusa Tenggara;
Maluku), East Timor
languages spoken in:
Indonesia (Maluku; Irian Jaya)
scale of voices
5
page
283
Synopsis
34= NEOGUINEIC
phylozone
page 23
covers the "Northeast New Guinea" reference area, part of the
"Oceanic" affinity within the "Austronesian" intercontinental
affinity; comprising 7 sets of languages (= 173 outer
languages) spoken by communities in Australasia, on the
northeast mainland of New Guinea:
34-A SOBEI+ YOTAFA
34-C ADZERA+ SILISILI
34-E KOSIRAVA+ UIAKU
34-G MOTU+ MEKEO
35= MANUSIC
phylozone
36= SOLOMONIC
phylozone
37= KANAKIC
phylozone
38= WEST-PACIFIC
phylozone
39= TRANSPACIFIC
phylozone
301
5
languages spoken in:
Papua-New Guinea (North
Solomons province); Solomon
Islands
scale of voices
page
308
4
languages spoken in:
Vanuatu; New Caledonia /
Kanaky
scale of voices
page
312
4
languages spoken in:
Micronesia; Solomon Islands;
Kiribati; Tuvalu; Nauru;
Vanuatu; formerly also
Indonesia (Irian Jaya)
scale of voices
page
316
5
38-B KUSAIE
38-D KIRIBATI
38-F GELA+ GHARI
38-H HIW+ NASARIAN
covers the "Transpacific" grouping, part of the "Oceanic"
affinity within the "Austronesian" intercontinental affinity;
comprising 3 sets of languages (= 57 outer languages) spoken
by communities in Australasia, on islands across the Pacific
Ocean from the Caroline Islands to Hawaii and Easter Island:
39-A ROTUMA
39-C NUKUORO+RAPANUI
scale of voices
page
37-B BELEP+ JAWE
37-D DEHU+ IAAI
covers the "Caroline+ Vanuatu" grouping, part of the
"Oceanic" affinity within the "Austronesian" intercontinental
affinity; comprising 8 sets of languages (= 119 outer
languages) spoken by communities in Australasia, on islands
of the Pacific from the Caroline (and formerly also Mapia)
islands to Vanuatu:
38-A TRUK+ PONAPE
38-C EBON
38-E NAURU
38-G KWARA'AE+ KAHUA
languages spoken in:
Papua New Guinea
36-B HALIA+ MONO
36-D ROVIANA+ MAROVO
36-F AMBA+ VANO
covers the "Kanaky" (or "Neo-Caledonian" grouping), part of
the "Oceanic" affinity within the "Austronesian" intercontinental
affinity; comprising 4 sets of languages (= 39 outer languages)
spoken by communities in Australasia, on the islands of
Vanuatu and New Caledonia / Kanaky (including Loyauté
islands):
37-A URA+ ANEITYUM
37-C AJIE+ DUBEA
287
5
35-B SISI+ BALUAN
35-D NAKANAI+ VITU
35-F SOLONG+ AVAU*
35-H MAENG+ UVOL*
covers the "Solomonic" grouping, part of the "Oceanic" affinity
within the "Austronesian" intercontinental affinity; comprising 6
sets of languages (= 45 outer languages) spoken by
communities in Australasia, on islands of the Solomon
archipelago:
36-A NEHAN+ PIRIPEL
36-C VAGHUA+ BABATANA
36-E KOKOTA+ ZABANA
scale of voices
page
34-B TAKIA+ BUKAUA
34-D BUANG+ PIU
34-F DOBU+ UBIR
covers the "Manus+ New-Britain" reference area, part of the
"Oceanic" affinity within the "Austronesian" intercontinental
affinity; comprising 9 sets of languages (= 82 outer languages)
spoken by communities in Australasia, on Manus, New
Ireland, New Britain and other adjacent islands of Papua New
Guinea:
35-A WUVULU+ SEIMAT
35-C TUNGAG+ KUANUA
35-E LAMOGAI+ AMARA*
35-G KAPORE+ MANGSENG*
35-I TUMOIP
languages spoken in:
Indonesia; Papua New Guinea
39-B BAU+NADROGA
languages spoken in:
Chile (Easter Island), Fiji,
Micronesia, New Caledonia /
Kanaky, Samoa, New Zealand
/ Aotearoa, Papua New
Guinea, Solomon Islands,
Tokelau, Tuvalu, Vanuatu,
Wallis & Futuna, and USA
(Hawaii)
scale of voices
5
page
325
page 24
1999 / 2000 edition
The Linguasphere Register
4= EURASIA geosector
pages 331 to 385
This gesector covers 35 sets of languages (= 219 outer languages, comprising 680 inner languages) spoken by
communities across Eurasia, from western Europe to eastern Asia. These sets comprise all indigenous languages of
Eurasia (Europe plus continental Asia, including the islands of India and Japan) which are excluded from the
phylosectors 1=Afro-Asian, 5=Indo-European and 7=Sino-Tibetan.
Zone 40= covers one outer language, spoken inland from the Bay of Biscay in western Europe, astride the western
Pyrenees mountains. Zones 41= and 42= cover languages spoken in central and eastern Europe, including the
Caucasus. Zones 43= to 45= cover northern and central Asia, from Siberia to Turkey and Japan, with some overlap into
Europe (zone 44= corresponds to the area of the "Altaic" hypthesis, and with zone 45= to the "wider Altaic" hypothesis).
Zones 46= to 49= cover southern continental Asia (extending to Southeast Asia and the islands of India): zone 46=
covers all southern Asian languages which are not included under the "Daic" affinity (zone 47=), the "Miao+Yao" set
(zone 48=) or the "Dravidian" grouping (zone 49=), or under any phylosector.
40= EUSKARIC
phylozone
covers "Basque" or "Euskarian" isolated set; comprising 1 set
of 1 outer language spoken by communities in maritime
western Europe, situated across the western end of the
Pyrenees mountain-range:
40-A EUSKARA
41= URALIC
phylozone
scale of voices
covers the "Uralic" grouping, including the narrower "FinnoUgric" grouping (41-A & 41-B); comprising 3 sets of languages
(= 16 outer languages) spoken by communities in
geographically separated areas of central, northern and
eastern Europe:
41-A SUOMI+ KOMI
41-C NENETS+ SELKUP
languages spoken in:
Spain; France; with migration to
Argentina; Chile; Costa Rica;
Mexico; Uruguay; USA
41-B MAGYAR+ KHANTY
42= CAUCASUS
geozone
covers the Caucasus reference area, including the
"Caucasian"-N. grouping (sets 42-A & 42-B); comprising 3
sets of languages (= 20 outer languages) spoken by
communities in and around the Caucasus mountains of
eastern Europe:
42-A ADYGHE+ ABKHAZ
42-C KARTHULI+ SVANURI
43= SIBERIA
geozone
page
338
page
343
4
43-B NIVKH
43-D ODUL+ CHUVANTSY
covers the "Turkic+ Manchurian" or "Altaic" reference area
and hypothesis, part of the "wider Altaic" hypothesis (with
languages of geozone 45=); comprising 3 sets of languages (=
16 outer languages) spoken by communities in Eurasia, from
the European Balkans to Manchuria:
44-A TÜRKÇE+ CHUVASH
44-C EVEN+ MANCHU
333
6
languages spoken in:
Russian Federation
scale of voices
page
7
languages spoken in:
Azerbaijan; Georgia; Iran;
Kazakhstan; Turkey; Russian
Federation (Adygei Rep.;
Chechnya; Kabardia-Balkaria;
Karachay-Cherkes; Ossetia;
Russia)
scale of voices
covers the "East-Siberian" or so-called "Paleo-Siberian"
reference area, composed of sets not covered by any
phylozone; comprising 4 sets of languages (= 11 outer
languages) spoken by communities in northern Asia, scattered
across eastern Siberia from the Arctic Ocean to the Sea of
Okhotsk:
43-A KET+ YUGH
43-C CHUKOT+ ITELMEN
44= TRANSASIA
geozone
42-B NOXCHIIN+ AVAR
331
5
languages spoken in:
Austria; Croatia; Estonia;
Finland; Hungary; Lithuania;
Moldova; Norway; Romania;
Russian Federation; Slovakia;
Slovenia; Sweden; Ukraine;
Yugoslavia; with migrations to
Canada; USA
scale of voices
page
44-B BURYAT+ DONGXIANG
including 1 arterial language: [44-A] Türkçe (Turkish) + Azeri &
Turkmen
languages spoken in:
Azerbaijan; Afghanistan;
Bulgaria; China; Cyprus;
Georgia; Germany; Greece; Iran;
Kazakhstan; Kirghizstan;
Lithuania; Macedonia; Moldova;
Mongolia; Romania; Russian
Federation; Syria; Tajikistan;
Turkey; Turkmenistan; Ukraine;
Uzbekistan; Yugoslavia
scale of voices
7
page
345
Synopsis
45= EAST-ASIA
geozone
page 25
covers the "East-Asia" reference area, composed of sets not
covered in any phylozone, part of the "wider Altaic" hypothesis
(with languages of geozone 44=); comprising 3 sets of
languages (= 12 outer languages) spoken by communities
around the Sea of Japan, mainly on the Korean peninsula and
the Japanese archipelago:
45-A HANKUKMAL+ CHEJUMAL
45-C NIHONGO+ OKINAWAGO
45-B EZO+ KURILE
languages spoken in:
North Korea; South Korea and
Japan, with migration to Brazil;
China; China/Taiwan; Russia;
Uzbekistan; Kazakhstan; USA;
etc.
scale of voices
page
353
8
including 2 arterial languages: [45-A] Hankukmal (Korean);
[45-C] Nihongo (Japanese)
46= SOUTH-ASIA
geozone
covers the "South-Asia" reference area of languages not
covered in any phylozone, including the Mon+ Khmer grouping
(46-D to 46-G; and also the broader "Austro-Asiatic"
hypothesis = 46-C to 46-G, and perhaps also 46-B);
comprising 11 sets of languages (= 85 outer languages)
spoken by communities situated in South and Southeast Asia,
from the western Himalayas to the Nicobar and Andaman
islands and the South China Sea:
46-A BURUSHASKI+ WERSHIKWAR
46-C SANTALI+ SORA
46-E VIÊT+ MUONG
46-G MON+ SEMAI
46-I AKACARI+ AKAJERU*
46-K JARAWA+ ONGE*
languages spoken in:
Bangladesh; Bhutan; Burma;
Cambodia; China; India; Laos;
Malaysia; Nepal; Pakistan;
Thailand; Vietnam
scale of voices
page
358
7
46-B NIHALI*
46-D KHASI+ KHAMANG
46-F KHMAE+ KATU
46-H TAIHLONG+ MILO
46-J APUCIKWAR+ AKABEA*
including 1 arterial language: [46-E] Viêt (Vietnamese)
47= DAIC
phylozone
covers the "Daic", "wider Kadai" or Thai+ Gelao set, part of the
"Austro-Tai" hypothesis (with languages of phylosector
3=Austronesian); comprising 1 set of languages (= 26 outer
languages) spoken by communities in Southeast Asia, from
northeastern India to southwestern China:
languages spoken in:
Burma; Cambodia; China; Laos;
India; Thailand; Vietnam
scale of voices
page
372
7
47-A THAI+ GELAO
including 1 arterial language: Thai with Isan & Lao
48= MIENIC
phylozone
covers the "Miao+ Yao" or Hsiangsi+ Iumien set; comprising 1
set of languages (= 8 outer languages) spoken by
communities in Southeast Asia, from Burma to southwestern
China:
languages spoken in:
Burma; China; Laos; Thailand;
Vietnam
scale of voices
48-A HSIANGSI+ IUMIEN
49= DRAVIDIC
phylozone
covers the "Dravidian" grouping; comprising 5 sets (= 24 outer
languages) spoken by communities throughout South Asia,
from Afghanistan to Sri Lanka:
49-A BRA'UIDI
49-C KOLAMI+ PARJI
49-E TAMIL+ TULU
49-B KURUKH+ MALTO
49-D TELUGU+ KUYI
including 2 arterial languages: [49-D] Telugu; [49-E] Tamil
377
6
languages spoken in:
primarily India; also Afghanistan;
Bangladesh; Malaysia; Nepal;
Pakistan; Sri Lanka
scale of voices
page
8
page
379
page 26
The Linguasphere Register
5= INDO-EUROPEAN phylosector
1999 / 2000 edition
pages 385 to 477
This phylosector covers 10 sets of languages (= 150 outer languages, comprising 873 inner languages) spoken traditionally by
communities across much of Eurasia, from Iceland and the British Isles in the northwest to Sri Lanka in the south, constituting
the Indo-European intercontinental affinity. During the last half millennium, languages of this phylosector (principally from
zones 51=, 52=, 53= and 59=) have spread to all other continents of the world, and across northern Asia, and over half the
world's population now speaks a language from this phylosector (as either primary or alternate voices).
Zones 50= to 57= cover languages traditionally spoken in Europe, and 58= to 59= cover languages traditionally spoken in
western and southern Asia. Zones are arranged in the approximate geographic order of their traditional areas in Eurasia,
moving from northwestern Europe to southern Asia, and this order has no implication for prehistorical reconstructions.
50= CELTIC
phylozone
covers the "Celtic", "Gaelic+ Welsh" or Gaeilge+
Cymraeg set, part of the "Indo-European"
intercontinental affinity; comprising 1 set of languages
(= 5 outer languages) spoken by communities in
insular and maritime northwestern Europe, from the
Hebridean islands to the Britanny peninsula:
languages spoken in:
France (Bretagne); Ireland; Man; United Kingdom
(Scotland; Wales; Northern Ireland); with migrations
to Argentina; Australia; Canada; USA
scale of voices
page
385
6
50-A GAEILGE+ CYMRAEG
51= ROMANIC
phylozone
covers the "Romance" or Italiano+ Româneasca set,
part of the "Indo-European" intercontinental affinity;
comprising 1 set of languages (= 30 outer languages)
spoken traditionally by communities throughout
southern Europe, from Portugal to Moldova, with
extensions to all other continents of the world:
51-A ITALIANO+ ROMÂNEASCA
including 4 arterial languages: Español (Spanish);
Português (Portuguese); Français (French); Italiano
(Italian)
languages spoken in:
Albania; Algeria; Andorra; Angola; Argentina;
Belgium; Belize; Benin; Bolivia; Bosnia; Brazil;
Bulgaria; Burkina Faso; Central African Rep.;
Cambodia; Cameroon; Canada; Cape Verde; Chad;
Channel Islands; Chile; China; Colombia; Comoro
Islands; Congo; Congo-Zaire; Costa Rica; Croatia;
Cuba; Côte d'Ivoire; Djibouti; Dominican Rep.; East
Timor; Ecuador; Egypt; El Salvador; Equatorial
Guinea; France; French Guiana; French Polynesia;
Gabon; Greece; Guadeloupe; Guatemala; Guinea;
Guinea-Bissau; Haiti; Honduras; India; Indonesia;
Israel; Italy (Val d'Aost); Laos; Lebanon; Macedonia;
Madagascar; Malaysia; Mali; Martinique; Mauritania;
Mauritius; Mexico; Moldova; Monaco; Morocco;
Netherlands West Indies.; New Caledonia / Kanaky;
Nicaragua; Niger; Panama; Paraguay; Peru;
Philippines; Portugal; Romania; Ruanda; Réunion;
San Marino; Senegal; Seychelles; Singapore;
Slovenia; Spain; Sri Lanka; St.Lucia; Switzerland;
Togo; Trinidad; Tunisia; Turkey; USA; Ukraine;
Uruguay; Vatican; Vanuatu; Venezuela; Vietnam;
Virgin Islands; Wallis & Futuna; Western Sahara
scale of voices
52= GERMANIC
phylozone
covers the "Germanic" or Norsk+ Frysk set, part of the
"Indo-European" intercontinental affinity; comprising 1
set of languages (= 25 outer languages) spoken
traditionally by communities in Europe, extending from
Iceland to eastern Europe, with extensions to all other
continents of the world:
52-A NORSK+ FRYSK
including 2 arterial languages: English; Deutsch
(German)
390
8
English is represented by communities of primary
and/or alternate speakers and learners in virtually
every country in the world. Other Germanic
languages (of which German is the most widely
distributed) are spoken in:
Argentina; Australia; Austria; Bahamas; Belgium;
Bolivia; Brazil; Canada; Colombia; Czech Rep.;
Denmark; Estonia; Faroe Islands; Finland; France;
Germany; Hungary; Iceland; Italy; Lesotho;
Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxemburg; Mexico;
Namibia; Netherlands; Netherlands West Indies;
Norway; Poland; Russia; Slovakia; Slovenia; South
Africa; Surinam; Swaziland; Sweden; Switzerland;
USA; Ukraine; Uruguay
scale of voices
page
9
page
411
Synopsis
53= SLAVIC
phylozone
page 27
covers the "Slavonic" or Slovenčina+ Slovensko set, part
of the "Balto-Slavic" grouping within the "Indo-European"
intercontinental affinity; comprising 1 set of languages (= 8
outer languages) spoken by communities in eastern
Europe and northern Asia, from the Alps to the Bering
Sea:
53-A SLOVENČINA+ SLOVENSKO
including 2 arterial languages: Russkiy (Russian);
Ukrainska (Ukrainian) with Belarusskaya (Belarussian)
54= BALTIC
phylozone
covers the "Baltic", "Latvian+ Lithuanian" or Lietuviškai+
Latviašu set, part of the "Balto-Slavic" grouping within the
"Indo-European" intercontinental affinity; comprising 1 set
of languages (= 3 outer languages) spoken by
communities in Europe, on the southern coast of the Baltic
Sea:
languages spoken in:
Albania; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belarus;
Bosnia; Bulgaria; Croatia; Czech Rep.; Estonia;
Georgia; Greece; Italy; Kazakhstan; Latvia;
Lithuania; Macedonia; Moldova; Poland;
Romania; Russian Fed.; Slovenia;
Turkmenistan; Ukraine; Uzbekistan; Yugoslavia;
with migrations to Canada; USA; Israel; Australia
scale of voices
440
8
languages spoken in:
Latvia; Lithuania; with migration to Canada;
USA…; and deportation to Russia (Siberia);
Kazakhstan
scale of voices
page
page
447
6
54-A LIETUVIŠKAI+ LATVIAŠU
55= ALBANIC
phylozone
covers the "Albanian" or Shqip set, part of the "IndoEuropean" intercontinental affinity; comprising 1 set of 1
outer language spoken by communities in the western
Balkans, with an extension across the Adriatic to the
Italian peninsula:
languages spoken in:
Albania; Greece; Macedonia; Yugoslavia; with
an extension to Italy; and migration to Croatia;
Turkey; Ukraine
scale of voices
page
448
6
55-A SHQIP
56= HELLENIC
phylozone
covers the "Greek", "Hellenic" or Helleniki+ Tsakonia set
of languages, part of the "Indo-European" intercontinental
affinity; comprising 1 set of languages (= 2 outer
languages) spoken by communities in southeastern
Europe and around the eastern Mediterranean, with
international migration:
languages spoken in:
Greece; Cyprus; Albania; Bulgaria; formerly
Turkey; with migration to USA; Germany; United
Kingdom; France; Canada; Poland; Ukraine;
Russia; Kazakhstan; Italy
scale of voices
page
449
7
56-A HELLENIKI+ TSAKONIA
57= ARMENIC
phylozone
covers the "Armenian" or Hayeren set, part of the "IndoEuropean" intercontinental affinity; comprising 1 set of 1
outer language spoken by communities in eastern Europe,
in the valleys around Lake Sevan and in a former
extension from the Mediterranean coast of Cilicia to the
Caspian Sea, with worldwide migration:
languages spoken in:
Armenia; Azerbaijan; with migration in Egypt;
France; Georgia; Iran; Iraq; Lebanon; Russia;
Syria; Turkey; Ukraine; USA
scale of voices
page
451
6
57-A HAYEREN
58= IRANIC
phylozone
covers the "Iranian" or Farsi+ Pashto set, part of the "IndoIranian"
grouping
within
the
"Indo-European"
intercontinental affinity; comprising 1 set of languages (=
26 outer languages) spoken by communities in
southwestern and central Asia:
58-A FARSI+ PASHTO
59= INDIC
phylozone
covers the "Indic", "Indo-Aryan" or Hindi+ Domari set of
languages, part of the "Indo-Iranian" grouping within the
"Indo-European" intercontinental affinity; comprising 1 set
of languages (= 49 outer languages) spoken by
communities in South Asia, from the Himalayas to the
island of Ceylon, with extensions throughout the world:
59=A HINDI+ DOMARI
including 5 arterial languages: Hindi with Urdu; Bhojpuri
with Maithili; Panjabi (Punjabi); Marathi; Bangla (Bengali)
with Sylhetti
languages spoken in:
Afghanistan; Armenia; Azerbaijan; China; India;
Iran; Iraq; Kirghizstan; Lebanon; Oman;
Pakistan; Russia; Syria; Tajikistan;
Turkmenistan; Turkey; Uzbekistan
scale of voices
452
7
languages spoken in:
Bangladesh; Bhutan; India; Nepal; Pakistan; Sri
Lanka; with migration to: Afghanistan; Albania;
Armenia; Australia; Bosnia; Brazil; Bulgaria;
China; Colombia; Czech Rep.; Denmark; Egypt;
Estonia; Fiji; France; French Guiana; Germany;
Greece; Guyana; Hungary; Iran; Italy;
Kazakhstan; Kenya; Latvia; Lebanon; Mauritius;
Moldova; Norway; Palestine; Poland; Portugal;
Romania; Russia; Slovakia; Slovenia; South
Africa; Spain; Surinam; Sweden; Syria; Trinidad
& Tobago; Turkey; Uganda; UK; Ukraine; USA;
Uzbekistan; Yugoslavia; etc.
scale of voices
page
9
page
458
page 28
1999 / 2000 edition
The Linguasphere Register
6= NORTH-AMERICA geosector
pages 478 to 524
This geosector covers 63 sets of languages (= 336 outer languages, comprising 978 inner languages) spoken or formerly
spoken by traditional "Amerindian" (plus Inuit-Aleut) communities across North America and northern Meso-America (since
before the arrival of speakers of Indo-European languages, principally [52] English, and [51] Español and Français).
The first six zones of this sector (4 phylozones and 2 geozones) cover the northern and central regions of North America,
which have been characterised in recent centuries by the wide geographic distribution of a relatively small number of sets of
languages. These six zones together comprise a total of only 13 sets (including a southward extension as far as Honduras
of related languages in zone 65=). The last four zones of this sector (all geozones) cover the linguistically more complex
western and southern regions of North America, including northern Central America. They together comprise a total of 50
sets. Geozone 66=Farwest covers languages spoken by communities along the western littoral and hinterland regions of
Canada and the USA, from Alaska to California. Geozone 67=Desert covers languages spoken in the area between New
Mexico and the Bay of California (Mexico). Geozone 68=Gulf covers languages spoken around the periphery of the Gulf of
Mexico, from Mexico (Tamaulipas) to USA (Florida); and geozone 69=Mesoamerica covers other traditional languages
spoken between northern Mexico and northern Costa Rica.
60= ARCTIC
phylozone
covers the "West Arctic", Inuit+Aleut ("Eskimo"+Aleut) or
Attu+ Kalaallisut set; comprising 1 set of languages (= 14 outer
languages) spoken by scattered hunting & fishing
communities in northern North America and adjacent tip of
Siberia, from Bering Straits to Greenland:
languages spoken in:
Canada; Greenland; Russia
(Siberia); USA (Alaska)
scale of voices
page
478
5
60-A ATTU+ KALAALLISUT
61= NADENIC
phylozone
covers the "Nadene" grouping (part of a "wider
Na-Dene" hypothesis, with [66] Haida); comprising 3 sets of
languages (= 23 outer languages) spoken by communities in
western North America, over a wide area of Alaska and
western Canada, and in the Rio Grande basin:
61-A EYAK
61-C TLINGIT+ TONGASS
62= ALGIC
phylozone
63= SAINTLAWRENCE
geozone
64= MISSISSIPPI
geozone
languages spoken in:
Canada; USA
scale of voices
5
page
485
languages spoken in:
Canada; USA
scale of voices
page
489
4
63-B BEOTHUK
covers the "Mississippi Basin" reference area; comprising 3
sets of languages (= 21 outer languages) spoken by
communities in central North America, occupying or originally
occupying much of the Mississippi+ Missouri basin, with some
distant outliers:
64-A DAKOTA+ CATAWBA
64-C KIOWA+ TEWA
481
5
62-B YUROK
covers the "Saint-Lawrence" reference area, composed of sets
not covered by any phylozone; comprising 2 sets of languages
(= 7 outer languages) spoken by communities or former
communities in North America, extending (63-A) from the
Great Lakes (Huron, Eerie & Ontario) to the mouth of the
St.Lawrence river, with outliers to the south as far as Georgia
(whence transported to Oklahoma); and situated formerly (63B) on the island of Newfoundland at the entrance to the
St.Lawrence:
63-A MOHAWK+ TSALAGI
scale of voices
page
61-B TANAINA+ NAVAJO
covers the "Algic" or "Algonkian+ Ritwan" grouping; comprising
3 sets of languages (= 22 outer languages) spoken by
communities scattered across North America, from the Alberta
plains to the Atlantic coast (between Labrador and the
Carolinas), including outying communities on the Pacific coast
(in north California):
62-A SIKSIKA+ MICMAC
62-C WIYOT
languages spoken in:
Canada; USA; Mexico
64-B CADDO+ PAWNEE
languages spoken in:
USA; also Canada
scale of voices
4
page
490
Synopsis
65= AZTECIC
phylozone
page 29
covers the "Uto-Aztecan", Ute+ Nahuatl set of languages;
comprising 1 set of languages (= 44 outer languages) spoken
or formerly spoken by communities over a wide area of North
America and northern Central America (Wyoming and
Nebraska to El Salvador and Honduras):
languages spoken in:
USA; Mexico; El Salvador;
Honduras
scale of voices
page
492
4
65-A UTE+ NAHUATL
66= FARWEST
geozone
covers the "Far-West American" reference area; comprising 26
sets of languages (= 80 outer languages) spoken by
communities in North America along the Pacific coast and its
hinterland, from Alaska to California:
66-A HAIDA
66-C KWAKWALA+ NOOTKA
66-E NUXALK
66-G KUTENAI
66-I WASCO+ CLACKAMA
66-K SIUSLAW+ YAQUINA*
66-M KLAMATH+ MODOC
66-O WAPPO
66-Q KAROK
66-S IRUAITSU+ KAMMATWA*
66-U YANA+ YAHI
66-W POMO+ KASHAYA
66-Y SALINA
67= DESERT
geozone
covers the "Southwest Desert" reference area; comprising 5
sets of languages (= 15 outer languages) spoken by traditional
communities in North America, from the Gulf of California to
the Upper Rio Grande:
covers the "Gulf of Mexico" reference area; comprising 8 sets
of languages (= 23 outer languages) spoken by communities
in North America, around the periphery of the Gulf of Mexico
from Tamaulipas to Florida:
498
languages spoken in:
Mexico; USA
scale of voices
page
507
4
languages spoken in:
Mexico; USA
scale of voices
page
509
4
68-B ATAKAPA*
68-D NATCHEZ
68-F MUSKOGEE+ CHOCTAW
68-H TIMUCUA
covers the "Meso-America" reference area; comprising 11 sets
of languages (= 87 outer languages) spoken by communities
in southern North America (Meso-America), from Michoacán
to the Pacific-facing side of Honduras, Nicaragua and northern
Costa Rica:
69-A OTOMÍ+ OJITLÁN
69-C TARASCO
69-E CUITLATEC
69-G HUAVE
69-I XINCA
69-K TOL
3
67-B WAIKURI+ PERICÚ*
67-D ZUÑI
68-A NAOLAN+ COAHUILTECO*
68-C CHITIMACHA
68-E TUNICA
68-G YUCHI
69= MESOAMERICA
geozone
scale of voices
page
66-B TSIMSHIAN+ NISGHA
66-D CHIMAKUM+ QUILEUTE
66-F LUSHOOTSEED+ LILLOOET
66-H YAKIMA+ MOLALA*
66-J KALAPUYA+ TAKELMA*
66-L HANIS+ MILUK
66-N YUKI
66-P WINTU+ CHUKCHANSI
66-R CHIMARIKO+ CHIMALAKWE
66-T ACHUMAWI+ ATSUGEWI
66-V WASHO
66-X ESSELEN
66-Z CHUMASH
67-A WALAPAI+ COCHIMÍ
67-C SERI
67-E KERES
68= GULF
geozone
languages spoken in:
Canada; USA
69-B MAYA+ CAKCHIQUEL
69-D TOTONAC+ TEPEHUA
69-F HUAMELULA+ TEQUISTLATEC
69-H MIXE+ ZOQUE
69-J LENCA
languages spoken in:
Mexico; Belize; Guatemala; El
Salvador; Honduras; Nicaragua;
Costa Rica
scale of voices
6
page
512
page 30
1999 / 2000 edition
The Linguasphere Register
7= SINO-INDIAN phylosector
pages 525 to 568
This phylosector covers 22 sets of languages (= 218 outer languages, comprising 641 inner languages) spoken by
communities in eastern Asia, from the Himalayas to Manchuria (Heilongjiang), constituting the "Sino-Tibetan" or "SinoIndian" continental affinity.
This continental affinity is composed of two major parts: the disparate Tibeto-Burman affinity (zones 70= to 77=), spoken
by relatively small communities (with the exception of 77=) in the Himalayas and adjacent regions; and the closely
related Chinese languages of the Sinitic set and net (zone 79=), spoken in eastern Asia. The Karen languages of zone
78=, formerly considered part of the Tibeto-Burman grouping, are probably best regarded as a third component of the
Sino-Tibetan affinity.
70= TIBETIC
phylozone
covers the "Tibetan" or Phöke+ Kinnauri set, part of the
"Tibeto-Burman" affinity within the "Sino-Tibetan" ("SinoIndian") continental affinity; comprising 1 set of languages (=
25 outer languages) spoken by communities in Central Asia,
on both sides of the Himalayas:
languages spoken in:
Bhutan; China/Tibet; Nepal;
adjacent India; Pakistan
scale of voices
page
525
6
70-A PHÖKE+ KINNAURI
71= HIMALAYIC
phylozone
covers the "East Himalayan+ Dhimal" grouping, part of the
"Tibeto-Burman" affinity within the "Sino-Tibetan" ("SinoIndian") continental affinity; comprising 3 sets of languages (=
48 outer languages) spoken by communities in Central Asia,
in the eastern Himalayan mountain-valleys and highlands:
71-A NEWARI+ DOLKHALI
71-C DHIMAL+TOTO
72= GARIC
phylozone
73= KUKIC
phylozone
74= MIRIC
phylozone
languages spoken in:
India; Bangladesh; Burma
scale of voices
page
535
6
languages spoken in:
India; Burma; Bangladesh; also
Nepal; China
scale of voices
page
539
6
73-B MRUNG
73-D THADO+FALAM
covers the "Mirish" or Nisi+ Miri set, part of the "TibetoBurman" affinity, within the "Sino-Tibetan" ("Sino-Indian")
continental affinity; comprising a grouping of 1 set of
languages (= 6 outer languages) spoken by communities in
the mountain-valleys and highlands north of the middle
Brahmaputra:
74-A NISI+ MIRI
530
6
72-B KONYAK+ AO
covers the "Kuki+ Naga" grouping, part of the "Tibeto-Burman"
affinity within the "Sino-Tibetan" ("Sino-Indian") continental
affinity; comprising 4 sets of languages (= 49 outer languages)
spoken by communities in the highlands around the middle
Brahmaputra valley:
73-A LOTHA+ LIANGMAI
73-C MIKIRI+MEITHEI
scale of voices
page
71-B MAGAR+ LORONGKHA
covers the Bodo+ Konyak grouping, part of the "TibetoBurman" affinity within the "Sino-Tibetan" ("Sino-Indian")
continental affinity; comprising 2 sets of languages (= 23 outer
languages) spoken by communities in and around the
Brahmaputra middle basin:
72-A BODO+ GARO
languages spoken in:
Nepal; India; Bhutan; Tibet
languages spoken in:
India; China (Tibet)
scale of voices
6
page
546
Synopsis
75= KACHINIC
phylozone
page 31
covers the "Kachin+ Luish" or Jingpho+ Kado grouping, part of
the "Tibeto-Burman" affinity within the "Sino-Tibetan" ("SinoIndian") continental affinity; comprising 2 sets of languages (=
3 outer languages) spoken by communities in continental
Southeast Asia, between the middle Brahmaputra and the
middle Mekong basins:
75-A JINGPHO+ TAMAN
76= RUNGIC
phylozone
77= IRRAWADDIC
phylozone
78= KARENIC
phylozone
547
5
languages spoken in:
China; Burma; India
scale of voices
page
548
5
76-B JIARONG
76-D P'UMI
covers the "Burmese+ Lolo" or Bama+ Nasö grouping, part of
the "Tibeto-Burman" affinity within the "Sino-Tibetan" ("SinoIndian") continental affinity; comprising 3 sets of languages (=
27 outer languages) spoken by communities in continental
Southeast Asia, centered on the Irrawaddy river and its
tributaries:
77-A BAMA+ LAWNG
77-C BAI+ DALI*
scale of voices
page
75-B KADO+ GANAAN
covers the "Rung" reference area, part of the "Tibeto-Burman"
affinity within the "Sino-Tibetan" ("Sino-Indian") continental
affinity; comprising 4 sets of languages (= 9 outer languages)
spoken by communities in continental Southeast Asia,
between the upper Brahmaputra and upper Salween basins:
76-A NUNG+ NORRA
76-C QIANG+ DZORGAI
languages spoken in:
Burma; China; India; Laos
languages spoken in:
Burma; China; Laos; Thailand
scale of voices
page
550
7
77-B NASÖ+ AKHA
covers the "Karen" or Pwo+ Sgaw set, part of the "SinoTibetan" ("Sino-Indian") continental affinity; comprising 1 set of
languages (= 12 outer languages) spoken by communities in
central Southeast Asia:
languages spoken in:
Burma; Thailand
scale of voices
page
555
6
78-A PWO + SGAW
79= SINITIC
phylozone
covers the "Chinese" or Han-Yu set, part of the "Sino-Tibetan"
("Sino-Indian") continental affinity; comprising 1 set of
languages (= 16 outer languages) spoken by communities
throughout East Asia, centered on the Huang-He ("Yellow
River") and Yangtze basins:
79-A HAN-YU
including 3 arterial languages: Putonghua (Mandarin); Wu; Yue
(Cantonese)
languages spoken in:
Bangladesh; Bhutan; Burma;
India; Japan; Laos; Kazakhstan;
Kirghizstan; Malaysia; Nepal;
North Korea; Pakistan;
Singapore; South Korea;
Thailand; Vietnam; plus
worldwide migration, including:
Australia; Brazil; Brunei;
Canada; Colombia; Costa Rica;
Cuba; Fiji; France; French
Guiana; French Polynesia;
Guam; Guatemala; Guyana;
Indonesia; Jamaica;
Kazakhstan; Kirghizstan;
Madagascar; Mauritius; Mexico;
Mongolia; Mozambique; Nauru;
Netherlands; New Zealand /
Aotearoa; Panama; Papua New
Guinea; Paraguay; Peru;
Philippines; Portugal; Réunion;
Samoa; Seychelles; South
Africa; Surinam; Trinidad; United
Kingdom; USA; Vanuatu;
Venezuela
scale of voices
9
page
557
page 32
1999 / 2000 edition
The Linguasphere Register
8= SOUTH-AMERICA geosector
pages 569 to 621
This geosector covers 121 sets of languages (= 415 outer languages, comprising 964 inner languages) spoken or
formerly spoken by traditional "Amerindian" communities across South America and southern Meso-America (since
before the arrival of speakers of Indo-European languages, principally [51] Español and Português, but also [51]
Français and [52] English and Nederlands).
13 sets are treated within three phylozones, 80=, 82= and 88=, while the remaining 110 sets are classified
geographically within seven geozones. Geozone 81= covers languages spoken by communities in southern MesoAmerica and parts of northern South America, and the geozones 83=, 84= and 85=, in geographic sequence, cover
languages spoken by communities in the Andean regions, southward as far as Tierra del Fuego. Geozones 86=, 87=
and 89= cover languages spoken by communities in the Mato Grosso, in the Amazon Basin and in northeastern Brazil.
80= CARIBIC
phylozone
covers the "wider Carib", "Cariban" or Yucpa+ Bakairi set;
comprising 1 set of languages (= 37 outer languages) spoken
by widely scattered communities in northern South America,
and formerly on islands of the Caribbean:
80-A YUCPA+ BAKAIRI
languages spoken in:
Brazil; Colombia; French Guiana;
Guyana; Surinam; Venezuela;
formerly also on Caribbean islands
(most recently, Trinidad & Tobago)
scale of voices
81= INTER-OCEAN
geozone
covers the "Inter-Ocean" reference area, composed of sets not
covered by any phylozone; comprising 16 sets of languages (=
49 outer languages) spoken by communities in southern MesoAmerica and northern South America, from the Pacific to the
Caribbean coast::
81-A MAM+ MATAGALPA
81-C RAMA
81-E NGOBERE+ TUKURÁ
81-G PAÉZ+ COCONUCO
81-I HIRAHARA+ GAYÓN
81-K PUMÉ
81-M BETOY
81-O CAMSÁ
82= ARAWAKIC
phylozone
81-B PECH
81-D MALÉKU+ KWERESA
81-F COFÁN
81-H COAIQUER+ TSÁCHI
81-J TACAME
81-L TIMOTE+ MUCUCHI
81-N YURIMANGI
81-P GUARAO
covers the "Maipuran" ("Maipurean") or "Core Arawakan"
grouping, part of the "wider Arawakan" hypothesis; comprising 2
sets of languages (= 49 outer languages) formerly spoken by
th
communities in the Caribbean and spoken at end 20 century
by widely scattered communities in Meso-America and SouthAmerica, from Guatemala and Belize to French Guiana and
northern Brazil, Peru and Bolivia:
82-A WAYÚU+ BANIWA
82-B ASHÁNINGA+ YANESHA
83= PRE-ANDES
geozone
covers the "Pre-Andes" reference area, composed of sets not
covered by any phylozone; comprising 20 sets of languages (=
73 outer languages) spoken by communities in South America
along the eastern margins of the Andes:
83-A COFÁN
83-C ANDOQUE
83-E SHUAR+ AGUAJUN
83-G SHIMACU+ ITUCALI
83-I YAMÉO+ NIXAMWI
83-K OMURANO
83-M YURAKARE+ MANSINYO
83-O CHAPACURA+ TORÁ
83-Q CAYUBABA
83-S MOSETEN+ TSIMANÉ
84= ANDES
geozone
83-B MURUI+ OKAINA
83-D BORA+ MIRAÑA
83-F CHAYAHUITA+ JEVERO
83-H CÁYAPWI+ IQUITO
83-J ITE'TSHI
83-L CANDOXI+ CHAPARA
83-N CASHIBO+ JUANAWO
83-P ITONAMA+ SARAMO
83-R BAGUAJA+ ISIAMA
83-T TEHUELCHE+ ONA
covers the "Andes" reference area, composed of sets not
covered by any phylozone; comprising 13 sets of languages (=
28 outer languages) spoken by communities in South America
along the Andes ranges from Colombia to Bolivia (extending
into Brazil and Argentina):
84-A CANYARI+ MOCHICA
84-C CATACAO+ COLÁN
84-E CULYI
84-G HUACHIPAERI+ AMARACAERI
84-I LECO
84-K PUQUINA
84-M URU+ CHIPAYA
84-B SEC+ TALLÁN
84-D CHOLÓN+ HIBITO
84-F QUECHUA+ QUICHWA
84-H LAPACHU
84-J AYMARA+ JAQARU
84-L CALLAHUAYA*
page
579
page
584
4
languages spoken in:
Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; Colombia;
Ecuador; Peru
scale of voices
574
5
languages spoken in:
Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; Chile;
Colombia; Ecuador; Peru
scale of voices
page
5
languages spoken originally in:
Cuba; Haiti+ Dominican Rep.;
th
Puerto Rico; Jamaica; in 20
century in: Belize; Bolivia; Brazil;
Colombia; Dominica; French
Guiana; Guatemala; Guyana;
Honduras; Peru; St.Vincent;
Surinam; Venezuela
scale of voices
569
4
languages spoken in:
Colombia; Costa Rica; Ecuador;
Guyana; Honduras; Nicaragua;
Panama; Surinam; Venezuela
scale of voices
page
6
page
592
Synopsis
85= CHACO-CONE
geozone
page 33
covers the "Chaco+ Cone" reference area, composed of sets not
covered by any phylozone; comprising 10 sets of languages (= 25 outer
languages) spoken by communities in southern South America, from
the Chaco region to Tierra del Fuego island:
85-A WICHÍ + YOFÚAHA
85-C MASKOY+ PAYAGUÁ
85-E KADIWÉU+ NAMQOM
85-G MAPUDUNGUN
85-I QAWASQAR+ CACAHUE
86= MATOGROSSO
geozone
87= AMAZON
geozone
covers the "Mato-Grosso" reference area, composed of sets not
covered by any phylozone; comprising 16 sets of languages (= 36
outer languages) spoken by communities in South America, situated
on and around the Mato Grosso plateau:
86-A MOVIMA+ CANICHANA*
86-C BORÔRO+ OTUKE
86-E JABUTÍ+ ARICAPÚ
86-G CABIXI+ SABANÊ
86-I OPAYÉ
86-K HALOTESU*
86-M ENAWENÉ
86-O CARAJÁ
89= BAHIA
geozone
87-B IAPAMA
87-D NANOMAM+ NINAM
87-F PIAROA+ SÁLIBA
87-H PUINAVE
87-J TINGUA+ PAMIGUA
87-L ABISHIRA
87-N XIRIÂNA
87-P CAPANÁ+ PAUMARI*
87-R PIRAHÃ + MATANAUI
87-T HIMARIMA
87-V WERIDJAPÁ + HEWADIE
covers the "wider Tupian" grouping; comprising 10 sets of languages
(= 50 outer languages) spoken or formerly spoken by communities in
Brazil and neighbouring regions of South America, from French Guiana
to northern Argentina:
88-A NHENGATU+ EMERENYÓN
88-C MUNDURUCÚ+ CURUÁIA
88-E MONDÉ+ MEQUEM
88-G TUPARÍ+ KURATEG
88-I AWETÍ
88-B MAWÉ+ SATERÉ
88-D RAMARAMA+ ARARA
88-F CARITIANA+ ARIQUEM
88-H PURUBORÁ
88-J JURÚNA+ MANITSAWÁ
covers the "Northeast Brazil" reference area, composed of sets not
covered by any phylozone; comprising 11 sets of languages (= 14
outer languages) spoken or formerly spoken by communities in
northeastern South America, in an area of Brazil centered on Bahia:
89-A UAMOÉ
89-C PANCARARÚ+ CARIRÍ*
89-E NATÚ
89-G CAMACAN
89-I PURI
89-K OTI
scale of voices
page
598
5
languages spoken in:
Bolivia; Brazil
scale of voices
4
page
602
86-B CHIQUITO
86-D GUATÓ
86-F CAPIXANÁ
86-H RIKBAKTSA
86-J TRUMAÍ
86-L NUMBIAI*
86-N IRÁNTXE+ MENKU
86-P CAYAPÓ+ CAINGÁNG
covers the "Amazon" reference area, composed of sets not covered by
any phylozone; comprising 23 sets of languages (= 55 outer
languages) spoken by communities in the Amazon basin of South
America:
87-A AMIKOANA*
87-C ARUTANI+ SAPÉ
87-E HOTÍ
87-G GUAHIBO+ CUIBA
87-I CACUA+ NADËB*
87-K CUBEO+ DAHSEYÉ
87-M TICUNA
87-O MUNICHE
87-Q NEREYAMA*
87-S BARA
87-U KARAHAWYANA
87-W PAPAVÓ
88= TUPIC
phylozone
85-B AYOREO+ EBITOSO
85-D LULE+ VILELA*
85-F CUNZA
85-H GÜNÜAKÜNE
85-J YAMANA
languages spoken in:
Argentina; Bolivia; Chile;
Paraguay; Uruguay
89-B TUXÁ
89-D FULNIÔ
89-F CATEMBRÍ
89-H CUMANAXO+ CAPOXO
89-J KRENAK
languages spoken in:
Brazil; Colombia; Peru;
Venezuela; also Ecuador
scale of voices
page
614
6
languages spoken in:
Brazil
scale of voices
607
5*
languages spoken in:
Argentina; Brazil; French
Guiana; Paraguay; Uruguay;
formerly also Colombia;
Venezuela
scale of voices
page
3
page
620
page 34
1999 / 2000 edition
The Linguasphere Register
9= TRANSAFRICAN phylosector
pages 622 to 742
This phylosector covers 60 sets of languages (= 802 outer languages, composed of 2,816 inner languages) spoken by
communities across the African continent south of the Sahara, from Senegal to South Africa, constituting the
Transafrican ("old Niger-Congo less Mande" or "Atlantic-Congo") continental affinity.
Zones 90= to 93= cover languages spoken by communities westwards from Senegal through the northern interior of
West and Central Africa as far as northern Congo/Zaire and southern Sudan. Zones 94= to 97= cover languages
spoken by communities westwards from Guinea through the coastal regions of West Africa as far as the Niger Delta.
Zones 98= and 99= cover languages spoken through Nigeria and across the whole continent as far as Tanzania and
South Africa.
90= ATLANTIC
phylozone
covers the "Atlantic" ("old West-Atlantic less Mel") reference
area, within the "Transafrican" continental affinity; comprising
16 sets of languages (= 53 outer languages) spoken by
communities in western West Africa, with an eastward
extention of the Fulfulde-speaking (Fula, Peul) community as
far as Sudan:
90-A WOLOF
90-C SAFEN+ NDUT
90-E ESING+ GUBARE
90-G BALANTA+ GANJA
90-I BIAFADA+ BAJAR
90-K SUA
90-M MBULUNGISH
90-O BIJOGO
91= VOLTAIC
phylozone
covers the "Gur" or "Voltaic" reference area within the "VoltaCongo" affinity, within the wider "Transafrican" continental
affinity; comprising 9 sets of languages (= 76 outer languages)
spoken by communities in central West Africa, in and around
the upper Volta basin:
91-A JAMSAY+ DULERI
91-C TUSYAN+ WIN
91-E WARA+ NATIORO
91-G KASEM+ MOORE
91-I SIAMOU
92= ADAMAWIC
phylozone
94= MELIC
phylozone
page
630
6
languages spoken in:
Cameroon; Chad; Nigeria
scale of voices
page
640
6
languages spoken in:
Cameroon; Congo/Zaire; Sudan
scale of voices
page
646
6
93-B ZANDE+PAMBIA
covers the "Mel" (southern "old West-Atlantic") grouping, part
of the "Volta-Congo" affinity within the wider "Transafrican"
continental affinity; comprising 2 sets of languages (= 7 outer
languages) spoken by communities in coastal West Africa,
between the Kogon and Loffa rivers:
94-A THEMNE+ LANDUMA
7
languages spoken in:
Benin; Burkina Faso; Côte
d'Ivoire; Ghana; Mali; Togo
scale of voices
622
92-B MUMUYE+ SAMBA
covers the "Ubangian" or "Eastern" grouping, part of the
"Volta-Congo" affinity within the wider "Transafrican"
continental affinity; comprising 2 sets of languages (= 37 outer
languages) spoken by communities in northern Central Africa:
93-A BANDA+ GBAYA
scale of voices
page
91-B SENARI+ KPALAGHA
91-D TIEFO
91-F DOGOSO+ KHE
91-H CENKA*
covers the "Adamawa" reference area within the "VoltaCongo" affinity, within the wider "Transafrican" continental
affinity; comprising 3 sets of languages (= 59 outer languages)
spoken by communities in interior eastern West Africa:
92-A WAJA+ JANJO
92-C BUA+ BANGLING
93= UBANGIC
phylozone
90-B FULFULDE+ SERER
90-D FONYI+ KARON
90-F MANDYAK+ PAPEL
90-H BUY+ HAAL
90-J ONIYAN+ ONIK
90-L NALUU
90-N BAGA-MBOTENI
90-P LIMBA+ YIMBA
languages spoken in:
Gambia; Guinea; GuineaBissau; Senegal; Sierra Leone;
with extension of Fula to Benin;
Burkina Faso; Cameroon; Chad;
Mali; Niger; Nigeria; Sudan
94-B KISI+ GOLA
languages spoken in:
Guinea; Liberia; Sierra Leone
scale of voices
6
page
652
Synopsis
95= KRUIC
phylozone
page 35
covers the "Kru" or Klao+ Aizi set, part of the "Volta-Congo"
affinity within the "Transafrican" continental affinity; comprising
1 set of languages (= 28 outer languages) spoken by
communities in coastal West Africa, between the Loffa and
Bandama rivers:
languages spoken in:
Côte d'Ivoire; Guinea; Liberia
scale of voices
page
655
6
95-A KLAO+ AIZI
96= AFRAMIC
phylozone
covers the "West Kwa" reference area (the former western
section of "old Kwa") within the "Volta-Congo" affinity, within
the wider "Transafrican" continental affinity; comprising 13
sets of languages (= 66 outer languages) spoken by
communities in West Africa, centered on the lower Volta
(Afram) basin:
96-A AVIKAM+ ALADIAN
96-C BODIN+ KETIN
96-E EGA
96-G GISEDA+ EKPANA
96-I KEGBERIKE+ ANIMERE
96-K TRUGBU+ SIYA
96-M EWE+ FON
97= DELTIC
phylozone
98= BENUIC
phylozone
99= BANTUIC
phylozone
660
7
languages spoken in:
Nigeria
scale of voices
page
668
6
97-B DEFAKA
covers the "Benue+East Kwa" reference area (the northwestern section of "old Benue-Congo", plus the eastern
section of "old Kwa") within the "Volta-Congo" affinity, within
the wider "Transafrican" continental affinity; comprising 11
sets of languages (= 209 outer languages) spoken by
communities in eastern West Africa, centered on the lower
Niger+ Benue basin, between the Togo Highlands and
Cameroon Highlands:
98-A YORUBA+ IGALA
98-C IDOMA+ ETULO
98-E OGORI+ OSAYEN
98-G IGBO+ EKPEYE
98-I HYAM+ TAROK
98-K JUNAARE+ DAKA
scale of voices
page
96-B VE+ JUKRU
96-D TYAMA+ OGWIA
96-F TWI+ NGBANDZI
96-H LELEMI+ SEKPELE
96-J IKPOSO+ AGO
96-L GA+ DANGME
covers the "Niger-Delta" or "Deltoid" grouping, part of the
"Transafrican" continental affinity; comprising 2 sets of
languages (= 8 outer languages) spoken by communities in
coastal West Africa, in and around the Niger Delta
97-A IZON+ KALABARI
languages spoken in:
Benin; Côte d'Ivoire; Ghana;
Nigeria; Togo
languages spoken in:
Cameroon; Nigeria; Togo
scale of voices
page
670
7
98-B NUPE+ EBIRA
98-D UKAAN+ AKUNNU*
98-F EDO+ OKPAMHERI
98-H AGWARA+ EZELLE
98-J IBIBIO+ BEKWARRA
covers the "broad Bantu", "narrow Bantu+ Bantoid" or Isizulu+
Tiv set (the central-southern section of "old Benue-Congo")
within the "Volta-Congo" affinity, within the wider
"Transafrican" continental affinity; comprising 1 set of
languages (= 259 outer languages), spoken by communities
throughout a major part of Africa south of the Sahara, from the
Jos Plateau and Cameroon Highlands eastwards and
southwards to the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic coasts:
99-A ISIZULU+ TIV
including 1 arterial language: Kiswahili (Swahili)
languages spoken in:
Botswana; Cameroon; Central
African Republic; Comoro
Islands; Congo; Congo-Zaire;
Gabon; Kenya; Lesotho; Malawi;
Mayotte; Mozambique; Namibia;
Nigeria; Rwanda; Somalia;
South Africa; Sudan; Swaziland;
Tanzania; Uganda; Zambia;
Zimbabwe
scale of voices
8
page
690