Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 1 Significance of Teacher Awareness and Assessment of Working Memory Jennifer Wang Department of Education, Pacific Oaks College ED 693 ONL-R Research in the Art of Teaching Dr. Blanca Pineda February 28, 2021 Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 2 Introduction Working memory is a critical skill many students need to learn and effectively perform academic and life tasks. This skill falls under the larger giant umbrella of executive function, a set of cognitive operations supporting an individual's ability to navigate school and life (Katz, 2014). Despite research concluding the importance of working memory, many teachers need to be made aware of working memory or executive function (Gathercole & Packiam Alloway, 2007). To offer maximum academic support and accommodations, teachers need to make executive function testing a part of all complete evaluations. With an extensive scope of student progress and assessment data, all teachers and staff working with students can know how to support them effectively and efficiently. Unfortunately, although evidence suggests that all academic tasks require some executive functioning level, there is an absence of a mandated curriculum that caters to building executive function skills, especially working memory (Katz, 2014). While most schools will have psychologists perform assessments to determine if students qualify for special education services, only some will cover executive function. If some assessments do cover executive function, the results may be only sometimes shared with all faculty, administrators, and support staff. Teachers must know the executive function deficits of their students to support them best. When all faculty members know their students' difficulties, they can approach their school administration and make a case for more professional development on specific learning disabilities and executive function (Katz, 2014). While many educators look at what affects student learning, whether it is disabilities or executive functioning, there is not much research or studies on how teacher preparedness can Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 3 influence student learning (Fewell & Littlefair, 2016). Some students with learning disabilities are not always physically prevalent, so many teachers may not be aware unless they are explicitly told or notified. The lack of research regarding student learning and executive functioning, specifically working memory, has created a disconnect between some teachers and students. With more studies and research, teachers and educators can connect theories to instructional applications (Fewell & Littlefair, 2016). Statement of Problem Working memory affects academic learning when students must excel in processing information, engage with their long-term memory, and store it for another occasion (Dehn, 2011). The layers and complexities associated with working memory can confuse educators as they overlook its significance in academic learning. Working memory plays a prominent role in learning and remembering new content for future use. When teachers are unaware of student deficits in this area, they formulate perspectives of their students' academic progress and abilities that are only sometimes accurate. Without pertinent knowledge of their student populations, schools can provide instruction and learning that is not conducive to their classrooms. Many children experience learning disabilities and struggle with long-term retrieval, attention, short-term memory, and working memory. Studies show that students with specific learning disabilities struggle with executive processing, specifically working memory (Dehn, 2011). This particular process is crucial for overall learning and other academic developments. Working memory is also significant in language processing and comprehension (Dehn, 2011). The lack of research on working memory is a disadvantage for those who want to propose the need for more educators to learn about executive functions. Many teachers can confuse deficits in working memory as laziness, unmotivated, or unintelligence. Instead, they Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 4 need to see and understand how working memory can affect their ability to complete tasks or assignments. Even if students are motivated, their brains must be able to handle multiple-step instructions and remember long passages in their textbooks. Teachers should receive training on how the brain functions, and due to its complex structure, educators must understand the foundational inner workings, especially with its relation to working memory. Deficits in working memory present themselves differently, so teachers need to continue learning about its features and complexities to support their students. For example, some students may need help reciting or recalling what they read on the board or in the textbook because their brains may only remember short sentences or phrases simultaneously (Alloway & Copello, 2013). For other students, seeing too many words or symbols can make them clear as everything seems to blur together, making it difficult for them to sort it out (Alqarni, 2020). If teachers knew more about working memory, would they be able to find strategies and techniques that cater to their students' learning abilities and styles? Significance of the Study This study's findings and research articles can benefit teachers in supporting their students effectively and efficiently. For example, this study could show whether teachers who receive continuous professional development and training regarding executive functioning and, more specifically, working memory can improve their instruction and, therefore, impact student academic progress. In addition, the research from this study can offer more perspective on why teachers lack understanding regarding executive functioning. With more studies and research, the lack of knowledge or training could result from needing access or time. The hope is that the data will provide teachers with strategies to improve student performance and show what areas or skills they lack. Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 5 The desire is that school administrations review the results and see the need for specific training. For example, teachers need to understand how to support students based on their knowledge of working memory and assessments to determine student levels. The hope is that more schools are aware of the specific student needs, and with principals and staff willing to explore these areas, there will be a push to improve classroom and teaching. This study's information can benefit many schools and their respective school districts. Ideally, their educators and administrators will be motivated to enhance their student assessments and evaluations to reflect executive functioning and significant working memory. Research and studies show that when school districts and administrators fully support their teachers and schools, the more room for classroom improvement and teacher effectiveness (Carlson & Barbour, 2016). Educators must reflect on their instruction and determine the best strategies and approaches for their students. Theoretical Rationale While teachers may understand working memory on a service level, they must look at the background and theory demonstrating how the process works within our brains. The term working memory appeared as early as 1960 and was later refined by Baddely (2010) during the 1970s. Among the human brain functions, working memory is a concept rooted in our short-term memory, where we store pockets of information needed to complete specific tasks (Alloway & Copello, 2013). While the storage capacity is temporary, it requires processing to decide what information is required while performing certain activities (Dehn, 2011). A few models attempt to explain the overall working memory process. Still, some did expose a few issues as more researchers dug deeper into this type of executive functioning. For example, one model expresses that working memory is derived from short-term memory and is Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 6 necessary for academic learning and cognitive functioning (Baddeley, 2010). However, Baddley notes it does not account for extenuating circumstances such as processing content or information through various methods and the need to examine study participants who had working memory deficits and those who did not (Baddeley, 2010). With time, the Baddely model, first introduced in 1974, explored and determined that working memory consists of many systems within our brain functioning, not one as previous models have stated. In addition, researchers discovered working memory's many complexities and features (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). Each of these features contributes to learning different skills and abilities needed for success in the classroom. Continuous research and studies show that working memory can overlap with short-term and long-term memory and contribute to added capacity (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). Baddely addresses how the complex nature of working memory and its relation to our brain function led to research in psychology, specifically neuropsychology. However, educators need more working memory training due to the focus on psychology rather than education. Working memory has many layers, and different things can impact it. The environment plays a significant role because factors can influence a student's ability to perform tasks and complete activities. Factors include classroom environments and home life (Alloway & Copello, 2013). Deficits in working memory can also impact reading ability, as many steps are required to achieve literacy (Nevo & Breznitz, 2010). The process includes many levels students must pass to make it to the next one (Alqarni, 2020). The same goes for mathematics because students must learn foundational skills before they solve complex word problems (Alloway & Copello, 2013). Students need the working memory capacity to compute arithmetic problems, an essential skill. Students can compute and calculate next-level problems with basic concepts and skills. Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 7 Purpose of the Study This study explores the lack of teacher awareness regarding working memory and determines why some educators cannot identify executive function deficits in their students. This study aims to discover how in-depth professional development and training can support schools in providing assessments to help teachers identify working memory issues in their students. The study's data and results can provide vital information regarding specific learning disabilities and their impact on working memory. Teachers need to develop and understand how learning disabilities can influence executive function. As educators learn more about working memory assessments and disability diagnoses, they can accurately identify their students' needs instead of basing them on their perspectives, opinions, or stereotypical reasons their students are struggling (Alqarni, 2020). Another reason for this study is to determine how teachers' perspectives and attitudes regarding working memory can impact their lesson instruction. What is the relationship between teacher awareness and working memory, and are there positive outcomes when schools emphasize professional development that targets understanding learning disabilities and executive function skills? The hope is that the research will show whether teachers are willing to explore and learn more about working memory as they find ways to support and assist their students. The expectation is that teachers find creative ways to provide accommodations that meet every student's need as they learn and gain more knowledge on working memory and specific learning disabilities. The hope is to gather data and results from this study that can be presented to school administrations and districts to improve teacher instruction and curriculum design. The time and effort will add to the effectiveness of their teaching and counseling students by conducting such research. Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 8 Research Questions Question List: - Why must some teachers be made aware of the definition of working memory? - What professional development and training do teachers need to understand working memory better and feel confident using assessments? - What would be the benefits of having all teachers understand how working memory and executive functioning impact their students? Research Question Explanation: The questions from this study will look at the following: Why are some teachers unaware or confused by the definition of working memory (Fewell & Littlefair, 2016)? We want to understand why there needs to be more knowledge of executive functioning among teachers and schools. When we dig deeper into why educators can find strategies to tackle working memory issues and from these questions, we can ask what professional development and training teachers need to understand working memory better and feel confident in using assessments. As we look deeper into the questions, another one to ask would be the benefits of having all teachers understand how working memory and executive functioning impact their students. The data and results from this question can be passed along to the school administrators to explain the benefits of offering working memory assessments and evaluations. As schools began to see the advantages of being proficiently trained with working memory, the results and reports could be shared on the school district level. Literature Review What is working memory? According to Katz (2014), working memory is a critical skill many students need to learn and effectively perform academic and life tasks. This skill falls under the larger umbrella of executive function, a set of cognitive operations that supports an individual's ability to navigate Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 9 school and life. Executive functioning is a concept that is trending in the educational field. While teachers can identify some of its characteristics, only some understand its theory and background. Executive function comprises a group of mental processes, which includes working memory. Our brains provide the skills to complete tasks effectively and organize, plan, and manage our time well. Students need to be proficient in these areas as they progress with academics, and adults need the skills to handle everyday activities. Katz (2014) states that this notion still confuses some educators because students may have executive function deficits. They might have strengths in other areas that maximize their intelligence and creativity. They might have strengths in areas that maximize their intelligence and creativity. They might have strengths in other areas that maximize their intelligence and creativity. They might have strengths in other areas that maximize their intelligence and creativity. There should be a process for teachers to learn and gain a better understanding of executive functioning. As educators experience professional development, they can provide tailored support based on informational strategies that students can follow. Teachers who identify student needs and struggles earlier can offer guidance and support as students progress through their academic journeys. Katz (2014) notes that an excellent start would be for teachers to choose one executive function and research its theory around neuropsychology. Hence, they realize it is a legitimate disability or brain function deficit. Many times educators assume students do not possess disabilities if they are not visible. Educators spend countless hours planning and preparing lessons that they can easily forget. Some of their students have disabilities and do not always approach their teachers to let them know. Individual education program case managers must notify all teachers who have students Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 10 with disabilities be notified and provide informative profile sheets. When teachers understand some of their students' struggles and difficulties, they will be more likely to find creative ways to support their students. Once they can get past their perspectives, teachers should be open to understanding why working memory deficits, for example, can significantly impact student learning. Then, with more research and data, teachers and schools can identify the best practices and approaches to assisting their students. Despite research concluding the importance of working memory, many teachers need to be made aware of working memory or executive function (Gathercole & Packiam Alloway, 2007). Before examining whether teachers completely understand the executive function and its impact on academic learning, professional development is critical for educators to discover how specific learning disabilities can impact executive function, especially working memory. Alloway and Copello (2013) note how working memory is integral in students' learning and academic progress, especially in the younger grades. While most teachers may have a basic understanding of executive functioning, some need more training in the concept and its specific components. Working memory is a mental processing skill within executive functioning that supports students with academic learning and daily living skills as they become adults (Alloway & Copello, 2013). Alloway and Copello (2013) explain how the brain is such a complex and layered organ that it provides many functions to operate on a cognitive level. Some educators need an introduction as there can be confusion among the different types of memories within our brains (Alloway & Copello, 2013). Working memory is rooted in short-term memory, where we can Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 11 store and recall specific information within a time frame. This function is critical when remembering exact knowledge or instructions to complete a task. While working memory should not be confused with long-term memory, it does serve as a pathway for taking new information and changing it to long-term memory. Alloway & Copello noted that working memory is generally not impacted by socioeconomic status itself; extenuating circumstances caused by poverty can affect working memory. For example, the extreme stress caused by poverty can lead to a lack of sleep, impacting brain function and working memory. Teachers must be aware of working memory's importance, but it supports students' reading, math, and other critical school subjects. The authors note that while IQ may still be a benchmark of academic success, working memory is a skill that can indicate the potential for student learning (Alloway & Copello, 2013). Working Memory Assessment: Solutions for Teaching Strategies & Approaches As teachers begin to understand the theory and background of working memory, they must also know how to identify students with deficits within this executive function. Working memory must be defined as a component of executive functioning critical to daily activities and learning processes. When individuals lack working memory skills, it can cause issues and problems, leading to a stressful life. Dr. Milton Dehn (2011) delves deeper into the theories and research around working memory. He breaks down the research literature so educators and professionals clearly understand that working memory develops as children progress through their learning (Dehn, 2011). Dehn (2011) addresses that working memory comes from theories that state the brain functions in various ways to cater to the skills needed for long-term and short-term memory, where individuals can recall as they process information. Research and advancement in cognitive Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 12 psychology have focused on how working memory can impact academic learning and how brain function deficits play a significant role in student progress. Many considered short-term memory a standalone brain function alongside long-term memory. Still, Dehn (2011) reminds readers how the working memory theory was developed within short-term memory during the early 1970s. He emphasizes how this concept showed that the brain could store and use specific information when completing cognitive tasks or following procedural instructions (Dehn, 2011). Other countries, such as Saudi Arabia, also have explored how much teachers understand working memory and its correlation to specific learning disabilities such as dyslexia. Alqarni (2020) explores teachers in Saudi Arabia and their understanding of specific learning disabilities, specifically dyslexia, concerning poor working memory skills. The researchers found that most teachers were familiar with some aspects of dyslexia and its correlation with working memory, while some did not know as much as their counterparts. The authors note that teacher familiarity relates to students’ perspectives, attitudes, and instruction (Alqarni, 2020). While some may prioritize understanding and learning how dyslexia can impact working memory, some teachers may feel they do not have the time to dig deeper to find new instructional strategies that support all students. The data and results from this study show that while teachers may be familiar with dyslexia and poor working memory, not all teachers understand how to support their students. The need for proper and adequate education professional development is critical to bridge the gap between those in teacher preparation courses versus those already working in the education field. Teachers should receive training that provides the background and theory for specific learning disabilities and working memory deficits (Alqarni, 2020). Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 13 A strong understanding of the basic foundational concepts and ideas can lead teachers to discover other research areas to assist them best. An excellent start is sharing data results with school administration because teachers need principal support to offer proficient professional development and training. An overall goal is for schools to collaborate with all planning teams so teachers, psychologists, and speech therapists., come together and support all students (Alqarni, 2020). Once educators can identify and determine if their students have working memory deficits, they must look further by assessing their students. As many students learn with various approaches and strategies, their working memory skills can vary depending on the individual. Fewell and Littlefair (2016) stress our working memory's significance and how it is a necessary brain function for academic learning. Students are acquiring different skills in language arts, math, and other critical subjects. Only some students can learn with the exact instructions, so teachers and schools must know how to identify their students' deficits. One of the researchers asked whether the quality of student support could be enhanced when teachers had proficient knowledge and understanding of individual learning disabilities and struggles (Fewell & Littlefair, 2016). The connection between working memory and learning is strong in that research shows young students with deficits struggle and are slow to acquire the skills needed in language, math, and science. For example, proficient work memory ability is required to excel in writing because it requires students to know what they need to express and find the correct words to write down (Dehn, 2011). They also need to understand and identify mistakes as they learn how to edit their writing. Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 14 Working memory deficits are present in some students with attention deficit disorder and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Alqarni, 2020). Still, studies have shown that students with other types of learning disabilities also lack work memory (Fewell & Littlefair, 2016). When administered, working memory assessments can offer teachers a better understanding of their students' learning skills and not confuse deficits with other labels associated with academic issues. Research shows the importance of assessing working memory in younger students because it can indicate they will progress with their academic learning. Nevo and Breznitz (2010) explore how working memory assessments cover various skills students need to succeed in an educational setting, so it is essential to determine student areas of need at a younger age. The researchers explored the impact of working memory on children at six because they should have developed the skills and capacity to function proficiently in a learning environment. One of the main areas examined is how working memory impacts language learning and reading levels. The authors note that it was critical to study younger children because their early reading abilities were excellent indicators of how well they could read or improve their skills as they got older (Nevo & Breznitz, 2010). Students who need help with basic concepts and skills will have difficulties as they progress to higher grades. The authors predicted that working memory skills could add to student language and reading levels if continuously supported. The study started with children in kindergarten and examined the impact of working memory capacity. Next, they measured and reviewed the students' progress and achievements to determine how much of an impact working memory skills had on their reading abilities and learning. The student participants were first tested in kindergarten and then tested a year later in first grade. Results showed that the students Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 15 progressed from kindergarten to first grade, where they found tasks requiring complex phonological memory had the most impact on reading levels (Nevo & Breznitz, 2010). Phonological memory is also known as the phonological loop. Nevo and Breznit (2010) emphasize that this term is a part of working memory and deals with spoken or written material. The brain works hard to store information that may be delivered by a teacher verbally. Working memory also lets the brain function effectively through visual and spatial approaches and supports students in recalling imagery or visual information. Overall, the study results examined the separate but specific layers within working memory and how it impacts student learning, especially reading skills (Nevo & Breznitz, 2010). As teachers assess their students' working memory, they will discover the best strategies and approaches to support student learning. When determining how their classes are doing and examining student progress, teachers should begin to see what methods will work for specific subjects. For example, Gathercole and Alloway (2007) determined that working memory is needed to complete particular tasks required in many math subjects or activities to store and recall numbers in an academic setting. Many daily activities require our brains to activate specific functions that utilize working memory skills. The authors note that some situations can impact one from maximizing their working memory, such as distraction, attempting to recall, using too much information, or having a task requiring extensive mental processing (Gathercole & Alloway, 2007). Most of these situations can impact many people as some events or activities may provide extreme distractions. Students in higher grades need multi-tasking skills to stay on track with classwork and assignments. Distance learning requires students to focus and pay attention during online video Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 16 classes. It can be difficult if they need help with staying on task at home, where they might only sometimes have parents to supervise them. While working memory capacity can vary among individuals, most possess enough ability to learn new assignments and successfully engage in daily activities. Gathercole and Alloway (2007) express how our working memory increases with age and levels out when we are in high school. This executive function is critical in academic learning because most activities and assignments require students to retain and recall specific information given by the teacher. The struggle occurs when students fail to complete tasks in a particular order. With procedural instructions, there are many things to remember, and if students need help remembering what needs to be done next, they will have difficulty moving along with the assignment (Gathercole & Alloway, 2007). Preparing for the Future As schools and teachers approach improving student learning by addressing their working memory needs, the hope is that the faculty can implement and administer their assessments to support their students. Teachers can save time by evaluating their students in-house instead of using outside sources or third parties. While some schools may not think to provide their assessments due to a lack of professional development, training, and time, they must be open to exploring how to support students in this area. With more research and studies on working memory, teacher preparedness, and student academic progress, educators can offer instruction and a well-rounded curriculum supporting all students. When we are in a time where students learn from home, and specific struggles are more apparent than ever, teachers need to think outside of the box and find ways to assist their classes. The first step is to assess their students and determine what deficits are holding them back. Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 17 References Alloway, T. P., & Copello, E. (2013). Working Memory: The what, the why, and the how. ResearchGate. https://doi-org.tcsedsystem.idm.oclc.org/10.1017/edp.2013.1 Alqarni, T. (2020). Teachers' familiarity and practices of dyslexia associated with weak working memory in Saudi Arabia. Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews. https://bit.ly/2NR7BmY Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 18 Baddeley, A. (2010). Working memory. Current Biology. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982209021332 Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. https://app.nova.edu/toolbox/instructionalproducts/edd8124/fall11/1974-Baddeley-and-Hi tch.pdf Carlson, K. & Barbour, C. (Hosts). (2016, September 13). The Research to Practice Connection in School Improvement. (No. 1 & 2) [Audio podcast episodes]. Ed Policy Center at American Institutes for Research. https://www.air.org/resource/research-practice-connection-school-improvement Dehn, M. J. (2011). Working memory and academic learning: Assessment and intervention. https://bit.ly/3aBRhzv Fewell, A., & Littlefair, D. (2016). Working memory: The importance of assessment, identification, and intervention. https://jmss.org/index.php/jet/article/view/46300/33682 Gathercole, S. E., & Alloway, T.P. (2007). A classroom guide - MRC cognition and brain Sciences Unit. https://www.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/WM-classroom-guide.pdf Katz, M. (2014). Executive function: what does it mean? why is it important? how can we help? https://genetic.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/KS-Exec-Function-Mark.pdf Nevo, E., & Breznitz, Z. (2010). Assessment of working memory components at 6 years of age as predictors of reading achievements a year later. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. https://doi-org.tcsedsystem.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.010 Running Head: SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHER 19
