Biopsychology
The Endocrine System
The endocrine system is what controls the release of hormones into our blood
stream. The endocrine system communicates information from the brain to the
body. Hormones are released, and they have an effect on target organs such as the
heart, liver or lungs. Hormones are produced in large quantities, and have an
immediate effect (although it’s much slower than the nervous system).
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Biopsychology
Activity: fill in the table to highlight the hormones and their functions
Hormone
gland
function
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Effect on
Psychology
Biopsychology
Exam Practice:
Outline the function of the endocrine system (6 marks)
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Give two examples of the effects of hormones released by glands of the endocrine
system. (4 marks)
1
2
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Matching task
Endocrine System
Gland
Chemical substances that regulate the activity of cells or organs in the
body. They circulate in the bloodstream and are carried to target sites
throughout the body.
An important part of the fight-or-flight response as it facilitates the
release of adrenaline. Situated above the kidneys.
Hormones
Produces cortisol – a stress hormone. If cortisol levels are low, the
individual has low blood pressure, poor immune function and inability
to deal with stress. Also produces aldosterone, which is responsible for
maintaining blood volume and blood pressure.
Pituitary Gland
A network of glands throughout the body that manufacture and secrete
chemical messengers known as hormones.
Adrenal Gland
Structure that releases hormones directly into the bloodstream via
blood vessels.
Testes
The release of a hormone by a gland
Ovaries
Releases adrenaline and noradrenaline – hormones that prepare the
body for flight or flight. Adrenaline helps the body response to a
stressful situation e.g. increasing heart rate and blood flow to the
muscles and brain. Noradrenaline constricts the blood vessels, causing
blood pressure to increase.
Secretion
A gland in the brain (just underneath the hypothalamus) often called
the “master gland.” Produces hormones whose primary function is to
influence the release of hormones from other glands, and in so doing
regulate many of the body’s functions.
Adrenal Cortex
Adrenal Medulla
They facilitate the release of oestrogen and progesterone (female
hormones).
They facilitate the release of testosterone (male hormone).
Testosterone causes the development of male characteristics such as
growth of facial hair, deepening of the voice and growth spurts.
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19 Quick Questions
1. What is the endocrine system?
2. What does the endocrine system use to deliver hormones to their targets?
3. What are hormones?
4. Where is the pituitary gland?
5. What controls the pituitary gland?
6. What is the pituitary gland also known as?
7. What are the two parts of the pituitary gland?
8. Which part of the pituitary gland releases ACTH as a response to stress?
9. ACTH stimulates which glands to produce what hormone?
10.What does the posterior pituitary release which is important in childbirth?
11.Where are the adrenal glands?
12.What is the outer part of the adrenal gland called?
13.What is the inner part of the adrenal gland called?
14.What hormone does the adrenal cortex produce and what is its purpose?
15.What does a low level of cortisol lead to?
16.What two hormones does the adrenal medulla produce and what does each of
those hormones do in a stressful situation?
17.What do ovaries produce?
18.What hormone is produced by the testes?
19.What does that hormone do?
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Biopsychology
The Sympathetic Stress Response
Write down what happens to the different parts of the body during
times of stress
Eyes
Saliva
Bronchial tubes
Stomach
Digestive system
Kidneys/adrenal glands
Reproductive organs
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Biopsychology
It is important to know the difference here about chronic and acute stress. Write
this down in your own words below:
Chronic stress is:
Acute stress is:
For example:
For example:
Activity: Which form of stress do you think is worse for you?
Take a look at the following examples and decide whether they are acute or chronic
stressors – don’t forget to justify your answers.
1.
Exams
2.
Being late for a lesson
3.
Watching a scary film
4.
Trying to meet a coursework deadline
5.
Meeting someone who is attractive
6.
Trying to decide what to wear for a night out
7.
Being shouted at
8.
Trying to lose weight
9.
Reading a threatening text message
10. Watching your team lose on penalties
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Biopsychology
Activity: Use the words from the list below to complete the diagram which shows
the two processes involved in the response to stress.
ACTH
Adrenaline
Blood pressure
Cortex
Cortisol
Energy
Heart & Pulse rate
Hypothalamus
Immune System
Medulla
perceived
Pituitary
Sweat production
Sympathetic
Stressors
Stressors
perceived
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Exam Practice (June 2017):
Outline the fight or flight response [3 marks]
Exam Practice (June 2018)
The fight or flight response enabled our ancestors to survive but can be less helpful
in response to more modern stressors .
Explain how the body responds during fight or flight and why this could be unhelpful
in a driving test situation (4 marks)
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Biopsychology
Biological Rhythms
Bio-rhythms refer to the body’s natural physical cycle. The most commonly thought
of is our sleep-wake cycle that runs throughout the day and night. Scientists term
this the circadian rhythm. Another cycle is the menstrual cycle, which is an infradian
rhythm. There are even rhythms that run over the course of a year known as
circannual rhythms.
There are several issues which you need to understand.
1.
There is general debate regarding what animal behaviour can tell us about
ourselves. When studying biological rhythms much of the research is on non
human animals. What can we extrapolate to human biological rhythms?
2.
Studies have shown that we and other animals have strong internal
mechanisms that govern our rhythmic states. But how much can external
factors alter our internal biological clock? If you were kept in a constant
environment (e.g. a room with no windows, clocks, radios…) would your sleep
pattern remain unaffected?
3.
If you have ever been to a different time zone, you may have experienced
severe disruption to your daily rhythm. Why do people suffer from ‘jet lag’, and
why is it worse if you fly back from America than when you fly out to America?
4.
Is it possible to synchronise our rhythms with other people? Why would a
female’s menstrual cycle match another female?
5.
Why are there individual differences in peoples’ sleep patterns? Could these be
learned?
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Activity:
On the clock faces below highlight the times in the day that you , sleep, eat,
exercise.
AM
PM
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Internal v External factors
Endogenous pacemakers
Exogenous zeitgebers
Description:
Description:
Example:
Example:
Study that relates to this:
Study that relates to this:
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Biopsychology
Circadian Rhythms in Humans
Event
(high ; Low )
00:00
02:00
Sleep propensity

02:00
04:00
04:00
06:00
06:00
08:00
08:00
10:00
14:00
16:00
16:00
18:00
18:00
20:00
20:00
22:00
22:00
00:00


Birth

Ovulation
Libido

Conception

Death

Body Temperature

Concentration





Alertness

Pain intensity
Hayfever

Heart attack

Tooth ache





(Adapted from Rhythms of Life; Foster & Kreitzman (2005))
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12:00
14:00
 
Tissue Repair
Growth hormone
10:00
12:00
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

Biopsychology
Problems with disruption of Circadian Rhythms
On the previous page there is a chart detailing some key performances that are
know to be sensitive to the 24 hour clock. You job is to advise the following
people who are experiencing problems in their lives.
1. John often wakes in the middle of the night to switch the heating on. Why
might this be?
2. Yoko has broken her leg, and spends the day sleeping and watching TV, she
doesn’t know why would her doctor advises her to sleep well at night.
3. Paul suffers from hay fever and takes his antihistamine tablet when it gets
intolerable around 9am. He thinks the pills work, but hates suffering on his
way to work.
4. George and Patti are trying for a baby. They work from home and will often
try mid afternoon and again in the early evening. They haven’t conceived
yet.
5. Ringo has had a heart attack recently, but is planning on returning to work.
Although he loves his job, his journey to work is stressful. His boss has said
that he can work flexi-time. What would you suggest he does?
6. Eric hates going to the dentist. The most painful experience one afternoon
when he had a filling. He is wondering if there is a particular time he should
book.
7. Billy is in training for the London marathon next year. He goes for a 5 mile
run every day at lunchtime but wonders if this is the best time?
8. Linda is expecting her second child in two months. She is hopeful that she
will give birth at a reasonable time in the day and was wondering how she
can prepare.
9. Brian keeps his asthma inhaler in his bag so he won’t forget it when he
leaves for school. But his mum says he needs to keep it by his bed at night;
who’s right?
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Activity: Fill in the following information
Look up the famous experiment that Siffre conducted (use your text books
and/or Internet.)
Type of research
method used?
Procedure
(including time
spent)
Main findings
Conclusions
Now use you knowledge of this event to assess the problems that the Chilean
Miners would have had to face and suggest a plan for them to follow during
their ordeal and any after care they should receive. Think also about the social
effects of being underground for such a period. (information over the page…
Circadian Rhythms
Psychological
health issues
Social problems
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Biopsychology
Chilean miners report
After 69 days underground, what will it be like for them to return to their
normal lives when the excitement dies down?
Right now their neurotransmitters are working overtime due to stress.
They will have very high levels of adrenaline, which can make them
startle easily, and even become more aggressive than usual. They will
also have high levels of serotonin and dopamine. But this won’t last
forever and when their lives become normal those hormone levels will
decrease and they may suffer from feelings of depression.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as Prozac can help replace
lost serotonin and the miners have been offered six months of
counseling. However they may suffer from long term psychological
problems such as PTSD which doesn’t show up for at least six months.
The miners individual personalities should help moderate the stress.
They all choose to be miners so should already be known to deal with
difficult conditions. Chili is a Catholic country so the men would also have
had their faith which would have helped them, as would the mutual
support of each other.
In the first days of the disaster, the miners, organised the underground
space into sleep, work, and recreation areas. Work rotas were also
organised and they used the headlights of mine trucks to create lighted
areas to help them maintain their circadian rhythms. This idea was
suggested by NASA as it was crucial to keep the men all on the same
circadian rhythm and at sync with the outside world.
Experiments have shown that, when placed in 24-hour light or 24-hour
dark situations, people naturally wake a half-hour hour later every day,
which adds up to a 3.5-hour time displacement by the end of a week. If
the miners’ sleep/wake cycle had not been adjusted with the truck lights,
people from the surface trying to contact them would have disrupted their
biological rhythms and caused an experience similar to jet lag.
While the truck lights were enough to maintain the men’s biological
clocks, they may not have been adequate to stave off light-deficit
depression. However if the men manifest this kind of depression, which
is similar to seasonal affective disorder, exposure to normal Chilean
daylight will cure them.
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Read the article
A study from Stanford University's Sleep Disorders Clinic looked at the National
Football League's (NFL's ) Monday Night Football results for possible
advantages of West Coast versus East Coast teams by a circadian rhythm effect.
The fascinating results, which reviewed the past 25 years of Monday Nite (sic) Football
games (which always begin at 9:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time), were published in the
journal Sleep (1997;20[5]:362-365). Dr. Roger S. Smith and colleagues at Stanford found that
West Coast teams win substantially more often and by significantly more points per game
than East Coast teams.
West Coast teams won 63.5% of games, while East Coast teams won only 36.5% of games.
West Coast teams won by an average of 14.7 points per game, whereas East Coast teams
won by an average of 9.0 points per game. West Coast teams won 59.3% of the home games
through the years, while winning 71.0% of Monday Nite (sic) Football games. East Coast
teams won 56.5% of their home games, but only 43.8% of Monday Nite Football home
games!
Overall, West Coast team records are 4.4 percentage points better than East Coast team
records since 1970. However, when West Coast teams play East Coast teams for Monday
Nite Football, West Coast team records are 27.0 percentage points better than East Coast
team records!
Furthermore, West Coast teams performed significantly better than East Coast even when
taking into account the statistical predicted point spread by Las Vegas odds makers!
These results, the authors feel, are not a result of jet lag, since this effect should be virtually
equal or to the advantage of an East Coast team traveling westward.
The authors concluded that the power of circadian rhythms produces an advantage for the
West Coast NFL teams during Monday Nite Football. This advantage they suspect may relate
to the fact that West Coast teams are competing closer to the time that they typically train
each day. This effect not only enhances home-field advantage for the West Coast teams, but
also eliminates the beneficial effects of home-field advantage for East Coast teams!
The findings of this study seem to indicate that athletic performance is enhanced at certain
times of day, likely a result of an effect of the body's circadian rhythm. It also implies that "it
may be more advantageous to perform closer to one's peak performance time of day rather
than try to acclimate to an opponent’s time zone
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Biopsychology
Extension Activity: The Role of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) in the
Sleep-Wake Cycle.
In humans and mammals, the biological clock is not under the direct control of
the pineal gland. This is because it lies too deep within the skull to directly
receive light. The SCN is located in
the hypothalamus just above the
optic chiasm, which is where the
optic nerves receiving information
from each eye cross over. The SCN
is linked by a neural pathway to
each eye allowing it to receive
information about how much light
is falling on the retina. This occurs
even when our eyes are shut as
light can still penetrate the
eyelids. Stephan and Zucker
(1972) found that cycles of sleep,
feeding and activity are disrupted
if the SCN is removed or damaged
as light is no longer able to reset the clock each day.
Another neural pathway, known
as the retinohypothalamic tract,
links the SCN to the pineal gland.
As dusk falls, the SCN triggers the
pineal gland to release
melatonin. When circulating
blood levels of melatonin reach a
critical point, we feel the need to
sleep. In the absence of light
cues, melatonin is still released
in a cyclical manner, but if the
SCN is destroyed, the circadian
cycle disappears.
Melatonin plays a role in controlling other hormones and in influencing
physiological processes and seasonal behaviours. As the hours of daylight fall,
more melatonin is produced encouraging animals to enter their hibernation
phase. Infradian rhythms are thought to be affected by damage to the SCN
because they are reliant upon light levels, which determine the season, being
measured against the 24-hour clock. Rusak and Zucker (1975) found that SCNmarkbatchelor@ada.ac.uk
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Biopsychology
lesioned male hamsters began to secret testosterone all year round rather than
just during their normal breeding season.
Yamazaki et al (2000) reported that circadian rhythms persist in culture-grown
tissues in the laboratory implying that body cells seem to follow circadian
activity even when they are not under the direct control of the SCN. However,
the SCN is known to play a key role as the circadian pacemaker and although
the mechanisms are as yet unclear, it probably coordinates the behaviour of
other body cells either by sending neural signals or by
releasing neurohormones (Gross and Rolls, 2008).
The Tale of the Mutant Hamsters
There is strong evidence for the importance of the SCN in
maintaining the circadian rhythm. When SCN cells are
removed from the brain and kept in the laboratory, they
follow a cycle of neural activity lasting approximately 24.5
hours. Ralph et al (1990) bred mutant hamsters with a 20hour rhythm. They then transplanted SCN cells from mutant
adult hamsters into normal hamster foetuses who were
born displaying the mutant 20-hour cycle. They also transplanted normal SCN
tissue into the mutant hamsters who started to show a 24-hour cycle within a
week.
Notes:
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Biopsychology
Activity: (Bet you cannot fill in the gaps)
The Role of The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus in Sleep
Light enters the ________ even when they are______
Information sent
via neural pathway
to _______
Information sent via
_______ is located in the hypothalamus
another ____ pathway
to _____ gland
___________ gland is located deep within the brain
Low light information from
______
triggers pineal to release
________
Levels of _________ rise
Sleep
Melatonin is released by the pineal gland in the a
___________ of _______ cues, but the circadian cycle
d___________ if the _______ is destroyed
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______ levels of
_______ reach critical level
Biopsychology
Studies on Bio Rhythms:
Name of
researchers
What they basically did,
found out and concluded
Useful for
what
argument?
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Criticisms?
Biopsychology
Exam Practice: June 2018
Julia complains that her baby is sleeping all day and keeping her awake all night
Using your knowledge of research into exogenous zeitgebers, discuss what Julia
could do to encourage her baby to sleep more at night.
(8 marks)
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Turn over page
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Julia decided to record how many hours her baby slept for in the day and in the
night for one week.
Table 1 The number of hours slept in the day and the number of hours slept in
the night over one week.
Mon
Tues
Weds
Thurs
Fri
Sat
Sun
Number of hours
slept in the day
8.5
9.0
7.0
9.5
10.5
6.5
8.5
Number of hours
slept in the night
9.0
8.0
8.5
7.0
7.5
10.5
8.0
Calculate the mean number of hours slept in the night. Show your workings
Give your answer to two significant figures
(3 marks)
Explain one reason why the mean is the most appropriate measure of central
tendency for this set of data
(2 marks)
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Biopsychology
Example answer for the 8 mark question
exogenous zeitgebers in biological rhythms.
An exogenous zeitgeber indicates external stimuli, such as alarm clocks or
sunlight, which help to synchronize personal biological rhythms to the
outside world. Zeitgeber means time giver. An endogenous pacemaker is
an internal biological clock in the brain controlling biological rhythms. An
example is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN); this is a small cluster of
cells in the hypothalamus. The SCN causes the pineal gland to release
melatonin – a hormone that causes the body to feel sleepy. However, it
is hard to distinguish between cause and effect; does melatonin alone
cause the body to feel sleepy?
Siffre (1972) spent 179 days in a cave with the absence of all time
givers e.g. clocks and daylight, in order to find the effect of daylight on
circadian cycles. His circadian cycle extended to approximately 27 hours,
which caused him to think he spent 151 days instead of 179 days in the
cave. This study shows that our internal body clock is not accurate
enough and we need external cues to inform our bodies when it is time
to sleep and time to wake up. Although external cues are important,
boredom could lead to sleeping more, which leads to not being tired at
the end of the day, so we end up going to sleep later. In babies this is
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Biopsychology
important as they need routine to their day in order to regulate their
sleep cycle.
DeCoursey et al (2000) displayed the importance of the SCN in their
study. They destroyed the SCN in some chipmunks. They found that
these chipmunks were much more active at night than normal
chipmunks, This might indicate that babies have an underdeveloped SCN
response to day light. It is important therefore to regulate daylight as
a constant for a neonate to adapt. External zeitgebers are important as
well, as they allow people/ animals to adapt or adjust their biological
rhythms to changes in the environment. This study also proves that
with the absence of the SCN in the brain, exogenous zeitgebers have
little or no effect on our body, thus disrupting our biological rhythms
and sleeping patterns. This shows the importance of endogenous
pacemakers in relation to our biological rhythms. Although this study is
high in ecological validity, it cannot be generalised to the human race
and it doesn’t say whether or not the chipmunks were male or female.
Over to you:
• How many marks would you give this answer?
• Have another look and count how many evaluative points you spot.
• How many studies are mentioned in total?
• How many key technical terms can you count? Write them down below and give a
definition . . .
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Biopsychology
•
Summary of studies on Circadian Rhythms
Name & Study
What they found
What we can conclude
Sifre (1972)
Klietman
Recht (1995)
Takahasi (2002)
Decoursey (2000)
Morgan (1995)
Stopa (1999)
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Biopsychology
Describe and evaluate research on circadian rhythms, with reference
to endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers (16 marks)
Circadian rhythms are those rhythms that last about 24
hours. The two best-known circadian rhythms are the sleep
wake cycle and the body temperature cycle. People may
think the reason they go to sleep and wake up at fairly
regular times is because of changes in daylight – you feel
sleepy when it gets dark and are roused by streaming
sunlight; or perhaps a person’s sleep wake cycle is governed
by knowing what time of day it is. These are external cues
from the environment called exogenous zeitgebers.
Psychologists have investigated what happens when a
person is free of such exogenous zeitgebers (external cues).
One of the most memorable studies was conducted by the
French cave explorer, Michel Siffre who is a specialist in the
study of the human internal clock. He spent long periods of
time living underground in order to study his own
biological rhythms. Underground, in a cave, he had no
external cues to guide his rhythms – no daylight, no clocks,
no radio. He simply woke, ate and slept when he felt like it.
The only influence on his behaviour was his internal ‘clock’
or ‘free running rhythm’. Siffre’s experiences showed that
the free-running cycle settles down to a regular rhythm
which is a little more than 24 hours. However, there is an
issue of validity relating to Siffre’s study. The study of
Michel Siffre may be described as a case study as it is the
study of one individual and therefore has unique features.
His body’s behaviour may not be typical of all people and, in
addition, living in a cave may have particular effects due
to, for example, the fact that it is cold. However, subsequent
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studies above ground have confirmed the findings of
research in cave environments. Siffre’s study was also an
experiment. He controlled key variables (exogenous
zeitgebers) to observe there effects on the sleep wake cycle.
The experiment approach is important because it allows us to
demonstrate casual relationships.
Despite the above criticism, there is support by other studies
for Siffre’s case study. For example, Aschoff and Wever
(1976) placed participants in an underground World War
II bunker in the absence of social and environmental cues.
They found that most people displayed circadian rhythms
between 24 and 25 hours, though some rhythms were as
long as 29 hours. These studies show that circadian
rhythms persist despite isolation from natural light, which
demonstrates the existence of an endogenous ‘clock’.
However, this research also shows that external cues are
important because the clock was not perfectly accurate: it
varied from day to day. When looking at studies involving
the sleep wake cycle, research methodology needs to be
accounted for. In all studies, participants were isolated from
variables that might affect their circadian rhythms such as
clocks, radios and daylight, in. However, they were not
isolated from artificial light because it was thought that
dim light, in contrast to daylight, would not affect the
circadian rhythm. Recent research by Czeisler et al (1999)
suggests that this may not be true as they altered
participants’ circadian rhythms down to 22 hours and up to
28 hours just using dim lighting.
Folkard et al (1985) conducted an experiment to see if
external cues could be used to override the internal clock. A
group of 12 people lived in a cave for three weeks, isolated
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from natural light and other time cues. These volunteers
agreed to go to bed at 11.45 pm and to get up when it
indicated 7.45 am. Initially the clock ran normally, but
gradually they quickened the clock until it was indicating
the passing of 24 hours when actually only 22 hours had
passed. At the beginning, the volunteers circadian rhythms
matched the clock, but, as it quickened, their rhythm no
longer matched the clock and continued to follow a 24-hour
cycle rather than the 22-hour cycle imposed by the
experiment (except for one participant who did adapt to the
22-hour cycle). Overall, this suggests that the circadian
rhythm can only be guided to a limited extent by external
cues. However, there are exceptions as individual differences
need to be taken into account. One important type of
individual difference is the cycle length: research has found
that circadian cycles in different people can vary from 13 to
65 hours (Czeisler et al, 1999). The second type of
individual difference relates to cycle onset – individuals
appear to be innately different in terms of when their
circadian rhythms reach their peak. For example, Duffy et al
(2000) found that morning people prefer to rise early and go
to bed early (about 6am and 10pm), whereas evening people
prefer to wake and go to bed later (10am and 1am).
Hormone production also follows a circadian rhythm.
Cortisol is at it’s lowest around midnight and peaks around
6am. Cortisol is a hormone produced when we are stressed
but is also related to making us alert when we wake up, and
can explain why, if we awaken at 4am, it is hard to think
clearly. This is because cortisol levels are not sufficiently
high for alertness. Melatonin (which induces sleep) and
growth hormone are two other hormones that have a clear
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circadian rhythm, both peaking at around midnight. The
studies mentioned above are typical of the biological
approach to understanding behaviour: they propose that
human behaviour can be explained in terms of structures in
the brain and in terms of hormonal activity. However,
human behaviour is often more complex than this because
people can override biologically determined behaviours by
making choices about what they do which relates to the
debate of freewill against determinism. On the other hand,
sometimes it may not be possible to override biological
factors and biological rhythms may be a case in point.
Core body temperature is one of the best indicators of the
circadian rhythm. It is lowest at about 4.30am (about 36˚)
and highest at around 6pm (about 38˚). There is a slight
trough just after lunch which is not just due to the effects of
having had lunch as the dip occurs even when people have
not eaten. The circadian variation in core body temperature
has been linked to cognitive abilities. For example, Folkard
et al (1977) looked at the learning ability of 12-13 year old
children who had stories read to them at either 9am or 3pm.
After one week, the afternoon group (higher core body
temperature) showed both superior recall and comprehension,
retaining about 8% more meaningful material. This
suggests that long-term recall is best when body
temperature is highest. There is evidence that temperature
changes do actually cause the changes in cognitive
performance. Giesbrecht et al (1993) lowered body
temperature (by placing participants in cold water) and
found that cognitive performance was worse on some tasks.
However, other research has found that the link is spurious.
For example, Hord and Thompson (1983) tested cognitive
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Biopsychology
performance in a field rather than lab situation and didn’t
find any correlation between core temperature and cognitive
performance. It may be that the higher core body temperature
leads to increase physiological arousal and this leads to
improved cognitive performance (Wright et al, 2002)
Circadian rhythms are part of the daily lives of humans.
They cue our levels of alertness, our need for sleep, and our
time of waking. Research shows that light, hormones, food,
and a variety of other factors are important in determining
circadian rhythms. Our fairly consistent sleep pattern
suggests they are innate and not learnt meaning there is
an internal or endogenous mechanism – the biological
clock. However, this can be overridden by psychological
factors, such as anxiety
Your notes:
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33
Biopsychology
Ultradian Rhythm
This links well to sleep and characterises the dream cycle.
There are many issues related to sleep and its importance to our well-being.
 How long could you stay awake and would it affect your performance the next day?
 Why is the brain active during REM sleep?
 What is the significance of the different stages during sleep? Why is it necessary to move through each stage several
times throughout the night?
 What about evidence from research involving animals?
markbatchelor@ada.ac.uk
34
Biopsychology
Ultradian Cycle
In the box, draw the stages of
sleep typically gone through
during a night’s sleep
(human).
Stages of sleep during one night
1
Put the following labels on the
graph: REM (inc times), SWS
(inc times), Delta waves,
Theta waves.
0
You should be able to
describe this in words for say,
6 marks, and take up half a
page of any essay on this area
(only half a page). Try this,
and include some of the
technical terms:
Stage
-1
-2
-3
Ultradian rhythm; EEG; stages
1-4; REM; non REM;
hyponogogic state.
-4
1
2
3
4
5
Hours of sleep
markbatchelor@ada.ac.uk
35
6
7
8
9
Biopsychology
What happens physiologically when we are asleep. Using the information you have
learnt so far describe the ultradian cycle below (AO1))
markbatchelor@ada.ac.uk
36
Biopsychology
Infradian Rhythm
Describe what an Infradian Rhythm is below and how research has shown the
effect of internal and external mechanisms that can change this cycle.
markbatchelor@ada.ac.uk
37
Biopsychology
markbatchelor@ada.ac.uk
38
Biopsychology
Shopping sprees linked to periods Women may be able
to blame impulse buys and extravagant shopping on their time of the month,
research suggests.
In the 10 days before their periods
began women were more likely to go
on a spending spree, a study found.
Psychologists believe shopping could
be a way for premenstrual women to
deal with the negative emotions
created by their hormonal changes.
Professor Karen Pine will present her
work to a British Psychological Society
meeting in Brighton later this week.
She asked 443 women aged 18 to 50
about their spending habits.
Almost two-thirds of the 153 women
studied who were in the later stages of
their menstrual cycle - known as the
luteal phase - admitted they had
bought something on an impulse and
more than half said they had
overspent by more than £25.
A handful of the women said they had
overspent by more than £250. And
many felt remorse later. Professor
Pine,
of
the
University
of
Hertfordshire, said: "Spending was less
controlled, more impulsive and more
excessive for women in the luteal
phase.
"The spending behaviour tends to be a
reaction to intense emotions. They are
feeling stressed or depressed and are
more likely to go shopping to cheer
themselves up and using it to regulate
their emotions."
She said much of this could be
explained by hormonal changes during
the menstrual cycle. And the findings
were exaggerated in the women with
severe PMT.
"We are getting surges and
fluctuations in hormones which affect
the part of the brain linked to
emotions and inhibitory control. So
the behaviour we found is not
surprising."
Another explanation might be that
women are buying items to make
themselves feel more attractive coinciding with the time of ovulation
when they are most fertile, typically
around 14 days before the start of a
period. Most of the purchases made
by the women were for adornment,
including jewellery, make-up and high
heels.
Professor
Pine
said:
"Other
researchers have found there is an
ornamental effect around the time of
ovulation." Researchers have found
women tend to dress to impress
during their fertile days.
Professor Pine, author of the book
Sheconomics, said if women were
worried
about
their
spending
behaviour they might avoid going
shopping in
the
week
before their
period
was
due.
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39
A Level Psychology Approaches Handout
Estrous Cycle Phase Influences Cocaine
Craving in Rats Mar 06, 2019 | Original Press Release from Elsevier
Menstrual cycle may influence
addiction risk in women, according to
a new study in Biological Psychiatry
by researchers at the National
Institute on Drug Abuse and
University of Maryland School of
Medicine. In female rats, craving for
cocaine during abstinence from the
drug was stronger during estrus—the
phase in which ovulation occurs—
than non-estrus, and female rats
were more prone to relapse of
cocaine use than male rats. This new
link between menstrual cycle and
drug craving may help explain
differences between men and women
in cocaine seeking and vulnerability
to relapse after quitting.
“Sex differences are extremely
important in addiction. This new
study suggests that the period
around ovulation is the most
vulnerable period for promoting
addiction. This knowledge has
implications for both prevention and
treatment,” said John Krystal, MD,
Editor of Biological Psychiatry.
“To the degree that results from
animal models generalize to humans,
our findings implicate the phase of
the menstrual cycle as a risk factor
for relapse in women and, therefore,
should be taken into consideration in
the development of relapse
prevention treatments,” said senior
author Satoshi Ikemoto, PhD, NIDA.
To assess the influence of the
menstrual cycle on addiction, first
author Céline Nicolas, PhD, NIDA,
and colleagues used a model of
cocaine use in rats that mimics the
intermittent binge-like pattern of
human cocaine use. They compared
this model with the standard rat
model of cocaine use that provides
continuous access to the drug.
Although both access models led to
progressively increased cocaine
seeking during abstinence, referred
to as incubation of cocaine craving,
cocaine seeking was higher after
intermittent access.
Regardless of the type of access
provided to the rats, cocaine seeking
was higher in female rats than male
rats. “In female rats, the magnitude of
cocaine craving was critically
dependent on the phase of the
estrous cycle, demonstrating a novel
role of ovarian hormones in
incubation of cocaine craving,” said
Dr. Ikemoto.
Previous studies in humans suggest
that women relapse faster after
quitting cocaine and have stronger
craving than men. The new findings
reveal that the estrous cycle may
contribute to these differences
between women and men and
highlight a potential target to help
prevent relapse in wome
This article has been republished from materials provided by Elsevier. Note: material may have been edited
for length and content. For further information, please contact the cited source.
Reference: Nicolas, C., Russell, T. I., Pierce, A. F., Maldera, S., Holley, A., You, Z.-B., … Ikemoto, S.
(2019). Incubation of Cocaine Craving After Intermittent Access Self-administration: Sex Differences and
Estrous Cycle. Biological Psychiatry, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.01.015
markbatchelor@ada.ac.uk
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A Level Psychology Approaches Handout
Example essay
Infradian Cycles are those lasting longer than 24 hours. Of which
menstruation, a 27-29 day cycle is the most widely studied. Research has
shown that menstruation can become synchronised after exposure to other
females. This suggests that this particular infradian rhythm can be
modified by exogenous zeitgebers. Russell et al (1980) conducted a study
using sweat samples from donor women, which were rubbed onto the lips of
the recipient participants. He found that eventually the cycles of the
recipient women synchronised with those of the donor women. It is
thought that pheromones found in sweat saliva and urine in both males and
females, can/do influence a menstrual cycle. Empson (1977) studied 21
males, measuring their moods and temperatures over 102 days. Evidence of
a 20-day cycle was found, where the men had peaks and troughs in both
their temperatures and morning alertness. However Russell’s study doesn’t
take into account the fact psychological effects of menstruation, such as
PMS occur up to 5 days before menstruation. PMS itself is also found in all
cultures, which suggests it is controlled by endogenous pacemakers. Also the
role of the pituitary gland is what tends to internally regulate the cycle. A
study of 600 girls in Germany found that menarche (first menstrual cycle)
was more likely in the winter months. This suggests that melatonin may
affect the cycle. Furthermore, it has also been found that blind girls reach
menarche earlier than sighted girls.
Light is the main exogenous zeitgeber in humans. Wever (1983) found that
exposure to bright light suppresses the production of melatonin, creating a
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A Level Psychology Approaches Handout
disruption in our biological rhythms. Daylight, in effect will re-set our
biological clock, however artificial light is not as effective. Light is detected
in the SCN and does not just affect the SCN. Hall (2000) found that
certain proteins found in the body, known as chryptochromes, detect changes
in light. This could explain why Campbell and Murphy (1988) found that by
shining a light on the back of the knee caused a shift in the circadian
rhythm. Miles et al (1977) showed the importance of light as a time giver
through the difficulties observed in blind people. Due to the lack of light
information being received by blind people their sleep patterns are messed
up. One young man who was blind from birth had a circadian rhythm of 24.9
hours. After being exposed to various exogenous zeitgebers such as clocks
and other social cues, still found great difficulty in reducing his internal pace,
causing him difficulty in functioning, which resulted in him having to take
stimulants in the morning and sedatives in the evening in order to adjust his
biological rhythms in time with the rest of the world. This study cannot be
generalised to the wider population as it is based on one person.
So, in conclusion, both endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers play
an important role in biological rhythms. With the absence of both exogenous
zeitgebers and endogenous pacemakers our biological rhythms are extended.
However both are needed in order for our biological rhythms to function and
adjust properly.
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42
A Level Psychology Approaches Handout
Matching task
Circadian Rhythm
The hormone that builds up during
daylight hours and helps the brain
recognise tiredness
Ultradian Rhythm
Biological mechanisms that help
regulate sleep wake cycles
Adrenaline
The daily rhythm found in most
creatures on earth
Melatonin
Environmental stimuli that helps
people recognise the passing of
time during the day
Suprachiasmic nucleus
The hormone that prepares the
body for fight or flight
Pineal Gland
Where melatonin is secreted from
Acute stress
A shock or alarm reaction to an
external stimuli
Exogenous zeitgebers
The ninety minute cycle that
characterises sleep
Endogenous pacemakers
The tendency of the daily rhythm
to extend beyond 24 hours as
illustrated by Sifre (1972)
Circadian shift
The small cluster of light sensitive
cells in the brain
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A Level Psychology Approaches Handout
markbatchelor@ada.ac.uk
44
A Level Psychology Approaches Handout
Twitter term challenge: you have 280 characters to explain a term (without
using the term in your explanation) Term:
markbatchelor@ada.ac.uk
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A Level Psychology Approaches Handout
Glossary of terms:
Biological Determinism
Neurochemistry
Evolution
Genotype
Phenotype
Natural Selection
Endocrinology
Synapse
Action Potential
ANS
CNS
PNS
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A Level Psychology Approaches Handout
Neuroplasticity
Sympathetic/parasympathetic
arousal
Motor neurons
Sensory Neurons
Relay Neurons
Synaptic transmission
Pituitary gland
Adrenal glands
HPA axis
Amygdala
ACTH
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A Level Psychology Approaches Handout
Infradian
Ultradian
Circadian
Melatonin
Pineal Gland
SCN
Oestrogen
Testosterone
Adenosine
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A Level Psychology Approaches Handout
The LADDER of Learning
A checklist for understanding
Listed below are the key topics on this section. I have created a
ladder or steps up to success. The further up you go the harder
the task, the harder the task the more deep your learning.
Your job is to cover at least one of the faces by doing the task
below that relates to your personal goals and ability: Ask you self
the question and then look at the choice of activity – complete
the harder tasks to get a happier face. You will be laughing all
the way to the exam!
Key:
Climb along the ladder
I really have no idea about this –
was I away?
Ok – I have heard of this and
remember something
I did ok on this in the
assessment and I am able to talk
about it
I am confident if this came up in
the exam I would ace it – give
me the exam now!
REMEBERING &
UNDERSTANDING
APPLICATION
ANALYSIS
EVALUATE & CREATE
Write down all the key words
for the topic and define them in
your own words (glossary)
Illustrate the point with a real
life example and explain how it
fits in.
Find a contrasting or
comparable idea that fits with
this one
Create a table of strengths and
weaknesses for a theory
Produce summary mindmaps of
the subtopic that you can
remember
Research and find a piece of
evidence or study that
illustrates the topic
Reproduce key terms on
revision cards
Look up a past exam question
you have done on this and
improve it.
Re read a key study and de
construct it by writing in your
own words the Aims, Methods,
Results and Conclusions
Create true or false cards on the
key terms
Condense notes into 3 key
bullet points and write a
paragraph on how they link
together
Complete any missing activity in
the Psychology booklet Mark
gives out
markbatchelor@ada.ac.uk
Explain how a psychologist
might use the information to
improve the lives of others
Summarise key idea in 100
words
Create a mindmap or flow
diagram of a topic showing all
the links and connections
Explain how a piece of evidence
supports or goes against this
idea.
Create a useful mnemonic the
use in the exam that includes
evaluative points.
Choose a key theory and use a
study to explain how it refutes
or supports it.
Create a cartoon
strip/storyboard of the study
Produce a revision guide that
other students might use.
Create a song or poem that
helps you remember the key
issues.
49