Chapter 1. 2
History of Science & Technology
(Historical antecedents in which social
considerations changed the course of
science
and technology)
To merely understand the
discoveries and inventions
that
scientists
and
technologists have made is
not
enough.
Beyond
scientific research, we must
see
its
benefits
and
consequences affecting our
way of life here and now and
in the future. Throughout
history, science can be
viewed as a continuous
expansion at the expense of
religion, philosophy and the
humanities. Hence, the ways
and
processes
science
undertake
to
produce
changes
and
transformations must be
conscientiously scrutinized.
Learning Outcomes:
 Discuss the interactions
between S&T and society
throughout history.
 Discuss how scientific and
technological developments
affect society and the
environment.
 Identify
the
paradigm
shifts in history
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15
In the World: Ancient,
Middle and Modern Ages
Prehistoric Period
Although recorded as the longest
period in the history of men, this period of
history is the least we know about. Time and
circumstances practically left no historical
evidences of how people lived here and
there. Because written records of any kind
began from only 5,000 years ago,
chronological events were documented
largely
based
on
deductions
from
archaeological findings. Therefore, anything
prior to the first written accounts of history
is prehistoric.
 First civilizations emerged independently
along the river valleys of Mesopotamia
(Tigris-Euphrates Valley), Egypt (Nile
Valley), China (Huang Ho Valley) and
India (Indus Valley)
 People of the first civilizations developed
science and technology as implements in
their search for food and other survival
needs.
 Early hominids and primitive human used
stone tools
 Stone Age and Metal Age
Stone Age (Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic
Age and Neolithic Age) – prehistoric
period in which stone was widely used
as implements for hunting. Started
during the 6000 BC and ended 2000 BC.
Paleolithic Age – consisted of huntergatherer civilizations that utilized
primitive stone tools
• H. erectus utilized and controlled fire.
It was generated through percussion
method and used to produce heat for
warmth and for cooking.
• Evidences
of
clothing,
painting,
sculptures and carvings/engravings
Mesolithic Age – transitional period that
gave way to the rise of shifting-farming
civilizations
• Usage of microliths, small stone tools
made of flint used as spearheads and
arrowheads.
• Evidences of construction such as that
of Stonehenge in England.
Neolithic Age – the first agricultural
revolution, making way for agriculturalmining civilizations
• Developed complex evidences
of
numeric counting
• Development
of
metallurgy
and
metalworking, the art and science of
extracting mineral ores and modifying
them for practical use.
• Invention of the wheel, primarily
introduced in making pottery.
Metal Age
Bronze Age – characterized by the use of
copper and tin as the chief materials
in the production of implements such as
weapons and utensils. Wheel was used
as implement for transportation mechanics.
Iron Age – characterized by the widespread
use of iron and steel which was used and
modified for use such as in religious practices,
agricultural usage, artistic tools and weapons
and armors.
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16
Ancient Period
The ancient times saw the rise of the world’s first great
civilizations. Science and technology during this period have diverted from
being solely for survival needs but also to satisfy curiosity. During this period,
knowledge became increasingly available due to the creation of proper writing
systems and record keeping.
Sumerian Civilization
• Invented the world’s first writing system
called cuneiform; a set of word pictures
depicted in symbols made of triangular
marks.
• Standardized measuring following the
sexagesimal (60 as base) system of
counting, e.g. 60 mins is 60 seconds.
Egyptian Civilization
• Developed the first crude and early
version of paper from the plant papyrus.
• Writing was in the form of pictorial
symbols known as hieroglyphics.
• The Pyramids of Giza (wonder of the
Ancient World) was built during the
Golden Age of Egypt.
Roman Civilization
Emperor Hadrian designed the Pantheon.
The Colosseum was built during the reign of
Vespasian
for
gladiatorial
contests.
Vespasian also implemented a public urinal
system called vespasiano.
Arabic/Islamic Civilization
The Arabic cities prospered by exploiting
their
strategic
location.
Muhammad
founded the religion Islam at the Holy City
of Mecca. In technology, the Arabs were the
first to use glass lens for magnification.
Chinese Civilization
• Acupuncture was used to treat illnesses
• Royal astronomer Chang Heng invented
the earthquake weathercock (which is
now the modern-day seismograph)
• Cai Lun invent the paper and the papermaking process.
Babylonian Civilization
Babylonia was the ancient region bordering
Tigris and Euphrates river, which once
served as the center of commerce and
religion in the valley. During the rule of
Nebuchadnezzar II, the Hanging Gardens of
Babylon (one of the 7 wonders of the
ancient world) was built.
Minoan Civilization
Situated in the Island of Crete with
Knossos as its capital. The Minoan’s script
system was called Linear A, which has not
been fully deciphered.
Greek Civilization
Greece served as the foundation of cultural
and philosophical development in the west.
Thales of Miletus – Father of Philosophy, said
that nature was composed of or convertible
to water
Anaxagoras – argued that matter was
composed of countless tiny particles
Empedocles – stated that nature was a
mixture of earth, fire, air and water.
Hippocrates – Father of Greek Medicine, was
first to regard medicine as science apart from
religion.
Galen – Greek physician, made the first steps
for the advancement of anatomy.
Aristotle – regarded as Father of many
sciences,
pioneered
and
discovered
information on variety, structure and
behavior of animals and plants.
Archimedes – performed experiments which
led to the discovery of the laws of levers and
pulleys that resulted in the invention of
machines thereof.
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SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION (17th Century)
MEDIEVAL ERA
The Middle Ages is generally known as the
period between the Ancient Times and the
Modern Times. It witnessed the rise of the
Christian empire of Byzantium; the Islamic
empire of the Arabs; the T’ang dynasty in
China; Nara culture in Japan; and the
Mayans in Central America.
The power of the Catholic Church served as a
unifying force in Europe. The most notable
invention during the Medieval Era was the
Printing Press of Johannes Gutenberg in
Germany. It was the first movable metal type
printing press. The Gutenberg Bible, was
recorded as the world’s oldest mechanically
printed book.
RENASSAINCE ERA
Renaissance is the history of western Europe
which served as the period of rebirth. This
period regarded the publication of books and
the technology of printing most impactful. The
rebirth began with the publication of two
books which shook the ancient foundations of
knowledge.
Nicolaus Copernicus – Polish astronomer
who published On the Revolutions of
Heavenly Spheres. It challenged the
centuries-old geocentric universe of Ptolemy.
Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory
of the universe, which was not readily
accepted and actually rejected by the Catholic
Church.
Andreas Vesalius – recognized as the founder
of modern medicine, surgeon and anatomist
Vesalius published On the Fabric of the
Human Body. Vesalius laid out in detail the
first scientifically accurate description of
human anatomy.
Leonardo da Vinci – was a great Italian artist
and inventor. He anticipated and drew up
plans of future inventions such as the
helicopter, submarine, machine gun and
motor car.
Galileo Galilei – was a major scientist
prosecuted by the Church for heavily
supporting the heliocentric system. He
conducted scientific experiments on gravity
and falling objects, improved the telescope
and discovered celestial bodies.
One legacy of the Renaissance that pushed
forward the spread of scientific knowledge
was the emphasis on the supremacy of
reason over religion. And while no conflict
existed between science and religion,
Galileo’s defense of the Copernican Theory
launched the Scientific Revolution.
Francis Bacon – English statesman who
promoted observation and experimentation
as the proper way of deductive reasoning in
the conduct of scientific method.
Tycho Brahe – Danish astronomer who
studied
geometric
calculations
and
mathematical
precisions
on
celestial
observations.
Johannes Kepler – German astronomer who
made the crucial discovery that orbits of
planets were not circular but elliptical,
based on the works of Brahe.
John Napier – Scottish mathematician who
discovered logarithms, which shortened the
laborious process of multiplying, dividing and
finding square roots.
Rene Descartes – French mathematician
who strengthened the power of reason
against the philosophy of Aristotle and
Ptolemy.
He
worked
out
analytical
geometry.
Isaac Newton – English physicist who
arrived
at
theories
on
revolutionary
hypotheses on astronomy and physics.
Invented calculus. Explained the properties
of light in the book The Optiks.
Gottfried von Leibniz – simultaneously and
independently
invented
calculus
with
Newton.
Christian Huygens – Dutch physicist who
started the use of pendulum as timecontroller in clocks.
Hans
Lippershey
–
improved
the
magnification of telescopes.
Jan Swammerdam – invented microscope
and discovered red blood corpuscles.
Anthony van Leeuwenhoek – invented
microscope and discovered animalcules.
William Harvey – published diagrams of
human circulatory system.
Robert Hooke – discovered cells, a term that
he used to refer to thin layers of cork under
his microscope.
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Evangelista Toricelli – Italian
mathematician who invented the
barometer.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (18th
Century)
From the dawn of history, people relied on
physical labor, either directly or with tools
held or with animals guided by human
hands. Gradually, power of production was
supplied by human muscle with assistance
from simple machines. The phenomenal
process of doing work from human muscles
to machines was aptly called Industrial
Revolution.
James Watt – Scottish engineer who
invented the first satisfactory condensing
steam engine.
Benjamin Franklin – American statesman
who experimented on electricy.
Luigi
Galvani
–
pioneered
bioelectromagnetic
by
putting
two
different metals in contact with frog
muscle.
Alessandro Volta – Italian physicist who
successfully invented electric battery.
Michael Faraday – British physicist who
conducted
experiments
on
electromagnetism and in accordance with
Oersted and Ampere’s works, eventually
inventing the first dynamo.
Hans Oersted – Danish scientist who
confirmed and expanded Faraday’s works
leading to the invention of electric motor.
Andre Ampere – French physicist who
explained magnetic effects.
Samuel Morse – used electromagnets and
practically produced the first telegraph
and developed the Morse Code system of
signals.
Alexander Graham Bell – invented the
telephone and carried out the first
telephone conversation.
Thomas
Edison
–
invented
the
incandescent light bulb, phonograph,
motion picture equipment among others.
Heinrich
Hertz
–
produced
electromagnetic waves through space and
utilized them to broadcast and receive
radio waves.
Guglielmo Marconi – adapted Hertz’s works
and created a system of radiotelegraphy,
which became basis of the modern radio.
George Stephenson – developed the first
steam-powered locomotive.
19TH CENTURY
19th century witnessed the rise of modern
industry. An unending stream of new
products drove the emerging world. This
century was considered as the age of machine
tools.
John Dalton – published the atomic theory.
Louis Pasteur – developed pasteurization, a
method of food preservation by killing
bacteria.
Dmitri Mendeleev – formulated the Periodic
Table of Elements
Hermann von Helmholtz – invented the
ophthalmoscope.
Henri Becquerel – discovered radioactivity.
Marie Curie & Pierre Curie – discovered the
element radium.
Joseph Thomson – discovered electron.
Karl Benz – made the first automobile.
Rudolf Diesel – developed the first diesel
engine.
20TH CENTURY
20th century is one of the most noticeable in
history
in
terms
of
technological
advancements and scientific discoveries. With
extensive use of the scientific method and
research funding, science and technology
progressed rapidly. The Space Race between
USA and Soviet Union proved that the sky is
not the limit, with expeditions of men
reaching as far as the moon.
Astronomy
Big Bang and Steady State Theory –
explained the origin and evolution of the
universe.
Space probes closely observed the planets
and moons of the solar system.
Sputnik 1 – the first orbiting space probe
launched by the Soviet Union in 1957
Yuri Gagarin – the first man to journey in
outer space
Neil Armstrong – first human to walk in
another celestial body, the moon, through the
Apollo 11 mission.
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Biology
DNA Structure – the double helix was
determined and elucidated by the Rosalind
Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, James Watson
and Francis Crick.
Vaccine – the first vaccine was developed
by Jonas Salk for polio.
Spanish Flu – killed an approximate of 20
to 100 million people from 1918-1919.
HIV – a viral disease which arose in Africa
and results in AIDS
Engineering and Production
Home appliances increased dramatically
due to the availability of electricity.
Washing machines, dryers, refrigerators,
electric stoves and vacuum cleaners
became popular. Cassette tapes, transistor
radio, CDs, VCRs and VHS were made.
New materials such as stainless steel,
Velcro, silicone, Teflon, polyethylene,
nylon, PVC became widespread in
application. Thousands of chemicals were
developed
for
industry
and
home
application.
Physics and Chemistry
Albert Einstein – explained physical
phenomena and published his Theory of
Relativity.
Wolfgang Pauli – developed the Pauli
Exclusion principle, explaining the state of
electrons in an atom in quantum state.
Werner Heisenberg – key creator of
quantum
mechanics
and
published
Uncertainty Principle
Gilbert Lewis – suggested that a chemical
bond is a pair of electrons shared by two
atoms. Lewis Structures.
Niels Bohr – proposed the Bohr model of
the atom.
Technology
Computers were developed and improved
from the classical abacus.
Intel developed a microprocessor that
made computers smaller, cheaper, and
more user-friendly.
Bill Gates founded Microsoft, which would
eventually turn out to be one of the
biggest corporations in techno-science.
Steve Jobs & Steve Wozniak introduced
Apple in 1976.
Internet was created for defense-related
research known as ARPANet or Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network.
Tim Berners Lee invented the World Wide
Web.
Henry Ford devised a system of mass
production for Model T in 1908 which
made cars available and affordable to the
masses.
Artificial Intelligence was invented that
gave computers the capacity to perform
human-like intellectual processes. Modern
AI
features
specifically
designed
computers that can respond similarly to
humans.
Social Sciences
Ivan Pavlov – proposed the theory of
Classical Conditioning.
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History of STS in the
Philippines
PRECOLONIAL S&T
There is a very little reliable written
information about Philippine society,
culture and technology before the arrival of
the Spaniards in 1521. The early Filipinos
had attained a generally simple level of
technological development, compared with
those of the Chinese and Japanese, but
this was sufficient for their needs at that
period of time.
Archaeological
findings
indicate
that
modern men from the Asian mainland first
came over-land and across narrow
channels to live in Palawan and Batangas
around 50,000 years ago. For about 40,000
years, they made simple tools or weapons
of stone flakes but eventually developed
techniques for sawing, drilling and
polishing hard stones.
Filipinos had also learned to build boats for
the coastal trade. By the tenth century
A.D., this had become a highly developed
technology. In fact, the early Spanish
chroniclers took note of the refined plankbuilt warship called caracoa. These boats
were well suited for inter-island trade raids.
By the tenth century A.D., the inhabitants
of Butuan were trading with Champa
(Vietnam); those of Ma-i (Mindoro) with
China. These indicate that regular trade
relations and barter between the two
countries had been well established during
the tenth to the fifteenth centuries.
By the time the Spaniards came to colonies
the Philippines in 1565; they found many
scattered, autonomous village communities
(called barangays) all over the archipelago.
These were kinship groups or social units
rather than political units.
On the whole, the pre-colonial Filipinos
were still highly superstitious. The
Spaniards found no temples or places of
worship. Although the Filipinos knew how
to read and write in their own system of
baybayin, this was mainly used for
messages and letters. They seem not to
have developed a written literary tradition
at that time.
SPANISH COLONIAL PERIOD (1521-1898)
In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan discovered
the Philippines for Spain. The colonization
has largely contributed to the development
of S&T in the country. The beginnings of
modern science and technology in the
Philippines can be traced to the Spanish
regime. The Spaniards established schools,
hospitals and started scientific research and
these had important consequences for the
rise of the country’s professions. Several
expeditions from Mexico have been sent for
religious conversion. In 1571, Manila was
established as the capital of the central
government of the Governor-general.
There was very little development in
Philippine agriculture and industry during
the first two centuries of Spanish rule. This
was largely due to the dependence of the
Spanish colonizers on the profits from the
Galleon or Manila-Acapulco trade, which
lasted from 1565 to 1813.
Roads for horses and coaches were built to
connect provinces and towns. Stone
churches were built as religious centers.
Stone walls and fortifications were also
built.
San Lazaro Hospital in Manila is
considered the oldest in the Far East,
established in 1578 and still exists today. In
1602, Roman alphabet was introduced and
Spanish and Tagalog texts were published.
Academic institutions were mandated to be
built, and this sparked the progress of
science in the country. The first educational
institutions offering courses above primary
levels were:
Colegio de San Ildefonso (University of
San Carlos) 1595, Colegio de Nuestra
Senora del Rosario (University of Santo
Tomas) 1611, Colegio de San Juan de
Letran 1706, Ateneo Municipal de Manila
1859
In 1802, Escuela de Nautica was organized
and
offered
courses
in
navigation,
meteorology and cosmology.
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AMERICAN COLONIAL PERIOD
Throughout the Spanish regime, the royal
and pontifical University of Santo Tomas
remained as the highest institution of
learning. Run by the Dominicans, it was
established as a college in 1611 by Fray
Miguel de Benavides. It initially granted
degrees
in
theology,
philosophy
and
humanities.
In 1876, the UST granted the bachelor's
degree in pharmacy to its first six graduates
in the school of pharmacy. Among them was
Leon Ma. Guerrero, who is usually referred to
as the "Father of Philippine Pharmacy"
because of his extensive work on the
medicinal plants of the Philippines and their
uses. Higher education during the Spanish
regime was generally viewed with suspicion
and feared by the colonial authorities as
encouraging conspiracy and rebellion among
the native Filipinos. For this reason, only the
more daring and persevering students were
able to undertake advantaged studies.
The prosperity that resulted from increased
commerce between the Philippines and the
rest of the world through the Suez Canal
enabled Filipino students to go to Europe for
professional
advanced
studies.
These
included Jose Rizal who was able to pursue
studies in Medicine and specialize in
ophthalmology in Spain and Germany;
Graciano Apacible who studied medicine in
Madrid; Antonio Luna who obtained his Ph.D.
in pharmacy in Madrid and later worked with
renowned scientists in Ghent and Paris; Jose
Alejandrino who took up engineering in
Belgium, and others.
Meteorological studies were promoted by
Jesuits who founded the Manila Observatory
in 1865. The Observatory collected and made
available
typhoon
and
climatological
observations. These observations grew in
number and importance so that by 1879, it
became possible for Fr. Federico Faura to
issue the first public typhoon warning. In
1901, the Observatory was made a central
station of the Philippine Weather Bureau
which was set up by the American colonial
authorities.
S&T in the Philippines advanced rapidly during
the American regime. This was made possible
by
the
simultaneous
government
encouragement and support for an extensive
public education system.
The Americans introduced a system of
secularized public school education as soon as
civil government was set up in the islands. On
21 January 1901, the Philippine Commission,
which acted as the executive and legislative
body
for
the
Philippines
until
1907,
promulgated Act No. 74 creating a Department
of Public Instruction in the Philippines. It
provided for the establishment of schools that
would give free primary education, with English
as the medium of instruction. Subsequent
establishment of public educational institutions
eventually led to the creation of the first state
university in the country, University of the
Philippines.
Act in 1933 creating the National Research
Council of the Philippine Islands (NRCP). Aside
from working for the promotion of scientific
research, the NRCP actively participated in the
deliberations and drafting of provisions
affecting science and industry in the 1934
Constitutional Convention.
COMMONWEALTH ERA
In 1935, the Philippine Commonwealth was
inaugurated and ushered in a period of
transition to political independence. The
Constitution acknowledged the importance of
promoting scientific development for the
economic development by incorporating a
provision (Article XIII, Section 4) "The State
shall promote scientific research and invention,
Arts and Letters shall be under its patronage..."
The government, which was by this time
completely
under
Filipino
management,
continued to expand its public school system to
accommodate the increasing number of
schoolchildren.
On the whole, higher education was provided
mainly by the private sector. By 1936, there
were 425 private schools recognized by the
government, 64 of which we institutions at the
College level and 7 were universities. These
were Centro Escolar University, Far Easter
University, National University,
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22
Philippine Women's University, Silliman
University, University of Manila and the
University of Santo Tomas. Together with
the University of the Philippines these had a
total of 19,575 college students in all
universities in the country.
In
spite
of
all
these
efforts,
the
Commonwealth government was unable to
achieve its goal of economic self-reliance.
This was primarily because foreign trade and
tariff policies remained under the control of
the American government. Moreover, the
Pacific War broke out in 1941 and the
Philippines was occupied by Japanese
troops.
The occupation of the Philippines by the
Japanese
during
the
War
brought
educational
and
scientific
activities
practically to a halt as able bodied citizens
joined the resistance movement. Manila,
which was the center of all educational and
scientific activities, was razed to the ground,
destroying everything that had been built up
before. It was in this condition that the
Philippines became an independent state.
SINCE INDEPENDENCE
The Science Act created the National
Science Development Board (NSDB) to
formulate policies for the development of
science and coordinate the work of science
agencies. In 1982, NSDB was further
reorganized into a National Science and
Technology Authority (NSTA) composed of
four research and Development Councils;
Philippine Council for Agriculture and
Resources Research and Development;
Philippine Council for Industry and Energy
Research Development; Philippine Council
for Health Research and Development and
the NRCP. In 1987, under Aquino’s
administration, the NSTA was reorganized
into the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST). DOST is a central
agency mandated to provide direction,
leadership and coordination of all scientific
and technological activities in the country.
Science Education Institutions (SEI) was
created to accomplish the task of
administering scholarships, awards and
grants in S&T and formulating plans for the
promotion and development of S&T.
Science and Technology Information
Institute was created to establish and
develop a S&T databank and library.
Philippine Council for Advanced Science
and
Technology
Research
and
Development was a sectoral council of the
DOST tasked for the coordination of a
national system of advance S&T.
Philippine Atmosphere Geophysical and
Astronaut Services Administration was
established to give environmental protection
and utilize scientific information to ensure
safety of the nation.
CURRENT STATE
PHILIPPINES
OF
S&T
IN
THE
According to the Technology Index of
1982, the S&T in the Philippines is defined
to be -0.1 compared to the U.S., the world's
technology leader, which is 100. The
technology index is defined as the average
of the sum of the number of patents and
registration of new designs, technology
trade, value added in manufacturing and
the export of technology-intensive goods.
The Philippines also ranks low in terms of
technological capacity. This is seen in the
shortage of scientists and engineers doing
R&D (research and development), and of the
inadequate national resources and budget
devoted to R&D. All these factors translate
to the minimal patents granted in the
Philippines, which likewise indicates little or
no economic significance.
With regards to the type of basic
technologies--Materials
Technology,
Equipment
Technology,
Energy
Technologies, Information Technologies, Life
Technologies
and
Management
Technologies, the Philippines has only a
pre-operative capability in the third-wave of
development in these technologies.
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