CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE
1.1
Introduction
Coconut is one of the top produced product in the Philippines. A country which is still
growing in economy and industrialization that has an increase in demand for energy. Most of the
fuels used to produce energy are fossil fuels, and fossil fuels are slowly decreasing in supply from
year to year, since fossil fuel is not a renewable energy, then as a result of a higher demand and
lesser supply, fuel price is increasing drastically year by year. In order to accommodate the supply
with respect with the demand of fuel, the use of alternative energy became popular, one of these
alternative energy is with the use of coconut oil as an alternative biofuel. [1]
In this study, 10% coconut oil is being mixed with 90% Diesel in-order to test whether if
the mixture 90-10 is better than the implemented law in the Philippines which states that 2% of
coconut oil is mixed with 98% diesel. Also, Biofuel such as copra oil or coconut oil has a much
lower level of toxicity, yields far less harmful emissions to the environment, and is also
biodegradable. [2] Since coconut oil has lower toxicity and produces less harmful emission, upon
mixing a greater percentage of coconut oil to the diesel fuel may reduce the harmful emission and
toxicity as to what a 100% diesel fuel may produce.
The coconut oil is a widely used Biofuel that is clean, relatively cheap, easy to
extract, non-toxic, and has that aromatic smell of coconut. As how wide coconut oil is used, it can
be used for cooking, health food products such as supplements, etc.., it can also be used as an
alternative biofuel for diesel engines and can be used in three ways: As a direct substitute for
petroleum diesel, As an additive to petroleum diesel or bio-diesel, As the base ingredient of biodiesel. [3]
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1.2
Statement of the Problem
Philippines has been dependent on imported fuels which costs more for the community. To
maximize indigenous renewable source of energy, Republic Act No. 9367 already mandated a
biofuel blend from 2% to 5% of coconut oil. [8] Increasing the concentration of coconut oil to 10%
may reduce the country’s dependency from imported fuels. This contributes to the growing
problem of higher prices of diesel fuel.
1.3
Significance of the Study
The study that will be conducted will benefit the following:
Agricultural Economic Development. Using the coconut meat as the source of renewable
biodiesel can increase the demand of coconut production and can reduce the need to import
expensive fuels from other countries.
Mother Earth. The development of biodiesel will serve as a renewable energy source
which can significantly help reduce greenhouse gases production in turn decrease
pollution.
Students and Researchers. This study can serve as reference for future researchers that are
interested in Renewable Biodiesel by using the gathered information as baseline on their
study.
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1.4
Objectives of the Study
The purpose of this study is to evaluate biodiesel blend from 10% coconut oil and 90%
diesel as an alternative fuel which comply with Philippine National Standard (PNS). This
study specifically aims to:

Compare the obtained analysis between biodiesel blend from 10% coconut oil and
other commercially used biodiesel.

Evaluate the economic feasibility of biodiesel blend from 10% coconut oil as
alternative fuel.

Determine the carbon residue, flash point, viscosity and water content of the
mixture.

Evaluate the characteristics of biodiesel blend from 10% coconut oil and its
resulting implication to the environment.
1.5
Scopes and Limitations
The study was conducted to determine the fuel properties of a diesel fuel with a
concentration of 10% coconut oil blended with 90% diesel fuel. Determining the property of the
biodiesel was conducted in the Mechanical Engineering laboratory in the University of San Carlos
with the correct equipment for finding the properties of the biodiesel. The properties of biodiesel
that was investigated were the carbon residue, flash point, viscosity and water content of the fuel.
The study focuses on the properties of the biodiesel and can be comparable to the existing diesel
fuel used in the Philippines in which it is blended with 2% vegetable oil. Coconut oil is used in the
study which is renewable and abundant in the Philippines and will be used as an alternative fuel
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mixed with diesel fuel. The testing of the fuel in an actual engine will not be taken into account in
this paper but the study is limited only to the properties aforementioned. Moreover, the biodiesel
properties determined will help condition if the biodiesel that is blend from 10% coconut oil is a
good mixture for alternative fuel.
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1
Properties of Diesel fuel
With the world using internal combustion engines as a means of powering transportation
vehicles, one the most common fuel used the diesel fuel. Diesel fuel is taken from crude oil or
fossil oil dug up from underground. Diesel is used as a fuel for most large internal combustion
engines because these engines have found to result in a higher thermal efficiency resulting in a
higher fuel efficiency.
The successful development of diesel fuel and diesel-powered vehicle relies on the
necessary characteristics of the diesel fuel to have a satisfactory performance and reliable
condition. From the Diesel Fuels Technical Review by the Chevron Corporation, the diesel fuel
used must have the specifications stated in the ASTM International. Many of the specifications of
fuel are used in other parts of the world, and the Philippines is following these specifications. [4]
The flash point of diesel is used for the safety handling and use of the fuel. According to
the ASTM specification (D 93), the flash point of the diesel fuel is between 38 to 55 C (100 to
130 F).
The viscosity of the diesel fuel affects the fuel spray during injection in the combustion
chamber. It can also affect fuel system lubrication. According to the viscosity requirement of diesel
fuel specified in ASTM – D445, diesel fuel have a range of 1.3 to 24 mm2/sec kinematic viscosity
as their property.
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The carbon residue measures the coking tendency of the fuel of the diesel fuel, otherwise
known as the soot particles generated by the engine. According to ASTM – D524, diesel fuel must
have a specification of 0.15% mass of carbon residue.
The water content and sediment of diesel fuel affects the fuel filters and injectors in the
engine. In reliance to the ASTM specification (D2709), the diesel fuel must have a water content
of 0.15% to 0.50% to operate properly as a fuel.
2.2
Performance of Coconut Oil as Biodiesel
Biodiesel have major advantages when being used in existing engines. Injecting biodiesel
to the engine have little impact to operating performance. Coconut blend diesel is considered as a
biodiesel and therefore, the operating performance of this fuel can be found. Biodiesel has the
capacity to lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuel. Common emission of diesel
fuel is carbon dioxide, although the emission of biodiesel and fossil fuel is similar, the plant
feedstock used in the production of biodiesel fuel absorbs the carbon dioxide emissions. [7]
According to Machacon H.T et al (2001), performance results shows that neat coconut oil
fuels have resulted in lower smoke and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions. The operation of the test
with pure coconut oil and diesel fuel blend for a wide range of engine operating conditions.
Coconut oil is a widely used liquid biodiesel that is clean and easy to extract. However, the brake
specific fuel consumption of the system increases as a result of the lower heating value of neat
coconut oil fuel in comparison to diesel fuel. [8]
A research on the use of coconut biodiesel blends in a diesel engine without any engine
modification results in a lower HC, CO emissions (Liaquat A.M. et al (2013)). A sample of CB5
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(5% coconut biodiesel and 95% diesel fuel) and CB15 (15% coconut biodiesel and 85% diesel
fuel) was used and has been concluded that coconut-diesel blend can be used in diesel engines
without any engine modifications. Using coconut biodiesel can be beneficial in terms of alternative
petroleum fuel and in terms of emission reductions. Without any engine modifications, the
biodiesel can be used in present available engines. [9]
V. Vara Prasad (2017) used two samples of coconut oil which is directly used as a biodiesel,
coconut oil blended with diesel to find the performance of a four stroke engine diesel. Automotive
vehicle nowadays are increasing resulting in the increased use of fossil fuel. Having the coconut
biodiesel as a replacement of regular fuel promotes a cleaner alternative and a renewable source
of fuel. According to V. Vara Prasad (2017), the physical components of the coconut biodiesel is
much similar to diesel fuel. [10]
2.3
Properties of Coconut Biodiesel
Biodiesel produced from coconut oil has comparable fuel properties with the conventional
fossil diesel. The coconut oil as a biodiesel alternative has a major potential in terms of renewable
fuel source, it is also being considered as clean at which NOx and CO2 emissions decrease as the
percentage of coconut oil in the fuel mixture increases.
2.3.1 Carbon Residue of Biodiesel Produced from Coconut Oil
Carbon residue of the fuel is indicative of carbon depositing tendencies of the fuel. Conradson
carbon residue (CCR) for biodieselis more important than that in diesel fuel because it show a high
correlation with presence of free fatty acids, glycerides, soaps, polymers, higher unsaturated fatty
acids, inorganic impurities and even on the additives used for pour point depression. [1] According
to the research of Kumar, Gajenda et al (2009) a biodiesel produced from Coconut Oil has a
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Carbon Residue of 0.5%
2.3.2 Flash Point of Biodiesel produced from Coconut Oil
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid can form an ignitable mixture in air near
the surface of the liquid. The lower the flash point, the easier it is to ignite the material. [1]
According to Kumar, Gajenda et al (2009), The Flash point of Biodiesel produced from coconut
oil is 110°C
2.3.3 Viscosity of Biodiesel Produced from Coconut Oil
Viscosity of the fuel exerts a strong influence on shape of the fuel spray; high
viscosity for example, causes low atomization (large droplet size) and high penetration of spray
jet. Note that cold engines, with higher viscous oil, discharge will act almost a solid stream of fuel
into the combustion chamber and starting may be difficult while a smoky exhaust will invariably
appear. On the other hand, very low viscous fuel would cause to pass through leakage of the piston
and piston wall especially after wear has occurred, which subsequently prevents accurate metering
of the fuel. (Md A. Hossain, et al, 2012). [1] According to Kumar, Gajenda et al (2009) ,The
viscosity of Coconut oil as Biodiesel Fuel is 2.83 mm²/s. Thus making the coconut oil plausible
as alternative fuel as it is between in the [2] ASTM specification of Viscosity (ASTM - D445) from
1.9 to 6.0 mm²/s
2.3.4 Water Content of Biodiesel Produced from Coconut Oil
Water is the most common form of contamination in diesel fuel. Therefore there will always be a
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measurement and specification of water in any diesel fuel. According to the ASTM standard of
biodiesel fuel, the water content of an alternative fuel using coconut oil biodiesel must have 0.05%
content.
2.4
Properties of Biodiesel and its Blends
Blends of biodiesel are products used commonly in the market. Diesel blended with
coconut oil has an advantage over pure petro diesel because of their properties. Coconut-biodiesel
makes a more environment-friendly and economical fuel. To ensure quality of biodiesel, there are
specification standards and standard of testing the properties for a biodiesel to be viable for use.
Flash point is an important property in a CI engine. From the research conducted by
Hossain, Md A. et al (2012), it was observed that the flash point of B40, otherwise known as diesel
fuel having a concentration of 40% coconut oil, to have about 1.25% higher than the fossil fuel at
55 C. The flash point of the fuel is higher when there is a higher percent of biodiesel. In the same
research, B60 was used and it resulted in a 1.35% higher flash point than that of the diesel fuel.
A research conducted by Hossain, Md A. et al (2012), the viscosity of the different fuel
blends were also determined. Viscosity of the fuel have a strong influence in the shape of fuels
spray. B40 and B60 have almost the same viscosity at room temperature and it is about 1.5 – 2%
higher compared to the fossil fuel. [5]
In a comparison research on the characteristics between B5 and diesel conducted by Yasin,
Mohd Hafizil et al (2015), the properties of neat petroleum diesel and B5 fuel is similar. In their
research, the blended fuel was used in an engine test and resulted in lower emissions compared to
diesel fuel. In their research, the cloud point of the diesel fuel is 4.3% higher compared to the
biodiesel. The flash point of the biodiesel resulted to 81.1 C and the diesel fuel at 93C. [6]
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2.5
Availability of Biodiesel
Coconut is the tree of life. having its oil extracted from the meat, Coconut oil is a widely
used liquid biofuel that is clean, relatively cheap, easy to extract, non-toxic and aromatic. Thus it
is favorable for Coconut Oil to be a possible renewable energy source.
Renewable Energy Source nowadays are being recognized by the public due to the constant
rise in price of those Non-Renewable Energy Source, specifically the fossil fuel in the middle
eastern countries, thats why people are starting to use alternative energy which are renewable.
The production of Coconut oil is all year round because the Coconut tree can bear its fruits
anytime within the year and is not seasonal, also, the price for copra or coconut meat is depleting
due to lesser demand,thus making a new way to use copra can make the demand rise and can cause
domino effect on the economy.
Alternative Energy Sources are also one of the solution to the energy environmental
problems in the developing world. In particular, [1] Engine emissions are also related to the fuel/oil
ratio. Smoke, NOx and CO2 emissions decrease as the percentage of coconut oil in the fuel mixture
increases, reducing by ~75% for smoke, ~40% for NOx
and ~15% for CO2 when 100%
coconut oil is used. [12]
2.6
Research Gaps
In the Philippines, there are only a few studies about biodiesel utilization and production.
Although the government implemented to have 2% vegetable oil mixed with diesel, having a
higher percentage of vegetable oil concentration promotes better air quality. The use of biofuel in
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the country for transportation is implemented in the Philippines to reduce the country’s dependence
on fossil fuel and reduce harmful emissions. Pursuing this objective of implementation is enacted
by the government known as the Biofuels Act of 2006. [10]
In this paper, coconut used as fuel, a detailed study is conducted for determining the
properties of coconut oil blend with diesel fuel at a concentration of 10% coconut oil mixed with
90% diesel fuel.
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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
A systematic procedure is applied for evaluating the biodiesel blend from 10% coconut oil.
It helps to identify the different properties of the biodiesel blend from 10% coconut oil and its
difference with commercially used biodiesel. The methodology employed in this research for the
analysis of the biodiesel is presented in this chapter.
3.1
Flowchart
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Fig. 1 Methodology Flowchart
The figure above shows the methodology flowchart used for the evaluation of biodiesel blend from
10% coconut oil as an alternative fuel. This will assist the researchers during the procedure in order
to yield the objectives.
3.2
Extraction of Coconut oil
The extraction of coconut oil from its meat can be done in University of San Carlos –
Technological Center mechanical laboratory for the researcher’s ease of access and transportation.
The meat must be removed from its shell and husk before grating the meat. The grated meat shall
be placed into nylon mesh bag and pressed to extract coconut milk. Allowed the collected coconut
milk to settle. As the coconut oil will naturally separate from water and proteins, carefully collect
and filter the coconut oil.
3.3
Mixing Process
10% of extracted coconut oil shall be blended with diesel in a large clean container. It shall
be stirred moderately to obtain homogenous mixture. The mixture will then undergo filtration to
remove solid particles.
3.4
Testing and Determination
The mixture was subjected under the analysis of carbon residue, flash point, viscosity and
water content.
Table 3.4.1 The ratio between the two components
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Components
Percentage
Diesel
90%
Coconut Oil
10%
3.4.1 Carbon Residue Determination
The carbon residue of the biodiesel will be determined using conradson carbon residue test. When
smoke appeared above the chimney, the burner was immediately moved so that the gas flame plays
on the sides of the crucible for the purpose of igniting vapors. The burner was removed and the
apparatus was allowed to cool until no smoke appeared and then the cover was removed using
tongs, placed in the desiccator, and weighed. Then the percentage of carbon residue on the original
sample was calculated using the equation below: (Unit: %), ASTM D 189 – IP13
𝐴
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 (%) = ( ) 𝑥 100%
𝑊
; 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
3.4.2 Flash Point Determination
The flash point of the oil will be determined with the use of the Cleveland open cup. The
cup was filled so that the top of the meniscus is exactly at the filling line. A test flame was passed
across the center of the cup and through the thermometer with each pass lasts for 1 second. The
temperature was recorded as the observed flash point when a flash appeared on the on the surface
of the oil.
3.4.3 Viscosity Determination
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Viscosity will be determined using the Saybolt universal viscometer. For standardization
the mixture must have a temperature varies by more than ±0.05 ºF (0.03 ºC) in tests at 21.25, 37.7,
50 and 54.4 ºC). The receiving flask will be placed in position so that the stream of the oil from
the outlet tube will strike the neck of the flask. placed in position so that the stream of the oil from
the outlet tube will strike the neck of the flask. The cork was napped from its position and at the
same instant the timer was started. The timer is stopped when the bottom of the meniscus of the
oil reaches the mark on the neck of the receiving flask
3.4.4 Water Content Determination
A suitable amount of sample with an accuracy of ±1% was measured and transferred it to the still.
The materials were rinsed adhering to the cylinder with one 50 mL and one 25 mL portions of
solvent-carrier liquid. Weighed solid directly into the still and added 100 mL of solvent carrier
liquid. An excess100 mL solvent-carrier was necessary for materials with low water content.
Adjusted the rate of boiling so that the condensed distillate dischargers from the condenser at the
rate of two to five drops per second. The distillation was continued until no water was visible in
any part of the apparatus. The percentage water content will be calculated using the equation
below: (Unit: %), ASTM D95 – IP 74
%Water Content =
𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑥−𝑊𝑥𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒
𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑥
x 100% ;
Where: Wmix = mass of the mixture
Wxylene = mass of the xylene
Table 3.4.2 Standard Characteristics Reference for Blended Diesel Oil
15
Standard Values
B2
B5
Parameters
(2% coconut oil blend)
(5% coconut oil blend)
Carbon Residue
Cetane Number
Kinematic Viscosity @ 40 °C
Water Content
0.15%
5 °C
2.0 – 4.5 mm2 /s
0.05 %
0.3%
5 °C
2.0 – 4.5 mm2 /s
0.05 %
The results gathered will be compared with the Standard Characteristics Reference for Blended
Diesel Oil given by PNS (Philippine National Standard).
16
Definition of Terms
The important terms are operationally defined for better understanding of the study.
Diesel. Refined petroleum product from crude oil that may contain hydrocarbon and other
additives to improve ignition quality.
Biodiesel. Natural alternative renewable source of energy that is primarily used for power and
thermal generator.
Coconut. Largely produced product that covers about 27% of cropped area in the Philippines.
Coconut Oil. Extracted oil from the coconut meat that can be blended with commercially used
diesel to produce a potential biodiesel.
Viscosity. Physical property of fluid that offers internal resistance to flow.
Cloud Point. Temperature at which paraffin wax dissolved in oil will start to separate causing the
oil to become cloudy.
Water Content. Amount of water contamination in a petroleum product.
Flash Point. Lowest temperature at which it gives off flammable vapors, an indicator of the
flammability hazards of the product.
Carbon Residue. – Rough approximation of the fuel to form deposits at a high temperature in the
absence of free supply of air.
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REFERENCES
[1] Md A. Hossain et al., “Biodiesel from Coconut Oil: A Renewable Alternative Fuel for Diesel
Engine”, Volume 8, No.8, 2012 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Chemical and Molecular Engineering
[2] David Parry “Coconut Oil Biofuel in the Pacific”, December 15, 2014. [Online] Available:
large.stanford.edu
[3] J.R. Velasco and C.J. Meimban, “Studies on coconut sapal [coconut meat by product]; 1:
challenges and opportunities [Philippines]”, National Inst. of Science and Technology, Taft
Avenue, Manila, 1986
[4] John Bacha et al, “Diesel Fuel Technical Review”, 2007
[5] Md A. Hossain et al., “Biodiesel from Coconut Oil: A Renewable Alternative Fuel for Diesel
Engine”, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of
Chemical and Molecular Engineering, Volume 6, No. 8, 2012, Pages 1289-1293
[6] Mohd Hafizil Yasin et al, “Effect of Low Proportion Palm Biodiesel Blend on Performance,
Combustion and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine”, Energy Procedia, Volume 75,
August 2015, Pages 92-98
[7] National Biodiesel Board, “Successful alternative fuels fulfill environmental and energy
security needs without sacrificing operating performance. Operationally, biodiesel blends perform
18
very similar to low sulfur diesel in terms of power, torque, and fuel without major modification of
engines or infrastructure.”, April 2012. [Online]. Available:
https://www.biodiesel.org/docs/ffs-basics/performance-fact-sheet.pdf?sfvrsn=6
[Accessed July 19, 2019]
[8] “Performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with coconut oil–diesel
fuel blend”, Herchel T.C. Machacon, Biomass and Bioenergy, Volume 20, Issue 1, January 2001,
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[9] “Effect of Coconut Biodiesel Blended Fuels on Engine Performance and Emission
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[10] “Performance Of 4 Stroke Diesel Engine Using Coconut Oil As Biofuel Material”, V. Vara
Pasad, Volume 4, Issue 4, Part D, 2017, Pages 5312-5319
[11] RA 9367: Biofuels Act of 2006
[12] Performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with coconut oil/diesel
fuel blend Herchel T.C. Machacon, Seiichi Shiga, Takao Karasawa, Hisao Nakamura, Biomass
and Bioenergy 20 (2001) pp63-69
https://business.inquirer.net/269100/copra-prices-continue-slide-as-global-demand-for-coconutoil-remains-soft
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Engine”, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of
Chemical and Molecular Engineering, Volume 6, No. 8, 2012, Pages 1289-1293
19
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[15] Emmanuel, O. Eyankware et al., “Determination of Cloud and Pour Point of Crude Oil with
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[16] Nikunj Dave, Tejas Joshi, “Cloud Point Analysis: Influence of Additives on Polysorbate”,
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Values of Reference Liquids by Capillary Viscometers and Stabinger Viscometer SVM
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[19] Jozef Petrik et al., “The Cpability of the Viscosity Measurement Process”, Vol. 21, No.1,
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