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Teaching Science in the Primary Grades
Education (Bulacan State University)
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Module
Introduction:
TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES:
AN OVERVIEW
It is innate for children to be curious at their young age. Their primary caregivers
must encourage them to become more involved in activities that will promote their
explorations, play, questioning, and experimentation leading them to predict and
generate their own ideas. They learn more effectively when they are the ones involved
in doing things. According to John Dewey, learning by doing is learning thinking.
Children become more active, participative and enjoy carrying out activities while
learning occurs. These direct experiences give them opportunities to have direct
observations and explorations on the environment. Thus, science for young children is
an active process.
When children participate actively in performing an activity, they formulate their
own theories about the world and be able to find solutions to the problems. They
observe, collect pieces of information, do experiments and try to predict what will
happen. They display eagerness to continuously discover what is really happening with
the things around them, how they work and how they are interrelated with one another.
Children’s ways of discovering things are distinctly unique.
Science and Its
Nature
LESSON
1
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Define science;
2. Discuss the nature of science;
3. Explain how science inquiry can promote science
skills for children; and
4. Determine the goals in teaching science.
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What is the working definition of Science?
Science requires processes in order to come up with phenomena understanding. According
to the National Science Education Standards, "Science inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which
scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on evidence from their work"
(National Science Research Council, 1996). Science should be viewed as:
1. Science is an exciting way of discovering things.
•
Children's innate ability to discover things on their own allow them to know what
happened in the past, what is happening today in the world and how they will work in
the future teachers who are using traditional approaches. Science through the use of
memorization and using rigid procedures that can compromise children's curiosity
using a systematic procedure in the collection and evaluation of pieces of information,
predicting what might happen, testing those predictions, and making substantial
observation using their senses. According to Kamii & Lee-Katz (1983), "Children
acquire scientific knowledge by construction, not instruction." Providing children
opportunities to perform activities wherein they can be the first-hand participants (not
merely lecturing them of science concepts) could be the best way of exposing them to
science rather than direct instruction.
2. Science is useful.
•
All information generated by Science can be reliable and useful at the same time. They
can be used for disease treatment, developing technologies, and finding solutions to
different problems.
3. Science is a continuous process.
•
The process of refining and expanding knowledge leads to a new investigation; thus,
science can never be completed. Children should view science from different
perspectives so they will be fascinated by learning things. More so, this will enable
children to cultivate critical thinking such as weapons in dealing with struggles and
obstacles in life. Meaning, science in primary grades does not only require to be
systematic but rather provide activities that will foster the characteristics of true future
scientists.
To
summarize:
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▪
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Science is a behavior demonstrated by curiosity and inquisitiveness on what is happening in
the world.
Science is a problem solving where children try to solve problems based on their observation
and gathered information.
Science is not the memorization of formulas and merely facts learning.
Science is giving children the encouragement to explore their environments and reveal their
observations and discoveries.
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The Nature of Science
To come up with great ideas, there must be a process of observing, thinking, experimenting,
and validating should be done. People can only develop and validate the interconnection of ideas
about the world and increase the idea's reliability about the understanding of human species and its
environment to the successive generations only if they go through the said process. The nature of
science and how science trends are represented by the aforementioned process makes science
different from other disciplines.
Derck Hodson, a science educator and researcher, tried to compare teaching Science as an
anthropologist taught about another culture. He found out that it involves people's participation in
particular knowledge, language, customs, practices, values, and attitudes. Describing the nature of
Science, consideration of unique characteristics, scientific knowledge, values, and assumptions
must be considered on how they have been developed.
Some particular basic beliefs and attitudes are related to the nature of the world which the
scientists shared of what they learned using science, and these are:
1. The World is Understandable
Scientists claimed that everything in the universe happens in a constant pattern, and
they are understandable through careful and systematic study. They also presumed that
using intelligence, and in aid of instruments that serve as extensions of senses, people will
be able to explore and discover patterns in all of nature.
2. Scientific Ideas are Subject to Change
Science as a process for producing knowledge, the reliability of the knowledge solely
depends on the meticulous observations about the phenomena and theories for making
sense. It cannot be avoided for knowledge to be subjected to change due to the prevailing
theories' challenges. Regardless of how important and relevant the formulated theories are,
there will be emerging better theories and fit a wider range of observations. Hence, testing,
improving, and occasional discarding of theories is inevitable in the field of science. Scientists
assume that even if there is no way to secure complete and absolute truth, accurate
approximations can be made to account for the world.
3. Scientific Knowledge is Long-lasting
There is no absolute truth in science and scientists accept uncertainty as part of
nature, most scientific knowledge is long-lasting. Changes and improvements, rather than a
complete rejection of the idea is the rule in science as powerful constructed ideas tend to
survive and become precise and widely accepted. Furthermore, scientists' expanding ability
to make accurate predictions about natural phenomena provides potent evidence that they
are gaining a better understanding of the world. Nevertheless, continuity and stability are
considered characteristics of science aside from its capability to change the confidence
likewise is as prevalent as tentative.
4. Scientific cannot Provide Complete Answer to All Questions
Though many things cannot be tested in specific ways, the beliefs in the presence of
supernatural powers and beings, or the purpose of life because they are very natural, cannot
be either proved or disapproved. Moreover, a scientific approach may be valid to be rejected
as irrelevant for those people who stand firm to particular beliefs such as miracles, fortunetelling, astrology, and superstition. Scientists who do not have the means to resolve good
and evil issues, though sometimes, may contribute by discussing issues on the
consequences of a particular action, which may help consider some alternatives.
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Science Inquiry and the Nature of Science
People often hear that "children are natural scientists". They are full of curiosity that pushes
them to explore the world and develop their conclusions and theories from their experiences.
Nevertheless, they were not born with innate scientific skills. Parents and teachers have to nurture
their natural curiosity and allow them to practice science to engage in rich scientific inquiry.
Science inquiry provides the opportunity for children to develop a range of skills, either
explicitly or implicitly. The following is one such list:
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
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Investigate and explore objects and events.
Ask questions.
Establish attentive observation.
Describe, compare, sort, classify, and order materials.
Record observations using words, pictures, charts, and graphs.
Utilized different simple tools for further observations.
Determine patterns and relationship.
Construct temporary explanations and ideas.
Conduct collaborative work.
Share and discuss ideas and listen to a new perspective.
What are the goals of teaching science?
Science and curiosity always go together. Wondering why things happen that way ignites
children's interest to get engaged in the exploration and coming up with solutions and discoveries.
Without curiosity, it is hard to motivate children to involve in activities dealing with investigations and
inquiries. These are the beginning of meeting people's needs, especially in coming up with
medicines, developing technologies, and uncovering the world from its true nature. Thus, it is
essential for children to learn more about Science that often holds the clues they need to better
understand.
Teaching Science in primary grades is quite challenging. It requires a lot of creativity and
enthusiasm to motivate young minds to engage in learning science and develop their critical science
skills. But what is the importance of teaching science to young children?
▪
▪
▪
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Science enables children to cultivate critical life skills. This includes enhancing their
communication skills, being focused and organized, and creating substantial opinions based
on their observations. Meaning children progress in their awareness of their surroundings.
Science provides many natural opportunities for children. Children's intellectual development
can be supported by interacting with the environment. Through this, children can become
hands-on learners.
Science can bring future careers to children. Whatever they had learned when they were
young is essential and impactful in igniting their interest in science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM). These concentrations and cognitive stock in science are vital to
their success in later life.
Science develops learners' competence in seeking knowledge and information in the use of
science processes. Science enables the acquisition of scientific skills and sustains interest in
future science-based pursuits.
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The skills mentioned are essential to establish during children's early age because they are
components to build desirable characters among children. Teachers are the agents in transforming
children into valuable members of society by implying science literacy. It is not merely the
transmission of knowledge and enhancing the learners' skills but also preparing them to contribute
to a better-quality life.
It is essential to make learners science-literate because it yields context to address societal
conflicts and allows people to cope with intelligence issues in coming up with decisions that could
significantly affect the quality of their lives.
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SCIENCE EDUCATION
IN THE PHILIPPINES
LESSON
2
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Discuss the concept of science education;
2. Identify science schools established to
promote science education in the Philippines;
and
3. Realize the importance of Science Education
in our daily life experiences.
The Concept of Science Education
Science Education focuses on teaching, learning, and understanding science. It involves
developing ways on how to effectively teaching science. This means exploring pedagogical theories
and models in helping teachers teach scientific concepts and processes effectively. Learning
science involves the use of pedagogy and the most exciting aspect, helping students understand
and love science. Understanding this subject implies developing and applying science literacy in
understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.
It is getting deeper into the discourse of science education. Dewey, stressed the importance
of utilizing the natural environment to teach students. The same with nature must indeed furnish its
physical stimuli to provide a wealth of meaning through social activities and thinking. It is not
surprising; therefore, that science education is essential. Marx, opines that science will be one of
the most school subjects in the future.
Science education is justified by the vast amount of scientific knowledge developed in this
area that prepares citizens in a scientifically and technologically driven world. It provides skills and
knowledge necessary for a person to live in what Knight, describes as the age of science and to
develop a citizenry that will meet science and society. Developing a science culture is an immense
responsibility for schools.
Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education
In Basic Education, science helps students learn important concepts and facts related to
everyday life experiences including essential skills such as process skills that are needing in coping
up with daily life activities. It also develops positive attitudes such as the love for knowledge, passion
for innovative things, curiosity to study nature, and creativity.
Science education will develop a strong foundation for studying science and for considering
science-minded careers in the future. This is an investment for the country to develop a scientifically
culture and literate citizenry.
While in Tertiary Education it deals with developing students’ understanding and appreciation
of science ideas and scientific works. This is done by offering introductory sciences courses in the
General Education Curriculum. The science education at the tertiary level focuses on preparing
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science teachers, scientists, engineers, and other professionals in various science-related fields
such as engineering, agriculture, medicine, and health sciences. The government provides
scholarships to encourage students to pursue science courses.
Science Schools in the Philippines
One outstanding science program for science education supported by the government is
establishing the science schools in various parts of the country. Several government programs are
implemented by the Department of Education and a few private schools for science education.
Philippine Science High School System (PSHSS), this is a government program for gifted
students in the Philippines. It is a service institute of the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) whose mandate is to offer free scholarship basis for secondary courses with special
emphasis on subjects about sciences, with the end view of preparing its students for science career
(R.A. 3661). The school also maintains a dormitory for the students.
Since its inception, the PSHSS has pursued its vision to develop Filipino science scholars
with a scientific mind and passion for excellence. PSHSS students have proven to be a beacon of
excellence, courage, and hope for the country.
They have brought honor to the Philippines through their exemplary achievements in various
international competitions and research circles. When the students graduate from these schools,
they are expected to pursue degrees concerning science courses and enrolled in various colleges
and universities whose specialization is in science and technology.
Special Science Elementary Schools (SESS) Project
The Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) pursuance to DepEd Order No.73
S.2008 and DepEd Order No.51 S. 2010.This project started in 2007 with 57 identified elementary
schools in the country.
SESS is a research and development project designed to develop students with higher
aptitude for science and mathematics by implementing an enhanced science and mathematics
curriculum at the elementary level.
Manila Science High School
The school was established in October 1, 1963 and called as Manila Science High School.
It was considered as the first science high school in the Philippines. The organization and curriculum
of the school puts more emphasis on sciences and mathematics. In order to do this, humanities as
a subject and other elective are included in their curriculum. Students are also encouraged to
participate in various extra-curricular activities. The school administers an entrance examination,
the Manila Science High School Admission Test (MSAT), for students interested in enrolling. The
MSAT includes five parts; aptitude in science, aptitude in mathematics, problem-solving test in
science, problem-solving in mathematics, and English proficiency. The school produced outstanding
alumni and for winning various national competitions.
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Central Visayan Institute Foundation
It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-based innovation known as the
Dynamic Learning Program (DLP). The DLP is the synthesis of classical and modern pedagogical
theories adapted to foster a higher learning level, creativity, and productivity.
The school takes pride in the Research Center for Theoretical Physics (RCTP). It was
established in 1992, which organizes small international workshops to foster the informal but intense
exchange of ideas and perspectives on outstanding problems in physics and mathematics.
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Science Framework in
the K to 12
LESSON
3
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Described the science framework in the K to 12;
and
2. Discussed the framework relative to each grade
level.
The Science Framework in the K to 12
Science as whole, as provided by the national framework of the DepEd responds to the 21 st
Century Literacy which is the Science and Technological Literacy. It involves three important
components.
1. Understanding and Applying Scientific Knowledge
•
To understand better scientific knowledge, it is best to understand first what science
is. Science consists of two things: a body of knowledge and the process by which that
knowledge is produced. More often, science is defined only as a body of knowledge.
However, science processes are the other component that describes the way of
thinking and knowing about the world. Scientific knowledge is not absolute or certain.
Knowledge, including facts, theories, and laws, is all tentative and subject to change
due to new evidence brought about by advances in theory and technology. Science
knowledge is also socially and culturally embedded.
2. Developing and Demonstrating Scientific Attitude and Values
•
What is scientific attitude? It can be defined as a way of viewing things, a curiosity to
know how and why things happen with an open mind on govern facts. It is a way of
thinking, feeling, acting and a disposition towards science. Attitude can be positive or
negative. Science attitude is oftentimes attributed to characteristics of scientists, but
learners can also develop scientific attitudes. Here are some of the scientific attitudes:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
A scientist must be curious about the world. (Curiosity)
A scientist admits failures and recognizes that there are better ideas. (Humility)
A scientist listens and respects ideas of others. (Open-mindedness)
A scientist is intellectually honest. (Intellectual Honesty)
A scientist works har and is persistent. (Perseverance)
A scientist does not jump to conclusions. (Skepticism)
A scientist is creative and critical thinker. (Creative and Innovative)
A scientist uses reason or logical thinking before giving answers. (Rational)
A scientist is willing to suspend judgement until he is sure of his results.
(Objectivity)
A scientist tries new approaches to arrive at solutions. (Innovative)
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3. Performing Scientific Inquiry Skills
•
A science-oriented mind is questioning mind. To inquire is to ask a series of questions
and find answers to the questions asked. The series of questioning and finding
answers to the questions refer to science inquiry. Students’ abilities that are needed
to enable them to be science inquirer are presented for K to 4 and G 5 to 8 learners.
These are found in the matrix below.
Kindergarten to Grade 4 Learners
Ask questions about objects, organism and
events in the environment.
Plan and conduct a simple investigation.
Employ simple equipment and tools to gather
data and extend the senses.
Use data to construct reasonable explanation.
Communicate investigations and explanations.
Grade 5 to 8 Learners
Identify questions that can be answered
through scientific investigations.
Design and conduct simple scientific
investigation.
Use appropriate tools and techniques to
gather, analyze and interpret data.
Develop descriptions, explanations, predictions
and models using evidence.
Think critically and logically to make the
relationship between evidence and
explanations.
Characteristics of a Scientific and Technologically Literate Persons
If the learners are ale to model, theories, and practices that are imbibed based the framework,
how then should every learner be characterized? It is expected that science teachers should be able
to develop learners who have characteristics exemplified below.
1. Critical and Creative Problem Solver
•
Learners have developed skills that enable them to analyze and find solutions to any
perplexing questions of problems. They have other ways of solving problems.
2. Responsible Steward of Nature.
•
Learners demonstrate concern in keeping the environment safe for themselves and
for everybody. They become citizens who take responsibility of their action in
protecting and preserving the environment.
3. Innovative and Inventive Thinker
•
Science as a discipline will enable learners to create and innovative something simple
for humanity. They will become scientists and inventors of the future.
4. Informed Decision Maker
•
As the science learners are growing up, they should be able to develop the ability to
make informed decisions. Most especially if they become independent learners.
5. Effective Communicator
•
Science literacy also develops the ability of the learners to convey correct message to
others. Whether written or oral, from their fund of knowledge, results of inquiry,
investigations and many more. There is a need for science learners to share their
findings.
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LESSON
4
Contents of Elementary
Science in a Spiral
Progression
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Identified the contents of science in Grade 3 to 6
in a spiral progression; and
2. Explained that the contents or subject matter of
science progresses in complexity from grade level
to another.
Science in a spiral curriculum design is one in which “key concepts are presented repeatedly
throughout the curriculum but with deepening layers of complexity.” The learner tries to spiral
upwards learning as the new knowledge is introduces as well as the new process skills are
developed. This will increase the breadth and the depth of knowledge achieved. This is the
curriculum design for science in the basic education to start with the Grade 3 to Grade 6.
Grade 6
Grade 5
Grade 4
Grade 3
The content of Science in the K to 12 Curriculum is made of the four major fields or disciplines:
a. Chemistry (Matter: Diversity of Materials, Properties and Structures, Changes and
Interactions)
b. Biology (Living Things and Their Environment)
c. Physics (Force, Motion and Energy); and
d. Earth and Space (Surrounding and Land, Water and Air, Weather, Climate and Solar
System)
The subject area contents are not labelled by the major science discipline, instead these are
given titles that are understandable by the learners from Grade 3 to Grade 6 and even up to Grade
10.
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• Diveristy of
Materials
• Properties and
Structure
• Changes
• Interactions
• Properties
• Structures and
Function
• Processed
• Interactions
Matter
Living
Things and
their
Environment
Earth and
Space
Force and
Motion
• Surroundings:
Land, Water, Air
• Weather and
Climate
• Solar System
• Movement
• Effects of Force
• Form of Energy
• Transformation
The four quadrants represent the total coverage of Science in the elementary level. As noted,
there is a continuous flow of topics in every quadrant. This implies integration, interdisciplinary and
multidisciplinary of Science.
For every grade level, there are four science areas to be covered. Each area is taken up in
every quarter since there are four quarters in every school year level.
Grade 3
Quarter 1
Quarter 2
Quarter 3
Quarter 4
Matter
Living Things
Force, Motion,
Energy
Earth and Space
Grade 4
Matter
Living Things
Force, Motion,
Energy
Earth and Space
Grade 5
Matter
Living Things
Force, Motion,
Energy
Earth and Space
Grade 6
Matter
Living Things
Force, Motion,
Energy
Earth and Space
Major Area: Chemistry
Description in the Elementary Curriculum: Matter
The chart below shows the different topics that are taken in progression in Chemistry from
one lower grade level to another higher-grade level. All the topics are anchored on one bigger topic
as Properties and Structure.
Grade 3
Properties and Structure of Matter
• Characteristics of Solids, Liquids and Gases
Matter
• Changes in Solids, Liquids and Gases
Grade 4
Properties and Structure of Matter
• Properties used to group and store materials (ability to absorb water;
float or sink; decaying or non-decaying). Regrouping materials;
Matter
recycle, reduce, reuse, recover, repair.
Changes that materials undergo.
• Changes that are useful.
• Changes that are harmful.
Grade 5
Properties and Structure of Matter
• Properties used to minimize waste.
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Matter
Grade 6
Matter
• Importance of reading product label.
Changes that matter undergoes.
• Evidence of change.
• Appropriate ways of storing materials.
Properties and Structure of Matter
• Mixture and their Characteristics
Heterogenous mixtures: solutions and suspensions
Colloids
Separating Mixture
Major Area: Living Things and their Environment
The next major topic is Biology which is described as Living Things and their Environment.
Let us see the different topics and how their progress in the different grade levels.
Grade 3
Characteristics of Living Things
Parts and Function of Living Things
• Humans
• Animals
• Plants
Living Things and their Traits Passed on From Parents
Environment
• Humans
• Animals
• Plants
Interactions of Living Things with the Environment
• Basic Needs
• Feeding Relationships
Grade 4
Parts and Functions
• Humans
Major Organs of the Body
Caring for the Major Organs
Diseases that Affect the Major Organs
• Animal
Living Things and their
Terrestrial Animals
Environment
Aquatic Animals
• Plants
Terrestrial Plants
Aquatic Plants
Life Cycles
• Humans, Animals and Plants
Interactions
• Beneficial Interactions
• Harmful Interactions
Grade 5
Parts and Functions
▪ Humans
Stages of Growth
Parts of the Reproductive System
Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics
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Menstrual Cycle
▪ Animals
Parts of the Reproductive System of Representative
Groups of Animals and their Functions
Differences in the Modes of Reproduction: External
Fertilization, Internal Fertilization
▪ Birds (ducks)
▪ Fishes (tilapia)
Living Things and their
▪ Toads/Frogs
Environment
▪ Crustaceans (crab and shrimps)
▪ Dragonflies and Butterflies
Protecting Habitat of Animals
▪ Plants
Flowering Plants (rice/corn, pechay, mongo)
Non-flowering Plants (cone bearing, ferns, liverworts)
Protecting Habitats of Plants
Interactions Among Living Things
Grade 6
Parts and Functions
▪ Human Body System
Musculoskeletal
Digestive System
Respiratory System
Circulatory System
Nervous System
▪ Animals
Living Things and their
Characteristics of Vertebrates and Invertebrates
Environment
Economic Importance of Vertebrates and Invertebrates in
the Community
Rare Animals in the Community
Protecting and Caring for Animals
▪ Interactions
Physical Condition of Tropical Rainforest, Coral Reefs and
Mangrove Swaps
Plants and Animals Living in these Ecosystems
Feeding Relationships in these Ecosystems
Protecting and Conserving Tropical Forest Ecosystems
Scientific Attitudes of the Learners
Science Curriculum Framework involves the development of certain attitudes in learnings.
These refer to values and habits of mind which are especially important in science and are
necessary if students are to become lifelong learners and productive citizens. Such attitudes should
be developed from Grade 1 up to Grade 10 as they are crucial in helping students appreciate the
pleasure of learning to learn and or to reduce their dependency on transmission of knowledge.
1. Critical Thinking
▪
The development of inquiry skills contributes towards development of critical thinking
in learners. Critical thinking skills are not taught directly. They are developed through
inquiry activities that students engage in and through their attempts to explain the
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outcomes of their investigations using evidence and logical argument. When making
comparisons, they learn to recognize when a comparison might be unfair because the
conditions were not kept the same. The development of critical thinking in the
elementary grades begins when the teacher asks the students “How do you know?”
and they give reasonable answers. They accept answers that are supported by
observations, facts found in books or from other reliable sources. They learn to rely on
evidence to support their statements.
2. Creativity
•
Many people think that creativity resides only in artists. But anyone can be creative,
no matter which field he is in, so long as he is able to use his imagination. A creative
person is someone who is always trying to cook up something new or different.
Perhaps it’s a faster or safer way of doing something. Perhaps it’s a cheaper product
or a different solution to a problem. That something may come from putting two (or
more) things together in a novel way, or from seeing connections between ideas that
seem unrelated, or from simply changing one’s perspective. Society will certainly
benefit from the work of creative people who suggest innovative and relevant ways to
solve problems.
3. Intellectual Honesty
•
Being honest means being truthful. Thus, being intellectually honest means not
copying someone else’s work and claiming it to be one’s own. It means recording each
and every observation and not selecting only those that support one’s hypothesis. It
means reporting the actual results of an investigation and not leaving out those that
challenge one’s premises. Being intellectually honest means not misleading others to
achieve personal goals.
4. Accuracy
•
In the course of schoolwork, students are expected to observe, describe, and
measure. They are required to record everything and communicate what they have
learned. If the students are careless in their measurements and sloppy in their
recordkeeping, then the results of their inquiry may not be reliable. Students should
strive to be accurate at all times, which may be broadly defined as free from mistakes
or blunders as the result of being careful.
5. Objectivity
•
An objective person is able to deal with facts or conditions as they are, without being
swayed by his personal feelings, prejudices, and expectations. While it may be
impossible for someone to be totally impartial, people should be aware that their
personal biases may color their judgment, and the observations and findings that they
report may be tainted with distortions arising from personal beliefs or preconceived
notions. An objective person always validates observations and explanations.
6. Independent Thinking
•
An independent thinker is one who tries to answer questions on his own, using his
own observations and experiences. He does not simply accept the ideas and opinions
of others. He looks for relevant data and information and then makes up his own mind.
Independent thinking does not mean you do not need the help of others. It just means
one does not form an opinion or conclusion based on what others think or say. Just
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because everybody believes in something does not mean one has to believe in it, too.
An independent thinker uses his own mind, even if that leads to mistakes.
Grade Level Standards
The following standards are based from the K-12 Guide (2016):
•
Kinder
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•
•
Grade 1
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Grade 2
•
•
•
•
•
Grade 3
•
•
•
•
The learners will demonstrate an emerging understanding of the parts of their
body and their general functions; plants, animals and varied materials in their
environment and their observable characteristics; general weather conditions
and how these influences what they wear; and other things in their
environment. Understanding of their bodies and what is around them is
acquired through exploration, questioning, and careful observation as they
infer patterns, similarities, and differences that will allow them to make sound
conclusions.
At the end of Grade 1, learners will use their senses to locate and describe
the external parts of their body; to identify external parts of animals and plants.
To tell the shape, color, texture, taste, and size of things around them.
To describe similarities and differences given two objects.
To differentiate sounds produced by animals, vehicles cars, and musical
instruments.
To illustrate how things, move.
To describe the weather and what to do in different situations.
To use appropriate terms or vocabulary to describe these features; to collect,
sort, count, draw, take things apart, or make something out of the things;
To practice healthy habits (e.g., washing hands properly, choosing nutritious
food) and safety measures (e.g., helping to clean or pack away toys, asking
questions and giving simple answers/ descriptions to probing questions).
At the end of Grade 2, learners will use their senses to explore and describe
the functions of their senses.
Compare two or more objects and using two or more properties.
Sort things in different ways and give a reason for doing so.
Describe the kind of weather or certain events in the home or school and
express how these are affecting them.
Do simple measurements of length.
Tell why some things around them are important.
Decide if what they do is safe or dangerous.
Give suggestions on how to prevent accidents at home, practice electricity,
water, and paper conservation, help take care of pets or of plants , and tell
short stories about what they do, what they have seen, or what they feel.
At the end of Grade 3, learners can describe the functions of the different parts
of the body and things that make up their surroundings --- rocks and soil,
plants and animals, the Sun, Moon and stars.
They can also classify these things as solid, liquid or gas.
They can describe how objects move and what makes them move.
They can also identify sources and describe uses of light, heat, sound, and
electricity.
Learners can describe changes in the conditions of their surroundings.
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Grade 5
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Grade 6
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These would lead learners to become more curious about their surroundings,
appreciate nature, and practice health and safety measures.
At the end of Grade 4, learners can investigate changes in some observable
properties of materials when mixed with other materials or when force is
applied on them.
They can identify materials that do not decay and use this knowledge to help
minimize waste at home, school, and in the community.
Learners can describe the functions of the different internal parts of the body
in order to practice ways to maintain good health.
They can classify plants and animals according to where they live and observe
interactions among living things and their environment.
They can infer that plants and animals have traits that help them survive in
their environment.
Learners can investigate the effects of push or pull on the size, shape, and
movement of an object.
Learners can investigate which type of soil is best for certain plants and infer
the importance of water in daily activities.
They learned about what makes up weather and apply their knowledge of
weather conditions in making decisions for the day.
They can infer the importance of the Sun to life on Earth.
At the end of Grade 5, learners can decide whether materials are safe and
useful by investigating about some of their properties.
They can infer that new materials may form when there are changes in
properties due to certain conditions.
Learners have developed healthful and hygienic practices related to the
reproductive system after describing changes that accompany puberty.
They can compare different modes of reproduction among plant and animal
groups and conduct an investigation on pollination.
They have become aware of the importance of estuaries and intertidal zones
and help in their preservation.
Learners can describe the movement of objects in terms of distance and time
travelled.
Learners recognize that different materials react differently with heat, light, and
sound.
They can relate these abilities of materials to their specific uses. Learners can
describe the changes that earth materials undergo.
They can make emergency plans with their families in preparation for
typhoons.
They can observe patterns in the natural events by observing the appearance
of the Moon.
At the end of Grade 6, learners recognize that when mixed together, materials
may not form new ones thus these materials may be recovered using different
separation techniques.
They can prepare useful mixtures such as food, drinks and herbal medicines.
Learners understand how the different organ systems of the human body work
together.
They can classify plants based on reproductive structures, and animals based
on the presence or lack of backbone.
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They can design and conduct an investigation on plant propagation.
They can describe larger ecosystems such as rainforests, coral reefs, and
mangrove swamps.
Learners can infer that friction and gravity affect how people and objects
move.
They have found out that heat, light, sound, electricity, and motion studied
earlier are forms of energy and these undergo transformation.
Learners can describe what happens during earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions and demonstrate what to do when they occur.
They can infer that the weather follows a pattern in the course of a year.
They have learned about the solar system, with emphasis on the motions of
the Earth as prerequisite to the study of seasons in another grade level.
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The Teaching of Science in
the Elementary Grades
LESSON
5
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Demonstrate the different skills in the process
approach (AAAs) from basic to integrated;
2. Identify the strategies and teaching methods
appropriate in elementary science; and
3. Use other strategies and methods in teaching
science.
Teaching science is one of the most interesting tasks of an elementary teacher. With the
science contents that you know, how will you teach these to children in the elementary level?
Science learning should be fun and challenging. There are strategies and methods that are
appropriate for the subject matter you will tach. You will make the children have their minds on and
hands on together.
Science Process Skills
Carl Sagan once said that science is a way of thinking much more than just a body of
knowledge. This means that science exists not only to acquire and memorize facts, but science is
something that we engage with. In school, students should not only learn science but as well as do
science in their class. Science teachers are challenged to hone the students' content knowledge
and develop their scientific skills through different meaningful learning activities, tasks, and
experiences.
There are two important elements that are needed in learning science. The content or body
of knowledge (facts, concepts, theories) and processes of science which are the ways of thinking
and doing that scientists used to arrive at the body of knowledge.
Any science learner, even in the elementary level should develop the processes skills too.
The science processes were first introduced by the American Association for the Advancement of
Science (AAAS). Thus, in addition to the Basic Science Processes and the Integrated Science
Processes, another layer above the two are processes described as higher order thinking skills.
Basic Process Skills
Observing
Classifying
Communicating
Measuring
Inferring
Predicting
Integrated Process Skills
Formulating Hypothesis
Controlling Variables
Defining Operationally
Experimenting
Interpreting Data
Formulating Models
Higher Order Thinking
Skills
Critical Thinking
Creative Thinking
Problem Solving
(In Real Life Context)
Science Processes and Higher Order Thinking Skills
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Basic Science Process Skills
The simpler basic process skills provide the foundation for science learning. As future
teachers, you have to see to it that these processes are enhanced as they progress in the grade
levels. They are repeatedly used as a way of thinking and doing. Mastery of these skills will make
science learning more meaningful and enjoyable.
1. Observing
•
It is using the senses (seeing, touching, tasting, smelling, hearing) to gather
information about the object or event.
Examples:
▪
▪
Seeing the leaves as green.
The teacher will ask the students to describe the texture of an apple and its
color.
2. Classifying
•
This science process skills also involve observation; however, its purpose is to identify
the similarities and differences of things, processes, or events. Upon comparing,
classifying also includes grouping according to similarities or differences.
Examples:
▪
▪
Showing students pictures of animals and asking them to classify mammals,
birds, reptiles and amphibians.
Placing objects as to plants or animals.
3. Communicating
•
Using words or graphic symbols to describe an action, object or event. This process
is dependent on what was observe, or classified. Communicating can be done in either
oral or written form. It is describing what has been observed in either qualitative or
quantitative ways.
Examples:
▪
▪
▪
Describing the change in height of the plant over time as tall or short as A is
short and B is tall.
Plant A is 2 feet tall while Plant B is 3 feet tall.
You asked the learners to write a report about their laboratory experiment
results and state conclusions.
4. Measuring
•
Using both non-standard or standard measures or estimates to describe the
dimensions of an object or event. In measurement, there are always two objects being
compared. The one being measured and the measuring device, either non-standard
or standard.
Examples:
▪
▪
▪
You ask the learners to measure their height in centimeters using a tape
measure.
Using a “dangaw” (non-standard) to measure the side of the table.
Using a meter stick (standard) to measure the length of a piece of cloth.
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5. Predicting
•
To state the outcomes of a future event based on a pattern of evidence. First an
observation shall be made, before one can predict. Observation is the fundamental
key before one can predict to identify patterns.
Examples:
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You ask the learners to predict rain based on the formation of clouds.
Predicting that the height of the plant in two weeks’ time based on the graph of
its growth during the previous four weeks.
Predict that rise will come at a certain time of the morning after a series of
observation of the time interval or pattern has been recorded.
6. Inferring
•
This is the process of deducing or concluding information from evidence and
reasoning. In other meaning, it is a process of making educated guesses or
hypotheses based on gathered information or data. Inference is also based on
observation.
Examples:
▪
▪
▪
You ask the learners to infer why solid ice floats in liquid water.
Observing that many trees down.
Observing that there are many people lining up to buy food for lunch in a food
stall one can infer that maybe the food tastes good.
Integrated Science Process
Take note that the Basic Science Processes are fundamental. These basic science skills
need to be mastered ahead of the integrated science processes.
1. Formulating Hypothesis
•
Stating the expected outcome of an experiment. It is an intelligent guess of what will
happened in an experiment. To state a hypothesis, it is usually begin with the If and
continues with Then.
Examples:
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If the soil is fertilized, then mongo seeds will grow with leaves greener.
If the water is salty, then the paper boat will not float.
If the gummy candies are soaked in water, then it will expand.
2. Controlling Variables
•
Being able to identify variables that can affect an experimental outcome, keeping most
constant while manipulating only the independent variable. Variables are conditions,
factors or elements that are varied that may influence or affect the experiment. Hence,
all the conditions shall be controlled or made the same, except the one being tested.
In an experiment, there are three types of variables: dependent, independent and
controlled variable.
Examples:
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To test whether the organic matter or soil will affect the growth of plants, then
two other variables should be made the same or controlled. These are amount
of water and the amount of sunlight. While the two are controlled, the kind of
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soil be made different. This variable is called manipulated or experimental
variable.
If you want to find out if the weight of a steel ball affects its speed when rolled
on a plane surface, the variable that will be controlled will be the distance, the
kind of surface and the force of the push to move the steel ball. The manipulated
variable will be the difference in the weight of the two balls.
3. Defining Operationally
•
This skill is essential in giving a clear and concise, detailed definition. An operational
definition is not the definition the learners can find in the dictionary; rather, this
definition describes what an object can do or what can be done to the object. This skill
is vital in gathering data.
Examples:
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An operational definition of a pencil is something that can write. So, anything
that can write, will be operationally defined as a pencil.
Solids ca be defined operationally as anything that has mass, form and can be
held by the hand.
4. Experimenting
•
Experimenting needs the employment of basic science process skills and integrated
science process skills such as formulating hypotheses and controlling the variables.
Experimenting is essential in order for the learners to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
5. Interpreting Data
•
In an activity or experiment, the data collected through observations and
measurements are recorded and organized. Analysis of these data is critical and an
accurate interpretation of it is very significant in an experiment.
6. Formulating Models
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Models are essential to learners in order for them to visualize the idea, concept, or
processes. If the learners created a model of a concept, it would help them to integrate
facts and visualize it as a whole concept through a mental or physical model. For
example, there is no real picture of an atom until now, but there are different models
created to represent the atomic theory of such proponent or scientist. Thus, there is
Dalton's model, Thomson's model, Rutherford's model. Bohr’s model or Schrodinger's
model.
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Approaches, Models and
Practices in Teaching
Science in the Elementary
LESSON
6
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Demonstrate learning activities that employs the
approaches, models, and practices in teaching
science in the elementary.
2. Design a learning task that employs the
approaches, models, and practices in teaching
science in the elementary.
3. Appreciate the value of the approaches, models,
and practices in teaching science in the
elementary.
Based on the framework, there are dominant approaches, models and practices that can be
utilized in teaching and learning science in the elementary grades. Being a future science teacher,
you must be able to understand the processes or the pedagogy of each.
1. Multidisciplinary - Interdisciplinary Approach
•
Multidisciplinary Interdisciplinary Approach is the use of two or more subject areas in
one lesson or activity. For example, Science and History can go together when the
topic is about discoveries and inventions.
2. Science, Technology and Society Approach
•
Science, Technology and Society Approach is an interdisciplinary field that examines
how science and technology shape societies, cultures and environments and how
social, cultural and environmental factors that shape the development of science and
technology.
3. Problem/Issue Based Learning
•
Problem Bases Learning (PBL) is a method of teaching which allows students to focus
on how and what they will learn. An unfamiliar problem, situation or task is presented
to the students and students are encourages to determine for themselves how they
will go about solving the problem. This usually occurs through small group work and
allows students to utilize their prior knowledge in the topic are and identity the gaps in
their knowledge as they attempt to solve the problem. PBL is a student – centered
approach to learning that encourages students to be self-directed, interdependent and
independent as they attempt to solve the set problem.
4. Inquiry – Based Approach
•
Inquiry – Based Approach is anchored on the idea of seeking for truth, information or
knowledge. Memorizing facts and information is not as useful as asking questions that
will lead to the understanding of such data and information. It is not looking for the
right answer but seeking the appropriate solution. No one can learn everything, but
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everyone can learn the skills of an inquiring attitude. Skills and ability and habits of the
mind to continue learning through inquiry – based approach teaching – learning.
5. Constructivism
•
Constructivism is a theory that explains about how people learn by constructing their
own understanding and knowledge of the world through prior experiences and
reflecting on those experience. When something new is learned, this has to be
compared with the previous experiences, perhaps discarding the old if the new
information is relevant. Thus, in constructivism there is a continuous asking of
questions, exploration and assessment. In the teaching – learning it means
encouraging to use active learning as experimenting and real-world problem solving
to create more knowledge. Discussing about what the students are doing themselves,
will allow then to realize that their understanding may also be changing, thus
constructing their own knowledge. Problem-based learning, inquiry-based learning,
contextual Approach and collaborative method are approaches and methods that uses
constructivist theory in learning and teaching. These approaches and methods allow
students to be generators of knowledge and not consumers of knowledge, making
them active learners inside the class and teachers as facilitators of the class.
6. Social Cognition Learning Model
•
Social Cognition Learning Model has been introduced by Lev Vygotsky where he
asserts that culture is the primary factor of individual development. First through
culture, children acquire much of the content of their thinking which is their knowledge
and second, the surrounding culture provides the learners the means or process of
thinking. In short in social cognition learning model, culture teaches the learners both
what to think and how to think. Thus, since children learn much through interactions,
lessons should be designed to emphasize interaction between learners and earing
task. Moreover, he also emphasized the role of culture in the development of higher
mental functions. In this model, it can be said that individuals learn by observing others
while interacting and experiencing. Further appropriate adult help or scaffolding is
needed for independent problem solvers.
7. Learning Style Theory
•
All learners are created equally but learn differently. This is the premise of the learning
style theory. That each individual has a preference in how they learn. Individual
learning style depends on cognitive, emotional, environmental factors and one’s
previous knowledge. Individualized teaching and learning or differentiated instructions
are likewise anchored on learning styles of learners. The most accepted
understandings of the learning style fall into three categories: Visual, auditory (OralAural) and Tactile or Kinesthetic.
▪ Visual learners prefer to use images, maps and graphic organizers to access
and understand new information.
▪ Auditory (Oral-Aural) learners best understand new concept through
speaking and listening. Mnemonic devices, use of repetition, music, discussion,
lectures are some of the strategies learners prefer.
▪ Kinesthetic (Tactile) learners prefer to touch, move or manipulate. They learn
best through hands-on activities, practicum and other similar activities.
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8. Contextual Approach
•
Contextual teaching and learning (CTL) are a conception of teaching and learning
that helps teachers relate subject matter content to the real-world situations; and
motivate students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to
their lives as family members, citizens and workers and engage in the hard work that
learning requires. (Ohio State University, 2000)
Which of the approaches mentioned above are you familiar with? Which one would you like
to try?
Science teaching can be approached in many ways. In fact, everything we do every day has
science in it. Hence, it would be very easy to make learners love science because it is part of their
lives. From the time one wakes up to the tie one goes back to sleep, science is influencing 24/7 of
our daily life. Science, technology and society are all connected to each other.
To teach effectively science in the elementary grades, it begins with the fundamental process
of Observing. Making observation as a habit provides more meaning to what one sees, hear, touch,
taste, and smell. As science progresses with time, the processes of science become more
complicated such that learning and loving science require higher order thinking skills.
Teaching science should be fun filled! The different approaches presented are an array of
strategies which can you try out as you learn how to teach children to love and learn.
The choice of the approaches would greatly depend on the type of the learners (Learner centered)
the subject matter or content (what to teach) the resources available, and your skill in facilitating
the lesson.
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The 5E’s Model in Teaching
Science
LESSON
7
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Extrapolate each step of the 5E’s in teaching
science;
2. Propose learning activities that apply each E;
3. Realize the importance of applying 5E’s in
teaching science.
Inquiry-Based Science
There are many strategies in the use of inquiry-based science. Below are some examples.
Inquiry-based science involves learners to do science when given the opportunities to explore
possible solutions, make explanations for the phenomena under study, elaborate explanation on the
concepts and processes and make assessment of how these are understood based on available
evidences.
Here are some strategies that are influenced by inquiry-based science.
5E’s Model in Science Teaching
The model is a five-phase approach to teaching science concepts. Here are the following
phases:
1. Engagement
•
In this first phase, the teacher will have to arouse the student's interest and enliven
their curiosity about the new lesson. If the teacher caught the students' interest and let
them be curious, it will help them be focused and mindful of what will be the next
lesson. The teacher may check the students' prior knowledge by giving an activity
connected to their experiences or things that they already know. Some students may
be curious and asked question, but in the end be motivated to answer it by focusing
on the lesson.
2. Exploration
•
The next phase is the exploration part, wherein the teacher allows the students to do
an investigation, experiment or meaningful activities that will strengthen engagement
and boost their curiosity. In this part, the teacher may begin to give activities such as
laboratory activity, inquiry-based activity, or problem-based activity that students can
do collaboratively to investigate and explore the concepts. Collaboration is
encouraged in this part to hone the student's teamwork skills, critical thinking skills,
and communication skills. What should the students observe during this phase? The
students should note patterns, establish causal or correlative relationships, identify
differences, and evaluate their investigation or experiment results.
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3. Explanation
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In this part, the students will discuss the activity's findings in the exploration stage.
Here, the students can also share the experience while doing the exercise and cite
their analysis. In this phase, both oral and written communication skills are developed
through graphical or tabular presentation and their explanation. Moreover, after the
learner's explanation, the teacher will have to give inputs about their explanation and
give them a way to frame their experiences within this formal explanation. In short, the
teacher's part is to validate the student's answer.
4. Elaboration
•
This phase will allow the learners to expand the concepts or ideas they have learned
through various activities such as simulation, role-playing, hands-on activities, and
other games. Here the concepts are put into context as applied to the daily
experiences of the students. Contextualization of the concept learned is emphasized
in this part. Moreover, the teacher can also integrate other disciplines to have a
broader context on applying the concepts or ideas learned.
5. Evaluation
•
In this stage, both the teachers and the learners can measure the learned conceptual
and procedural understanding. A formative evaluation can be done at any time of this
model to check the students' knowledge and give feedback promptly regularly. The
summative assessment is provided at the end of the lesson and can be informal
assessments such as quizzes, exams, or assignments. However, activities can also
serve as evaluation activities; these are performance assessment, product
development, journal entry, and portfolio. It is good to note that using a rubric to assess
performance and products is essential.
Q-M-S Strategy
Q – question of problem
M – means or how the plan will be carried out
S – solution
3E-P
Exciting Examples of Everyday Phenomena
Q-M-S Strategy
ASK question
Conduct ACTIVITY
ANALYZE the Data
APPLY the science concepts in similar/related situations
Use of Discrepant Event (POE-E)
Prediction – What do you think will happen?
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Observe – What did you observe
Explore – Find solution to the problem
Explain – Describe what you think happened in words and pictures
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Teaching Methods in
Science
LESSON
7
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Distinguish the science process skills developed
using each method;
2. Create a lesson plan using the 5E Model applying
some of these methods.
3. Cite other methods aside from the given.
Teaching Methods in Science
Here are suggested innovative teaching methods in science that will make your students be
more active learners than just being consumers of knowledge. These methods will also hone the
basic and integrated science process skills that will encourage the students not just to learn science
but also to do science in a more enjoyable and fun way.
1. Story Telling
•
One of the best ways to catch the attention most especially of young learners, is by
telling stories. Stories can convey the description of facts and even can open up
curiosity about the new concept to be learned in science. Moreover, listening to stories
will entail imagination from students; thus, it will hone the critical, analytical, and
creative thinking skills of students. This is far better than delivering the lesson with the
traditional, direct lecturing to them. You can use names that are familiar to students as
the characters or even names of scientists that they know, so that it may arouse their
interest to listen.
2. Role-Playing
•
Role-playing in teaching science will enhance a deeper understanding of the concept
to students and as well as honing their communication and collaborative skills. This
method allows the students to act out a certain character. This method can be
employed in playing a scientist that uses the scientific method to solve a problem.
Another activity is you ask students to act as a weather forecaster that discusses the
elements of the weather or the different weather condition. Role-playing will
contextualize the concepts that are taught and learned by the students because it will
deliver the concepts in the context that they are used or applied by people (usually
portrayed in the role play) in their daily lives.
3. Visual Clues
•
This method involves the use of drawings, diagrams, and pictures to aid instructions
of a certain concept or theory. This will help the teachers to visually convey the facts
and the concepts to be learned by students and to distinctly give examples or
applications of these concepts. Visual clues aid retention, and according to Dale’s
cone of experience, that learner generally remembers 30% of what they see.
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4. Science Text Cards
•
This is a method that will develop the science vocabulary of the pupils. This method
uses cards that have words written on it that has something to do with science
concepts and the students will have to put meaning to it. The procedure in using this
instructional material can be done collaboratively by classifying, agreeing, or
disagreeing or arranging it according to patterns. This is a fun way of developing the
critical thinking skills of students as well as their communication skills. More than that
this is a good strategy to encourage students put meaning on words or concepts that
are presented.
5. Advance Organizers
•
This method is often used as a starter in presenting a new lesson. Moreover, one
purpose of this method is to organizer the prior knowledge of students that is
necessary to connect to the new knowledge to be taught or learned. In this way,
connecting prior to new knowledge makes the lesson more retentive. Examples of
advance organizers are text organizers, graphic organizers, and narrative organizers.
This method is important to emphasize the essential or key concepts. This is as well
critical in establishing relationships among facts, ideas or concepts.
6. Word Parts
•
This method is used to reinforcing the structure of scientific terms to pupils. In other
words, this is all about the etymology of the words. This method can help student’s
associate common prefixes, suffixes, and base words and relate the meaning to the
scientific words. For example, the term Biology came from the words “bios,” which
means life, and “logia,” which means a branch of study.
7. Simulation
•
This refers to activities or instructional materials that involve imitation of a situation or
a process. There are also virtual simulations that will allow students to visualize and
interact with concepts that are outside the realm of a conventional laboratory. Using
simulations in class will allow for more laboratory experiences. Moreover, in
simulations, students will be encouraged to involve themselves in the activity and hone
their scientific skills. Because simulation is interactive, retention of the concept is high.
Furthermore, it can provide prompt feedback. There are a lot of mobile applications
and computer software or websites that feature simulation that is readily available and
downloadable.
8. Science Fairs
•
During science fairs, students may expose the output of their research or product
development. This activity can be a culmination of the exit outcomes of students.
During science fairs, students present their researches and products; thus, it will
develop their communication skills. Creativity is also one skill that the students are to
master during a science fair because they should present their outputs in a more
creative and persuasive way. Critical analysis can also be honed during on the spot
question and answer part if there are viewers of their station in the fair.
9. Learning Stations
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This is a method that involves physical locations in your classroom where groups of
learners work as a team on varied tasks simultaneously to learn a concept and practice
skills related to the topic. Given a certain period of time, the groups will transfer to
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another station until all groups have hopped all the learning stations. Teachers should
consider the following tips in order to have an effective execution of learning stations;
(1) each station should have a problem for the students to solve; (2) activities should
be fairly straightforward; and (3) important concepts should be explicitly stated by
students. The learning stations may provide benefits to both the teacher and the
students. To the teachers, they can provide differentiated or varied activities that
decrease the amount of material and the time required for the setup. For the students,
this will help them to become focused and be challenged because of the time constrain
on each task per station.
10. Word Games
•
This is a creative strategy to help elementary students to experience the language of
science. Hangman, Pictionary, Dingbats, Bingo, Scrabble, Odd One Out, Charades,
Trivial Pursuit etc. are the common games. Playing these games using scientific terms
helps the students to work closely with different hard to understand words and use
them fluently in their subject.
11. Multimedia Approach
•
This method is a blend of text, audio, animation, video, still images or interactivity
content forms to teach diverse difficult to understand concepts in science. The
educator can convey vast information using advanced media, devices and techniques,
and involve a wide range of activities to provide a meaningful learning experience.
12. Power Points
•
Instead of the conventional talk and chalk methods, teachers now include power point
presentations in their classroom sessions to make it more interesting. They connect
the computers to projectors to address a larger classroom and include interesting
slides with diagrams and flow charts to make the teaching more interactive.
13. Science Movies
•
Teachers take initiatives to take them for science movies in theatres or in school halls
that clearly showcase the application side of scientific concepts. More than just
entertaining them, many science movies captivate their attention and illustrate diverse
science concepts in the real world. Science and nature-focused documentaries is one
of the best ways to introduce science to kids than spoon feeding them with text book
content.
14. Science Songs
•
This is another creative teaching method to help kids to learn about the science world
with fun. Teachers can make use of the interesting science songs available online or
create one to introduce the basics of astronomy, biology, botany, physical science and
earth science with fun. Science Is Real, Meet the Elements, The Star Song and Motion
Song are a few among the popular science songs available online.
15. Science Exhibition
•
Encourage your students to take part in science exhibitions as part of school level or
inter-school level competitions. This is a great opportunity to bring out their creativity
in science and design an application based on a scientific concept. Develop this
inquisitiveness and creative mindset in students right from the elementary classes to
help them to grow up as science enthusiasts.
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16. Mobile Apps for Science
•
A number of mobile apps are available online for elementary, middle school and high
school students as well as for those undergoing advanced studies. Today’s kids are
tech savvies and they love to learn science using their gadgets. The advanced mobile
apps built with innovative features in fact turn students into scientists. This lets them
hold science in their hands and explore it with just a few taps. The popular apps in the
category include Human Body, Cozmic Zoom, Earth Primer, Video Science,
Science360, NASA GLOBE Observer and a lot more.
17. Field Trips
•
In the middle of boring classroom sessions, take your students out for field trips to
experience science while learning. Go to an aquarium, a nature center, a scientist’s
home or visit a pet store. You can also spend some time with the students in the bird
park or simply go on a nature walk to experience the science around while learning
new concepts.
18. Reward Discovery
•
Right from the elementary classes, teachers should support, guide and inspire
students to discover the wonders of science. With an inquisitive mindset, there are a
lot to discover from the science world we are living in. Also, reward them for the small
discoveries they make and let them share and present it in class.
19. Interactive Science Journals
•
This is an advanced version of lecture notes in which students express the information
they learnt into different templates and elicit their own responses. Students can use
this technique effectively to have a deeper connection to their learning and this activity
promotes their higher-level thinking. They can be creative with their notebooks using
pictures, charts and comments, thus, building an encompassing resource for future
reference.
20. Science at Home
•
Like scientists say, science starts from home. Encourage your students to discover
science at home from elementary classes itself. Ask them to find out a specific science
concept application at home as assignments and let them discover science on the go.
There are fun science activities at home that involve parents and kids such as
measuring Earth’s circumference with a shadow, creating under water fireworks with
chemistry, building a balloon powered toy car and a lot more.
21. Flipped Classroom
•
In this innovative teaching technique, students are asked to go through video
instructions or tutorials in the initial stage, i.e. digital learning. The second stage will
be in classrooms where they involve in challenging tasks and assignments based on
the information gathered through video assets. This flipped learning frees up class
time for activities such as hands-on labs, guided practice or online simulations.
22. Fishbone
•
This is a visual tool for organizing critical thinking which is a good approach for problem
solving in science. The fishbone diagram helps to teach students about the root
causes leading to a problem and quantifying the relationship between the effect and
cause. This is more effective when teaching a group. In this diagram approach, the
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head of the fish represents the change, the ribs show the reason and riblets have the
supportive evidence.
23. Hands on Learning
•
This is the best teaching method invented so far that involves the active participation
of students to experience scientific concepts than to just have an audience view.
Schools are promoting the use of low-cost apparatus in classrooms to helps students
to have hands on learning experience. It can be a string telephone to teach about
sound and communication, matchstick mecanno to teach 3D structures, notched
pencil to teach rotation motion or anything similar.
24. Lecture and Student Recitation
•
You can use the lecture method to explain, demonstrate, and present information on
the topic to be taken up. It is not necessary for the teacher to do the lecturing all the
time.
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Matter
Module 2:
Everything that you see around you is called matters. The things you found at
home, in school or wherever you are and whatever you use are examples of matter.
They could be animals, the plants, objects you use, the food you eat and even air are
made up of matter.
All matter is made up of atoms which are very small particles that cannot be seen
using your naked eyes. These groups of atoms and molecules made the kind of property
that matter has. The properties of matter are the traits that can be measured such as an
object’s mass, volume, density, color, malleability, melting point, hardness, temperature
and many more. There are some traits of the matter that do not change such as the
density of gold while other properties depend on the amount of matter present or the
substances or components of the mixture.
Matters can be identified by its properties. There are two properties of matter and
they are the physical and chemical properties.
LESSON
1
Properties of
Matter
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Identify the properties of matter;
2. Determine the similarities and differences of
physical and chemical properties of matter;
3. Compare and contrast the mass and weight, the
mass of matter on earth and on moon; and
4. Create a matrix to differentiate phases of matter.
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Physical Properties
Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing the composition of the
matter. Such properties are used to observe and describe the matter. Physical properties include
the appearance of an object such as color, odor, melting point, density and many others.
1. Mass
•
Mass is the amount of matter or substance that makes up an object. We use units of
kilogram in order to express the measurement of an object. There are times that mass
and weight are being interchanged. Mass is the measure of the amount of matter in
an object while weight is the force acting on the object because of the gravity. The
mass of an object remains the same regardless of where the object is while the weight
of an object varies depending on the strength of the pull of the gravity on the object.
Earth has greater gravity than the moon, it has only 1/6 of the weight of an on Earth.
For example, an object weighs 24kgs on Earth, divides the weight of an object to 6
and the object has 4kg which will be its weight on the moon.
2. Volume
•
Volume is the amount of spaces occupied by the material and can be described using
the cubic units as inches, quarts or centimeters. In order to determine the volume of a
solid, length (l), width (w) and height (h) should be measured. In getting the volume of
a regular solid with the length of 6 centimeters (cm), with 5cm and height of 4cm,
simply multiply the numbers such as: 6cm x 5cm x 4cm = 120cm3. On the other hand,
the above formula cannot be used to get the volume of an irregular solid like a piece
of rock or a marble. Thus, using a displacement method should be done and a
graduated cylinder is needed. If you place 150 milliliters (mL) of water in a cylinder
and you drop a rock into the water, the volume of the water will rise to 180mL. To be
able to get the volume of the irregular solid, subtract the previous amount of water
which is 150mL to the amount of water with the stone with it which is 180mL. Thus,
you will get 30mL and this is the volume of the rock.
3. Density
•
Density is the measure of how solid an object is. It is a measure of mass per volume.
A material like polystyrene has low density. It is a kind of hard plastic that is used to
make soft cups, food containers and ice chest. Regardless of the size of a polystyrene
cup, it would not weigh too much because the molecules of this material are not
packed closely together. While an object made from dense material like iron will have
less volume than an object of equal mass made from some less dense substance.
Chemical Properties
Chemical properties on the other hand, deal with the characteristics of the chemical made
up of a substance or how it reacts with other substances. Meaning, to be able to observe chemical
property, it requires performing a chemical reaction. Thus, the substance’s internal structure must
be affected for its chemical properties to be investigated.
Chemical properties tell how an object can change into another material. For example, a
piece of paper was thrown into a fire, would it stay the same? Definitely not because from being a
piece of paper it turned into ashes. Such characteristic of flammability wherein changing a piece of
paper to ashes is among its chemical properties.
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Corrosion is another chemical property of some matter. It is a damage to a material when it
is exposed to different substances. Rusting is an example of corrosion. It is the reaction of iron with
water and oxygen.
Special Properties
Aside from the physical and chemical properties, there are other special properties that can
be found to other objects. These special properties are:
1. Malleability
•
This is the ability of an object to be pressed, forged, beaten or rolled into thin sheets.
There are various materials that display malleability such as copper, silver, aluminum
and lead. Also, pure gold is the most malleable material.
2. Brittleness
•
If you will drop a glass on the floor, what will happen? Glass has a special property of
brittleness of the ability to break easily. There are other materials that possess
brittleness as one of their characteristics like ceramics, eggshells and chalks.
3. Flexibility
•
There are some materials that are capable of bending, being turned or twisted
because they are flexible. This ability to bend without breaking is called flexibility.
4. Hardness
•
Hardness is the special property of the matter that enables it to resist being scratched
or dented.
5. Ductility
•
Ductility is the ability of the material to be drawn into fine or thin wires. If you look at
what is inside the wire and remove the rubber outside, you will find a very thin wire
made of copper. Copper is also used to make filaments in light bulbs. Also, materials
like silver and gold have the ability of ductility.
6. Porosity
•
When you use a towel to dry up your body after taking a bath or when something spills
and you clean it by using a sponge, the ability of the sponge and the towel to absorb
liquid is called porosity. Porous materials have pores or little holes that allow them to
hold moisture up to a certain amount.
7. Elasticity
•
What materials are capable of stretching? Like rubber bands and garter, they have the
special property of elasticity or the ability to stretch and to return to its original shape
and size after being stretched.
8. Buoyancy
•
Ships are made up of metal but they float in water. How can that be? It is because an
object that floats in water has buoyancy or the ability of an object to float in a fluid.
Boats and corks possess the said property. However, the ability of an object to float
or sink will depend on its density. An object that has lesser density will float while
materials with greater density than that of the water will sink.
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States of Matter
All objects on earth can be classified in one of three physical forms or states such as solid,
liquid and gas.
1. Solid
•
Solid is a state of matter that has definite shape and definite volume. It keeps its own
size. Some common examples are marbles, Ping-Pong ball, sponge, rock, empty
bottle, bag, pen, book, jewelleries and many others. Solids have other special
properties. Comparing marble and sponge even if both are solids yet is different from
each other. Some solids are hard like the marble and others are soft like sponge.
Hardness is the ability of solids to resist breaking and scraping. Other solids have
distinctive properties like metals. Jewelleries such as rings, bracelets and necklaces
are made up of metals, gold, silver, or platinum. These metals can be designed and
formed into beautiful accessories because they are malleable. The ability of metals to
be hammered into different shapes is called malleability. Another unique property of
metallic solid is ductility, the ability to be drawn into wire like copper, aluminum and
steel. Copper is the metal used for electrical wiring. It can also form into strips or
shavings. Other solids are brittle like chalk, concrete and glass. Brittleness is the
property that makes solids easy to break when a force is applied to it.
2. Liquid
•
Liquid is a state of matter that keeps its size but takes the shape of its container. A
liquid can also flow as it is transferred or poured from one container to another. Juice,
water, our body’s sweat, milk, rubbing alcohol, and cola drinks are common examples
of a liquid.
3. Gas
•
Gas is a state of matter that can freely change its shape and size. It spreads out to fill
its container. Gases flow like liquids. They are very light and often they cannot be
seen. A very common gaseous material is air, which is a mixture of gases. Other
examples are the helium inside an inflated birthday balloon, water vapor, perfume in
the air, fumes from cars and factories, oxygen gas that we breath in, and carbon
dioxide the we expel out.
Descriptions of the States of Matter According to Shape and Space they Occupy
1. The “state” of matter refers to the group of matter with the same properties. Materials are
grouped together according to their properties.
2. If a material is grouped as solid, it has a definite shape and volume. The volume or size of
an object or material is the amount of space it occupies.
3. If a material is in a liquid, it has a definite volume but follows the shape of its container.
4. A material is a gaseous state has no definite shape and volume. It has the ability to spread
filling out any available space of its container. The air blown into the balloons of different
shapes was a mixture of gases. The shape and volume of air once inside the balloons also
follow the shape and volume of the container.
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LESSON
2
Grouping Materials
Based on Properties
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Classify materials based on their ability to
absorb water, float, sink an undergo decay;
and
2. Identify the effects of decaying materials on
one’s health and safety.
Buoyancy
Buoyancy is the ability of materials to float in water. Some materials that can float or sink
exhibit the property of buoyancy and density. These enable boats and ships to float. Meanwhile, an
anchor of a boat will sink when thrown into the water. An object will float or sink depending on its
density. Density is a measure of the amount of matter in a given volume of liquid. To get the density
of an object, the mass of that object is divided by its volume (D=m/v) for example the mass of a
metal is 10 grams and its volume is 20 cubic centimeters. Its density therefore is 10 g/20 cm3 or:
D=10g/20 cm3
D=.5g/ cm3
If the density of an object is less than the density of the liquid, the object will float. An object
will sink if its density is greater than that of the liquid.
Porosity
Porosity is a property of material that allows it to absorb water and other liquids. A material
that is porous like dishwashing sponge is an example of an absorbent material. Other porous
materials include cotton balls, gauze, blankets and pillows. Non-absorbent or non-porous
materials are those that do not absorb water like plastic bags, canisters, cans and ceramic mugs.
They are useful for storing food items therefore they should be kept dry. Umbrellas and rain coats
are also non-absorbent.
Decomposition
Decomposition is a property of materials to break down into simpler or smaller forms of
matter. Take the case of ripe fruits like banana which easily decays after a few days. The organic
matter in these parts of the plant are returned to the ground and becomes part of the soil. All
materials that decay are also referred to as biodegradable. All living things decay, but not in the
same manner. Decaying process is important in returning organic substances to the soil so that
other livings will also have source of nutrients for their needs. Humus in soil is rich in organic
substances produced by action of decomposers. There are several stages of decomposition. Using
leaves and fruits as examples discusses the stages of decomposition.
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Not all materials decay as fast as plant or animal parts. Those that do not decay are called
non-biodegradable. When thrown into canals and other bodies of water they clog drainage and
may cause floods and pollution. There are town or city ordinances that prohibit the use of plastic
bags to hold goods sold in stores and market since it takes a long time for these to decompose. It
has been observed that garbage landfills are full and become homes for rats and other disease
carrying organisms. At home or in school, what would we do with garbage that do not decay?
Factors Affecting Decomposition
1. Presence of Organism or Decomposer that Cause Decay
•
Decomposer can be detritivores, fungi and bacteria. Detritivores like earthworm
breakdown plant an animal materials and feed on these. Fungi, like mushroom and
ear fungi breakdown plant materials and cause decay at the same time feeding on the
decayed materials. Bacteria are microorganisms that we cannot see but their action
can be observed on dead animals’ bodies when these are undergoing decay. Usually,
the process is accompanied by foul or bad smell. Spoiled food has foul odor because
of decay that is going on.
2. Temperature
•
The warmer the temperature, the faster is the decay process. So, when the days are
very warm leaving spaghetti on the table and other carbohydrate rich food will easily
spoil. Placing food in the refrigerator slows down the growth of decomposers.
3. Moisture
•
Have you noticed a pile of leaves during summer in the school yard but during rainy
season, the leaves disappears fast and blend with the soil? With water available, the
plant parts easily crumble and decompose. Decomposers are also present in moist
places, so the decay process is fats. Dry materials like leaves are not good habitats
for decomposers. Drying fish prevents bacteria from feeding on the flesh if the fish.
4. Exposure to Elements
•
Our mother would remind us to cover the food left after a meal. Air may contain
bacteria and will hit the food. Covering the food prevents bacteria from growing on the
food and start the decay process.
5. Salt Content of the Material
•
A salty food decay slowly. This is because decomposers cannot grow well in salty
environment. Have you noticed that fish, squid and meat do not decay immediately
when salted? Salting is a way of delaying or stopping decomposition, thus preserving
food for some time.
Effects of Decay on our Health
How does decay affect our health? Have you been to a dentist because of tooth decay? What
causes tooth decay? Food particles left in the mouth and teeth are food for bacteria when you don’t
brush your teeth regularly. The action of bacteria release acids that can dissolve the enamel of your
teeth creating tooth cavities. Eating left over food that has started to decay may cause loose bowel
movement. It is advisable not to eat food that has started to emit foul odor.
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Physical and Chemical Properties
of Matter: Useful and Harmful
Materials
LESSON
3
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Examine the properties of materials to determine
whether useful or harmful.
Materials around us have properties that are important for their purpose. These materials
undergo changes through technology for various important applications in our everyday lives, at
home, and in school. However, accompanying these positive transformations are harmful effects as
well. You will encounter in this lesson some commonly used products and learn their uses and other
details through their labels.
Useful or Harmful Materials
Multiple material products are beneficial to man because of technology. Because of
technology, raw materials are transformed to different products that have improved man’s way of
life. However, some products which are useful to man maybe harmful to animals and plants and the
environment or the other way around. Sometimes, it is the incorrect use of the useful materials that
makes these harmful. Hence, it is imperative to really identify characteristics of household and
consumer materials. Here are important concepts that can help future teachers understand about
the topic.
• Household materials and consumer products can be grouped as (1) those used for
cleaning; (2) for food preparation; (3) beautification; (4) building construction; and (5)
household products.
• Materials found in products like metal container, ceramic, rubber, glass or plastic have
specific properties. Humans have learned to manipulate the different properties of matter
to create other uses.
• Materials are enhanced or upgraded by technology. Technology has continuously
improved the quality of products such as detergents, household cleaners, food seasoning,
medicine, plastic, paints, stainless metals and many more making human life convenient.
In fact, technology has enhanced beauty products and health products which are very
popular among consumers today.
• Materials have beneficial effects at home and in the environment. They can make work
and life easier like cooking faster; preserving food, keeping homes and clothes clean,
smells good and disinfected.
• However, materials can sometimes do harm. They may contain hazardous substance, an
ingredient that may cause skin irritation, injury, or illness during or after handling or use
or if accidentally taken.
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•
•
Chemicals can contaminate food and when properly disposed of or even used, they can
cause death. Hence, there is a need to exercise care and caution when using them.
Before buying or using any consumer products-such as food, clothing, medicine, cleaning
product, soap and shampoo, insect repellent or pesticides always find out if it is the best
for the purpose you need.
Caution: Always read the labels or product information leaflets first.
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Mixtures and their
Characteristics
LESSON
4
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Define mixtures;
2. Describe how mixtures are formed; and
3. Classify mixtures as homogeneous and
heterogeneous based on their observable
characteristics.
You are handling mixtures every day. Are you aware of it? In the morning, you add sugar to
a cup of hot chocolate. Or you add powdered milk to a glass of water. You are making mixtures! Do
you know what mixtures are? After studying this lesson, you will acquire a deeper understanding of
mixtures and their characteristics.
A mixture is made up of two substances or materials that are put together by physical means.
When marbles, paper clips, buttons, sugar and saw dust are combined together they form mixtures.
In forming mixtures, no new substances and or materials are formed because mixing materials or
substances together does not change the physical properties of substances or materials. All phases
of matter can be physically combined to form mixtures. One or more phases of matter are combined
in a mixture and one or more phases of matter can be observed in mixtures.
Examples of mixtures:
Mixture
Salt and pepper
Oil-vinegar
Air
Sea water
Orange juice from
powder concentrate
Smoke
Carbonated dinks
Substances
Combined
Salt and pepper
Oil and vinegar
Nitrogen, oxygen,
argon, carbon dioxide,
other gases
Salt, water, gases
such as oxygen and
carbon dioxide, and
other impurities
Juice powder and
water
Air and burnt debris
Carbon dioxide gas,
water, concentrate,
sugar
Solid and solid
Liquid and liquid
Number of Phases
Observed
Two (solid)
Two (liquid)
Gas and gas
One (gas)
Solid, liquid, and gas
One (liquid)
Solid and liquid
Two (solid and liquid)
Solid and gas
Tow (solid and gas)
Solid, liquid, and gas
One (liquid)
Phases Combined
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The three basic characteristics of mixtures are as follows:
1. The composition of the mixture is variable.
•
For example, the components of the mixture of marbles, paper clips and buttons can
differ or vary.
2. The components retain their original characteristics.
•
Marbles, paper clips, buttons, sugar and saw dust do not lose their appearance,
texture, color and shape after they are mixed together.
3. The components are easily separated by physical methods.
•
Since no chemical reaction has taken place when mixing marbles, paper clips, and
buttons, as well as mixing with saw dust, it is possible for these materials to be
separated. Can you suggest ways on how to separate these materials from the
mixture?
Mixtures can be classified as:
Homogeneous mixtures, or well-mixed mixtures, are those that appear single-phased. The
particle size of the components is too small to be seen by the unaided eye, and the mixture appears
transparent or clear.
Heterogeneous mixtures or unevenly-mixed mixtures are those where the particles of one
or more components can still be differentiated from the rest of the mixture by the unaided eye. Two
or more phases of matter can be observed.
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Module 3:
Changes that Materials Undergo
The 1st part of module will provide you the basic knowledge of the different types
of changes that Matter undergoes in different states, phases, and circumstances. It will
give you also the hints or evidence to easily determine if the Change that happened to
a particular matter is either physical or chemical without any second thought, as well as
how you will apply this knowledge into your day to day living.
The 2nd part will give you the basic knowledge of the different factors that cause
changes in Matter. Heat and temperature will be the two crucial factors that were going
to analyze in the various lessons presented in this 2nd part of the Module.
The module also integrated some methods, strategies, and techniques on how
you are going to teach the lesson among elementary pupils and also ways of designing
simple activities using material available in your environment.
LESSON
1
Changes that
Materials Undergo
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe changes in the materials due to the
effect of temperature such as solid to liquid;
liquid to solid; liquid to gas; and solid to gas;
2. Determine the pieces of evidence that causes
the changes in matter;
3. Identify what kinds of changes a matter
undergoes;
4. Cite examples of the different changes involving
matter; and
5. Design an activity to apply the knowledge you
have learned from the lesson.
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There are changes that can occur in materials. Some liquid materials can be changed into
solid and several can even return back to liquid. There are liquid and solid materials which can be
changed to gases. Gases can be changed too to liquids. Solids can be changed also gases without
even passing the liquid state. How is this possible?
Changes in Matter due to Changes in Temperature
Matter exists as solid, liquid, or gas. The change in state can be brought about by the effect
of heat or a change in temperature. The changes could be explained using the particle model.
https://www.123rf.com/photo_80712763_stock-vector-education-chart-of-biology-for-change-of-state-for-water-diagram.html
The particle model shows that solid, liquid and gas are made up of small particles. These
particles are always moving. The behavior of these particles differs in the 3 states and hence can
be used to explain what happens in changes in state.
1. Solid
•
The particles in a solid are very close to each other. There is a very strong force that
holds these particles together. Hence, their movements are limited. The particles are
vibrating but not spreading apart. This explains why solid has a rigid and compact
appearance.
2. Liquid
•
The particles in a liquid are arranged far apart from each other. The force holding them
is not as strong as that in solid. Thus, the particles can glide or slide around one other
and tend to occupy the bottom of the container. This explains why liquid takes on the
shape of the container.
3. Gas
•
Gas particles lie very far from each other. The force holding them is very weak. This
is the reason why the particles of gas move faster.
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The Arrangement of Particles in Liquid, Solid, and Gas
https://socratic.org/questions/how-does-the-arrangement-of-the-particles-in-a-liquid-compare-to-that-of-a-gas
Changes in Matter
a. From Solid to Liquid
Heat energy is always present when matter changes state. As temperature increases
as observed when heat from the hot water is added to solid like the ice candy and wax, the
particles in these solid materials take in the heat energy. They change it into energy of motion
and begin to move and vibrate so fast. As the particles in the solid speed up, consequently
they also move farther apart. If the particles gained enough energy, they will have enough
room to slide past each other. They break free from their fixed positions. Consequently, the
solid matters (ice candy and wax) begin to melt. Melting is the change of state from solid to
a liquid.
b. From Liquid to Gas
Increasing the temperature further of a liquid state like water which resulted from
melting, will cause the water particles to move faster and more rapidly farther apart. This
allows the particles to escape. The liquid water begins to change to a gas – called water
vapor. This can continue as long as heat is added or the temperature increases, and the
liquid will continue to boil. Bubbles of water vapor will keep forming and escaping until all the
liquid changes to gas. Boiling is the rapid change of state from a liquid to a gas. It occurs at
or above the boiling temperature. Vaporization takes place when the particles in a liquid gain
enough energy to move independently, forming a gas. Evaporation usually occurs on the
surface of the liquid.
c. From Liquid to Solid
Suppose more energy or heat is taken away from liquid like when the liquid ice candy
or just plain water is placed in the freezer where the temperature is maybe 00C or even lower,
the particles in the liquid will slow down. They will begin to move closer to each other. If the
particles lose enough energy the ice candy or the water begins to freeze. The change of state
from a liquid to a sloid is freezing.
d. From Solid to Gas
In some cases, sloid particles present in solid like naphthalene balls are directly
converted to gaseous state. This is only possible when the surface particles of a solid gain
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enough energy that they form a gas. During sublimation, particles of a sloid do not pass
through the liquid state as they form a gas. As a solid material sublimates into a gas, the
freedom of motion of its particles increases. In case of naphthalene balls, the material solid
disappears, however, its odor can be smelled in the air.
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LESSON
2
Changes that Materials
Undergo: Useful and Harmful
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe changes in solid materials when
bent, pressed, hammered, or cut:
2. Describe changes in properties of materials
when exposed to certain conditions such as
temperature or when mixed with other
materials; and
3. Identify changes in materials whether useful
or harmful to one’s environment.
Materials change when exposed to certain conditions. You have observed and learned that
leftover food or rejected parts of vegetables will decay due to action of bacteria. The vegetables wee
exposed to the action of bacteria which are found in your kitchen table. If there were no bacteria,
the vegetable will just dry up because of warm temperature. “Only change is permanent on earth!”
as we always would hear from our elders.
You learned that matter exist in three states: solid, liquid and gas. You also have learned that
heat affects some materials changing their states. Water is a typical example of material that can
exist as solid (ice), liquid (water that we drink) and gas (water vapor).
Materials cab be bent, pressed, hammered and cut. Bending, pressing, hammering and
cutting do not change the state of matter. Only the form, size and shape can be altered.
Furniture making is one source of income for people. Wood, bamboo, rattan, wire and many
more could be used as raw materials. Take bamboo chair making. The long pole is cut into desired
dimension by a carpenter. The bamboo pieces are cleaned, and arranged to make a chair. Nails are
hammered in several places to make the chair sturdy. Varnish or shellac is applied to the surface to
make the chair attractive. The bamboo chair is made of the same bamboo that was cut as a pole
with additional nail and varnish.
Materials change when exposed to different temperatures. Our daily life is made easy
because of the changes that matter undergoes. For example, some of the you prefer to eat radish
prepared with vinegar, sliced onions, and ripe tomatoes. The taste of the dish is enhanced when
you mix all the ingredients. Fried fish for breakfast has a different taste. Similarly, boiled egg has a
different appearance, texture and taste from scrambled egg. These changes are useful to our
environment and to us. Other useful products are fertilizer, vitamins, food milk products, cleansing
agents, lotion, shampoo, medicines and many more. Remember that raw materials are plenty in our
environment that could be turned into useful products that make our life easy and comfortable.
Water when it undergoes change from one state to another is useful to life on earth. We use
water for drinking, washing clothes, and for many household, industrial or agricultural uses. Aquatic
forms of life also need water as their habitat. However, when monsoon rains come in June to
December, many provinces in Luzon remain flooded. This is a negative effect of heavy rainfall.
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Materials can also change resulting in the formation of one or more new material or different
substance. If physical change involves only a change in state, size, shape or form, a chemical
change involves a change in the composition of matter. Most chemical changes are not reversible,
except through another chemical reaction. For example, the case of mixing baking soda and vinegar
caused the balloon to blow up. The reaction between the two materials resulted to the formation of
water and gas as indicated by the bubbles. The gas formed is carbon dioxide which could not escape
but into the balloon causing it be inflated.
There are also changes of matter that are harmful. Rusting of iron, leaching from
decomposing matter, and domestic wastes thrown into bodies of water releasing odor are harmful.
Fossil fuels converted to petroleum products, kerosene, diesel oil and gasoline enable us to travel
fast. However, such conversion of fuel to energy produce smoke or exhaust from motor that are
detrimental to our health.
It is important to be careful in mixing substances like those that may cause explosion or fire.
We need to be aware too and cautiously read product labels. We need to take note of precautionary
measures in handling products. Technology and industry have made new products that are useful
and harmful or both.
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Changes that Materials
Undergo due to Oxygen and
Heat
LESSON
3
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Investigate and described the changes that
happen in materials under the following
conditions: presence of oxygen and application of
heat; and
2. Develope awareness of what oxygen can do to us.
Changes in Matter due to the Presence of Oxygen and Application of Heat
a. Presence of Oxygen
•
Chemical change is a change in matter that results in the formation of one or more
new substances. The new material has a different composition when compared with
original material. When one of the possible suggestions to be done on a piece of paper
to change it is by burning. Burning can transform the paper into ashes and water
entirely different from the original material.
•
Oxygen is a part of the air that surrounds us. It has effects on different materials. The
presence of oxygen in the air can cause chemical change on materials.
Take the case of Activity 1: What Makes the Apple Turn Brown? When the apple was cut
or damaged, oxygen in the air is introduced into the fruit’s damaged tissue material. When oxygen
is present in the cells of the fruit, the enzymes (polyphenol oxidase or PPO) in the chloroplasts
rapidly oxidize the phenolic compounds naturally present in the apple tissues to o-quinones (orthoquinones), a colorless precursors or antecedents to brown-colored secondary products. O-quinones
then produce the well observed brown color by reacting to form compounds with amino acids or
proteins in the material as in this case, apple fruit. The browning of the fruit is the start of the food
spoilage.
In some cases, there are some apples which seem to brown faster than others. Nearly all
plant tissues including other fruits, root crops like sweet potato, and eggplant contain PPO. However,
the level of PPO activity and concentration can vary depending on the kind or variety of fruits and
on the growing conditions and fruit maturity.
At home, enzymatic browning can be prevented by coating freshly cut apples, bananas,
mango, and other fruits in sugar or syrup to reduce oxygen diffusion and thus slowing down the
browning reaction.
•
•
Rusting of iron is another chemical change brought about by the action of oxygen from
the air on the iron metal.
Some materials can also change even under the condition of lack of oxygen.
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b. Application of Heat
In activity 2: Sugar and Heat – What Comes Next? Originally the sugar was crystalline
white. Upon exposure to heat from the burning alcohol lamp, it melted and turned into syrup. The
melting caused the breakdown of sugar into simple sugars such as fructose and glucose. This is
manifested by the delectable aroma it created. The continued exposures to heat ultimately changed
the color of the melted sugar from white to yellow and then brown, which is totally different from the
original material. This color change is caused by the further breakdown of the sugar molecules and
formation of caramel (pulot). The chemical change alters the color of sugar along with the taste and
consistency of the sugar.
• Heat, as a form of energy plays an important role in chemical changes or reactions.
Some reactions need heat to start. For example, when cooking food, the firewood
requires a match and kindling to get fire to start. Other chemical reactions utilize heat
or produce it depending on the materials or chemicals involved.
• There are other proofs that a chemical change has taken place. These include (a)
production of heat and light, (b) production of gas, and (c) change in color.
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LESSON
4
Separating Mixtures
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe ways of separating mixtures; and
2. Use appropriate materials to separate components
of mixtures.
There are different ways of separating the components of mixtures:
1. Manual Separation
•
Manual separation is done to mixtures which components differ in size. Pebbles can
be separated manually from sugar with the use of fingers or tweezers. But this is very
tiresome. And will take a longer time. A fine mesh screen can also be used to separate
sugar from pebbles.
2. Magnetic Separation
•
Magnetic separation is a process that uses magnet to separate the magnetic
component from a nonmagnetic one. Iron filings are magnetic, thus can be used to
separate them from the nonmagnetic sand.
3. Filtration
•
When fine particles, or particles that settle slowly are present, the liquid part is
separated from the mixture by filtration. The mixture is passed through a filter or
porous material where the holes are large enough to allow the liquid to pass through
but small enough to trap the solid particles. The clear liquid that passes through the
filter is called the filtrate while the solids that remains on the filter is the residue.
4. Decantation
•
Decantation is a process of separating a mixture of liquids that differ in density. The
less dense liquid usually stays on top. The denser liquid such as water settles at the
bottom. In this mixture, oil can be gently poured out of the glass and retain water. A
stirring rod can be used to guide the less dense liquid to the other container.
5. Evaporation
•
Evaporation process is used to separate a solute that has been dissolved in water. A
small amount of mixture of salt and water can be heated, and when water evaporates,
salt remains on the evaporating dish.
6. Freezing
•
Freezing or cooling is a process of separating mixture used for mixtures composed of
two liquid components of different freezing points. In the mixture of oil and water, oil
has lower freezing point thus, solidifies first. It is then separated easily from the water
component that is still in liquid state.
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7. Centrifugation
•
Sometimes, centrifugal force the finely divided insoluble solids to settle and collect at
the bottom at high speeds. This method of increasing the rate of sedimentation of the
suspended materials is called centrifugation, and the motor driven apparatus used is
called a centrifuge. The supernatant liquid or the centrifugate, is then poured off or
decanted.
8. Distillation
•
If the solvent is to be recovered free from solid impurities, simple distillation is used.
Distillation is a combination of evaporation and condensation. The mixture is heated
allowing the solvent to vaporize and pass through the condenser where it is cooled
and changed to liquid again. The condensed vapor or the liquid formed is called
distillate.
9. Fractional Distillation
•
If several liquids with varying boiling points or volatilities are in a solution, fractional
distillation is used to separate the different liquid components.
10. Crystallization
•
Used to separate solids which vary in solubility in a given solvent, usually water. This
method employs the lowering of temperature so that the more insoluble component
crystallizes out first and is removed by filtration. This lowering of temperature and
consequent filtration is repeated until no more solid crystallizes.
11. Chromatography
•
Uses the difference in degree to which substances are adsorb on the surface of an
inert substance. A drop of black ink, for example, will be separated into different
components if spotted at the end of a strip of filter paper and then the tip of paper is
allowed to touch a solvent or group of solvents.
12. Sublimation
•
The physical change from solid to gas, on the other hand, can be employed to separate
mixtures where one can pass directly from solid to the vapor state upon the action of
heat while the other remains in the solid state. A purified solid is obtained upon cooling
the vapor. Iodine and naphthalene are purified in this manner.
13. Deposition
•
The term used to refer to the physical change from gas to solid.
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Parts and Functions of Human Being
Module 4:
Your five senses are hard at work, as soon as you get out of bed. The sunshine
that comes in through your window, the scent of coffee, the sound of your mint. The
products of your body, sensory organs, and your brain are all these moments. Sense
organs are specialized organs for perceiving the world around us. They're an integral
part of our lives and it's the sole way that permits us to perceive the environment.
In response to a selected phenomenon, sensory organs provide the data needed
for interpretation through different organs and a network of nerves. These senses control
our relationship with and our contact with the environment.
The capacity to listen, touch, see, taste, and the smell is therefore hard-wired into
your body. And those five senses help you to find out about the world around you and
make decisions about it. Now, it is time to find out more about your senses.
Human Sense
Organs
LESSON
1
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe the parts and functions of the sense
organs of the human body; and
2. Enumerate healthful habits to protect the sense
organs.
Sense organs are responsible for the perception of their surroundings in humans. Each sense
organ has its own distinct functions and components. Let's start researching the human body 's five
sense organs which allow us to react to stimuli that make us more aware of our body and our
environment.
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Sense Organs of the Human Body
1. The Eye
The eye is the sense organ that allows one to see. It has receptors that receive light
as stimulus from our surroundings. Light enters the cornea of the eye. Behind the cornea is
a ring of muscle, the iris which expands or contracts in response to light. The pupil changes
its size to control the amount of light that enters the eye.
When would a pupil become wide? Light passes the pupil into the lens. Here, the
muscles of the lens change in shape and direct light into the retina. There are two kinds of
receptor in the retina; the rods that detect the presence or absence of light and the cones
that detect color of objects that you see.
What receptors are active at night? How do you identify images of objects around you?
The rods and cones are parts of the sensory neuron that form the optic nerve. The optic nerve
connects to the brain. When light stimulates the retina, the message is sent to the brain by
the optic nerve. The brain interprets and forms an image that you see.
How do you take care of your eye? Eyes should be used and taken cares of properly.
Here are some ways:
▪ Eat Vitamin A rich food to make our eyes healthy.
▪ Limit viewing time to television, cellphones, tablets and other gadgets that strain
the eyes.
▪ Use eye glasses to reduce glare and present dust from entering the eyes.
▪ Do not rub the eyes.
▪ Visit a doctor when your vision becomes blurred.
▪ Have an eye check-up when necessary for diagnosing eye defects like
nearsightedness and astigmatism.
▪ When given corrective lenses, use these as directed by an ophthalmologist, or
eye specialist.
2. The Ear
The ear makes us identify sounds around us. It is the body organ that makes us hear.
We hear because the outer ear collects sound waves that travel in the air to the ear canal.
The eardrum vibrates and moves the three small bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) of the
middle ear. From there, the sound receptors in the fluid filled cochlea produce vibration as
the sound waves travel into the inner ear. The nerve transmits the stimulus to the brain and
is interpreted. The we can distinguish what we hear. The ear also helps us maintain balance.
What are the ways by which we can take care of our ears? Being deaf can be inherited
but some people become deaf because of diseases and poor ways of taking care of the ear.
We can prevent some forms of deafness.
3. The Nose
The nose makes us smell. There are receptors in the nose that are stimulated by
perfume, coffee brew, decaying trash, burning paper, or chicken stew. How does odor reach
your nose? Odor or smell produced by perfume, for example, diffuses or moves in the air and
once it reaches the two openings of the nose or nostrils, it stimulates the smell receptors
along the nasal cavity. The stimulus is carried to the brain by the olfactory nerve and is
interpreted.
Can you recognize sliced garlic from onion with your eyes closed?
Why do you sniff when you want to make sure of the smell of burnt food?
Can we detect poisonous food by its smell?
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Why do you need to clean your nostrils regularly?
There are two body sense organs that have special features. These are the tongue
and the skin. The tongue is a muscular organ located inside the mouth. It is covered by moist
pink tissue called mucosa. All over the surface of the tongue are tiny bumps called papillae
where the taste buds are located.
4. The Tongue
Taste is usually associated with smell. When you have stuffy nose, you say that the
food is of bad taste. The taste receptors can detect chemicals in substances just like the
smell receptors. The receptors are located in the taste buds of the tongue. There are four
primary types of tastes-sweet, bitter, sour and salty. Some are combinations of several
primary tastes.
Give examples of food dishes with two or more tastes combined.
How can we taste food? Food must first be dissolved by our saliva when we eat. This
will be detected by the taste receptors and interpreted by our brain, then we can distinguish
one taste from another.
How do we take care of our tongue? Enumerate ways to care and protect our tongue.
Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=taste%20buds&tbm
5. The Skin
The skin is all over the human body. It protects the inner body parts from exposure to
harmful substances and even germs. The skin enables us to detect sensation, temperature,
pressure and pain. There are receptors in the skin that detect stimuli. For example, when you
are wounded, you feel pain because the pain receptors react to the injury and feeling the pain
will tell us that something has to be done with the wound. Hot and cold air or water can be
detected by temperature receptors. Our skin is also sensitive to touch. A light comforting touch
by your mother makes you smile even when you are sick.
Study the diagram below and identify the location of the skin receptors.
https://www.google.com/search?q=skin+structure&tbm
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Human Major Body
Organs
LESSON
2
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe the parts and the main functions of
the major organs of the human body;
2. Share concepts that major organs work
together to make the body function properly;
and
3. Identify the causes and treatment of diseases
of the major organs and practiced habits to
maintain a healthy body.
The human anatomy was studied as early as the 16th century by physicians like Andreas
Vesalius. Knowledge of the human anatomy and physiology is important in the treatment of ailments
that affect our body, and how to maintain a healthy and strong body. The major body organs are
parts of the complex body systems of a human being. An organ is a group of two or more different
tissues that work together and perform a certain function. In the study of sense organs, the skin for
example is composed of different tissues to perform its function as a sense of touch.
Major Body Organs
1. The Human Brain
The brain is located in the head of our body. The head is covered by hair and the brain
is protected by the skull. The brain is the control center of the vital activities for survival
including responses to stimuli, emotions, learning abilities and talents. The brain is divided
into three parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem.
The cerebrum is the largest part and has the brain centers that control thought
processes, speech, motor, touch, pressure, smell, hearing, vision, and facial recognition.
Generally, the right half of the cerebrum controls the left side of the body while the left side
of the cerebrum controls the right side of the body.
The second largest part of the brain, the cerebellum controls muscles coordination,
balance and normal body posture. When mountain climbing, the cerebellum receives signals
that are transmitted to the cerebrum and direct movements of the arms, hands, legs and other
parts of the body.
The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord. It has several parts: the
midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata. The midbrain contains relay station of neurons
and reflex centers for involuntary actions. The hypothalamus in the midbrain maintains
internal balance such as water and blood pressure. The pons connects the two halves of the
cerebellum and links the cerebral cortex to the medulla. Functions like heartbeat, breathing,
and sneezing are regulated by the medulla. We can keep our brain healthy by eating
balanced diet and avoiding concussion from fall or blow in the head. A blood clot or narrowing
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of blood vessels mat result in stroke. Brain parts may be damaged resulting in Alzheimer’s
disease, with symptoms like losing memory. The drawing shows you the brain and its parts.
Source: https://www.wikihow.com/Draw-a-Brain
2. The Heart
The heart is located at the center of the chest cavity below the bone called sternum.
It is hollow muscular organ about the size of your fist, yet a powerful part of your body in the
circulation of blood that carries nutrients from small intestines to body cells as well as in the
transport and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. It is an organ covered by a double
walled sac called the pericardium.
The heart has four chambers, the ventricles are the lower chambers and the atria (or
auricles) are the upper chambers. The two sides, left and right are divided by a septum. A
valve separates so that there will be no backflow of the blood. Blood vessels such as superior
and inferior vena cava, aorta, pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein are connected to the
heart chambers. The right atrium receives blood from the large blood vessels, the veins
from the upper parts of the body (superior vena cava) and from the lower parts (inferior
vena cava). The ventricles are involved in pushing the blood to the lungs through the
pulmonary vein and other parts of the body through the aorta.
Remember that blood in the heart flows in one-way direction only. One of the major
causes of death in modern times is heart attack. Avoiding tobacco smoking and choosing
food with good cholesterol can help reduce cases of heart disorders.
Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/evolution-of-the-human-heart-1224781
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3. The Lungs
The lungs are organs involved in breathing which fill most of the chest cavity. The two
lobes, right and left are protected by the rib cage. The bronchus that connects to the
trachea or windpipe branches into each lobe of the lung. Inside each lobe the bronchioles
end in numerous tiny air sacs, the alveoli. Inside the alveoli are tiny blood vessels, the
capillaries where actual exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide take place. An adult lung
can hold up to 6 liters of air but during quiet breathing only 0.5 liters is exchanged. During
strenuous exercise, more air is involving in the exchange but the lungs always hold about a
liter of air keeping the lungs partially inflated. The lungs do not have muscles to support its
breathing function. A sheet of muscle, the diaphragm worked in breathing. What happens
when a person gets one of the lungs punctured?
The lungs may be affected by severe smoking, and germs such as those that cause
tuberculosis, and pneumonia among others. We can take care of our lungs by limiting
exposure to pollutants in the air by using face mask, avoiding the area where there is
smoking, and exercising regularly to allow the lungs to work efficiently.
Source: https://808novape.org/6433-2/
4. The Liver, Stomach and Small Intestines
The liver, stomach and small intestines are important body organs in making food
that we eat available to the different parts of the body. These organs are found in our
abdominal cavity. The liver is a lobed, large internal body organ. Its principal function is to
produce bile that is important in breaking fats into droplets. Bile is not an enzyme. From the
liver, the bile is stored in the gall bladder before it is released in the small intestine. The
stomach is an enlarged, muscular sac with thick walls that can expand when full or contract
when almost empty. Food chewed in the mouth moves through esophagus and reaches the
stomach through contraction. When chewed food enters the stomach, a valve closes to stop
the backward flow of food. What happens to the food inside the stomach? Muscles in the
walls of the stomach secrete gastric juices such as pepsin that acts on protein and
hydrochloric acid that provides an acidic content. Mechanical and chemical digestion occur
for about four hours producing chyme. The small intestine is connected to the stomach and
chyme is completely digested as it moves in the long tube. The nutrients from the digested
food are absorbed by the inner fingerlike projections called villi along the walls of the small
intestine. Capillaries or small blood vessels transport the nutrients to different body parts.
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Source: https://www.megapixl.com/stomach-labelled-illustration-41527283
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_intestine
Source: https://www.mountnittany.org/articles/healthsheets/35761
5. The Kidneys
We have a pair of kidneys, located at the back of the body cavity above the hipbones.
The kidneys look like a pair of bean seeds on each side of the body. Each kidney has millions
of nephrons, with highly coiled tubes and capillaries that filters the blood and forms urine.
Kidneys not only excrete substances in oversupply but also regulate the presence of
substances in the blood. Some disorders of kidneys are formed stones or crystals of minerals
that block the movement of urine. Surgical removal of kidney stones may be needed to allow
the kidneys to function well. Kidney failure results from unfiltered blood which may require
dialysis. Bacterial infection may result swelling of the nephrons, a condition known as
nephritis.
Source: https://www.urologyhealth.org/urologic-conditions/kidney-(renal)-trauma
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6. The Bones and Muscles
If humans have no bones and muscles can we stand, walk, run or climb? Bones are
part of our skeleton. The major bones are the skull (bones of the head and face), the
backbones or the spinal column, the 12 pairs of ribs, the hip bones, and bones in our
arms and legs. Bones have water, protein and minerals. The living tissues of the bones are
the bones cells, blood vessels, cartilages, fatty tissues and nerves. Name the different
types of bones. A person who slipped or fell from the stairs may be asked by a doctor to have
a bone x-ray to make sure there are no fractures.
The white areas in the film are bones and the doctor may be able to tell us if there was
damage on parts that hit the ground. Many people suffer from bone damage due to accidents
in climbing, extreme running and even in sports. We can make our bones strong by taking
foods and drinks rich in phosphorus, calcium and Vitamin D. Regular exercise, exposure to
early morning sunlight, and maintaining good posture make our bones healthy. What are
some of the disorders of the bones?
Muscles either attached to the bones (skeletal muscles), found in walls of many
internal organs (smooth), and muscle that makes up the heart (cardiac). The muscles of
the legs and arms are voluntary muscles because you can control their movements as
when you swim, walk, write or pick up things. However, your heart muscles are involuntary,
because the heart bets without conscious effort. The major human muscles are also those
found in your face that moves the jaw, muscles of the neck that allow the chest, muscles
of the abdomen and muscles that allow you to rotate your thigh. Where else do you find
the major muscles? Some disorders of the muscles are the painful muscle cramps usually in
the legs, the reason why players have to warm up before the game. Too much exercise or
prolonged swimming ay also bring pain. Athletes prevent muscle injury by wearing proper
shoes, clothes and protective equipment. Muscles and bones enable us to move from one
place to another.
Source: https://study.com/academy/answer/what-is-thecommon-name-for-phalanges.html
Source: https://www.shutterstock.com/search/cardiac+muscle
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Male and Female
Reproductive System
LESSON
3
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Identify the parts of the male and female human
reproductive system; and
2. Describe the structure and function of the male
and female reproductive system.
The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs — in both males
and females — that work together for the purpose of procreating. Due to its vital role in the survival
of the species, many scientists argue that the reproductive system is among the most important
systems in the entire body.
All plants and animals need to reproduce to keep kind going. But how does it happen in us
humans? The organ system of the human body that is responsible for producing the young or
children is called the reproductive system. Reproduction is the process by which living things
make new individuals of the same kind. Humans reproduce through the reproductive system, a
system or organs working together. Both male and female reproductive systems are involved in
producing new individuals.
As pre-service teachers, it is important for you to understand how the human reproductive
system works so that you can simply and accurately teach the concept. This lesson will help you
understand the distinction between the reproductive systems of human males and females. You can
begin this lesson by asking the students: What physical changes have occurred in you as you have
gotten older? What additional changes will take place before you became adults? At what point in
your development are growth and change most rapid? How should you take care of your
reproductive organs? What are the functions of the reproductive system in our body?
Teacher’s Background Information on Human Reproductive System
Male Parts
•
•
•
Testis (also
called testicles)
•
•
What it Is and What it Does
The main organ of the male reproductive system.
A male has two testis or testes.
At puberty, the testes produce sperm cells and the male sex
hormones (testosterone and androgens). Each is made of 500 –
1,200 feet of tightly coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules.
Immature sperms are produced in the seminiferous tubules.
Testosterone is responsible for the development of the male
secondary sex characteristics such as body hair, muscle
development, and deep voice. These traits usually appear during
adolescence.
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•
It is a muscular sac which is shorter when cold, and longer when
warm. It holds the testes and keeps the temperature of the testes
slightly lower than that of the rest of the body. The lower temperature
is needed for the production and storage of sperm.
•
It is a pair of glands also known as bulbourethral gland that
produces pre-ejaculatory fluid that cleans the urethra to protect the
sperm.
It is a pair of simple tubular glands located within the pelvis that
secrete fluid which partly composes the semen.
It is muscular gland that is found just in front of the rectum and below
the bladder which produces most of the fluid that makes up the
semen.
Fluids secreted by Cowper’s glands, prostate glands and seminal
vesicles and the sperm.
Coiled tube where sperms undergo maturation and provide storage
of the sperm.
The tube that leads upward from each of the testis into the lower part
of the abdomen.
The two-vas deferens join at the urethra, which is the passageway for
the elimination of urine and sperm that leave the male’s body.
Scrotum
Cowper’s Gland
Seminal Vesicles
•
•
Prostate Glands
Semen
Epididymis
•
•
•
Vas Deferens
Sperm
•
•
Sperm is a male reproductive cell. It fertilizes an egg cell from the
female.
The Male Reproductive System
Source: https://medicalartlibrary.com/male-reproductive-system/
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The Female Reproductive System
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/the-female-reproductive-system/
Female Parts
•
•
•
Ovaries
Egg Cell (also
known as ovum)
Vagina or Birth
Canal
Cervix
•
What it Is and What it Does
The main organs of the female reproductive system.
The ovaries are oval and are in the lower part of the abdomen.
They produce, allow for the maturation and provide storage for egg
cells.
Ovaries also produce female sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone
and androgens). Estrogens are responsible for the development of
female sex characteristics, such as development of breasts,
broadened pelvis, and play a large role in the menstrual cycle.
•
•
Is fertilized by a sperm to produce fertilized egg called zygote.
An egg cell dissolves in the fallopian tube after about 24 hours if not
fertilized.
•
•
•
It is 3 to 4 – inch passageway or canal inside the female.
This is a place where a sperm may be deposited by the male.
It also allows passage of shed endometrium during menstrual period
and the baby during birth.
It produces fluid to cleanse and lubricate itself and help sperm travel.
The vagina opens between the legs where it is protected by folds of
skin known as vulva.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Is a short canal that leads to the uterus.
It is the bottom section of the uterus.
It produces fluids to help sperm cell travel.
It also produces mucus plug to keep out germs during pregnancy.
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•
Uterus (also
called “womb”)
•
•
Fallopian Tubes
(also known as
oviduct)
•
Is made up of muscular walls, a lining called endometrium, and a
cervix.
It houses and protects embryo/fetus/baby and allows nutrients and
wastes exchange with placenta during pregnancy.
It also nourishes the embryo before a placenta grows.
Is passageway that conveys the ovum to the uterus. As the ovum
moves along the Fallopian tube, the union of egg cell and sperm cell
can happen.
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The Human Organ Systems
at Work
LESSON
4
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Explain how the organs of the different organ
systems work together; and
2. Explain how the different organ systems work
together; and
3. Create a chart showing healthful habits that
promote proper functioning of the different organ
systems.
The human organ system is complex. You've learned that the human body consists of trillions
of cells, with various sizes, shapes, and functions. A group of cells with similar structure and function
form tissues. Tissues comprise organs, and several organs comprise the organ systems. You
learned a little about these organ systems from the activities. Let us further discuss the major
systems of organs that enable us to live and perform many tasks.
Integumentary System
It is the first-line defense of the body which is composed of the skin, hair nails, sweat, oil
glands, and nerves. It has a major role in the maintenance of the internal body conditions or
homeostasis but also performs the following functions:
1. protects the body against injury, infection and fluid loss;
2. acts as a protective barrier, that keeps our body free from the intrusion of foreign materials,
microorganisms;
3. aids in temperature regulation; and
4. helps in the elimination of waste products.
Skin is important in thermoregulation, sensations, protection, and production of Vitamin D. it
is divided into three layers: epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is the
outermost layer of the akin. Dermis lies immediately after the epidermis consisting of blood vessels,
sweat glands, and hair roots. Sweat glands collect water and waste products (sweat) from the
bloodstream.
The subcutaneous layer contains adipose tissues that cushion the delicate organs beneath
the skin and maintains body temperature. Nails, claws, and horns are called skin derivatives.
Sebaceous glands in the hair shaft secrete the oil coating.
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Source: https://www.tes.com/lessons/pXroNXYl3TdZOQ/group-7-115-117-126-the-integumentary-system
Skeletal System
The skeletal system is composed of bones, cartilage and joints which serve as the
framework of the body. It is divided into two groups: the axial and appendicular. The axial skeleton
is consisting of the skull, backbone, ribs, and sternum. The appendicular skeleton is consisting of
pectoral girdles, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs.
Bones are made up of dense connective tissues which are important in the body’s
movement, protection of the various organs of the body, production of red and white blood cells,
and storage of minerals. The ligament is the fibrous tissue that connects bones with other bones.
How do we take care of our skeletal system? Bones are supposed to last a lifetime but sometimes
they are injured like when we fall or slide causing bone fracture or sprain ligaments and tendons.
How does a bone heal? Arthritis and osteoporosis are diseases that affect our skeletal system
among the elderly.
Source: https://americanaddictioncenters.org/health-complications-addiction/skeletal-system
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Functions of Skeletal System
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Provide points of attachment to many soft tissues, muscles and ligaments in the body.
Provide support to the body.
Provide rigidity and body shape.
Protects the soft and delicate internal organs of the body.
Provide protection for internal organs like heart, brain and lungs.
Body movement is possible because of joints (points where two bones meet or where bones
join a cartilage).
Muscular System
Movement of an organism is due to the contraction and relaxation of muscles. Based on the
action, muscles are classified as either involuntary (function is not controlled) and voluntary (under
the control).
For us to use our arms, our skeletal muscles contract to move a bone, and when the muscle
relaxes, the bones return to its original position and the muscle spasms and progressive weakening
and frequent tiring of muscles. Regular exercise, a healthy diet rich in minerals and proteins,
avoiding overstressing of muscles will help us make our muscles healthy.
Functions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Movement and locomotion through its direct connection with the skeletal system.
Maintenance of posture.
Cardiac muscle pumps blood.
Smooth muscle aids digestion.
Source: https://en.ppt-online.org/530386
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Digestive System
It is a system responsible for breaking down large organic molecules into smaller particles
that the body can use as a source of energy. It is also responsible for the absorption of digested
food for distribution to the different cells. Then the undigested food will be excreted by the organs of
the digestive system. The mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine make up
the alimentary tract of the digestive system. Accessory organs such as the pancreas, liver, and the
gall bladder help in digestion. Mouth or oral cavity is a specialized organ for receiving food where
food is moistened by saliva, sticky fluid that binds food particles together into a soft mass.
Source: http://thinktankcentre.blogspot.com/2012/06/chapter-6-human-digestive-system.html
The esophagus is a long narrow pipe that transports or pushes (peristalsis) the soft mass of
chewed food called bolus and liquid from the mouth to the stomach. The stomach has a valve-like
ring of muscle surrounding its opening called the cardiac sphincter which pushes the bolus into
the stomach. Layers of stomach muscle contract, the bolus of food is mixed with gastric to form a
soupy liquid called chyme. The small intestine is where the final digestion of all the nutrients takes
place and also where all the nutrients from the food are absorbed. It is divided into three sections:
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Its inner surface contains numerous fingerlike projections called
villi. The large intestine is also known as the colon where water from the undigested food is
absorbed. It is divided into sections ascending, transverse, and descending. The last part of the
large intestine is a finger-like structure called an appendix or cecum.
Our digestive system may be infected by germs that cause diarrhea, vomiting, and cholera. We
must clean and cook properly the food that we take. Washing hands with soap and water before
and after eating must be a habit. The water that we drink must be free of germs and parasites. Do
not eat spoiled foods. Drink plenty of water.
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Circulatory System
This system circulates blood and other essential nutrients throughout the body. It transports
lymph, hormones, and gases. It also transports the wastes products of metabolism to the excretory
organs. it has three main parts – heart, blood, and blood vessels. Blood is the circulating fluid of
the circulatory system. It has an iron-containing protein molecule called hemoglobin, which is
responsible for the blood’s deep red color and facilities transportation of oxygen and other
respiratory gases to tissues. Blood vessels are tubular channels that transport blood throughout
the body.
Source: https://sites.google.com/site/lifesciencesforall102/life-sciences/human-circulatory-system
Blood Vessels
1. Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the cells,
tissues, and organs of the body except for pulmonary arteries that carry deoxygenated blood
from the heart to the lungs.
2. Veins are blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood toward the heart except for
pulmonary veins that carry oxygen-rich blood from the mungs to the left atrium of the heart.
3. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels that are responsible for the interchanges of water,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other nutrients and waste chemical substances between
the blood and surrounding tissues.
One of the blood diseases is anemia, where too little oxygen flows resulting in weakness.
Leukemia (cancer of the blood), results from the release of immature cells by the bone marrow.
Cardiovascular diseases include hypertension and atherosclerosis which are prevalent among the
elderly. There is a relationship between cardio-respiratory high-risk factors such as smoking,
obesity, poor diet, lack of physical exercise, stressful activities, drinking alcohol to poor health.
Habits that lead to healthy body systems are regular exercise, eating a balanced diet, no prohibited
drugs, and smoking. Having regular medical and dental check-ups is also necessary.
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Nervous System
The nervous system regulates and coordinate the body’s responses to changes in the internal
and external environment. It has two major divisions: Central Nervous System (CNS) and the
Peripheral Nervous System. The CNS collects information from the sensory receptors and does
the processing of the information. It has two parts: the spinal cord and the brain.
Source: http://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/basic-structure-and-function-of-the-nervous-system/
Peripheral Nervous System sends information processed in the CNS to the different body
parts. It consists of nerves connecting the brain and spinal cord to the sensory organs, muscles,
and glands through the pathways. It is divided into two divisions: a somatic nervous system that
controls both reflex and voluntary actions; and autonomic nervous system which regulates the
body’s internal environment, glands heart muscle, and smooth muscles.
The brain is the command center of the body which monitors all the conscious and
unconscious process of the body, coordinates various organs of the body, and controls all the
voluntary movements in the body. It is divided into three segments: forebrain, midbrain, and
hindbrain. The spinal cord is responsible for relaying all the impulses, information, and sensations.
The nervous system may be affected by germs as in the case of meningitis, acute
inflammation of the meninges, or the covering of the membranes of the brain and spinal cord. It
could result in loss of hearing, vision, and changes in the child’s thinking and doing tasks.
Poliomyelitis due to viral infection affecting the spinal cord may result in paralysis. A nerve may be
inflamed due to injury. Migraine, a serve headache is common when a person is under stress or
with hormonal imbalance during the menstrual period among women. Epilepsy brings about
seizures when one cannot control the muscles. Among the elderly, Alzheimer’s disease brings about
progressive loss of memory and intellectual disabilities. Head injuries from accidents can cause
fracture of the skull, concussion, and bleeding. Tumors may also originate in the brain bringing
disturbances in various functions. Wearing a seatbelt when in motor vehicles reduces the risk of
injury to the body in case of accidents. Wearing a helmet for motorbike riders must be followed,
especially on national roads. Avoiding prohibited drugs, tobacco, alcoholic drinks and stress,
washing hands properly, and having vaccinations for poliomyelitis and eating a balanced diet make
us healthy.
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Respiratory System
It is responsible for the gaseous exchange which involves the process of breathing. The gas
exchange involves the absorption of oxygen gas from the environment (inhalation) and the removal
of carbon dioxide from the body because it is considered as the waste product of metabolism
(exhalation). During inhalation, the diaphragm contract (the sheet of muscles that separates the
thoracic cavity). During exhalation, the muscles relax and the volume of the thoracic cavity
decreases thereby causing the air to rush out.
Source: https://depositphotos.com/9977839/stock-illustration-respiratory-system.html
Upper Respiratory Tract
1. Nose is the organ through which air is inhaled and exhaled. It filters, moistens, and heats up
the air that is inhaled before it passes to the pharynx.
2. Pharynx is located behind the nasal and oral cavities which facilitate passage of air to the
trachea.
3. Larynx connects trachea with laryngopharynx. It is made up of cartilage and also known as
a sound box.
4. Epiglottis is a part of the larynx, a flap-like structure that covers the glottis. It is a cartilage
that prevents food from entering the respiratory tract when swallowing.
Lower Respiratory Tract
1. Trachea or windpipe is a tube-like structure with a tough covering that lies in the anterior of
the esophagus. It moistens the air and facilities its passage. It branches into two tube-like
structures called bronchi.
2. Bronchi are tubes that allow passage of airflow into the lungs.
3. Lungs are a pair of conical organs found in the pleural cavities which house the bronchi.
They are subdivided into numerous tubes called bronchioles. Each bronchiole ends with
numerous air sacs called alveoli.
4. Alveoli are the basic functional units that facilitate gaseous exchange.
5. Diaphragm plays an important role in breathing: contraction results into an expansion of the
thoracic cavity allowing air to rush in; and relaxation makes the thoracic cavity smaller
expelling the air out of the body.
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Module 5:
Heredity: Inheritance and Variation
All living organisms produce their own kind. The process by which living things
produce their own kind is called reproduction. When organisms reproduce the adult give
birth to the young that are more or less with similar characteristics as the parents.
Plants are living things. They reproduce more plants of their own kind. Sexual
reproduction in plants is possible because of the flowers. Plants can also reproduce
without using seeds. The process of growing new plants without using the seeds in called
asexual reproduction.
Living Things
Reproduce
LESSON
1
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Infer that living things reproduce;
2. Identify observable characteristics that are
passed on from parents to offspring;
3. Differentiate sexual from asexual reproduction;
4. Distinguish animal and plant reproduction; and
5. Realize the critical role of reproduction to
organisms.
Reproduction of Organisms
One of the properties of living things that is important to the perpetuity of their species is
reproduction. Procreation or breeding are the other terms for reproduction, which means the
production of new individual organism or offspring by their parents. Reproduction can be classified
into two forms, the sexual and the asexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction, a fusion of
reproductive cells from two individuals to produce a unique offspring. This offspring usually
possesses new combination of genes coming from the single set of unpaired chromosomes from
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each parent. On the other hand, asexual reproduction is a form of reproduction that does not
involve a combination of gamete cells. There are several types of asexual reproduction; these are
fission, budding, vegetative propagation, spore formation, fragmentation, and agamogenesis.
In animals there are two ways of producing the young offspring, first is by laying of eggs or
oviparous and the other is giving live birth or viviparous by the female. Animals that lay and hatch
eggs are mostly fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, insects, mollusks, arachnids and the monotremes.
Examples of oviparous animals are gold fish, snails, ostrich, crocodiles, butterfly, chicken and doves.
While animals that give live birth to young are mostly mammals. Examples of viviparous animals are
cow, dog, giraffe, horse, monkey and humans.
https://i.ytimg.com/vi/azXufMPmlDE/maxresdefault.jpg
https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-xyKju6J4Fqw/VQXJpC-69TI/AAAAAAAAAR8/k4ZtgQfLaMA/s1600/viviparos.jpg
The reproduction of plants is also interesting because there are plants that reproduce through
seeds, others through spores, some reproduce through vegetative means and others by artificial
means. Plants that reproduce by seeds have specialized structures that houses the male and
female gametes which join together in the process called fertilization. Afterwards, a small plant
called embryo develops inside the seed. The seed serves as protectant of the embryo as well as
storage of food. Then, if the seeds are released by the plant or dispersed into a land with suitable
conditions, the embryo will germinate and grow into a new plant. There are two main groups of seed
plants; the angiosperms (flower bearing) and gymnosperms (cone bearing).
A Seed and Embryo
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/images/93-bean-seed-embryo
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There are plants that reproduce by spores that contain special set of chromosomes. Unlike
the seeds, spores do not contain an embryo and does not store food. The fertilization of this type of
plant takes place in a damp location away from its parent. Where an embryo is formed and a new
plant grows from it. Example of plants that reproduce by spores are ferns, mosses, and liverworts.
Fern Spore
https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/fern-spores-400x266.jpg
Through reproduction, we get some genes from our parents that are expressed as traits or
characteristics that we can observe or see. Genes are the genetic factors that we inherit from
parents, for example, when one parent has dimples, you might have it. Cataract runs in the family,
so if either of your parent has it, you might also have it. Take not that family members are not exactly
alike but have similarities.
A farmer may choose big fruits of tomato as source of seeds for his next planting because
the new plants may also bear big fruits. Sweet oranges come from sweet tasting fruits and farmers
use grafting of the stems to produce new plants. High yielding rice varieties are cultured by growers
for next planting season. In the market, you can see labels of different rice varieties to choose from.
A sow that gives birth to many piglets is chosen by a pig raiser so they can give more heads for
sale. Puppies with good breeds come from parent dogs with desirable features. These examples
show that offspring inherit some traits from their parents.
Reproduction among plants could be sexual – involving male and female parts of the flower
to produce fruits and seeds. The seeds are the ones planted that will grow to seedlings and
eventually become the mature plant. There are also plants that reproduce by vegetative means
involving roots, stems and leaves such as runners, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs and adventitious plants.
Rice seeds sown by farmers germinate and produce may tiller that grow and bear flowers then fruits
and seeds. Man can also assist in the production of new plants through artificial means such as
cuttings, marcotting or grafting. The variety of roses with big flowers can be propagates not by seeds
but by cuttings. Many other plants are propagated by farmers and gardeners through vegetative
means since the genes of the mother plant are the same as in the cuttings.
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Life Cycles or Humans,
Animals and Plants
LESSON
2
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe the stages in the development of a
human being;
2. Describe examples of life cycle in plants and
animals; and
3. Differentiate the life cycles of animals and
plants.
Life Cycle of Humans: Stages of Human Growth and Development
1. Fertilization – Union of egg Cell and Sperm Cell
The process of human development, begins with the process known as prenatal
development. It begins with the union of egg cell and sperm cell in the process called
fertilization, or conception. The chromosomes of the egg cell combine with the
chromosomes of the sperm cell to form a new cell called zygote. The zygote, which contains
a combination of genetic material from both parents, develops into the embryo. The embryo
then develops embryonic and extra embryonic tissues which will later form the fetal
membranes and the placenta. Embryo is the term used for the developing organism from the
third week of development until the end of second month, fetus is the term used for the
developing organism from the beginning of third month to birth. The amnion is a membrane
that surrounds the developing organism, it contains a clear fluid that cushions the growing
organism. The placenta is a structure through which materials are exchanged between blood
of the fetus and that of the mother. The umbilical cord attaches the fetus to the placenta;
blood vessels inside the cord transport materials to and from the placenta.
2. Birth – The Release of the Baby from the Womb or Uterus to the Outside World.
At birth, mothers undergo the process of labor or the contraction of the muscles of
their uterus and push the baby out of the vagina. In the first phase, which is called the
dilation, the cervix opens to about the same size of the baby’s head. The next phase is
called the expulsion, where the baby is pushed out of the uterus into the vagina and out of
the body and umbilical cord is cut. In the third phase, the placenta and amnion are forced
outside of the mother’s body by contractions of the uterus.
3. Infancy or Babyhood
After birth, the human undergoes different stages of physical growth and development.
The different stages are Infancy and Babyhood Stage, Early Childhood Stage, Late
Childhood Stage, the Adolescence Stage, the Early Adulthood Stage and the Old Age
Stage.
Infancy and Babyhood Stage is the stage from birth to 2 years of age. Thus, stage
marks the rapid physical growth. It is considered as one of the most remarkable and busiest
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times of development. Physical growth occurs rapidly during the first two years of life.
Development occurs in gross and fine motor, language, emotional and temperament.
4. Early and Later Childhood
Early Childhood Stage happens from two up to 6 years of age. Healthy children at
this stage exhibit important growth and development in various areas such as social and
emotional, language and communication, movement and physical, and cognitive.
The Late Childhood Stage happens from six up to twelve years of age. Physical
development is slow and steady in this stage. The child gains greater control over his body.
in terms of social development, the child’s relationship changes towards others and the child
will generally have multiple social contacts outside the family. Emotionally, the child controls
and understands his emotions and becomes skilled in expressing his emotions. Most of the
child’s cognitive development takes place in school as the brain continues to develop.
5. Adolescence
Adolescence Stage happens from thirteen up to nineteen years of age. This stage is
considered as the transition stage between childhood and adulthood stage. Sex maturation
and rapid physical development happen in this stage. Boys begin to show secondary sexual
traits such as deeper voice due to thickened vocal cords, increased growth of hair on the
face, chest, armpits and pubic regions. Some parts of the body may have more muscles and
fats. Inside the body of the male, the tests enlarge and produce sperms. Among females,
secondary characteristics include enlargement of the breast, development of hair in armpit
and pubic area, and the menstrual cycle. The female is able to produce an egg one at a time
in the 28-day cycle. Every month there are changes in the uterus to prepare for the fertilization
of the egg and pregnancy when the egg is fertilized. This includes the thickening of the uterine
walls due to an increase of the female hormones. When an egg is not fertilized, it is released
with the lining of the uterus as menstruation which occurs for about three to seven days. Then
another cycle begins.
Many women suffer from discomforts a few days before and during menstruation.
Headaches, sleeping problems, irritability and anxiety, tenderness of the breast and even
depression may be felt. These symptoms are pre menstrual syndrome. Regular exercise and
eating balance diet may reduce this discomfort. Tumor may occur in the uterus; ovarian and
cervical cancers are possible disorders of the female reproductive organs.
6. Early Adulthood
Early Adulthood Stage happens from nineteen to forty years. This stage of life
generally consists of leaving home, completing education, beginning fulltime work, attaining
financial independence, establishing a long-term intimate relationship and starting a family.
7. Middle Age
The Middle Age Stage happens between the ages forty and above up to sixty-five.
This stage in life is the transition stage and physical adjustment stage. An individual may
experience decline in physical and mental capabilities. At this point in time of man, there will
be visible signs of aging. For women, menopausal stage occurs at the stage.
8. Old Age
Old Age Stage happens from sixty-five to death. In this stage, an individual could
experience rapid physical and mental decline as well as psychological and physical illness.
Sometimes this stage also called as senescence, elderly or senior citizens. Mostly, this
time is the retirement year for those who are working.
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9. Death
This is the physical condition of the body when all the organs do not anymore function
to continue life. This is sometimes called cellular or organ death. This state may not always
happen after old age. Some people die young.
Life Cycles of Butterfly, Mosquito and Frog
The term metamorphosis came from the Greek word metamorphoun which means to
transform or to change shape. Thus, this is the process by which some animals such as mosquitoes,
butterflies and frogs undergo extreme, rapid physical changes sometime after birth. Metamorphosis
results in changes in the number of legs, means of eating or means of breathing. Metamorphic
process is essential for sexual maturity because at pre-metamorphic stage the species cannot procreate. Some animals undergo metamorphosis including fish and mollusks. There are two types of
metamorphosis, the complete metamorphosis or the “holometabolous” which means completely
changing and the incomplete metamorphosis of “hemimetabolous” which means half-changing.
In a complete metamorphosis a caterpillar must spin a cocoon and lie dormant for weeks while its
body undergoes sweeping changes. Moreover, beetles, flies, moths, ants and bees transform from
worm-like larval stage into an animal that looks totally different. In an incomplete metabolism only
some parts of the animal’s body change during metamorphosis. Cockroaches, grasshoppers and
dragonflies are examples of hemimetabolous organisms that hatch from eggs looking a lot like their
adult selves. They do not completely remake their bodies.
https://metamorphosis4kids.weebly.com/complete-metamorphosis.html
https://metamorphosis4kids.weebly.com/incomplete-metamorphosis.html
1. Metamorphosis in Mosquitos
Mosquitos lay eggs that hatch in water, to become the larva commonly known as
wrigglers. Even with small amount of water, the larvae can grow. Eventually it becomes a
pupa with an outer covering or a cocoon. Inside the cocoon, the larva reorganizes to produce
the parts of an adult. The adult then emerges from the pupal stage when the cocoon breaks.
Mosquitos need water and land as habitat to continue their life cycle.
https://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/insects/mosquito/
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2. Metamorphosis in Butterflies
The butterflies lay eggs in the underside of lower surface of leaves of some plants that
are preferred food like calamansi and “gabi.” The caterpillar or larva hatches from the eggs.
It is wormlike and feeds voraciously on the leaves as it grows in size. Sometimes these would
eat almost all the leaves of a plant. The next stage is pupa which is covered by a cocoon. At
this stage, the pupa does not move. Inside the cocoon, the larva reorganizes to produce parts
of an adult. Then the cocoon finally breaks releasing the adult butterfly. Many butterflies have
colorful wings that flutter at early morning from one flower to another.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yD5WRPaGo8s
3. Metamorphosis in Frogs
On the other hand, the female frog lay jelly-coated eggs in water which fertilized
externally by sperms released by male adult frogs. Black tadpoles hatch from the egg. The
tadpoles appear fishlike and later develop legs and external gills. After about three months,
the gills are replaced by lungs and the young frog emerges and moves to land.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRTnN0TSDO4
Life Cycles of Flowering Plant
The life cycle of a flowering plant starts when the adult plant produces a flower. The flower
has pistils that are involved in the development of egg cells. The stamen of the flower produces
pollen grains that contain sperm cells. The pollen grains are transferred from the anther of the
stamen to the stigma of the pistil by insects and other pollinating agents. Fertilization of an egg
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cell by the sperm cell occurs in the ovule of the ovary. The ovules develop into mature seeds and
the ovary grows into a fruit. The seeds inside the fruit can become a new plant.
Seeds from parent plants are scattered or dispersed by animals, wind and water. Mature
seeds germinate when favorable conditions are present such as water, proper temperature and
nutrients. The young plant grows to become a mature plant.
https://www.britannica.com/science/life-cycle
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Reproduction among
Flowering Plants
LESSON
3
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe sexual reproduction in plants;
2. Describe asexual reproduction in plants;
3. Analyze the relationship between the parts of the
flower and its significance to reproduction; and
4. Recognize the critical role of flowers to the
ecosystem.
Reproduction among flowering plants is critical for the perpetuity of the species. Furthermore,
this reproduction can be sexual or asexual. Sexual reproduction is the process of producing an
offspring through the union of gamete cells, thus it produces offspring that is genetically different
from the parents. On the other hand, asexual reproduction is the production of offspring without
the fusion of sex cells, hence producing offspring that has similar genetic make-up with the parents.
Sexual reproduction in Plants
The flower is the reproductive organ of a flowering plant. Parts of the flower are the pistil and
the stamen which holds the female and male gamete cells respectively. Some kinds of plant have
flowers that produce both male and female sex cells. Other kinds have flowers that produce either
male and female sex cells.
1. Pollination
•
Pollination is the process wherein there is transfer of pollen grains from the stamen,
to the ovule – bearing organs (pistil). When the pollen reaches the pistil, it will be
deposited in the stigma, where the pollen germinates and gives rise to a pollen tube.
This pollen tube grows down through the pistil towards the ovule in its base. Take note
that pollination only take place between plants of the same kind, birds, insects and
wind are some agents of pollination. If the pollen from a papaya blossom lands on
guava, for example, no pollination occurs. A mango flower must be pollinated by pollen
grains from another mango flower. When an insect, or a small bird visits a flower, that
animals transfers the male sex cells from one flower to another. This transfer is part
of the process of sexual reproduction in the flower.
2. Fertilization
•
In fertilization, a male sex cell joins with a female sex cell to produce a fertilized cell.
3. Seed formation
•
After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds. The seed contains the embryo.
Ovules develop into mature seeds, while the ovary develops into a fruit. A fruit is a
ripened ovary that contains one or more mature seeds.
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4. Germination
•
When conditions are proper for growth, seeds undergo germination. Germination is
the growth of an embryo into young plant.
Sexual Production in Plants
https://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/biology/reproduction/revise-it/sexual-reproduction-in-flowering-plants
Asexual Reproduction or Vegetative Propagation in Plants
Many plants that produce seeds can also reproduce by asexual means. Asexual
reproduction is the process of producing an offspring without fusion of gamete cells, it means that
the offspring came only from one parent. Fission and fragmentation are common asexual process
some plants do. Asexual reproduction is seed plants is called vegetative propagation. Vegetative
propagation is the development of new plant from a stem, root, or leaf of a parent plant. In this
process, there is no union of an egg cell and a sperm cell and no seed forms.
1. Propagation by Cutting
•
A cutting is a plant part that has been removed from the parent plant and used to
grow a new plant. The plant part used is a cutting that is often a stem with leaves
attached. The cutting may be placed in water, in wet soil, or in some other wet
substances. Once the cutting is planted in soil, it will grow new stems and leaves.
Some important food plants such as sugar cane, sweet potato and many ornamental
plants are grown from stem cuttings.
2. Propagation by Grafting
•
Grafting is a method in which cutting from one plant is attached to the rooted stem of
another plant. As it grows, the cuttings become part of the rooted plant, but it retains
its own traits. Grafting is usually doe in trees to increase the amount of fruit a tree
produces. Grafting can also be used to grow fruits on trees that resist drought and
disease.
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3. Propagation through Corms, Bulb and Tubers
•
New plants can also be grown from corms, bulb and tubers. A corm is a thickened
underground stem. “Gabi” is a plant that forms corms. Onions can be propagated from
enlarged rounded bud called bulbs. Tubers are enlarged food – storing underground
stems that contain many small buds called “eyes.” A new plant can be grown from
each eye as in potatoes.
4. Propagation through leaves
• New plants can also be grown from whole leaves or part of leaves. Usually, only the
fleshy leaves, such as begonia and katakataka can be grown from their leaves.
• Vegetative propagation is useful for many reasons. New banana plants are grown from
suckers. Grapes can be grown by vegetative propagation so that the fruits do not
contain seeds. Seedless fruits are easier to eat. This method is often a faster method
of growing plants than growing them from seeds.
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LESSON
4
Reproduction in NonFlowering Plants
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe how spore bearing and cone bearing
plants reproduce;
2. Distinguish reproduction in sore and cone bearing
plants.
Plants need to reproduce to maintain the existence of the species on earth. Flowering plants
reproduce asexually and sexually as you have already learned. Not all plant bear flowers. Mosses,
ferns and pine trees are groups of plants that do not bear flowers for reproduction. Among mosses,
the mature plant produces spores enclosed in capsule and when mature the capsule breaks to
release spores, a kind of asexual reproduction. These spores germinate and grow to a mature plant
which you can see in moist places like flower pots, bricks walls, forest floors and river banks. In the
mature plant, sex organs produce either the egg cells or sperm cells. Fertilization may occur to
produce a zygote that will grow into a young plant. A moss plant has parts that develop spore and
sex cells. Mosses then reproduce both sexually and asexually.
https://kids.britannica.com/students/assembly/view/162564
The life cycle of most mosses begins with the release of spores from a capsule, which opens
when a small, lid like structure, called the operculum, degenerates. A single spore germinates to
form a branched, filamentous protonema, from which a leafy gametophyte develops. The
gametophyte bears organs for sexual reproduction. Sperm, which are released by the mature
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antheridium (the male reproductive organ), are attracted into the neck of an archegonium (the female
reproductive organ). Here, one sperm fuse with the egg to produce the zygote. After cell division,
the zygote becomes the sporophyte, and, at the same time, the archegonium divides to form the
protective calyptra. The sporophyte usually consists of a capsule and a seta. Asexual reproduction
occurs within the capsule and the whole process may begin again.
Among ferns, the plants that you see are those that produce spores on the underside of the
leaflets. When the spores are ejected from the spore cases and hit moist place, these germinate
and grow into heart-shaped gametophytes that produce female and male sex cells. After fertilization
the zygote grows into a young plant that is spore-bearing. The underground stems or rhizomes
produce young plants. Ferns are important in-home decoration, landscaping and floral arrangement.
Fiddleheads, the newly formed leaves are eaten as salads.
Life Cycle of Fern
https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~joyellen/bioweb.html
1. The sporangia produce haploid spores through the process of meiosis
2. In suitable conditions, the spores grow into small heart-shaped, haploid gametophytes by
mitosis.
3. Each gametophyte has a female and male sex organ, which are called the archegonium and
the antheridium, respectively.
They produce gametes - sperm and eggs - through mitosis
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4. The sperm uses the flagella to swim from the antheridium to the archegonium, where the
eggs are, and fertilizes them, forming a zygote.
5. The zygote is now a diploid, and grows by mitosis into a fern (a diploid sporophyte). The new
sporophyte grows out from the archegonium.
6. The cycle repeats as the sporangia from the new sporophyte once again produces haploid
spores.
Conifers, like the pine trees, generally ae found in places like Baguio and cold countries. They
have needle-like leaves and produce seeds in cones of mature plants. There are smaller male and
bigger female cones that contain the reproductive cells. The seeds are naked or not enclosed by a
fruit wall. When the seeds are released by the female cones, these germinate in moist soil. Pine
trees are sources of lumber, ornamental plants in parks and Christmas decor. The relatives of pines
include the giant redwood tree (tallest and largest plant on earth) and bristlecone pine (the oldest
plant more than 5000 years old), cycads and ginkgo.
http://www.nzplants.auckland.ac.nz/en/about/seed-plants-non-flowering/reproduction/pine-life-cycle.html
Stage 1: Male cones (pollen cones) and female cones (ovuliferous cones) are formed on the adult
tree or the spore-bearing plant (sporophyte).
Stage 2: Several male cones are formed in a cluster beneath a new shoot.
Stage 3: A longitudinal section of a male cone shows that it is made up of many fertile scales spirally
arranged around a central stalk.
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Stage 4: A longitudinal section through one fertile scale will reveal the contents of a pollen sac (there
are two pollen sacs side by side on a fertile scale). Special cells called sporocytes inside the pollen
sac undergo reduction division (meiosis) to form many small spores or microspores (Four
microspores are formed from each sporocyte).
Stage 5: The single-celled microspores (still inside the pollen sac) begin developing into pollen
grains while still attached to their fellow microspores. A thick wall forms around each developing
pollen grain, and two zones of the wall bulge out and become hollow air-filled sacs.
Stage 6: As they develop the microspores separate. Each microspore is a tiny single-celled haploid
'plant' genetically different from the parent plant.
Stage 7: When mature each microspore germinates. This means that it begins cell division. By the
time of dispersal each pollen grain contains 4 cells inside a tough outer wall. These are the male
gamete-forming ‘plants’ which are released from the parent sporophyte. The pollen grains are
transported by air currents to reach the female cones of another tree.
Stage 8: At the same time as the pollen cones form, female cones are formed near the tips of
branches, often protected by surrounding leaves.
Stage 9: A longitudinal section of a female cone shows that it is made up of many fertile scales
arranged spirally around the central stalk. At the time of pollination, the scales are slightly separated
to allow pollen to fall between them to reach the ovules.
Stage 10: Each fertile scale has two ovules on its upper surface. Every ovule has a small opening
in its integument, called the micropyle. Pollen grains are captured in watery droplets exuded by
each ovule. The tiny air-filled sacs enable them to float up through the micropyle into the ovule to
reach the surface of the female sporangium.
Stage 11: This shows a fertile scale cut longitudinally through one of the ovules. The ovule consists
of a sporangium enclosed in an outer protective layer called the integument. A pollen grain can be
seen on the exposed surface of the sporangium. At the center of the sporangium is one special cell
called a sporocyte.
Stage 12: The sporocyte divides into four large haploid spores (megaspores) by reduction division
(meiosis). Only one of the megaspores will remain functional. The other three abort and shrivel
away.
Stage 13: The functional megaspore now germinates to form a female gametophyte contained
inside the ovule. The female gametophyte enlarges by multiple divisions of the nuclei, and the ovule
enlarges to accommodate it. When it has attained full size the nuclei form cell walls. Eventually the
female gametophyte is a multicellular structure several millimeters long inside the ovule.
Stage 14: One of the cells inside the pollen grain divides into two sperm cells which travel along the
pollen tube to reach an egg.
Stage 15: While lodged inside the ovule, the pollen grain has been growing a pollen tube through
the sporangium tissue towards the egg-containing structures. Two egg-bearing structures
(archegonia) form at one end of the female gametophyte. A fully mature archegonium contains one
large egg cell (as in archegonium A). When a pollen tube reaches an archegonium it releases the
two sperm nuclei into the egg. The first sperm nucleus to reach the egg nucleus will fertilize it. The
fusion nucleus or zygote is the first cell of the next diploid spore-bearing plant (as in archegonium
B).
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Stage 16: If two pollen grains entered the ovule at pollination, both archegonia may be fertilized.
Stages 16 and 17 show four successive stages of development occurring in separate archegonia.
The zygote divides into several nuclei which all move to the opposite end of the archegonium (as in
archegonium C). Then they arrange themselves into four tiers of 4 cells (as in archegonium D).
Stage 17: The end tier will become four embryo cells. The cells behind them begin to elongate and
push the embryo cells out of the archegonium towards the middle of the female gametophyte (as in
archegonium E). The elongating cells are called suspensors. As the four embryo cells are pushed
deeper into the gametophyte, they split apart into four separate embryos at the tips of four separate
suspensors (as in archegonium F). The four embryos start to divide and eventually become
multicellular. If two archegonia are fertilized this means eight embryos are formed. Only the most
vigorous one will survive.
Stage 18: Once the elongating cells (suspensors) have completed their task they die. The surviving
embryo enlarges as it forms a root tip, a shoot tip and several seed leaves (cotyledons). By now the
surface tissue (integument) of the former ovule has hardened to form a seed coat, and the
gametophyte tissue is packed with stored nourishment.
Stage 19: While the ovules have been developing into seeds, the entire female cone has become
large and woody, with its scales tightly closed to protect the seeds inside.
Stage 20: When fully mature the cones open to release the seeds. If both ovules were pollinated
there will be two seeds formed on each scale.
Stage 21: Attached to each seed coat is a papery wing, which enables the seed to be carried away
from the parent tree by the wind.
Stage 22: Upon germination, a seed gives rise to a seedling with roots, stem and cotyledons.
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Module 6:
Biodiversity and Evolution
The world of living things is so beautiful, so varied and numerous. Animals and
plants are found almost everywhere in this planet. You have enjoyed the songs of birds,
smell of flowers, tasted fruits, listened to the music of singers and enjoyed taking care of
your pets. You may have the chance to feed the chicken in your backyard, ride on the
back of carabao and catch shrimps and fishes in the fishponds and more. This module
will introduce you to the world of plants and animals where they live, what structures they
have in order to classify them in groups and the general concept of biodiversity.
LESSON
1
Animals and Plants: Parts,
Functions and Importance to
Humans
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe the characteristics of living and nonliving things;
2. Describe animals and plants in their immediate
surroundings;
3. Identify the parts and functions of animals and
plants;
4. State the importance of animals and plants to
humans; and
5. Describe the ways of proper handling of animals
and plants.
The physical environment where we live is non-living the waters, land and air. The animals
and plants are living things. Around us are animals as pets, animals that we grow for food ad source
of income, animals for transport and many more. Humans are classified as animals.
Looking at the different wild flowers is refreshing to the eyes. A beautiful garden in bloom is
for us to enjoy. Let us find more about plants around us the parts, function of the parts, uses of
plants and how to care of these plants.
An organism is a complete, individual living thing. Some examples of organisms are dog,
rose, mosquito, milkfish, whale, clam and narra tree. They do not look alike but have features in
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common. These features make up a living thing. Organisms do things to maintain life which are
called life processes.
Life processes or Characteristics of Living Things.
▪
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Growing or increasing in size according to its kind.
Responding or reacting to stimuli/surroundings.
Producing more individuals of their own kind or reproduction.
Obtaining energy from food, air, and other sources.
Releasing wastes to the surroundings.
A whale is big but a shrimp is not, but both grow in size. Some birds are small, others are
large but both grow. Ants could smell food even if the source is far because they have sensitive
organs to detect the food stimulus. Narra produces seeds that are blown by the wind then these
germinate and produce new plants. A sow (mother pig) gives birth to piglets. Plants obtain energy
from sunlight to produce food (photosynthesis) for its own use of animals to eat. Oxygen is derived
by plants and animals from the air. Animals release carbon dioxide as they breathe and this is taken
up by plants during photosynthesis. Animals also release waste materials as perspiration, urine, or
feces to the surrounding. On the other hand, a boat engine needs gasoline to function, it releases
smoke as waste. A book could be thick or thin but this is made by man. Non-living things like soap
bubbles, icicles, balloons, and rock formation in caves grow in size but they cannot perform the life
processes.
Animal Parts and their Function
Many of the same kinds of species have the same body parts. But the parts of their bodies
differ in size, shape, color, and function. Animal body parts are related to the function, movement,
habitat, and food that they get.
Animals have parts that enable them to live in various places. For example, dogs have a
head, body, and legs. The whole body is covered by hair. In the head, are the ears, mouth, and
nose. The head is connected to the body by a neck. Attached to the body are the two front legs and
two hind legs, for movement. The end of the body has a tail. The male external reproductive parts
are found in the belly area. The feet have toes that ate covered by the thick horns. These
characteristics enable them to live on land.
A fish lives in water. It has a head, body, and tail. In the head are the eyes, mouth, nostrils,
and gill cover. The body may or may not be covered by scales. The fins are found in the upper side
and lower side of the body, and at the tail. Its slender body and fins enable the fish to swim.
Take note of the frog especially during the rainy season. They are plentiful in rice paddies
creating sounds in the early evening. They have slippery skin, four legs and can walk on land.
Butterflies have colorful wings and three pairs of legs. They fly from one flower to another feeding o
juice or nectar. There are many more animals around that you are familiar with. Do you know their
body parts and how they function to enable these animals to lie in different places?
Importance of Animals to Humans
Animals are our friends, our staff, our eyes, ears, and food. They appear in old cave paintings,
as well as on modern commercial farms. Some of them we have domesticated while others remain
wild and are often threatened by our activities. They keep us company and while they can provide
comic relief, they also act as useful assistants for us.
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Animals are gifts of nature to us. Throughout everyday life, they are the ones who are
closely connected with us. Animals contribute more to human life than only plants do. It would be
hard to think without animals.
1. Animals are Great Companions
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Animals are kept quite often as companions to fight against loneliness.
Animals are also objecting of the owners' affections.
Animals bring joy to us and can be our best friend.
2. Animals are Perfect Caregivers
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Trained dogs performed several tasks to assist people with disabilities such as guiding
people who are blind, alerting people who are deaf, pulling wheelchairs and etc.
Monkeys are remarkably capable of performing a multitude of simple, daily tasks for
individuals who have lost their own limbs.
Cats are also sometimes trained to communicate such sounds to their deaf owner.
3. Animals Work for Humans
▪
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Animals like horses, ox, male buffalo, donkeys, etc. are used for transportation. In
deserts, camels are used.
Oxen have pulled plows for farming.
Donkeys are used to carry goods. Elephants are used to shift tree trunks and stem in
the forest.
4. Animals as Source of Livelihood
▪
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Farmers raise cattle, lamb, sheep, goats, and other animals simply to make a living by
selling milk, meat, and etc.
Horses serve as a means of livelihood for the poor who use them to draw carts.
Fishing, hens, and pigs rearing in farms also provide human employment.
5. Animals as Source of Food
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Animals provide milk that is important every day in human life. Animals used to
produce milk include cows, buffalos, goats, camels, and donkeys.
Animals like hens, duck provide eggs which is a good source of protein.
Fishes provided nutritious food to our diet.
6. Animals for Sports and Leisure
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Animals are used to assist us in different activities such as the use of horses for a polo
game. Dogs are used to hunt pheasants, quail, and other birds.
Horses are used for horse racing activities.
Animals are kept in the zoo for the purposes of our enjoyment and knowledge.
Animals are used in the circus to exhibit our entertainment activities.
7. Animals Used for Rehabilitation
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Dogs are trained to provide affection and comfort to people in hospitals, retirement
homes, nursing homes, schools, people with learning difficulties.
Animals assisted therapeutic approaches are often used for healing.
The sick and the elderly look forward to spending time with animals.
Horses too often serve in counseling.
8. Animals Used for Safety and Security
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Animals such as dogs are kept quite often to guard the owner and his home.
Animals like monkeys are trained toward animals near airports.
The dogs use their sense of smell to track objects and individuals.
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▪
Animals are used for the detection of underground buried explosives.
9. Miscellaneous Uses of Animals
▪
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Animals are kept from the sake of organic manure like dung of cattle is good from
farms which imparts fertility to the soil.
Animals such as horses, mice are used to make essential medicinal items. Snake
poison is used for treating cancer in medicine.
Goat and sheep animal hair is used to make woolen clothes, shawls, and blankets.
Animals are a great source of leather which is used for making footwear, belts, wallets
bags, furniture, etc.
Any newly discovered medicine is tested by animal experiments.
Taking Care of Animals
If animals provide us some of our basic needs, then we should take care of them. Our pet
dogs and cats are provided with shelter, food, and medicine. Our farm animals are provided for
grazing fields. Poultry houses are built for chicken, ducks, and turkey. We build bird houses and
protect their nests. We protect the habitat where animals live by making them free of pollutants like
those that live in waters. We have to remember that animals too have their right to live among us.
Parts of a Plant
Plants are an important part of human life and vegetation as well. They are very beneficial to
us and give us a lot of things. We 're surrounded by plants but have you ever stopped noticing a
plant 's parts? All plant parts are essential and perform various functions. They all come together to
carry out their respective functions for the healthy plant life. We must dig deep into the plant parts
and the functions thereof.
1. Roots
A plant has roots growing within the ground. This underground part has a very
important role to play in pulling the water and minerals so they can reach the plant. This also
expands within the ground, so that the water increases for better water absorption.
Roots also play an anchor role which helps to create better stability. Moreover, the
roots also fuse the plant and stock reserve food material to develop. Often, they store food
that binds together the soil.
2. Stem
The stem is the part that stays above the ground. A stem usually bears leaves, fruits
plus flowers. It distributes the nutrients and minerals all the way from the plant to the leaves.
In addition, the stem is the plant's support system.
Moreover, it shields the plant and assists in asexual dissemination. The thorns of a
stem protect it against animals. For photosynthesis, the growth of a stem takes place upwards
allowing leaves to enter sunlight.
3. Leaf
It's safe to say one of the most essential aspects of a plant is a leaf. It contains
chlorophyll which assists the plants in preparation for food. Moreover, the veins of a leaf allow
the flowing of nutrients plus water.
A leaf comprises three essential parts: petiole, leaf base, and lamina. The plant's
leaves help in photosynthesis. In addition, they help to remove any excess water through
stomata. In short, it is for transpiration.
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Moreover, some plants have leaves that also assist in the reproductive process. The
leaves perform a number of functions, thus helping the plant to grow healthier.
4. Flower
The flower is the bright and beautiful part of the plant that you see. They play a part in
food production. A flower has parts both female and male. Both are jointly working to fertilize
the plant so that it can produce seeds.
A flower is composed of four basic parts: petals, sepals, stamens, and pistil. To
pollinate them the petals, attract insects and birds. The flower buds are then protected with
sepals. In the reproductive system, the stamens which are the male part and the pistil which
is the female part also help.
5. Fruits
The fruit is the mature ovary of a plant that contains the seeds. The ovary swells after
fertilization and becomes either fleshy or hard and dry to protect the seeds that are
developing. Many fruits (maple seeds) help spread seeds. Many things that we call
vegetables really are fruits like tomatoes, cucumbers, and beans.
6. Seeds
The seed is a tiny plant (embryo) with leaves, stems, and root parts waiting for the
right things to happen in order to make it grow and germinate. Seeds are protected with a
coat. The coat may be thin or thick and hard. Thin coats do not well protect the embryo. Yet
thick coats may leave some difficult conditions for the embryo to survive.
The seed also includes a short-term supply of food called the endosperm that is
produced when fertilized but is not part of the embryo. The embryo uses this to support its
development. In the bean that is shown, the endosperm is no longer there. It was used to
develop the embryo, and most of its nutrients and energy are now in a different form within
the cotyledon tissues.
Plants containing one cotyledon (like corn) are called monocots. They are called
dicots if they have 2 cotyledons (like beans). Seeds are the way a plant goes from one place
to another by either wind, water, or animals.
Importance of Plants
Plants are important to humans and just about all other life on Earth is staggering. Without
plants life as we know it wouldn't be possible. Why are plants so important?
1. Plants provide food for nearly all terrestrial organisms, including humans. We eat either
plants or other plant-eating organisms.
2. Plants maintain the atmosphere. They produce oxygen during photosynthesis and absorb
carbon dioxide. Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration for all aerobic organisms. They
produce oxygen during photosynthesis, and they absorb carbon dioxide. This also
maintains the ozone layer which helps to protect the life of the Earth from damaging UV
radiation. Atmospheric reduction of carbon dioxide decreases the greenhouse effect and
global warming.
3. Plants recycle matter in biogeochemical cycles. For example, plants move large amounts
of water from the soil to the atmosphere through transpiration. Plants like peas host
bacteria that fix nitrogen. This provides nitrogen for all plants, which passes it on to
consumers.
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4. Plants provide many human-use products, such as firewood, timber, fibers, medicines,
dyes, pesticides, oils, and rubber.
5. Plants create habitats for many organisms. A single tree can provide food and shelter for
many insect species, worms, small mammals, birds, and reptiles.
Taking Care and Handling of Plants
How do we take care of the plants around us? At home, we grow them. We put a black screen
to protect them from too much sunlight. Watering of pechay and pepper is necessary especially
during the dry season. We provide support for vines like ampalaya and string beans. We create
plots for vegetables that we grow in the garden. Along roads, we plant low growing trees and shrubs
and are protected by tree guards. We avoid cutting trees in the forest and we plant more.
Overharvesting has led to the destruction of our environment. We should exercise care in handling
plants. Some have spines and thorns that can prick your hands and some are poisonous. Pollen of
flowers may trigger allergy and some leaves may have aphids and insect larvae that can cause
itchiness. When handling plants, wear gloves, use scissors to cut small twigs, and wear mask when
you have an allergy.
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LESSON
2
Plants and Animals in
their Habitats
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Infer that animals and plants have body parts
that help them adapt and survive in their
particular habitats;
2. Identify specialized structures of aquatic ad
terrestrial plants that enable them to live in
varying environmental conditions; and
3. Identify animals and plants that can be grown
in a particular habitat.
Animals are found in our homes, farm, school and community. Some are large, small and
others could hardly be seen. They live in different places water, land, both on land and water and
air. Plants also grow in different habitats. Let us study where common animals and plants live in
community.
Animals live in different habitats. Some animals live on land. They are referred to as land or
terrestrial animals. The body structure of animals enables them to live in a particular place. For
example, those with four legs like cattle can live on land. The legs enable them to graze over
grasslands, walk and run. Cattles have hair as body covering that protects them from the heat of
the sun. The head has a pair of eyes, a nose, a mouth, a pair of ears and a horn on both sides. The
horn is also a protective part. There are more examples of animals with four legs. Some animals
like lizards have four legs but their body covering may be skin or scales. There are land animals
with two legs for walking and a pair of wings such as ducks, turkey, and chicken have claws on their
feet that can scratch the soil for food. Turtles have thick shell or carapace to protect the body from
harsh environmental conditions. Most land animals’ fins shelter in caves and by making holes on
tree trunks. Snakes have thick scaly skin for protection.
Water or aquatic animals such as fishes, clams, starfish, squid, sharks, and tilapia live in
water. They have a different body covering such as scales, shells, and skin. For swimming, fishes
and sharks have fins while squids and octopus have tentacles. Water animals also have various
sizes, colors, and shapes. Mussels are attached on a rock or reared in bamboo poles while clams
have shells that protect the inside soft body from strong waves. These are found burrowing on sandy
or muddy shores. Sea turtles also have four legs and the body is protected by a hard shell.
Frogs live in rice paddies, ponds, and rivers and are classified as land-water animals. They
have four legs with webbed feet for swimming but also use the same for walking on moist soil. Their
skin protects them when they leave the water for a short time. The crocodile is a huge land-water
animal, with four legs for swimming and waking. They have hard scales for body covering. They can
swim fast when disturbed.
There are also animals that fly and stay in tree branches like most birds and insects. Both
have wings from moving from one place to another. Birds have lightweight bodies covered by
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feathers and strong claws to hold on branches. Insects are generally small yet could fly long
distances to look for food at the same time pollinate flowers. These are aerial animals.
Plants Grow on Land, Water or Air
Millions of plants grow around us. Land plants are naturally found in grasslands, forests, and
deserts and in man-made communities like orchards, farms, and regenerated forests. A typical plant
has roots, stems, and leaves. Roots anchor the plants to the ground as well as absorb water that is
needed for growth. Some roots spread over a wide surface while other plants have roots that grow
deep in the soil. Among desert plants, the roots are very shallow to gather as much water when it
rains very quickly. These plants also have succulent stems and leave to reduce the loss of water
from the plants. The stem grows upright that connects the roots to the leaves. Among vines such as
grapes and ampalaya, they have tendrils that curl around the fence or other plants for support. Some
underground stems store food as in rhizomes of ginger. Tubers of potatoes and bulbs in onion and
garlic. Sugarcane stores food in the stems. Leaves are the food factory of the plant; hence these
are usually found above the ground where they are exposed to sunlight and can absorb gases for
food production. Plants need stored food for their own body functions. Leaves vary in size, shape,
and arrangement on the stem. Spines of cactus are specialized leaves adapted to survive extremely
hot areas. Aloe vera and several species of cactus have fleshy leaves.
Most aquatic plants are algae that grow in the sea or in freshwater ponds and lakes. These
plants have no vascular tissues to transport water to plant body parts, hence the need to live in
water. The leaves can produce food during photosynthesis. Water lily has wide eaves that stay on
the water surface for greater exposure to sunlight needed to produce food but have roots that anchor
the plant in place. Water hyacinth has porous leaf stalks that enable the plant to float and roots that
are submerged.
Orchids develop roots that anchor them on stems above the ground. These absorb moisture
from the air. These are referred to as aerial plants. Some ferns grow on tree trunks since they have
roots that anchor them. Nutrients for their growth are derived from moisture in the air and these
trapped at the base of the plant.
Man, plants corn, rice, legumes, and other food sources in farms that are rich in nutrients,
enough water, and favorable climate. Edible green algae are grown in coastal areas. With changes
in climate, man has intensified food growing in urban areas using aquaponics. Wall gardens are
established in the fence of schools, shopping malls, and homes to increase food supply. Extensive
orchards of mangoes, calamansi, oranges, coffee, jackfruit, cacao, and tea are grown in selected
parts of our country that have suitable conditions or their survival. Coconut, pineapple, and
sugarcane plantations are established and maintained in places where the survival rate of these
plants is high.
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Reproductive Structures
of Animals and Plants
LESSON
3
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe the reproductive structures among
animals;
2. Describe the reproductive structures among
plants; and
3. Distinguish the difference between internal and
external reproduction.
Living things, due to their diversity, need to be identified and classified. Classifying means
that we sort similar organisms into groups. Scientists have devised classification system for
organisms to facilitate learning about them. Moreover, one organism has one scientific name which
makes communication easy. Let us find time to study animals and plants and how to classify them.
There ae many features that we can use to classify organisms. This lesson will focus on reproductive
structures only.
Animal Reproductive Structures
Human beings are classified as mammals along with goats, cows, dogs, cats, and mice.
Mammals have external and internal sex organs. Recall that among female and male human
beings, there is external genitalia that scientists use to identify whether the newly born individual is
a male or a female. This is also true for the cow, dog, cat, and other mammals. There are internal
female and male reproductive structures in humans that we have learned in the previous module.
There are similarities in the structures of the outer mammals that produce the sex cells such as the
ovary and the testis. Internal fertilization of the egg by the sperm occurs when there is the mating
of the male and female individuals. Gestation occurs inside the female uterus until the young are
born.
Among birds, such as chicken, the male or rooster can be identified by the comb on its head
and its prominent tail feathers. Hens have smaller comb and tail feathers. During mating, the rooster
transfers the sperm to the hen by rubbing its cloaca against that of the female resulting in internal
fertilization. The cloaca is an opening in the bird through which sperm and egg pass through.
Snakes and lizards have two external organs to help scientists identify males from females
through the exhibit variation in appearance. Frogs have paired gonads and oviducts that are found
inside the body which are connected to the cloacae (plural of cloaca).
The female fish has paired ovaries the produce eggs that are released through the oviducts
to the uterus or the body cavity. The male fish has paired testes that produce the sperm. Earthworms
are hermaphrodites. They have both male and female sex organs in one individual. An individual
can produce sperms and eggs and during mating either one can provide the egg or sperm that is
fertilized.
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In insects such as bees, the testis produces sperms in males and the ovaries produce the
eggs in females. the oviducts provide space for sex cells to travel to the uterus. female insects may
store sperms in spermatheca (an accessory organ).
Some animals do not have sexual organs for reproduction. In the case of hydra, a
coelenterate growing in freshwater, a new animal is produced by a “bud” from its main body which
eventually grows and separates from the parent body. Some organisms that reproduce sexually
may also reproduce asexually. Among staghorn corals, broken segments of the colony may grow
into new colonies. A sea star that lost some of its arms may grow or regenerate the lost parts to
become a new individual.
Plant Reproductive Structures
Most plants that you see around have flowers which are the sex organs of these plants.
Among non-flowering plants like in pine trees, an individual produces male and female cones. In
ferns, the spores formed in the leaves germinate into heart-shaped plants that contain the sex cells.
Mosses have spores that germinate to young moss plants but grow into males or females that
produce the sex cells. These are plant parts like leaves, stems, and roots that give rise to new plants.
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Common Characteristics of
Animals and Plants for
Classification
LESSON
4
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Characterize vertebrates and invertebrates;
2. Classify vertebrates and invertebrates based on
their distinguishing features;
3. Identify characteristics of plants; and
4. Classify plants based on their characteristics.
With so many plants and animals around us, it is very difficult to study these organisms
without names to each kind or species and without sorting them into different groups. Which features
should we use to identify those organisms in the sea like turtle, shark, sea horse and swordfish are
in different groups? Rice, corn and grasses could be grouped together. In this lesson, let us find out
how plants and animals are classified.
Animal Classification
There are millions of different species of animals in many places around the world. They differ
in size, body covering, and other features. One way to classify animals is by its body structure of
backbones. Animals with backbones are referred to as vertebrates and those without are the
invertebrates. Vertebrates have a bony endoskeleton or backbone. There are five major groups
of vertebrates, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes. Below is a summary of the
differences among vertebrates.
Characteristics
Body Covering
Mammals
fur or hair
Breathing organ lungs
Birds
Reptiles
feather
scales
lungs
lungs
Amphibians
Fishes
skin
gills (young)
lungs (adult)
scales
gills
Warm or cold
blooded
warm
warm
cold
cold
cold
Reproduction
give birth
young (except
platypus and
echidna)
lay eggs that
hatch outside
the body
most lay
eggs
lay eggs that
hatch
most lay
eggs
land and
land and water
water
water
snake,
shark,
humans,
parrot, dove,
iguana,
toad, newt, frog, koi,
Examples
horse, tarsier,
peacock,
alligator,
salamander
catfish,
monkey
duck
tortoise
stingray
Note: Warm-blooded animals have internally controlled body temperature while cold-blooded
animals have a body temperature that changes with environment.
Habitat
mostly on land
mostly on
land
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Invertebrates are composed of several major phyla or groups. The table below show the
summary:
Group
Sponges
Coelenterates
or cnidarians
Body Covering
porous body
soft skin, stony
corals produce
outer covering of
limestone
Unique Feature of
the Body
sessile or attached to
rocks, body is loosely
organized
body had radial
symmetry, with stinging
cells and tentacles, one
body opening, some
are attached to the
substratum
Habitat
water
bath sponge,
Venus flower
basket
water
jellyfish, hydra,
corals, sea
anemone
water,
parasite
inside
cow and
pig
parasite,
soil
tapeworm,
planaria,
liverfluke
Flatworms
skin
flat bodies, two body
segments
Roundworms
skin
unsegmented round
body
Segmented
worms
skin
segmented, soft body
moist soil,
water
some with hard
shells
soft body
water,
land
exoskeleton
body is divided into two
to three segments, with
paired legs that vary in
number
land,
water, air
exoskeleton may
be spiny, skeleton
made up of plates
covered by skin
body with radial
symmetry, move by
means of tube feet
water
Mollusks
Arthropods
Echinoderms
Examples
ascaris, filariae,
pinworms
earthworm, leech,
tube, dwelling
polychaetae
snail, clam, slug,
scallop, octopus,
squid
shrimp, crab,
spider, bee, ant,
beetle, scorpion,
millipede
wea star, sea
urchin, sea
cucumber, brittle
star
Plant Classification
Plants like animals are placed in groups based on certain characteristics. Plants have two
general groups, the vascular and non-vascular plants. Vascular plants have tube-like structures
involved in the transport of water and nutrients in the plant body. The non-vascular plants have no
well-developed transport parts. There are other characteristics as the basis of sorting plants such
as (a) with flowers or without, (b) spore-bearing or seed-bearing, (c) habitat where they grow,
(d) plant habit, and (d) need for water. Furthermore, flowering plants may be classified according
to the number of cotyledons, leaf venation, number of flower parts, the arrangement of vascular
tissues, and type of root system. The table below presents the basic information on plant groups.
Group
Non vascular plants:
Bryophytes
Major Characteristics
Examples
Low growing, plants live in moist
places, lack well developed roots,
Mosses, liverworts, hornworts
stems, and leaves, sexual and
asexual reproduction
Vascular plants:
Tracheophytes
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a. Ferns and allies
b. Gymnosperms
c. Angiospermsmonocots
d. Angiospermsdicots
Seedless, spore bearing, live in moist
places and tree trunks, reproduce
sexually and asexually
Non flowering, mostly with seeds
found in cones, conifers with needlelike leaves, grow in cool and dry
places
True flowers, seed bearing, one
cotyledon, parallel leaf veins, flower
parts in multiple of three, vascular
tissue scattered in the stem, fibrous
roots
True flowers, seed bearing, two
cotyledon, netted leaf veins, flower
parts in multiple of five, vascular
tissue arranged in a circle in the
stem, taproot system
Tree ferns, maiden hair fern,
horsetail, club moss
Gnetophyte, cycad, ginkgo,
conifers
Rice, corn, banana, coconut,
onion, sugar cane, bamboo,
lemon
grass,
pineapple,
abaca
Casoy, cinnamon, sunflower,
daisy, marigold, hibiscus,
mums, guava, mahogany,
peanut, bean, watermelon,
squash,
mango,
acacia,
gmelina, ilang-ilang
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Module 7:
Ecosystem
Nature is amazing. Everything works together smoothly. In the environment, each
organism finds what it needs to survive. Together with the other organisms in the
environment, plants and animals form a busy, healthy community.
This module will introduce you to the interactions of organisms in different types of
ecosystems. This also presents the different ways organism obtain their food and energy
and the different ways to conserve and protect the environment.
Living Things Depend on
their Environment for Basic
Needs
LESSON
1
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Identify the basic needs of humans, plants and
animals;
2. Explain how living things depend on their
environment to meet their basic needs; and
3. Recognize the need to protect and conserve the
environment.
What do we need to live? Not all things that we use are really for survival, meaning you can
live without these. For example, a television is not a must to live but you cannot lie without air. These
are essential things to live. Let us find out more about thee basic needs for survival.
Basic Needs to Live
Living things have basic needs to perform life processes. These needs are derived from the
environment. For example, humans need water for drinking because 70% of the human body is
water. Humans need shelter to protect them rom harsh elements of nature. Animals take in oxygen
from the air. Animals get energy form food that they eat could be plants, other animals or both.
Carbon dioxide and water are needed by plants to produce food in the presence of sunlight. Plants
grow in soil, water or air because there are nutrients and other substances they need to live. Aquatic
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organisms need water as their habitat. Land animals need resting places, like caves and tree trunks.
Man has built houses or barn for his animals.
Protecting Our Environment that Provides Our Basic Needs
It is our responsibility to protect and manage the environment that provides the resources for
our basic needs. There are natural changes on earth such as climate that drastically affect available
resources. Typhoons wipe out habitat of organisms along its path and so with drought, volcanic
eruptions, earthquake, floods and landslides. Rats may reduce our supply of rice and other cereals.
There are man-made changes in our environment that destroy our resources. These include the use
of vehicles that release pollutants to the air, water and soil, mining, industrialization and creating
new cities. The changes in our environment affect living this. Some plants and animals have been
extinct because we destroyed the forest where they live by slash and burn type of agriculture. Our
throws away practice of goods we use creates big demand on the supply and also generates tons
of wastes that do not decay.
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LESSON
2
Beneficial and Harmful
Interactions among Living
Things
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe how organisms interact in the
environment; and
2. Identify the beneficial ad harmful interactions
among living things in the environment.
Interactions of organisms in the environment may be beneficial or harmful. The interaction is
beneficial if one or more organisms benefit from interaction. On the other hand, if the organism is
harmed from the interaction, then it is a harmful interaction. Symbiosis is any relationship that
involves two or more species of different kinds living and interacting together. The different types of
symbiotic interactions are mutualism and commensalism, while parasitism, predation and
competition are harmful interactions.
Mutualism is a kind of symbiosis in which both organisms benefit from the interaction. A sea
anemone living on the shell or a hermit cab is an example of mutualism. The sea anemone hides
the hermit crab and helps to protect it from predators. A sea anemone cannot move from place to
place on its ow. When the hermit crab moves around; it carries the sea anemone with it. This
increase the area in which the anemone can feed. Both organisms’ benefit.
Commensalism is a kind of symbiotic interaction in which one organism is helped and the
other is neither helped or harmed. An orchid living in a tree is an example of commensalism. The
orchid has a place to live. The tree is not affected by the orchid. Cocoon on a branch of a tree. In
this relationship, there is the "host," the organism which is not being harmed nor benefited, and
there is the "commensal," which is the organism getting benefit from the host.
Parasitism is a harmful. In this type of interaction, the organism that benefits is called the
parasite. the organism that is harmed is called the host. A parasite lives in or the body of the host.
An example of parasitism is the tick living on the dog. The dog on which the tick lives is the host,
while the tick is the parasite. The tick gets nutrients from the blood of the dog. The dog may be
weakened by the loss or nutrients from the presence of many ticks. We have two types of parasites,
the Ecto-parasite (lives outside of the host) and Endo-parasite (lives inside of the host).
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ectoparasite
host
host
endoparasite
Predation is another example of harmful interaction. It is the eating of one living organism
by another. It is known as predator-prey relationship. The organism that is eaten is called the prey
and the organisms that kills and eats the other organism is called the predator. Examples of
predation are snakes feeding on chicks, eagle, feeding on monkey and shark feeding on small fish.
PREDATOR
Competition is another example of harmful interaction. Plants may compete for available
nutrients, water, sunlight and soil. Animals compete with both members of the same species and
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with other species for resources, food and hiding places to avoid predators. If the competition is
between organisms of the same species, it is called intraspecific competition. On the other hand,
interspecific competition is between organisms of different species.
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LESSON
3
Interactions in Estuaries
and Intertidal Zones
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Identify the interactions among living and nonliving things in estuaries and intertidal zones; and
2. Described the different ways to protect and
conserve the estuaries and intertidal zones.
This lesson will introduce you to the concept that organisms in the environment cannot live
without interacting with their environment. For example, a bird interacts with several biotic and
abiotic factors. To build a nest, a bird uses dried grass, dirt and branches as building materials. A
bird eats insects and other living things to survive. They may also use ono-living to nest in. weather
also impacts the lives of many birds. When the weather become cold in some regions, birds are
forced to migrate in warmer climates.
An ecosystem refers to the interactions that exist among organisms and between organisms
and their physical environment. The habitat is the place where organisms live. When a number of
different species live together in a habitat, we call this as a biotic community. Ecosystems vary in
size (small – body of cat with ticks and mites a big one like a rain forest of the Amazon), and place
where these are found. Different ecosystems compose a biome and biomes compose the biosphere.
The living world is the biosphere. Let us discuss further examples of ecosystems found in the
Philippines.
Aquatic ecosystems are the intertidal zones, coral reefs, the open sea, estuaries
(mangroves), ponds, lakes and rivers. Intertidal zones are regions in the coastal areas that are
covered by water at high tide and exposed at low tide. Tide pools from in rock crevices along
shoreline of coastal areas and these are affected by tides. Some water is left in pools and rock
spaces during low tide enabling sea stars, clams, brittle stars, small fishes and crabs to move about.
Animals like barnacles attach themselves on rock surfaces to remain in place when the tie recedes.
Clams dig on the san and sea anemone close their tentacles. Animals adapt to changes in
temperature salt content of water and sunlight expose.
What are estuaries? A region where the river meets sea water is an estuary. Estuaries are
affected by high and low tides. The water varies in levels of salt content. There may be an intertidal
zone with mangroves growing in it. Mangrove swamps, salt marshes, sea grass beds, sand or
mudflats are examples of estuaries. Mangrove swamps are found in many coastal shores of the
country. In Panay for example, several mangrove forests include century old sturdy tress. Mangrove
tress are able to live in salty water, like Rhizopora, Sonneratia and Avicenia. They have special
roots, such as prop roots, cable roots, knee roots and plank roots that enable them to survive. Some
species even release salt particles in their leaves. Fishes, crabs, snails, oysters, shipworms, prawns
and shrimps are plenty in mangrove swamps. Several interactions occur in mangroves – hermit crab
borrow empty hell of snail as shelter, milkfish competing with other species for food, ants make nests
in tree trunks, and birds feed on fruits of the trees. Mangroves protect the coasts from being eroded
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by storm surges. Commercially important species use mangroves as breeding or nursery grounds.
Mangroves are natures’ chest of food for humans, including medicines, dye, materials for shelter,
boat and lumber for furniture. Stands of nipa palm for firewood and lumber. Extensive roots of
mangroves remove silt and debris making the water clean. The mangroves are natural cleaners of
the air as they use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and release oxygen.
There are several examples of interactions that are anchored on feeding relationships. These
are mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, predation, competition, and cooperation. In any of the
ecosystems we examine, these interactions occur but involve different species living things.
Disturbances is ecosystems are either naturally or man-made occur. For example, typhoons
may bring about landslide, floods, storm surges that destroy habitats and wipe out organisms. Forest
were converted to agricultural uses limiting the habitats of the forest animals. Many species have
been endangered because of human activities – logging, mining, hunting, and tourism.
Many fishponds and coastal areas that were not protected by buffer zones of mangroves
were destroyed by storm surges. As human population increases, it puts pressure on resources
from mangroves like overharvesting of fishery and forestry products. Man dredges and fills in the
edges of mangroves to expand land and the mangrove swamps are gone. Roads and buildings for
residential and commercial uses fill up the area. In many cities, the estuaries receive pollutants form
oil slicks and spill.
Maintaining balance and sustainability is a major challenge in the ecosystems we have studied.
While we have man-made ecosystems (farm, city, fishponds, dams, seaports), it is a must that we
have conservation practices. There are government laws, proclamations and regulations on the use,
protection, conservation and management of resources that the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources, the Local Government and the community people have to work together for
proper implementation. It is the Philippine Environment Code (P.D. 1152) that began the crafting of
laws dedicated to environment. LGUs have various ordinances, programs and awards for
environments. Along coastal areas, you might pass by a sign that this particular barangay is a marine
sanctuary. There are protected areas like parks and wildlife. People may involve in tree farming for
land and mangrove forests. They are also key players in integrated coastal resource management
programs. Schools have various activities – war on waste, school in a garden, composting, tree
planting, and landscaping, environmental quiz contests, green schools award to intensify knowledge
and improve practices for environmental protection. People’s organization at the local, national and
even international levels are in harmony in protecting our environment. It is suggested that each one
should know about our laws to ensure its successful implementation.
Biotic Component
Those things that you have classified as "living things or materials with life" are what we
called biotic components of the Ecosystem. Biotic components are the living organism, including
plants, animals, and micro-organisms that are present in an ecosystem and are of three groups:
producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Producers are the green plants that have chlorophyll, which traps solar energy and change
it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds, namely water, and
carbon dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis. As the green plants manufacture their
own food, they are known as autotrophs.
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Consumers are animals that lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesize their own food.
They depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs. The consumers are
of four types: Primary consumers, Secondary consumers, and Tertiary consumers or Quaternary
consumers
Decomposers are the bacteria and fungi. They break down the dead organic materials of
producers and consumers for their food and release to the environment the simple inorganic and
organic substances produced as by-products of their metabolism.
Abiotic Component
Whereas, those you have considered as "without life" are the so-called abiotic components.
Abiotic components are the non-living factors or the physical environment prevailing in the
Ecosystem. Abiotic components are of 2 types: climatic factor includes rain, temperature, light,
wind, humidity. edaphic factor includes soil pH, topography, and minerals.
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LESSON
4
Interactions Among Living
Things in Coral Reefs and
Tropical Rainforests
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Discuss interactions among living things and nonliving things in coral reefs and tropical rainforests;
2. Explain the need to protect and conserve tropical
rainforests and water ecosystems.
The earth is our only home, take care of it!!! You see this campaign in some schools. Knowing
environment therefore is very important. Let us look into some of the interesting interactions in
different ecosystems. We are familiar with habitats – the places where organisms live such as water,
land, or air. But we will explore in the next activities the interactions of living things (biotic) and
physical environments (abiotic) components and find out how humans affect coral reefs and tropical
rainforest ecosystems.
Coral reefs are the most beautiful underwater ecosystems in the sea. A reef is made by
corals, soft bodies cnidarians with tentacles that secrets chalk-like substances forming cups that
serve as their homes. These are the stony or hard corals. Soft corals do not form cups. Extensive
colonies over the years can form mounds of reefs. The Philippines is home to the Tubbataha Reef,
a world heritage natural formation. This is home to thousands of animal species like crabs, sea
slugs, eels, soft corals, stony corals, jellyfishes, shellfishes and different species of sea stars and
fishes. A clown fish may hide on the tentacles of sea anemones, a kind of interaction. An island can
grow out of a coral reef. Gleaning of shellfish is a favorite pastime of many fisher folks at low, low
tide in shallow waters with coral reefs.
Coral reefs are trampled upon by beach goers. Coral reefs get blasted by dynamites. Resorts,
hotels, restaurants and even houses discharge untreated waste water into shore waters. Boracay
was closed for more than 6 months to rehabilitate the island due to water pollution, neglect of
environmental clean-up and dense coastal development. Solid wastes affect any ecosystems when
not disposed properly in sanitary landfills. Land and water pollution from man’s activities destroy our
environment.
The tropical rain forests. The biotic community in a forest is the trees-hardwoods like narra,
lauan, molave and associated species like abaca, orchids, bamboo, vines, ferns, and shrubs.
Monkeys, fruit bats, snakes, butterflies and other insects, spider, birds, tree frogs, monitor lizards
and many more are found in forest. The forest floor may be covered by thick mats of mosses and
liverworts and crawling millipedes and centipedes that find food. The country also has mossy forest
where the common plants are mosses in the forest floor or in masses in tree trunks and branches.
Interactions in forests are those between abiotic and biotic factors. Water, sunlight, soil, minerals,
gases and elements of climate are factors needed by biotic components. For example, a tree needs
sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce food. A woodpecker needs a tree trunk for shelter,
build nests and capture food from surroundings. A butterfly sucks nectar from orchid flowers and
distributes pollen grains to other orchids. A fruit bat feeds on ripe fruits and distributes undigested
seeds. Mosquitoes bite human beings in the forest. Ear fungi decompose dead trunks of trees. In
these cases, plants are producers, animals are consumers (herbivores that feed on plants,
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carnivores that feed on animals and omnivores that feed on both plants and animals) and fungi are
decomposers. The relationships or interactions are varying in ecosystems. Grasslands or meadows
abound in our country and they are also ecosystems on land. In other parts of the world, there are
desert, temperate forests, tundra, taiga and scrub forests.
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