MODULE 3 IN GE 2 (PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION)
Module 3 in GE 2 (Purposive Communication)
Learning Outcomes
Local and Global Communication
When you have completed this module,
you should be able to:
in Multicultural Settings
1. discern and use culturally
appropriate terms, expressions, and
images;
INTRODUCTION
You have seen from the previous module that we
exist in a multicultural environment where all of us
belong to multiple, overlapping cultures (such as
2. manifest sensitivity to others’
gender, race, class, religion, age, and
so on;
3. adopt cultural and intercultural
awareness and sensitivity in your
communication if ideas; and
4. speak about the nature of register.
national, regional, social class, ethnic, professional, age, religious, and gender cultures). We learn
and imbibe these cultures not only from people we interact and associate with (families, relatives,
friends, neighbors, classmates, teachers, and churchmates) but also from the media (radio and
television, books and any other printed materials, and the Internet). Our multiple cultures make
communication complicated, but if we expose ourselves to varied cultures and learn to recognize
and respect cultural differences, we can lessen our own communication difficulties, and life in a
multicultural society will become much easier to deal with.
DISCUSSION
I. Culturally Appropriate Terms, Expressions, and Images
Freya Stark, in her book The Journey’s Echo: Selections from Freya Stark (Ecco Travels), says,
“Every country has its own way of saying thing. The important thing is that which lies behind people’s
words”. Cultural differences result in misunderstanding, and “language, more than anything else, is the
heart of culture” (Stevenson, as cited in Lee, 2017). This means that being proficient in English, for
instance, does not guarantee our being able to fully understand what another speaker of English is trying
to communicate unless we become fully aware of how that speaker uses English based on his own
culture.
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To illustrate this, let’s take a look at two major varieties or dialects of English, American English
(AmE) and British English (BrE). In AmE, the first floor is equivalent to the BrE ground floor, and the
American second floor is the British first floor. Elevator, apartment, eggplant, hood and trunk of a car,
drugstore, garbage can and parking lot in AmE are lift, flat, aubergine, bonnet and boot of a car, chemist’s,
dustbin, and car park, respectively, in BrE. If a Londoner says, “I left my child’s dummy and nappy in the
pram”, a New Yorker needs to know that dummy is pacifier, nappy is diaper, and pram is baby carriage
to understand the Londoner’s statement. Since Filipinos use American English, we have to know
differences in vocabulary between the two varieties of English if we want to successfully
communicate with a speaker of British English.
But vocabulary is just one aspect of the differences.
Most of us Filipinos cannot understand how the British speak,
too. Another difference between the two varieties, then, lies in
speaking, particularly pronunciation – using different vowel
sounds and stressing the word in a different place. Look at the
Word
Vase
Leisure
Tomato
Garage
Ballet
magazine
AmE
/veIs/
/li.zer/
/temeItou/
garage
ballet
magazine
BrE
/va:z/
/lez.er/
/tema:teu/
garage
ballet
magazine
examples in the table.
One more difference between the two English varieties is found in spelling. British-English
spelling usually keeps the spelling of words it absorbs from another language, like French, but American
English adapts the spelling to reflect the way the words actually sound when they are spoken. These are
the main differences in spelling (English Oxford Living Dictionaries):
▪
Words ending in “-re” in BrE end in “-er” in AmE.
centre, litre, theatre in BrE; center, liter, theater in AmE
▪
Words ending in “-our” in BrE end in “-or” in AmE.
colour, humour, neighbour in BrE; color, humor, neighbor in AmE
▪
Words ending in “-ize” or “-ise” in BrE end in “-ize” in AmE.
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apologize/apologise, organize/organize, recognize/recognize in BrE; apologize,
organize, recognize in AmE
▪
Words ending in “-yse” in BrE end in “-yze” in AmE.
analyse, breathalyse, paralyse in BrE; analyze, breathalyze, paralyze in AmE
▪
Words ending in a vowel plus “l” in BrE double the “l” when adding endings that begin with a
vowel, but the “l” is not doubled in AmE.
travel, travelled, travelling, traveller in BrE; travel, traveled, traveling, traveler in AmE
▪
Words spelled with the double vowels “ae” or “oe” are just spelled with an e in AmE.
leukaemia, manoeuver, oestrogen, paediatric in BrE; leukemia, maneuver, estrogen,
pediatric in AmE
▪
Nouns ending with “-ence” in BrE are spelled “-ense” in AmE.
defence, licence, offence in BrE; defense, license, offense in AmE
▪
Nouns ending with “-ogue” in BrE end with either “-og” or “-ogue” in AmE.
analogue, catalogue, dialogue in BrE; analog/analogue, catalog/catalogue,
dialog/dialogue in AmE
II. World Englishes and English as International Language
In the present era of high technology, the issue on culture and use of English has become
more complicated than what it seems because of the emergence of the now-recognized “World
Englishes”. These varieties of English are used by three identified “concentric circles” of societies
(Kachru, 1997, as cited in Kilickaya, 2009).
The Inner Circle covers the native English-speaking countries (e.g., England, USA, Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand). The Outer Circle comprises the former colonies (e.g., India, Africa,
Nigeria, Pakistan, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines and Bangladesh), and the Expanding Circle
consists of countries (e.g., China, Japan, Germany, Turkey, Egypt, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Korea, and
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Taiwan), which are affected by the widespread use of English as a global language – an important
language in business, science, technology and education.
When turning to other circles, the question of what counts as a language and what may
be considered a variety of English is somewhat intricate. Pidgins and creoles belong to this issue.
“Pidgins” are used as lingua franca for trade or any other practical interaction (Mooney & Evans,
2015). A pidgin uses words from the languages of both communicators to understand each other,
but it is not the language of either communicator. The pidgin is a “little more than strings of nouns,
verbs and adjectives, often arranged to place old, shared information first and new information
later in the sentence” (Bickerton, 1983, as cited in Mooney & Evans, 2015, p. 211). The language
providing the vocabulary is called the lexifier, and the language that provides the syntactic
structure is called substrate. After an extended period of use of a pidgin in a community, when
the pidgin becomes more fully developed and serves as the language of the community, it
becomes a “creole” (for example, Hawai’i Creole English or HCE). Refer to the following text of
Hawai’i Creole English or HCE from the Bible (Mooney & Evans, 2015, p. 212):
Day Numba One
“Den Go day, ‘I like light to shine!’ an da light start to shine. God see how good da
light. Den he put da light on one side, an da dark on da odda side. Da light time, he
give um da name ‘Day time’. Da dark time, he give um da name ‘Nite time’, So, had da
nite time an da day time, az day numba one.”
In the HCE text, English is the lexifier language, although the written form has
phonological differences. The significant differences in syntax are due to the number of languages
(including Catonese, Portugese, and Japanese) that contribute to the form of HCE.
In the process of learning English as either a second language or a foreign language,
people from the outer and expanding circles develop an interlanguage, a “learner language”
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(which is neither pidgin nor creole) that deviates from the norms of the target language. This is a
transitional linguistic system at all levels (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics,
pragmatics). The interlanguage results from several language-learning processes, such as
borrowing patterns from the mother tongue, and expressing meanings using the words and
grammar that are already known (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1997).
In Philippine English, for instance, we hear many Filipinos saying sentences like these
(which may just be interlanguage for most):
1. I already ate. (Kumain na ako.)
2. He will come with us, isn’t it? (Sasama siya sa atin, hindi ba?)
3. One of my classmate is inside. (Isa sa kaklase ko ay nasa loob.)
4. They will come there. (Pupunta sila doon.)
Let us look at examples in another variety of English – Indian English (Bhatt, 2005, pp. 3940):
1. You have taken my book, isn’t it?
2. You are soon going home, isn’t it?
In Indian English, the meaning of the tag in tag questions is its social meaning, not the
meaning of the main proposition (or the independent clause) as expected in American or British
English. The two examples show how the linguistic form is affected by cultural constraints of
politeness in India. The tag (isn’t it) as used in the sentences is governed by the politeness principle
of non-imposition. In standard American or British English, tag questions are formed by using the
subject of the independent clause and an appropriate modal auxiliary, such as the following:
1. You have taken my book, haven’t you?
2. You are soon going home, aren’t you?
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Indian culture on grammatical rules
is also evident in the use of “may” in Indian
English. Consider the following example and
its standard English counterparts (Bhatt, p.
41):
Indian English: “These mistakes may please be corrected.” (“May” is used to express
obligation politely.)
Standard English: “These mistakes must be corrected.” or “These mistakes are to be
corrected.”
We have seen from the examples in Philippine English and in Indian English, which are
both from the Outer Circle, how linguistic forms that are unacceptable in Standard English are
“perfectly” acceptable and understood in the local Englishes. Does this mean, then, that anyone
can use or has the right to use whatever kind of English he knows? Definitely not. Since English
is an international language, we do not communicate only with people from our own circle,
whether it be Outer Circle or Expanding Circle, but with those from the other circle (Expanding or
Outer, respectively) and the Inner Circle, too. In other words, our English must be the kind of
English understood and used worldwide.
To be able to use English well and to understand the many accents and varieties of
English, we need to learn to communicate across cultures. This will allow us to develop a greater
tolerance and acceptance of linguistic differences and adjust to others’ expectations according to
contexts or settings. The intelligibility of the uses of English in different countries or regions, not
just in national boundaries, is very important.
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III. Linguistic Preferences and Nonverbal Behavior
Variations in the way different
cultures use language – like linguistic
preferences and nonverbal behaviors – also
cause
miscommunication.
Nuances
in
linguistic preferences provide hints about
behavior, manners, and thinking as a
cultural group (Lee, 2017; Zelinski, 2017). For instance, Spaniards and Italians, who prefer
eloquence, and expressiveness to exactness, tend to be flowery with their language. In contrast
the English who are very polite, use understatement to avoid confrontation, so they sometimes
end up being ambiguous.
Asians, including the Japanese and Chinese, consider harmony an important virtue, so to
avoid confrontation, they often say ‘yes” to many things with the understanding of “Yes, I hear you”
or “Yes, I understand”, and not necessarily “Yes, I agree”. People in Latin America and Southern
Europe, however, are not comfortable with ambiguity because they are conditioned to expect
absolute truths.
Scandinavians tend to be reserved; they are completely focused, dedicated listeners.
Germans, on the other hand, are very logical both in manner and words.
Nonverbal behaviors, which Edward T. Hall (1959) called “the silent language”, are
expressive human attributes that impart feelings, attitudes, reactions, and judgments which need
to be given continued attention because they are acquired mainly through acculturation (adopting
the traits of another cultural group); moreover, they are unspoken and largely unconscious, so
the implied meanings are more felt than understood (as cited in Buerlein, 2017).
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Here are some differences in the nonverbal behaviors of some other cultures that can
help us coexist with them in the globalized community we are in because of technology
(“International Etiquette”, 2017; “Dimensions of Body Language”, 2017).
Australia: The popular American “thumbs up” sign is considered obscene. The V-sign with
the palm facing toward the speaker is the obscene “up yours” insult.
France: Your hands should be visible at all times even when seated at a table.
Germany: It is impolite to put your hands in your pockets. Gum chewing in public is rude.
Sit down only after you have been offered a seat. use titles to show respect. Be punctual because
punctuality is important.
Hong Kong: Maintain a two-arm’s length distance with the person. Touching and patting
are taboo. When you are seated, your feet should be facing the ground; the soles of your shoes
should not be shown.
Indonesia: When you are in a private home or mosque, be sure to remove your shoes.
Position them by pointing them toward the door from which you entered. Hugging and kissing in
public is inappropriate.
Japan: The bow is still the tradition in greetings. Bend your body about a 30-degree angle
from the waist. For men: Palms should be face up, toward the knee. For women: Hands should be
folded in front of you as you bow.
Saudi Arabia: Expect greetings to be very emotional. They consist of a “salaam alaykum”
(“May God be with you”) followed by a handshake and then a “keef halak” (How are you?).
Singapore: Gesture with your entire hand in conversation. Pointing with one or two fingers
is rude. Avoid showing the soles of your shoes.
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South Korea: When meeting someone, a slight bow is appropriate. It is considered good
manners to acknowledge an older person by standing when the person enters a room. One way
to show respect for elders is by lowering your eyes.
United Kingdom: Men should wait for a woman to extend her hand before shaking hands.
When meeting someone, rather than saying “It’s nice to meet you”, a more appropriate response
is “How do you do?”
A. Tips for Successful Multicultural Communication
Being a member of a culturally diverse society, you can adopt strategies to avoid being
misunderstood when communicating with others from another cultural group. Here are some tips
you can follow (AMA, 2017).
1. Simplify your message by using less complex sentence structures and vocabulary.
2. Avoid shouting to be understood.
3. Define the meaning of critical technical words and acronyms.
4. Avoid nonstandard abbreviations, such as “U R” for “you are”.
5. Be patient and try to follow the other communicator’s ideas and logic, which may be
different from yours.
6. Ask him to repeat once, maybe twice, or to say his ideas in a different manner (if you
do not understand him).
7. Remain cool and composed even when you have made a mistake that results in
embarrassment for you or feeling embarrassed by others (in most cases, they did not
mean to embarrass you).
8. Clarify the meanings and intentions of something said or done by someone who comes
from a culturally different background before you become angry or express the strong
emotions that you feel.
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9. Clarify someone’s actions or words with the person or with someone else who has
experience in dealing with similar cultural groups (if you cannot think of any positive
interpretation of the actions done or words said because you may be missing something).
10. Adapt your space requirement to that of someone from another cultural group
whenever possible (you can judge someone’s comfort zone by distance to which he
extends his hand when shaking hands).
11. Give the benefit of the doubt to someone who does or says something that seems weird
and/or wrong (ask yourself: “How else could I interpret these words or actions?”
B. Tips for Successful Multicultural Communication
As a learner of English, you can observe the following strategies to avoid any
miscommunication when using English (AMA, 2017).
1. If you do not mind people suggesting words so that you can communicate more quickly,
say so.
2. Try to participate in English discussions, especially brainstorming sessions, even if you
feel uncomfortable.
3. If your school offers English as a Second Language (ESL) courses, take them, even if
your English is already functional. Courses designed to help you modify your accent to
make it more understandable by native English speakers can be particularly beneficial.
4. Keep a dictionary handy or google to make sure the words you use mean what you think
they mean.
5. Ask someone who is proficient in English for help with your documents, presentations,
and even sensitive e-mails or phone calls, if necessary.
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6. Before calling someone, think of what you want to say and look up any words that you
are unsure of. If you must leave a voice message, compose the message on paper, then
read it into the phone.
7. Make sure you know and use appropriately the technical words that people in your field
use. Use the terms repeatedly until they become second nature.
8. Do not attempt to use slang and idiomatic expressions unless you are quite sure about
what they mean, and how they are used. Using these incorrectly or in the wrong situation
can backfire.
IV. Language Registers for More Effective Communication
Language varies according to either the user or its use. Our previous lessons and
discussions focused on dialects or variations according to the user (defined by variables, such as
social background, geography, sex and age – for example, American English, British English).
Variations according to use, on the other hand, are called registers.
A register, therefore, is characterized by “differences in the type of language selected as
appropriate to different types of situations” (Halliday, et al., 1964, as cited in Politt, 2013).
The term “register” refers to particular varieties or styles of speaking and writing, which
vary in the degree of formality depending on the topic (what), purpose (why), context (where), and
audience (who) (“Register”, 2017). For example there is a legal register, a register for advertising,
registers for banking, and a register of weather forecasting.
Registers, recognized because of their specialized vocabulary and their particular uses of
grammar, are categorized into five varieties: very formal, formal, neutral, informal, and very
informal (Politt, 2013; Montano-Harmon, 2017) or frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate
styles (Padilla, et. al., 2016). [Please go online to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rIcm36yE3bY
to access Benjamin Madeira’s “Language in communication – register #English #analysing” and
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to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9AMiKmzV0M for Ray Gen’s “Language Registers to get
additional information on the nature of register and the five kinds of register.]
Notice the different registers as shown in the table for greetings in both speaking and
writing (“Register and Style”, 2011).
Very Formal
Formal
Neutral
Informal
Very Informal
What’s up?
How do you do? Hello!
Hello!
Hi!
Hey!
A. Very formal, frozen, or static register. This register is “frozen” in time and content
because it rarely or never changes. Examples are poetry, The Lord’s Prayer, laws, marriage vows,
insurance policies, leases and wills.
B. Formal or regulated register. This is the formal and impersonal language, which is oneway in nature and used in formal situations. Examples are books, news reports, magazine or
journal articles, business letters, official speeches, and sermons.
C. Neutral, professional, or consultative register. This is the normal style of speaking
between communicators who use mutually accepted language that conforms to formal societal
standards. Examples are the types of communication between strangers, teacher and student,
superior and subordinate, doctor and patient, and lawyer and client.
D. Informal, group, or casual register. This is the informal language between friends and
peers, which uses slang, vulgarities, and colloquialisms. Examples are conversations, chats and
emails, blogs, tweets, and personal letters.
E. Very informal, personal, or intimate register. This is the private, intimate language
reserved for family members or intimate people. Examples are the kinds of interactions between
husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, siblings, and parent and child.
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