STUDY GUIDE
Midterm Exam #1
NR300: Biological Diversity
Introduction to Conservation Biology
1. What is conservation biology? How has this field changed over the past 30 years? In particular,
how does Peter Kareiva’s perspective on conservation science (Kareiva and Marvier 2012) differ
from Michael Soule’s (1985)?
a. The goal of conservation biology is to provide principles and tools for preserving
biological diversity.
b. Has become more evidence based
c. Kareiva – Take into account the needs of humans and wildlife
d. Soule – Focus totally on wildlife needs in conservation
Diversity of Life
2. What is biodiversity? Define and understand the hierarchical components of biodiversity ranging
from genetic to ecosystem diversity.
a. 1) Genetic Diversity
b. 2) Species Diversity
c. 3) Population-level Diversity
d. 4) Community Diversity
e. 5) Ecosystem Diversity
3. Why is preserving genetic diversity important both for natural communities and human wellbeing?
a. Good for human well-being as well as preserves ecosystem services to humans
4. What is the definition of a species? Why does defining a species matter? What is the difference
between biological, morphological and phylogenetic species concepts?
a. Any distinct population segment of any species of vertebrate fish or wildlife which
interbreeds when mature.
b. Biological = If they can produce viable young they are a species
c. Morphological = Physical characteristics define species
d. Phylogenetic = Genetic/Evolutionary. If a population shares a common ancestor
5. What is an evolutionarily significant unit (ESU)?
a. A population that is genetically, morphologically, and ecologically different enough from
populations of the same species that they may be adapted to different conditions.
6. Approximately how many species have been described? What is the estimate on the total
number of living species on earth (described and undescribed)?
a. 1.9 million living species and 300,000 fossil species described.
b. Estimates = 5 million to 1 trillion, recent study = 8.7 million
7. Explain at least two different techniques that biologists use to estimate the number of species
that have not yet been described.
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a.
8. What is the definition of a population? How does this differ from a community or ecosystem?
a. A group of individuals of a particular species living in a specific area at the same time
b. Populations can be genetically distinct from adapting to enviornment
9. What are several reasons why preserving multiple populations of a species is important?
a. Genetic Diversity
b. Ecological Stability
c. Species Interactions
10. Be able to define and distinguish between alpha, beta and gamma diversity. Where in the world
would you expect high or low alpha and beta diversity?
a. Alpha diversity = Species richness in single place
i. Location of…
1. High alpha diversity = Jungle
2. Low alpha diversity = Desert
b. Beta diversity = Change in species richness between two places (Total species unique to
each place)
i. Location of...
1. High beta diversity = Transition zones (ecotones) between ecosystems
2. Low beta diversity = Human areas have low beta diversity
c. Gamma diversity = Overall diversity for multiple places within a region. (Geographic
scale)
11. What are the typical objectives of a Bioblitz?
a. Species discovery
b. Public education
c. Conservation/mgmt
Rarity and Extinction
12. Be familiar with the IUCN red list – what information does this database provide?
a. Extinction vulnerabilities
b. Most species are data deficient
13. What are the “seven forms of rarity” – how are these defined?
a. Geographic range
b. Habitat specificity
c. Local population size
14. What factors increase a species risk of extinction?
a. Adaptability, range, reproductive rate, habitat
15. How does the total planetary biomass of humans, pets/livestock and wild mammals compare?
a. Humans, pets/livestock far outweigh wild mammals.
16. How does the current extinction event differ from previous mass extinctions?
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a. Caused by a species
b. It is not inevitable
i. The problem can be the solution
What metric does Ceballos et al. (2017) use to show that the magnitude of biological
annihilation is under-appreciated?
a. Used the rate of extinction.
b. Or the % of IUCN-evaluated species that have gone extinct
Understand that both human population growth and consumption rates are leading to
biodiversity loss, but population growth has stabilized in many parts of the world. What
surprising factors reduced fertility rates in countries like India and Brazil (see reading)?
a. when TV ownership rises, fertility falls
i. Empowers women
Know the FIVE major forces that threaten biodiversity.
a. 1) Habitat loss and fragmentation
b. 2) Anthropogenic climate change
c. 3) Overexploitation of species
d. 4) Invasive species
e. 5) Pollution
What is the “Anthropocene”?
a. The age of the world in which humans are prominent in the changes the the world’s
systems
Assigning Value to Nature and Ecosystem Services
21. Understand the two classic philosophies towards nature: intrinsic and utilitarian value.
a. Intrinsic = Nature is valuable because it is
b. Utilitarian = Nature provides a service/value to humans
22. What techniques or market tools can be used to convert the value of nature into dollars? Why
use contingent valuation? What are some of the limitations of this approach?
a.
23. Be familiar with the barred owl removal experiment you read and wrote about – what is the
motivation for this project, and why is it controversial?
a. To prevent northern spotted owl extinction from the invasive barred owl
b. The ethics of killing a species to save another are difficult.
24. What are ecosystem services? Be able to list the four categories of services (as defined in the
MEA) and provide an example of each.
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a. 1) Provisioning
PRCS (“percs”)
i. Food
ii. Water
iii. Fuel
b. 2) Regulations
i. Climate regulations
ii. Water purification
c. 3) Cultural
i. Aesthetic
ii. Recreational
d. 4) Supporting
i. Nutrient Cycling
ii. Soil formation
25. What does the Asian Tsunami/mangrove example illustrate about the importance of accounting
for ecosystem services?
a. There is lots of money to be saved by understanding ecosystem services
b. Sometimes more than you would earn by removing natural areas an putting in economic
regions
26. What are “Payments for Ecosystem Services”? Be familiar with one example of where such a
program has been implemented and why.
a. Users (beneficiaries) of ecosystem services pay landowners who supply these services
b. Costa Rica = Reforestation for water purification, climate regulation, scenic beauty
27. What are the major arguments for and against the ecosystem services approach to conserving
biodiversity?
a. For =
i. Economic incentives for policy makers
ii. Public Awareness
iii. Conservation planning
b. Against =
i. Reduces value of nature to its instrumental benefit to humans
ii. Difficult to value the services accurately.
iii. Unequal distribution of benefits
Habitat Loss
28. Know that overall, habitat loss and degradation is the most important threat to biodiversity
globally
29. What is the difference between habitat degradation and habitat loss?
a. Habitat Degradation: impacts that affect many but not all species and that may be
temporary.
b. Habitat Loss: impacts so severe that nearly all species are adversely affected, and the
time span needed for recovery is extremely long
30. What are the major impacts of large dams on river systems?
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a. Sediment build up behind dam
b. Migratory pattern disruption
c. Nutrient cycle disruption
31. How does Heinemeyer et al. 2019 demonstrate the concept of indirect habitat loss?
a. American badger avoids humans but need large range land. Leads to loss of habitat from
humans indirectly
Habitat Fragmentation
32. What are the biological consequences of habitat fragmentation? Understand the following
concepts: “initial exclusion”, “crowding effect”, “area effect”, “isolation” and “edge effects”.
a. Initial exclusion = Loss of species that was in the original cleared area for construction
b. Crowding affect = Higher predation/ competition for resources
c. Area affect = As area of habitat decline so does species richness
d. Isolation = Habitat fragmentation can create isolated patches of habitat that are
surrounded by unsuitable or inhospitable areas, making it difficult for species to move
between patches. This isolation can lead to genetic drift, reduced gene flow, and
decreased genetic diversity.
e. Edge effects = Edge effects can include changes in microclimatic conditions, increased
exposure to predators, and changes in the composition of species found at the edges of
the habitat.
33. Name at least four edge effects (2+ biotic and 2+ abiotic).
a. Higher predation at edges
b. Change in composition of species
c. Humidity
d. Exposure to sunlight
34. Understand the extent that roads contribute to habitat fragmentation in the U.S.
35. What are some strengths and shortcomings of re-establishing habitat corridors at local and
large-landscape scales?
a. Strengths
i. Restored ecosystem function
ii. Restored nutrient cycling
iii. Increased recreational opportunities
b. Short comings
i. Limited effectiveness
ii. Negative edge effects
iii. High cost/maintenance
iv. Social/political challenges
Invasive Species and Novel Ecosystems
36. Define and distinguish between invasive and introduced/non-native/exotic species.
a. Introduced/non-native
i. Not harmful to new habitat
ii. Possibly introduced on purpose
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b. Invasive
i. Potential to cause harm
c. Exotic
i. Species introduced to an area it is uncommonly seen
What are the mechanisms through which invasive species have negative effects on native
species?
a. Population/community – Predation
b. Competition for resources
c. Morphological – Tree is bigger than others. Impact on insect species as result
d. Behavioral
e. Genetic/evolutionary
f. Ecosystem impacts
What characteristics make species more likely to be successful invaders?
a. High reproduction/growth rate
b. Generalist traits
c. Lack of natural predators/competitors
d. Tolerance for human disturbance
What characteristics of natural communities make them more susceptible to invasion?
a. Low species diversity
b. Disturbed/degraded habitats by humans.
c. Absence of natural disturbances (Wildfires)
d. Specialized mutualisms that can be disturbed
Name at least two intentional and two unintentional pathways through which species are
introduced and become established.
a. Intentional
i. Biological control
ii. Ornamental plants
b. Unintentional
i. Maritime traffic
ii. Trains, vehicles
What is a novel ecosystem? Be able to provide at least one example (e.g., van Elden et al. 2021)
a. An ecosystem created that is different from modern or historical ecosystems
b. Combination of non-native species and human interaction with the enviornment
42. Be familiar with the arguments made in the Davis et al. 2011 paper and replies. What are
several major critiques of invasive species management, and what are the counter-arguments
for continuing to address this threat to biodiversity?
a. Introduced species need to be assessed on their impact on the ecosystem rather than if
they are native or not
Climate Change and Nature-based Solutions
43. In what four broad ways is the abiotic environment changing as a result of climate change?
a. Average temperature
b. Length of hot season
c. More rainfall
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d. Rising tides
44. Understand that climate change impacts are not uniform across the globe and although they
pose a major threat to some taxa and systems, climate change is not universally negative for all
species.
45. Be familiar with range shifts and phenological mismatch as two ecological consequences of
climate change that affect species and species interactions.
a. Phenological mismatch = When adapted species for their ecosystems birthing
rates/cycles fall out of synch with their surroundings
i. Ex. Baby birds born after peak caterpillar serason when they used to be born
during the peak.
b. Range shifts = Species changing its habitat range
i. Species are moving to higher latitudes and upslope
46. As a conservation biologist, what could you do to make a region and ecological community
more resilient to climate change? As an individual, what climate mitigation actions are most
effective (but rarely emphasized in educational materials – see Wynes and Nicholas 2017)?
47. What are the risks and benefits associated with assisted colonization?
a. Risks
i. Negative affect on local wildlife
ii. Long term failure of relocation
iii. Disease
b. Benefits
i. Safe species from extinction
ii. Overcome barriers causing range shifts
48. Why and how should we move beyond simple tree-planting in exploring nature-based solutions
to climate change?
a. Need more biodiversity
b. Ecosystem services
Overexploitation and Pollution
49. Distinguish between target and non-target overexploitation, and be familiar with several
examples of each.
a. Target
i. Selectively hunting, fishing, logging or collecting
b. Non-target
i. Taking of species accidentally/opportunistically
ii. Physical changes in the environment
50. Bushmeat harvest has been underway for centuries – why is this only recently having substantial
negative impacts on biodiversity?
a. Larger human population
b. Smaller wildlife populations from habitat fragmentation/loss
c. International trade in wildlife
51. Why is overexploitation generally a larger problem for species in marine environments relative
to terrestrial systems?
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a. Higher demand for marine species
b. Difficult to regulate fish
c. Slow reproductive rates
d. Fragile ecosystems
e. Lack of public awareness
52. Understand the difference between exponential and logistic population growth. Why do
populations generally exhibit logistic growth – what limits growth? Be able to label the x and yaxis, K and K/2 on a graph of logistic population growth.
a. Populations have logistic growth because of density dependence
b. `N = population
c. Nmax = K
d.
53. Understand where along the logistic growth curve you would want to harvest individuals to
achieve maximum sustained yield (MSY). Why here? What are the problems with using MSY as a
tool for sustaining wild populations?
a. MSY = 1/2K
b. MSY is attainable when population is limited to K/2
54. Through what mechanism did DDT have negative impacts on peregrine falcons?
a. The chemical accumulated in the fatty tissue of the Peregrine
falcon.
b. Thinned the eggshells reducing their viability
55. Brashares and colleagues wrote about fluctuations in bushmeat harvest in Africa – be sure to
understand the factors that influenced those fluctuations.
a. Population growth and increased demand for bushmeat
b. Rural/poor areas still rely on bushmeat
c. Easier access to remote areas for hunters due to road construction
d. Low policing or regulating of bushmeat harvest.
e. Many cultures use bushmeat for food/medicine still
f. Decline in fish populations led to more bushmeat harvesting
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