ETHICS
The term ethics comes from the Greek word ethos meaning “custom” used in the works of
Aristotle, while the term “moral” is the Latin equivalent. Based on the Greek and Latin
etymology of the word “ethics”, ethics deals with morality.
Ethics or moral philosophy
*a branch of philosophy that deals with moral standards, and inquires about the rightness or
wrongness of human behavior or the goodness or badness of personality, trait, or character.
* deals with ideas such as moral standards or norms of morality, conscience, moral values,
and virtues
* the study of the morality of human acts and moral agents, what makes an act obligatory,
and what makes a person accountable
Moral is the adjective describing a human act as either ethically right or wrong or qualifying
a person, personality, or character, as either ethically good or bad.
Moral Standards are norms or prescriptions that serve as the frameworks for determining
what ought to be done or what is right or wrong action, and what is good or bad character.
Kinds of moral standards
a. Consequence standards depend on results or outcomes. An act that results in the
general welfare, in the greatest of the greatest number is moral.
b. Non-consequence standards are based on natural law. Natural law is the law of God
written in the hearts of men. To preserve human life is in accordance with the natural
law, therefore it is moral. This may be based also on goodwill and or intention, and a
sense of duty.
Non-moral standards are social rules, demands of etiquette, and good manners. They are
guides of action that should be followed by society. Sometimes they may not be followed or
some people may not follow them. Examples of non-moral standards are rules of good
manners and right conduct, etiquette, rules of behavior set by parents, teachers, and
standards of grammar or language, standards of art, and standards of sports set by
authorities.
An indicator of whether or not a standard is moral or non-moral lies in its compliance as
distinguished from its non-compliance. Non-compliance with moral standards causes a
sense of guilt, while non-compliance with a non-moral standard may only cause shame or
embarrassment.
CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
LITERATURE
A History Of Children’s Literature In The
Philippines
Note: This piece by Maria Elena Paterno
explores the history of Philippine children's
literature. This is an excerpt from the
book, Bumasa at Lumaya: A Sourcebook
on Children's Literature in the Philippines.
Traditionally, children’s literature includes
picture books, poems, short stories, plays,
or novels written for children. The
development of other media such as film,
comic books, radio, television, and
computer multi-media software and their
popularity with children has expanded this
original definition. Today, children’s
literature refers to anything written and
produced to suit the particular needs of a
child's audience.
It is the only genre that is defined by its
audience, and its categories read very
much like the categories of adult literature:
short story, novel, drama, and poetry. The
Picture Book used to be the only category
of children’s literature that was exclusive
to the genre, although, in recent times,
picture books (and even pop-up books) for
adult readers have come into vogue.
Contrary to popular belief, folklore was not
originally meant to be exclusively for
children. Through the years, however, in
the search for material to be published as
children’s literature, folktales and legends
have been retold. In their retelling,
however, these were often censored,
edited, and sometimes even sanitized to
suit the perceived needs of the child
audience at the time.
The children’s story is often an oral
experience. In this, it is perhaps the
closest of all other genres to the oral
tradition of literature. For what apparent
difference is there, apart from the distance
of hundreds of years, between the
contemporary situation of a father telling a
story to his son or daughter and that of the
storyteller reciting tales to his tribal
audience?
Among indigenous Filipinos, not much of
the literature was tailored specifically for
the child. Mothers sang lullabies as they
rocked their babies to sleep, and children
traded riddles and sang at play. But when
people gathered around a storyteller, it
was a mixed audience of children and
adults. There was no distinction, then,
between the story for the child and the
story for the adult.
The coming of the Spaniards and a formal
educational system did little to change
this. Reading was taught through a
syllabary, the caton, which also contained
illustrated
sentences,
prayers, and
catechism. In a study of books for children
in the Philippines from 1866-1945, Morton
Netzorg concludes that there is “little
evidence that children in the Philippines
had reading matter intended to amuse as
well as instruct.” (Netzorg 1985: p.5)
Most reading material for children was
imported from Europe. One book popular
then was entitled El Amigo de Los Niños
and contained the now famous fable of the
moth and the flame that Rizal’s mother
told to him when he was a child.
Rizal himself retold stories for children
between the years 1885-1890, while in
Europe to study medicine and while
writing the Noli Me Tangere. In October
1886, he completed the translation into
Tagalog of five fairy tales by Hans
Christian Andersen. The manuscript was
written and illustrated in his hand, bound
in leather, and sent home, with a
dedication to his nephews and nieces. Its
audience was limited to the Rizal family
until 1954 when it was published.
In May 1889, “Specimens of Tagalog
Folklore“ containing samples of Tagalog
proverbs, puzzles, and verses in both
Tagalog and English was published in
Trubner’s Oriental Record, a London
journal. In July of the same year, a
retelling of the folktale of the Monkey and
the Tortoise, with illustrations by Rizal,
was published in the same journal. Rizal
also retold the legend of Mariang Makiling,
published in the December 31 issue of La
Solidaridad.
The first decade of the new century
brought a commitment of the USA, the
new colonizer, to a more democratic
system of primary instruction. The
textbooks used in the classroom, the
Baldwin Readers, were brought in from
America and taught Filipinos that “A is for
Apple.” It was replaced by the Insular
Readers, written for Filipinos with Filipino
characters and settings, but used to
transmit American values to Filipino
children.
Pepe and Pilar (1930s) was a more
successful attempt at “filipinizing” the
content of beginning reading textbooks.
Earlier, Camilo Osias adapted stories from
all over the world and collected them in
The
Philippine
Readers
Series
(1922-1934) with illustrations by Fernando
Amorsolo. Like Pepe and Pilar, the Osias
Readers were popular in schools all over
the country. Still, they were textbooks,
whose primary purpose was instruction
rather than enjoyment, and they had little
life outside the
classroom.
The prevailing idea of children’s literature
at the time seems to have been a vehicle
for the teaching or transmission of
concepts, knowledge, and values. This
conception of the children’s story may be
the root of much of the didacticism that is
associated with children’s literature.
Luckily, a break from this traditional
conception occurred in the early part of
the century, with a series in a popular
magazine called “Ang Mga Kuwento Ni
Lola Basyang.”
On May 25, 1925, Severino Reyes
published his first story for children in
Liwayway magazine under the pen name
“Lola Basyang”. It was the first of about
400 stories written for each issue of the
magazine, many of them retelling folktales
or classics from other parts of the world.
As the series title implied, many of the
stories were familiar in tone, similar to the
kind a child would hear from his
grandmother.
Many of the stories and books published
for children in the years that followed, from
the post-war years to the 1960s, were
collections of Filipino folklore. Iisang
Daigdig (Daigdig ng Himala) (1949) by
Juan C. Laya contained stories adapted
mostly from awit and korido, and retold in
prose. Once Upon A Time (1952) by Juan
C. Laya and Emiliano C. Ramirez (1952),
Tales of Long Ago in the Philippines
(1953) by Maximo Ramos, Philippine
Tales and Fables (1957) by Manuel and
Lyd Arguilla, and Tales From the Mountain
Province (1958) by I.V. Mallari were all
retellings of Filipino folktales.
The decade of the 60s marks the
beginning of a conscious effort to create
and produce a distinct body of literature
for Filipino children. Ceres Alabado began
the decade with the publication of The
Little Lizard and Other Stories (1960).
With a group of civic community leaders,
she formed Pamana, which encouraged
the writing of books for children with a
yearly short story contest. Pamana also
financed the publication of winning entries.
The Pamana collection displays a variety
of themes and concerns. It includes such
stories as Makisig, the Little Hero of
Mactan (1964) by Gemma Cruz, a story of
a boy who warns his village of the arrival
of the Spanish galleons and participates in
Lapu-Lapu’s victory over Magellan. Horgle
and the King’s Soup (1965) by Gilda
Cordero Fernando is a fantasy in which a
flying horse helps change a king’s evil
ways by having him meet a kind lady
monster. Once Upon A Hilltop (1968) by
Isabel Taylor Escoda is based on
archeological diggings at Santa Ana
Church and tells about a friendship
between a child and a dog that lasts until
death.
Even as she was encouraging the
development of stories for children, Ceres
Alabado continued to write and publish
her books. As an extension of her concern
for the development of distinctly Filipino
children’s literature, she produced several
short novels for young adults, among them
Asog (1969) and I See Red In A Circle
(1973). The earlier work presents the
problem of leprosy and the role of science
in rural areas. It is a narrative of a
courageous little boy named Mariano who
investigates the mystery of Mt. Asog.
Another book, Kangkong 1896, (1969) is
an intimate first-person account of the
Philippine Revolution seen through the
eyes of a young boy. The Rattan Gatherer
(1975) is the story of an Aeta boy from
Zambales who helps his parents support
the family.
On the initiative of Mrs. Alabado, who
believed that every Filipino child should
have access to books about his own
culture written for him by his countrymen
and that the main stumbling block to
children’s book publishing was distribution,
the Children’s Literature Association of the
Philippines, Inc. (CLAPI) was organized in
1966. Membership was composed mainly
of teachers and librarians. CLAPI has
since then remained active in the
promotion and propagation of Philippine
children’s literature with its various
conference workshops in the regions and
with the launching of Project Binhi—the
establishment of children’s sections in
public libraries.
Also in the 1960s, one of the leading book
publishers, Bookmark, experimented with
children’s books, among them a picture
book called Toby And The Christmas Bell
by a young author named Marla Yotoko.
But a combination of factors, among them
the availability of inexpensive, imported
books and a lack of awareness of the
buying public forced the discontinuance of
the children’s book line. Another attempt
at an illustrated children’s book was Bert
Florentino’s publication of Jose Garcia
Villa’s Mirinisa and Other Stories. The
stirrings of nationalism in the early 1970s
opened an awareness of the importance
of books and stories that played up
Filipino values and traditions. In 1974, the
Philippine
Appliance
Corporation
(Philacor) sponsored the publication of a
book series called The Young People’s
Library. Its list of titles includes: Filipino
Rites and Rituals, Filipino Myths and
Legends, Games Filipino Children Play,
Profiles In Achievement, Pagdiriwang I,
Pagdiriwang II, and Filipino Arts and
Crafts. The books were lavishly illustrated,
printed in full color, and hardbound.
Also in the early 1970s, New Day
Publishers began a line of small affordable
books for children. Titles include My
Friends and The Haunted Cave by T. M.
Zuniega, a five-book series called Tales of
a Japanese Grandmother by Jean Edades
and Yasuko Hashimoto, Philippine Folk
Fiction and Tales by Teresita Veloso Pil,
and Mandaya and Mansaka Tales by
Vilma May Fuentes.
In 1976, playwright Amelia Lapeña
Bonifacio published Anim na Dulang
Pilipino Para Sa Mga Bata, with
illustrations by her six-year-old daughter.
The plays were influenced by observations
of traditional Asian theater techniques. In
the next year, Lapeña Bonifacio wrote and
directed Abadeja: Ang Ating Sinderela, a
full-length puppet play. This also marked
the beginning of Teatro Mulat Ng Pilipinas,
a children’s theater troupe. Since then,
Amelia Lapeña Bonifacio has written and
directed many other plays for children,
most of them based on Asian folktales.
In 1977, the Nutrition Center of the
Philippines initiated a children’s book
development project as part of its mental
feeding program. Headed by poet-critic
Virgilio Almario, the book project, called
Aklat Adarna, started with the aim of
developing a Filipino consciousness by
producing and marketing inexpensive
books for Filipino children. Within a year,
the first 15 titles were introduced to the
market.
The Adarna books differed from all
previous attempts at children’s book
production by studying the needs of its
readership and deriving from the study
suggestions on themes and plots for
stories and illustrations. The books were
also distributed through a government
network and therefore went almost directly
to their audience. By 1980, the increase in
the volume of the Aklat Adarna books had
prompted the establishment of the
Children’s Communication Center to act
as a resource, development, and
production center for children’s materials.
The Children’s Communication Center has
published over 150 titles targeted at an
audience with ages ranging from 3 to 10
years. There are eight subseries: Aklat Ng
Karanasan, Aklat Ng Tahanan, Aklat Ng
Aliw, Aklat Ng Lahi, Aklat Ng Kasaysayan,
Aklat Ng Bayani, Aklat Ng Karunungan,
and Aklat Ng Salin. Printed on newsprint
and therefore in limited colors, the Aklat
Adarna series is nonetheless clever and
imaginative, with a light fresh approach to
the teaching of Filipino values, often with
amusing insights into the Filipino way of
life. It also made the children’s books
more accessible to many families, thus
establishing the beginnings of a real
Filipino children’s book market.
Crucial also to the development of Filipino
children’s literature was the training and
exposure provided by Aklat Adarna to
writers and illustrators who would later
become notable personalities in the field:
Rene
Villanueva,
Gloria
Villaraza
Guzman,
Jess Abrera Jr., Ibarra
Crisostomo, and Albert Gamos, among
others.
The Philippine Board on Books for Young
People (PBBY) was established in 1983 to
encourage
the
development
and
distribution of books for children, the
development of children’s libraries, and
the training of those involved in children’s
literature. The founding members were
Carol L. Afan, Larry Alcala, Virgilio
Almario, Angelica Cabañero, Lucrecia
Kasilag, Cristina Lim-Yuson, Linda Ma.
Nietes, Serafin Quiason, Gloria Rodriguez,
the late Alfrredo N. Salanga, and Renato
Villanueva. Through the Board’s efforts,
the third Tuesday of July was proclaimed
National Children’s Book Day. It is still
celebrated in schools across the nation.
One of the important activities of the
PBBY has been to sponsor a yearly
competition for writers and illustrators of
children’s books. The Illustrator’s Prize
was first awarded in 1984, and the Writer’s
Prize, later renamed the Alfredo Navarro
Salanga Award, was first awarded in
1985.
Other institutions took up the cause. From
1982 to 1983, Mr. and Ms. magazine
sponsored a writing contest for short
stories for children in English and Filipino.
The stories were printed in the magazine,
and the ten best works of these two years
were selected.
Other significant events occurred during
the decade of the 80s to promote the
development of children’s literature in the
country. The first was the production of a
Filipino version of the popular American
children’s television show Sesame Street,
called Calle Sesame, in 1983. Calle
Sesame was practically a clone of its U.S.
counterpart, with only minor changes and
concessions to its Filipino child audience.
A year later, this was replaced by a show
with similar objectives and formatting, but
with a more definite Filipino identity, as
evident in the puppets used and in the
distinctly Filipino setting. The name of the
show was changed to Batibot, and slowly
the format and theme of the television
show grew away from Sesame Street until
it achieved an identity of its own.
Batibot and other children’s television
shows might be credited with helping to
develop an audience (and therefore a
market) for children’s literature in the
country. Many shows include a storytelling
segment that features folktales or teaches
preliteracy and beginning literacy skills.
But perhaps their greatest contribution to
the development of children’s literature in
the Philippines is the promotion of a
greater awareness of alternative means of
education, namely, the idea that education
is not confined to the classroom but can
take place at home — with a television
show, or with books and stories.
Even academe had begun to take notice
of children’s literature. The Creative
Writing Center at the University of the
Philippines, Diliman, sponsored its first
summer workshop on writing for children
in 1983. Another workshop was held in
1989.
The latter half of the 1980s marks the
beginning of legitimacy for children’s
literature in the Philippines. Writing awards
and writing workshops encouraged many
to produce more works for children.
Perhaps
more
importantly,
leading
publishers began children’s book lines for
folk tales or original stories for children.
The Cultural Center of the Philippines also
supported the production of literature for
children and continues to do so today. It
hosts and co-sponsors the PBBY Awards
and in 1989 devoted an issue of Ani, its
literary journal, to children’s literature. The
issue was edited by Rene Villanueva and
Karina Bolasco. The CCP has also
established a children’s literature category
in its Creative Writing Grants Program.
In 1989, the Palanca Foundation opened
a new category in its highly prestigious
annual literary competition: the Short Story
for Children, in both English and Filipino.
Early winners of the Palanca Awards in
this category include Rene Villanueva,
Ramón Sunico, Maria Elena Paterno,
Jaime An Lim, Alfred Yuson among
others.
The new decade promised much
development in the field of children’s
literature, with a conscious effort to
integrate the knowledge gained in all
areas of book production — writing,
design, illustration, and marketing.
In November of 1989 the Goethe Institut,
in cooperation with the Children’s
Communication Center, sponsored a
workshop on children’s book design and
illustration. The winner in a competition
among the workshop participants was
published in an impressive volume entitled
Manik Buangsi with a story by Virgilio
Almario and illustrations by Albert Gamos.
Two years later, a similar workshop with
the German illustrator Reinhard Michl as a
resource person resulted in the formation
of a group of children’s book illustrators
called Ilustrador Ng Kabataan (INK).
Members include Joanne de León, Robert
Alejandro, Mel Silvestre, Felix Miguel, and
others. The group has held exhibits of the
members’ work and either participated in
or sponsored workshops on book design
and illustration, the most recent being a
well-attended exhibit at the Shangri-La
EDSA Plaza Mall (1994) and a workshop
(UP College of Fine Arts, 1993) with the
most famous expatriate Filipino illustrator,
Jose Aruego, a recognized figure in the
American children’s book industry.
Also at the beginning of this decade, three
publishing companies began to produce
Filipino children’s books and market them.
In 1990, Bookmark launched its Filipino
Folktale series with three titles by Marla
Yotoko Chorengel, The First Cashew Nut
(ill. by Beth Parrocha), Why the Sky is
High (ill. by Bernie Solina), and Bathala
and the Gift of Rice (ill. by Ibarra
Crisostomo). The books are handsome
volumes, beautifully illustrated and in full
color, and this time, it seemed, people
were ready to buy them. Two more titles
were released the following year.
The Filipino Folktale series is Bookmark’s
flagship series for children’s literature,
planned in response to a general
complaint from parents and educators that
there was no Filipino children’s book that
could compare with western counterparts.
Bookmark
also
experimented
with
narrative poetry for adolescent and
pre-adolescent readers with The Unicorn
(1992) and Chun (1993) by Marivi Soliven.
Both are original works, with The Unicorn
tackling the theme of growing up and
leaving behind “childish” things and Chun
focusing on the issue of racial
discrimination through the eyes of a child.
Cacho Publishing House Inc. began its
children’s book line with a cooperative
effort with Batibot, the children’s television
show. In 1990, it launched six titles that
had the advantage of recall by parents
and recognition by children since these
stories first appeared in the story segment
of the television show. The Aklat Batibot is
a thin and inexpensive book with soft
covers, printed on coated paper with
full-color illustrations. The first six titles
are: Si Inggolok At Ang Planeta Pakaskas,
Ang Pamilya Ismid, Sina Linggit Laban
Kay Barakuda, Ang Alamat Ng Araw At
Gabi, and Katuwaan Sa Batibot. Si
Elephas At Estegodon, Ang Patsotsay Na
Iisa Ang Pakpak, Makata-Makata, and 1,
2, 3 [Isa, Dalawa, Tatlo] Sama-Sama Tayo
have since been added to the series.
The Trampoline series, also launched by
Cacho Publishing House in 1990, was
conceived to move away from the
“traditional” children’s book concept.
Except for one, all the stories in the series
are original tales, distinctly modern in the
telling. The series was designed as a
cooperative
effort
between writers,
illustrators, and publishers. There is a
deliberate attempt to use the modern
children’s idiom, in the text as well as in
illustration. The first four titles include The
Boy Who Ate Stars (by A. Yuson, ill. by B.
Parrocha), Two Friends One World (by R.
Sunico, ill. by J. de León), Kung Bakit
Umuulan (by R. Villanueva, ill. by R.
Alejandro), and Ang Unang Baboy Sa
Langit (by R. Villanueva, ill. by I.
Crisostomo). Additions to the series
include Sampaguita (by M. Paterno, ill. by
B. Taguiwalo) and Ang Nawawalang Araw
(by R. Sunico, ill. by J. de León).
Cacho
Publishing
House is also
experimenting with small books with
limited text and full-color illustrations that
can be sold for less than the price of
fast-food items. In 1993, it launched the
first four titles in an environmental series,
and more books of this type are being
considered for production. Such an
experiment aims to reach out to readers
who have been unable to include
children’s books in their normal budget.
In 1991 came another significant
development for the children’s book
industry. The first book store to offer only
children’s
books
and
children’s
educational materials, both local and
foreign, opened on the second floor of the
Quad II Mall in Makati. Called Young
Minds, this bookstore was established by
Rita J. Atienza who had begun to sell
imported titles from her home as early as
1987. This bookstore has since promoted
literacy and love for books quite
aggressively. Some of its marketing
initiatives have included: storytelling
sessions of Philippine legends (1993),
participation in school book fairs, Reading
Mileage discounts for voracious readers,
and most importantly, the I’m An Author
competition. This competition encourages
elementary school children to write and
illustrate their books (in Filipino or
English). Winning entries are exhibited in
well-visited malls. It is quite encouraging
that schools have been quite eager to
support the competition. These schools
include not only private and public schools
but international schools as well. And the
fact that Young Minds is expanding into
the Shangri-la EDSA Mall in Mandaluyong
and the Ayala Alabang Commercial
Complex is just one more indication that
the market for children’s books in this
country not only exists but is growing.
In 1992, another publisher with a strong
children’s book program entered the
market. Tahanan Books for Young
Readers
was
founded
by
the
husband-and-wife team of Reni Roxas
and Marc Singer. The couple moved from
the USA to start a publishing company
that has as its aim: “to publish quality
trade books for the Filipino family and
supplementary curriculum materials for
Filipino schools and libraries.” In
September of the same year, they linked
up with Bookmark and launched its first list
of eight titles: Volcanoes of the Philippines
(by M. Paterno), Super Boboy and the
Great Villain Hunt (by R. Santos), and the
Great Lives Series which features
biographies of national heroes for young
people.
Emilio
Aguinaldo,
Andres
Bonifacio, Juan Luna, Apolinario Mabini,
José Rizal, and Gabriela Silang were the
first heroes to be included in this series.
Since then, Tahanan Books has added
titles which include an alphabet book,
collections of folk tales, historical
speeches, and science books that treat
geological
and
meteorological
phenomena. These books also point to
increasing attention being paid by today’s
publishers to attractive designs and
subject matter which is both interesting
and relevant to the young reader.
Children’s book publishing has become a
viable business concern today, a feat in
itself if one remembers that twenty years
ago, children’s books did not survive in the
market. Publishers seem to agree that
their success in the field is due to a
combination of several factors: 1. their
market-centeredness, meaning, publishers
produce books to suit the needs of a
market in terms of themes, concerns, and
price; 2. the development of a new
generation
of
buyers who prefer
locally-produced books over imported
ones; and 3. the growing awareness of the
craft and the building of professionalism in
the areas of writing, illustrating, packaging,
and marketing children’s books. To date,
more and more groups are venturing into
this field.
This growth in children’s book publishing
may be seen as part of a larger
development in Philippine publishing in
general. Participants in this growth have
been writers, illustrators, book designers,
publishers,
teachers,
and a new
generation of parents and book buyers, all
of whom are more aware of the demands
of nationalism and the importance of
child-centered
children’s
literature.
Obstacles remain to be sure. The national
library system, normally the backbone of
any reading culture, remains irrelevant
and inefficient despite the good intentions
of many of its members, encumbered as
they are by bureaucracy and politics. Also,
there is a palpable lack of support from the
national government which sees books
only as commodities to tax.
Where do we go from here? It seems that
children’s
book publishing in the
Philippines, against all odds, has finally
found its voice. As the various
professionals involved in the creation of
children’s books hone their talents and
refine their visions, the growing audience
for Filipino children’s books ensures that
since more books are bought, more still
will be created. As greater exposure is
achieved, the quality and quantity of our
Filipino children’s books can only become
better.
The Importance of Reading to Your
Children
It’s undeniable that a child’s reading skills
are important to their success in school,
work, and life in general. And it is very
possible to help ensure your child’s
success by reading to them starting at a
very early age. Continue reading to learn
more about the top benefits of reading to
children and how reading can support
them in the future.
7 Benefits of Reading to Children
Whether you’re reading a classic novel or
fairy tales before bed, reading aloud to
children can significantly benefit your
child’s life. Some benefits of reading to
children include:
● Supported cognitive development
● Improved language skills
● Preparation for academic success
● Developing a special bond with
your child
● Increased
concentration
and
discipline
● Improved
imagination
and
creativity
● Cultivating. a lifelong love of
reading
Supported cognitive development
Reading to young children is proven to
improve cognitive skills and help along the
process of cognitive development.
Cognitive
development
is
the
emergence of the ability to think and
understand; it’s “the construction of
thought
processes,
including
remembering,
problem-solving,
and
decision-making, from childhood through
adolescence
to
adulthood”
(HealthofChildren.com). It refers to how a
person perceives and thinks about his or
her world through areas such as
information
processing,
intelligence,
reasoning,
language
development,
attention span, and memory.
When you begin reading aloud to your
child, it essentially provides them with
background knowledge on their young
world, which helps them make sense of
what they see, hear, and read. Many
educators and researchers postulate that
“It is the talk that surrounds the reading
that gives it power, helping children to
bridge what is in the story and their own
lives,” rather than just the vocalization of
the words. Introducing reading into your
young child’s life, and the conversations
that it will prompt helps them to make
sense of their own lives, especially at a
young age.
Consider this excerpt from a study on
toddlers’ cognitive development as a result
of being read aloud:
“A child care provider reads to a toddler.
And in a matter of seconds, thousands of
cells in these children’s growing brains
respond. Some brain cells are ‘turned on,’
triggered by this particular experience.
Many existing connections among brain
cells are strengthened. At the same time,
new brain cells are formed, adding a bit
more definition and complexity to the
intricate circuitry that will remain largely in
place for the rest of these children’s lives.”
Therefore, the more adults read aloud to
their children, the larger their vocabularies
will grow and the more they will know and
understand about the world and their
place in it, assisting their cognitive
development and perception.
Improved language skills
Reading daily to young children, starting in
infancy,
can
help
with
language
acquisition, communication skills, social
skills, and literacy skills. This is because
reading to your children in the earliest
months stimulates the part of the brain
that allows them to understand the
meaning of language and helps build key
language, literacy, and social skills.
A recent brain scan study found that
“reading at home with children from an
early age was strongly correlated with
brain activation in areas connected with
visual imagery and understanding the
meaning of language” (TIME.com)
These cognitive skills and critical thinking
skills are especially important when you
consider that, according to the American
Academy of Pediatrics, more than one in
three American children start kindergarten
without the skills they need to learn to
read. About two-thirds of children can’t
read proficiently by the end of the third
grade.
Furthermore, while a child will be able to
latch onto vocabulary and language he or
she hears around him or her, introducing
reading into their auditory learning
provides another benefit: it introduces the
language of books, which differs from
language heard in daily life.
Whether it’s a children’s book or a classic
novel, book language is more descriptive,
and tends to use more formal grammatical
structures.
Prepare for academic success
Early reading with your child is a true
one-on-one opportunity for children to
communicate with their parents and
parents to communicate with their
children. It allows children to grow their
vocabulary skills with exposure to new
words and listening skills they develop
from hearing someone read to them that
become vital to their academic success.
Studies have shown that “the more words
that are in a child’s language world, the
more words they will learn, and the
stronger their language skills are when
they reach kindergarten, the more
prepared they are to be able to read, and
the better they read, the more likely they
will graduate from high school” (PBS.org).
Numerous studies have shown that
students who are exposed to reading
before preschool are more likely to do well
when they reach their period of formal
education. According to a study completed
by the University of Michigan, there are
five early reading skills that are
essential for development. They are:
1. Phonemic awareness – Being able
to hear, identify, and play with
individual sounds in spoken words.
2. Phonics – Being able to connect
the letters of written language with
the sounds of spoken language.
3. Vocabulary – The words kids need
to
know
to
communicate
effectively.
4. Reading comprehension – Being
able to understand and get
meaning from what has been read.
5. Fluency (oral reading) – Being able
to read text accurately and quickly.
While children will encounter these literacy
skills and language development once
they reach elementary school and beyond,
you can help jumpstart their reading
success by reading to them during infancy
and their early toddler years.
While they won’t be able to practice
fluency or phonics at that stage, they will
get an earlier introduction to phonetic
awareness, vocabulary, and reading
comprehension, all of which will set them
up for success as they grow and interact
with the world around them.
Developing a special bond with your
child
Reading to your young child regularly can
help you forge a stronger relationship with
them. When it comes to children, one of
the most important things you can do to
positively influence their development is to
spend time with them. Reading to your
children provides a great opportunity to
set up a regular, shared event where you
can look forward to spending time
together. With shared reading, your child
will trust and expect that you will be there
for them. The importance of trust to small
children cannot be overstated.
Reading a favorite book to your children
not only helps you bond with them but
also gives your children a sense of
intimacy and well-being. This feeling of
intimacy helps your child feel close to you,
and the feelings of love and attention
encourage
positive
growth
and
development.
With babies specifically, although they
may not be able to understand what
you’re saying when you read to them,
reading aloud provides a level of
invaluable nurturing and reassurance.
Very young babies love to hear familiar
voices, and reading is the perfect outlet to
create this connection.
At a broader, more scientific level, it’s the
parent-child
relationship,
nurturing
relationships between caregivers and
children that set a positive life course. If
you can read aloud with your child at a
predictable, scheduled time that fits with
the daily routines of home and school,
you’ll be able to provide something
constant that they can expect and likely
even look forward to.
Reading aloud together and having a
shared activity gives you and your child
something to talk about, which in turn
supports the development of reading and
writing skills (per the vocabulary and
reading
comprehension
areas
of
development mentioned above). And
down the road, reading together can be
used to discuss real-life experiences and
issues. A children’s book can provide
springboards to meaningful discussions
about many different topics which can
further develop a child’s critical thinking
skills.
At its core, literature is one of the best
ways to help kids understand something
without necessarily having to experience it
for themselves. Reading to your child
helps to expose them to all types of
subjects and concepts, building our
children’s understanding of humanity and
the
world
around
them
(ReadBrightly.com).
Increased concentration and discipline
Introducing regular reading time into your
child’s schedule has another benefit
outside of creating shared time together:
increased discipline and concentration.
Very young children rarely sit still for long,
and it’s oftentimes difficult to get them to
focus. But when you introduce regular
reading to your children, you may start to
observe a behavior change. Toddlers may
initially squirm and become distracted
during story time, but eventually, they’ll
learn to stay put for the duration of the
book.
According to EarlyMoments.com, along
with reading comprehension comes “a
stronger self-discipline, longer attention
span, and better memory retention, all of
which will serve your child well when she
enters school.”
Improved imagination and creativity
Young children naturally have the capacity
to dream big and use their imaginations.
Reading aloud to your child helps them
use their imaginations to explore people,
places, times, and events beyond their
own experiences. Reading as an
imaginative activity can open doors to all
kinds of new worlds for your child. By
widening your child’s imagination, your
child is more likely to dream bigger and
act creatively which can benefit their
school, work, and life in the future.
Cultivating a lifelong love of reading
According to Jim Trelease, author of the
best-seller, The Read-Aloud Handbook:
“Every time we read to a child, we’re
sending a ‘pleasure’ message to the
child’s brain… You could even call it a
commercial, conditioning the child to
associate books and print with pleasure”
(ReadAloud.org)
This connection between reading and
“pleasure” is crucial for success later in
life. As personal development coach and
speaker Brian Tracy says, your ability to
expand your mind and strive for lifelong
learning is critical to your success —
“Learning is the minimum requirement for
success in any field.”
Reading is the key to lifelong learning, and
if you can instill a love of reading at an
early age, then a commitment to lifelong
learning is sure to follow. Reading aloud
presents books as sources of pleasant,
valuable, and exciting experiences.
Children who value books are motivated to
read on their own, and will likely continue
to
practice
independent
reading
throughout the rest of their lives.
When it comes to reading to your children,
the benefits to your child’s life range far
beyond the development of a close bond
with them, although that’s certainly one of
them. Reading aloud to children is truly
the single most important activity for
building these understanding and skills
essential for reading success that your
child will carry with them throughout their
life.
Why is Reading so Important for
Children?
Reading allows us to be transported from
our world to another. Between the pages
of a book, we can become immersed in
the lives of fictional characters and learn
about a culture entirely different from our
own. We can also learn new words and
phrases, experience a range of emotions,
and acquire skills and knowledge.
Because of the learning potential, the
effects of reading on child development
are vast and multiple studies have
highlighted its benefits. As such, teachers
and parents are in a great position to
ensure reading is a key part of children’s
daily routines. We’ll give you some more
information as to why this is so important
and provide some tips that you can use
both in and out of the classroom.
What Are the Benefits of Reading for
Children?
The importance of reading for children
cannot be underestimated. Reading for
pleasure can benefit a child’s education,
social
and
cognitive
development,
well-being, and mental health.
What are the Effects of Reading on
Child Development?
Numerous pieces of research conducted
and commissioned by BookTrust have
discovered the profound benefits of
reading for a child’s development. One
study details the effects of reading on later
literacy skills, facilitating social interaction
between adults and children, and
encouraging children to engage with the
world around them. It also states how
reading can be a ‘stable source of
information throughout a child’s life. This
stability allows them to access text in a
constant fashion and can be especially
beneficial for children growing up in
challenging circumstances.
There are multiple other benefits that
reading
can
have on a child’s
development, including:
Assisted cognitive development. Cognitive
development refers to how we perceive
and think about our world in reference to
our intelligence, reasoning, language
development, and information processing.
By reading to children, you provide them
with a deep understanding of their world
and fill their brains with background
knowledge. They then use this acquired
background knowledge to make sense of
what they see, hear, and read, which aids
their cognitive development.
events that they couldn’t learn otherwise.
This
gives
children
a
deeper
understanding of the world around them
and cultures that are different from their
own.
Building stronger relationships. If a
parent reads with a child regularly, then
they will undoubtedly develop a stronger
relationship with them. Reading provides
parents with an opportunity to have a
regular and shared event that both parent
and
child can look forward to.
Furthermore, it provides children with
feelings
of
attention,
love,
and
reassurance which is key for nurturing and
wellbeing.
What is the Importance of Stories in
Child Education?
Reading with children can help to create a
love of reading for life. Multiple studies
have found a correlation between reading
for pleasure and higher academic
achievement in every subject, not just
English.
The benefits of reading with children
for their education are wide-ranging:
Developing empathy. When we read a
book, we put ourselves in the story in front
of us. This allows us to develop empathy
as we experience the lives of other
characters and can identify with how they
are feeling. Children can then use this
understanding to empathize in the real
world with other people. Additionally,
children will gain a greater understanding
of emotions, which can help them
understand their own emotions and those
of others. This helps dramatically with their
social development.
Improved literary skills. Reading aloud
with young children, even if they can’t fully
understand what you are saying, gives
them the skills they need for when they
begin to read by themselves. It shows
children that reading is something
achieved by focusing from left to right and
that turning pages is essential for
continuing. Reading to children in even
the earliest months of their lives can help
with language acquisition and stimulate
the part of the brain that processes
language.
Gaining a deeper understanding. A
book can take us anywhere: to another
city, to a different country, or even to an
alternative world. By reading a book, a
child learns about people, places, and
More extensive vocabulary. Hearing
words spoken aloud can expose children
to a range of new vocabulary and phrases
that they may not have heard otherwise.
By reading to a child daily, they’ll learn
new words every single day.
Greater concentration. Regular and
consistent reading can help to improve a
child’s
concentration
abilities.
Furthermore, it will help a child learn to sit
still and listen for long periods, which will
benefit them in their schooling.
Higher
levels of creativity and
imagination. Reading a book relies on us
using our imagination for picturing
characters, visualizing their settings and
environment, and guessing what’s coming
next. We must use our imagination if we
are to learn about other people, places,
events, and times. In turn, this developed
imagination leads to greater creativity as
children use the ideas in their heads to
inform their work.
Finally, the more that a child is read to,
and the more that they read themselves,
the better they will become at it. Practice
does make perfect and, the more a child
reads, the better their overall academic
achievement and social skills, like
empathy, will be.
The Top Ten Benefits of Reading for
Children
Based on what we’ve discussed above,
here are the top 10 benefits of reading for
children:
1. Their vocabulary is larger and
more extensive.
2. They perform better academically.
3. Their imagination can run wild.
4. Their creativity skills develop.
5. They develop empathy.
6. They gain a deeper understanding
of their world.
7. Their concentration levels improve.
8. The parent and child bond
improves.
9. Their cognitive development is
supported.
10. Their social skills and interaction
improve.
How to Read with Your Child
Reading aloud is an enjoyable activity that
both parents and children alike can enjoy.
Additionally, it is an activity that teachers
find fulfilling and that they should
encourage regularly, both at school and
home.
How Parents Can Read with Their Child
If you read with your child at home, then
you are supplementing what they learn in
the classroom as well as giving them
additional one-on-one support that the
classroom
cannot
give.
To have
successful and effective reading sessions,
consider the following:
Start young. Even during infancy, a child
can look at pictures and listen to your
voice. Read aloud to your child and point
to the pictures on the page, saying the
name of the objects that appear. This
provides your child with two sources of
information:
an
understanding
of
real-world objects and an understanding
of the importance of language. Even when
your child can read by themselves, you
should still read aloud together for
practice.
Make it part of your routine. Try your best
to read to your child every day and keep it
consistent. Incorporate this into your, and
your child’s, daily routine until it becomes
as much of a habit as them brushing their
teeth. However, try not to be discouraged
if you miss a day – just pick your routine
back up as normal when you have time.
Encourage variation. Try to vary the books
you read to your child as much as
possible. This will open their eyes to a
range of different worlds, cultures, and
characters, and allow their imagination to
be stretched and thrive.
Have patience. Sometimes we can forget
what it’s like to be that age and what we
were like. As an adult, we take reading for
granted, but it’s easier to be patient with a
child when we remember how much they
don’t know yet. For example, how is a
child going to learn to read from left to
right until you point at the words as you
go? How are they to know that each
scrawl on the page represents a word?
Take your time and be patient if they don’t
understand.
Continue the discussion. After you’ve
finished reading a story to your child,
consider trying to keep it going. The age
depends, you could ask them questions
about what they’ve just read. For example,
“Did you enjoy that story?”, “Who was your
favorite character?” or “Why do you think
the prince was happy at the end?”.
However, don’t feel that this is necessary
for every single story you read. If your
child enjoys the book, it will develop a love
of reading anyway, even without the
conversation.
How Teachers Can Encourage Reading
Reading to your class will probably be
second nature if you're a teacher.
However, there may be certain children in
your class who only get the chance to
read in school and not at home. This could
be for a variety of reasons, however, try
and communicate to parents the
importance of reading with their child. To
do so, you could:
Circulate a newsletter. You could create a
fortnightly/monthly newsletter that details
what your class has read in that fortnight
or month and why. Then, say how parents
can continue with the chosen reading
topic at home. For example, if you have
been studying science fiction in your class
that fortnight then you could include some
suggestions for other science fiction books
that parents can read at home.
Start a book club. If you have the time,
you could start a book club with your class
or across the school. As part of this, you
could suggest a book per week, or month,
that children have to read at home. Then,
check their understanding of, and
engagement with, that book by holding
regular meetings.
Get the children involved. Make it known
to your pupils that reading is valuable and
fun. Ask your class to make posters that
encourage others to read or create a
display where each student can write what
their favorite book is and why. Doing so
will help to foster a love of reading in them
that makes them want to read at home.
Lead by example. Let your students know
that you read and you enjoy it. Talk to
them about a book you’ve recently read or
your all-time favorite book. You could also
read a book yourself when your students
are having silent reading time. This will
help to motivate your students to read
themselves. Finally, communicate this to
parents and ask them to do something
similar at home.
Reading is a powerful, fulfilling, and
rewarding activity. Not only does a book
act as a comfort and a friend, but it also
acts as a teacher and can teach children
all about themselves, their world, and the
cultures within it. Reading with children
has numerous benefits and is something
all
parents
and
teachers
should
encourage.
LANGLEARN
Self-access materials should:
Materials Development
Teaching
Brian Tomlinson
in
Language
Introduction
Self-access materials are learner-centered
activities intended to help students
practice at their own pace, supplement
class work, and to focus on skills they
might find problematic.
The drawback with this type of
self-assessment is that for learners to use
it, it should allow easy self-marking.
The predominance of this type has limited
the learner’s focus to narrow left brain
activity with limited use of the person’s
learning capacity. Self-access materials
have also led to a loss in the learners’
procedural knowledge (the use of
language in context), and too little
contribution to implicit knowledge acquired subconsciously.
In general, learners are divided into two
categories: studial learners who are
analytical, visual, and independent, and
who like to learn in textbooks; and
experiential, learners who are global and
hands-on and who prefer an overall
approach to the language. Self-access
materials fit more than the first type.
In recent years, there has been an
increasing
tendency
to
overuse
self-access materials as cost-effective
open learning tools. However, these
materials should be closed enough, to be
easily self-marked.
In this chapter, Brian Tomlinson suggests
supplementing
“closed”
self-access
materials with “open” activities that require
the learner’s investment.
1- allow the learner to choose what to
work on
2- be open-ended with a range of possible
answers
3- encourage learners to exploit their prior
experience
4- involve learners as human beings
5- require the learners’ investment, effort,
and energy
6- stimulate left and right brain activities to
maximize the brain’s potential for learning
7- provide a diversified input to facilitate
the informal and selective acquisition
It is a humanistic approach to developing
the learners’ in-context acquisition of
language
Features of Self-access Materials
a- They should provide exposure to
authentic language through purposeful
activities.
b- Reading activities should facilitate
interaction with the texts.
c- The pre and post-reading activities
should elicit a reader-text interaction.
d- Learners should be encouraged to
practice high-level skills such as: inferring,
connecting, interpreting, and evaluating.
e- Productive activities (writing and
speaking) should involve the use of the
target language
f- Learners should make choices that suit
their learning style, linguistic level, and
level of involvement in the material.
g- Self-access materials are individualistic,
but also offer the possibility of group work.
h- Feedback should be given through
commentaries and not answers keys,
during and after tests.
i- Self-access activities should involve the
learners’ thinking about the cognitive
process to make informed choices.
j- Suggestions for individual follow-up
activities should be given at the end of
every unit.
Then they will be asked to guess the
meaning “in context” of some expressions
taken at some important points in the
excerpt.
Suitable Reading Self-access Materials
Among possible genres are narrative texts
that have the potential to engage the
learners cognitively and affectively and
engage the readers in an interaction with
the story elements (characters, the setting,
and plot), have the potential to build on
the readers’ personal experiences, and
provide positive evidence for language
acquisition.
Narrative-based self-access materials
As Ronnqvist and Sell (1994) put it:
“Reading literary texts in the target
language, gives genuine experience in the
pragmatics relating formal linguistic
expression to situational and socio-cultural
contexts.”
The advantage of the narrative is that it
can be adapted for any level of learners
without any loss of authenticity.
Frequently, reading materials are based
on excerpts from novels, books, or any
available piece of contemporary literature.
These texts can be used in open-end,
holistic activities allowing individual or
group work, the purpose being the
development of reading skills and a better
mastership of the target language.
Narrative-based self-access materials
One way of organizing reading self-access
materials is to make the learners try to
predict some facts from the excerpt before
reading it, which will entice the readers
and prepare
them for the reading activity.
They will also have to write a summary
outline (or a mind map) and extract or infer
the building blocks of the text, among
which are the thesis statement, topic
sentences, main ideas, and major
supporting details.
Conclusion
Self-access materials should be designed
to:
1 - give the learners the responsibility of
deciding what, when, and how much to do
2- ask open-end questions (prediction)
3- encourage experiential activities
4- get peers’ feedback rather than
teachers’
5- react in writing as a creative critical
response
6- ask “think” questions pertaining to the
elements of the excerpt such as the title,
characters, setting, and plot
7- provide opportunities for feedback.
Most students are visual, analytic learners,
probably as a result of the interaction
between
teachers,
publishers, and
text-writers. These actors in education
encourage learners who can focus on
chunks of information, who memorize and
retrieve consciously, and who are
systematic in their learning.
This influence probably comes from the
way subjects, other than language, are
taught in schools, where effort, conformity,
and application are generously rewarded
by teachers who
value discipline and conformity.
Summary of Part D
For Tomlinson, all types of learners and
learning styles should be catered for in the
material design.
Mainstream language course books
strongly favor the visual, and analytic
rather than the auditory, experiential
learners. This bias comes from a school
environment where teachers encourage,
favor, and reward analytic learners.
However, researchers on language
acquisition define good language learners
as those who are flexible, able to monitor
themselves, pay attention to both form
and meaning, practice the language, and
are aware of the whole learning process.
Self-access materials should help learners
make conscious and informed rather than
intuitive
decisions.
Thus, materials
designed to allow learners to work
experientially will give
them a greater repertoire of learning styles
and strategies, which will help them make
conscious decisions, and will help them
become better aware of the learning
process.
Tomlinson also highlights the fact that the
role of the teacher’s book in helping to
cater to choices is underestimated. At the
moment, the teacher’s books receive little
attention and investment in developing
their content and are limited to providing
answer keys.
If the student’s book should be a rich bank
of exercises, the teacher’s manual should
also include a variety of activities to be
proposed to the learners, activities that
cater to all types of learning styles.
Synopsis of the whole book
A- Existing materials might be
acceptable so far but they are not
sufficient:
Available language learning materials
have certainly taken advantage of
technological advancements and the
increase in knowledge of how languages
are learned, yet, learners still fail to
achieve
a
satisfactory
level
of
communicative competence.
B- More feedback is needed on existing
materials:
Being expensive, very little research has
been conducted on the outcomes of
language learning materials.
Another factor is the diversity of the
numerous variables that affect the learning
process. The number of copies a book
sells is certainly not the “right” indicator of
its effectiveness, so we need to find out
more about its learning outcomes to be
able to judge whether or not it needs
improvement. One way could be long-term
research in the field.
C- More knowledge is required on the
learners’ needs:
So far, we don’t know enough about these
needs, but we are sure that very few
learners and teachers are truly satisfied
with existing materials. Thus, to find out
about the real needs in the field, we have
to conduct more research that engages
experts from various fields with the
cooperation of universities and publishing
companies.
DMore
expertise
on
development is needed:
material
We must look for reliable information
about the learning outcomes of existing
materials and then experiment to innovate
in the field. Institutions, governments, and
publishers are satisfied with existing
materials that work and are reluctant to
participate in this long-term, costly
process, and aren’t willing to invest in
projects “that might not succeed!” Only
serious cooperation between them will
lead to an effective change.
E- More knowledge on the use of the
target language is needed:
Our knowledge of how languages are
used is being incorporated into materials
development. Yet, we need to know more
about language use in context and the
patterns of interaction among non-native
speakers from different backgrounds.
Then, we will need to find out how
exposing the learners to “language reality”
best serves their learning process.
F- More flexibility is required to cater
for the diversity in needs:
As was stressed in the summary of Part D,
we need actual information rather than
subjective impressions. We may need to
start by identifying the learners who will
effectively benefit from the diversity of
choices in the learning process.
H- More publishers’ involvement is
needed:
Although the economic environment might
hinder the involvement of publishers who
are mainly motivated by profitability, we
have to convince and assist them in taking
a more active part in experimenting in the
materials development field, for their
benefit. The best way would be by
bringing together teachers, publishers,
and materials writers to pool resources so
that they could take advantage of their
expertise to produce materials of greater
value for the learners.
To sum things up, collaboration from
private and public institutions involved in
education will also be of substantial help
in
language
acquisition,
research
methodology, data collection and analysis,
language pedagogy, and materials design
production and distribution. As a fact, joint
research is a must if we want to make a
breakthrough in this promising field.
Conclusion to the book
G- More teacher training is needed:
Most language teachers are not trained
enough and are, as a result, reluctant to
experiment with new approaches. For
materials to contribute to teacher and
curricula development, they shouldn’t be
imposed but should facilitate reflection,
evaluation, and adaptation by teachers
who will thus become better involved in
the development and trialing of new
materials.
To sum things up, collaboration from
private and public institutions involved in
education will also be of substantial help
in
language
acquisition,
research
methodology, data collection and analysis,
language pedagogy, and materials design
production and distribution. As a fact, joint
research is a must if we want to make a
breakthrough in this promising field.
LANGLEARN
DEVELOPING LEARNING MATERIALS
FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES
English has been acknowledged by most
countries in the world as an international
language. Consequently, English has to
be used in international communication
both orally and in written communication,
for general as well as specific needs.
Therefore, people in countries where
English is used as a second or foreign
language have to learn it, if they want to
be able to communicate internationally.
Indonesia, where English is a foreign
language, also has to teach the citizens,
especially the young generation to learn
English.
English teachers usually teach their
students by using available textbooks.
However, such learning materials which
are really suitable for the needs of the
students are not always available. This
condition should not discourage the
teachers as far as they have the
objective(s) of the teaching or are familiar
with the need(s) of the students. By
having
the
objectives
of
the
teaching/learning or being familiar with the
needs of the learners, the teachers can
develop their own materials for the
learners to achieve the objectives or fulfill
the needs of the learners.
This paper aims at giving insightful ways
for teachers to develop learning materials
suitable for their student's difficulty levels,
needs, and objective(s)of the teaching the
teachers have designed. The organization
of this paper includes the definition of
materials development, the principles and
procedure of materials development, the
practical undertaking of the materials
development, materials development for
specific purposes, and the concluding
remarks.
MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT
First of all, before discussing materials
development as a field of study and its
practical undertaking of it, I would like to
make sure what is meant by materials in
materials development. Materials mean
anything which is used to help to teach
language learners. Materials can be in the
form of a textbook, a workbook, a
cassette, a CD-ROM, a video, a
photocopied handout, a newspaper, a
paragraph written on a whiteboard, or
anything which presents or informs about
the language being learned (Tomlinson,
1998:xi). Further, Tomlinson (2001) states
that materials mean anything which can
be used to facilitate the learning of a
language (linguistic, visual, auditory, or
kinesthetic). These materials can be
presented in print, live performances,
cassettes, CD-ROM, DVD, or on the
internet. These materials can be
instructional, experiential, elicitative, or
exploratory. The material is instructional
when it informs the learners about the
language. It is experiential when it
provides exposure to the language in use,
elicitative when it stimulates language use,
and exploratory when it seeks discoveries
about language use in natural settings.
There are at least two things to be
elaborated
on
about
materials
development. It is both a field of study and
a practical undertaking. As a field of study,
it studies the principles and procedures of
the
design,
implementation,
and
evaluation of language teaching materials.
As a practical undertaking, it involves the
production, evaluation, and adaptation of
language teaching materials, by teachers
for their own classrooms and by materials
writers for sale or distribution (Tomlinson,
2001:66).
With this concept, this paper discusses
materials development from the theoretical
points of view of its principles and
procedures of the development through its
practical undertaking from evaluating,
adapting, supplementing, and creating
own materials (Pinter, 2006).
Materials Development as a Field of
Study
As a field of study, materials development
studies the principles and procedures of
the
design,
implementation,
and
evaluation of language teaching materials.
Principles of Materials Development
There are sixteen principles that
Tomlinson (1998:7-21) summarizes of
what he thinks many SLA researchers
would agree to be the basic principles of
SLA relevant to the materials development
for the teaching of languages.
These principles are briefly outlined in this
section.
Materials should achieve impact. Impact is
achieved when materials have a
noticeable effect on learners, that is when
the learners' curiosity, interest, and
attention are attracted. If this is achieved
there is a better chance that some of the
languages in the materials will be taken for
processing. Further, it is said that
materials can achieve impact when they
are new, varied, presented attractively,
and appealing content.
Materials should help learners to feel at
ease. Materials can help learners to feel at
ease in many ways, for example, texts and
illustrations rather than just texts, texts
that the learners can relate to with their
own culture than those that are culturally
bound, materials that include examples
rather than without, and many others.
Materials should help learners to develop
confidence. Quoting Dulay, Burt, and
Krashen 1982, Tomlinson (1998:9) said
that Relaxed and self-confident learners
learn faster. Many learners feel relaxed
and self-confident if they think that the
materials they learn are not too difficult but
just one step further or more difficult than
they master.
What is being taught should be perceived
by learners as relevant and useful. In ESP,
teachers of English can easily select
materials that are relevant to the specific
choice of topics and tasks that the
learners are also learning in their field of
study, therefore, the materials they learn
must be relevant and useful.
Materials should require and facilitate
learner self-investment. Materials that
enable the learners to be interested in
them, that can draw their attention, and
that can attract them to learn the materials
will facilitate them to learn the materials by
themselves.
Learners must be ready to acquire the
points being taught. To acquire the points
being taught, the materials learned should
be i + 1 in which i represents what has
already been learned and 1 represents
what is available for learning. According to
Krashen (1985), each learner will only
learn from the new input what he or she is
ready to learn.
Materials should expose the learners to
language in authentic use. A lot of
teaching/learning materials can provide
exposure to authentic input through the
instructions, and advice they give for the
activities, and the spoken and written texts
included in the materials.
The learner's attention should be drawn to
the linguistic features of the input. These
linguistic features should not become the
main focus of the materials but the
learners should be made aware that
linguistic features are needed to locate
and make a generalization about the
function of the linguistic features in the
main materials.
Materials should provide the learners with
opportunities to use the target language to
achieve communicative purposes. After
learning the materials, learners should be
given opportunities to practice the
language
they
have
learned
for
communication in real-life situations not
just practicing it in the classroom
controlled by the teacher.
Materials should take into account that the
positive effects of instruction are usually
delayed. As it can be observed in our daily
teaching, learners learning a language is
not an instantaneous process but a
gradual one. In order to facilitate the
gradual process of learning or acquiring a
language, it is important to give frequent
and ample exposure to the instructed
language features in communicative use.
Materials should take into account that
learners differ in learning styles. Not all
learners have the same learning styles.
Language learning styles include visual,
auditory, kinaesthetic (e.g. the learner
prefers to do something physical, such as
following instructions), studial (e.g. the
learner likes to pay conscious attention to
the linguistic features of the language and
wants to be correct), experiential, analytic,
global, dependent and independent.
Materials should take into account that
learners differ in affective attitudes.
Learners' attitudes vary in type and times.
Ideal learners will need strong and
consistent
motivation,
and positive
feelings towards the target language, their
teachers, their fellow learners, and the
materials they are learning. Realizing this
fact, materials should provide choices of
different types of texts and types of
activities.
Materials should permit a silent period at
the beginning of instruction. The silent
period
is
used to facilitate the
development of an effective internalized
grammar and other language elements
which can help learners to achieve
proficiency. The other possible extension
of the principle of permitting silence is to
introduce most new language points
through activities that initially require
comprehension before production.
Materials should maximize learning
potential by encouraging intellectual,
aesthetic, and emotional involvement
which stimulates both right and left brain
activities. This principle means that
materials that encourage the learners to
learn the same lesson involving different
cerebral processes and different states of
consciousness in many different parts of
the brain will maximize recall.
Materials should not rely too much on
controlled practice. This principle is
intended to state that it is still controversial
to say that controlled practice activities are
valuable. The statements that state that
most
spontaneous
performance
is
attained
by
dint
of
practice
(Sharwood-Smith, 1981) and automaticity
is achieved through practice (Bialystok,
1988) have no evidence. However, many
researchers agree with Ellis saying that
controlled practice appears to have a little
long-term effect on the accuracy with
which new structures are performed (Ellis,
1990:192) and has little effect on fluency
(Ellis and Rathbone, 1987). Yet, controlled
grammar practice activities still feature
significantly in popular coursebooks and
are considered useful by many teachers
and by many learners.
Materials should provide opportunities for
outcome feedback. Feedback that is
focused on the effectiveness of the
outcome rather than just on the accuracy
of the output can lead to output becoming
a profitable source of input. Therefore, a
learner who is successful to achieve a
particular communicative purpose will gain
positive feedback on the effectiveness of
the use of the language for further
language outcomes. In relation to this, the
materials developer has to be sure that
language production activities have
intended outcomes other than just
practicing the language.
learning/teaching
situation.
The
implementation of the learning/teaching
materials in the real situation in this step is
meant to try out the teaching/learning
materials whether they are suitable for the
target learners. If not, then the
learning/teaching materials have to be
revised based on the data obtained from
the try out to the target learners. This is
called the evaluation step.
Materials Development as a Practical
Undertaking
To design/develop accurate teaching
materials, each component in the systems
has to be considered. In other words,
suitable
teaching/learning
materials
should be able to fulfill each of the other
components in the system approach.
Learning/teaching materials, in practice,
can be developed/produced by evaluating
learning
materials,
adapting,
supplementing, and creating their own
materials (Pinter, 2006). Teachers usually
use any textbook available to teach their
students. What they can do is usually try
to evaluate the textbook they have to use
to teach their students. In evaluating the
textbook, teachers observe what works
and what does not work and they add their
own style/preference and interpretation to
the textbook. If they think that the textbook
is in line with the curriculum/syllabus, the
textbook can be used to teach their
students. Teachers will evaluate and
select textbooks according to how
appropriate they seem for the given
context. Well-designed textbooks can
support inexperienced teachers a lot
because they act as training materials.
Textbooks can also be evaluated by
exploring
teachers'
and
learners'
experiences and opinions about the
textbooks used in the classroom. This
evaluation can result in the most effective
textbooks which can be used in the
classroom. This result, however, cannot
be valid for different students and teachers
and at different times.
The teaching/learning materials already
developed for specific target learners have
to
be
implemented in the real
After evaluating the textbook, each
teacher has his/her own decision, that is,
using the textbooks without having any
Materials Development Procedures
The steps or procedure of materials
development
include
the
design,
implementation,
and
evaluation
of
language teaching materials. Dick and
Carey (1990) suggest ten components of
the systems approach model, that is,
identify an instructional goal, conduct an
instructional analysis, identify entry
behaviors and characteristics, write
performance
objectives,
develop
criterion-referenced test items, develop an
instructional strategy, develop and/or
select instructional materials, design and
conduct the formative evaluation, revise
instruction, and conduct a summative
evaluation. Each of these components is
closely related to each other in the
systems approach model.
change at all, adapting it according to the
needs, supplementing it if necessary, or if
the textbook does not fulfill the teacher's
criteria, they can create their own
materials based on their student's needs
or other criteria of developing materials.
Adapting a text can be based on different
criteria. One possible adaptation is
associated with linguistic demands. A
difficult text can be adapted by teachers to
suit the competence level of the class.
Pinter (2006:120) describes an adaptation
of a well-known fable The grasshopper
and the ants from the original one to teach
her class of eight-year-olds with very little
English. Although this adaptation shows
quite a different form from the original one,
this adapted fable still works for a number
of reasons. First of all, the story is still a
good source for learning new vocabulary,
structures, and functions. From a
vocabulary point of view, children can
learn the names of animals, grasshoppers,
and ants. From the structure, they can
learn the past tense used in the story,
questions,
and
answers
in
the
conversation between the grasshopper
and the ants. From the functions, the fable
still can be enjoyed by the children when
they read it or listen to it and the fable still
can teach the traditional moral lesson
about the need to work for food.
Another thing to remember is that
adapting teaching materials, especially
from authentic text, does not always work
well. In adapting the authentic text to
become learning materials, a teacher has
to remember the English that the students
have to learn from the adapted texts. Still,
we have to allow the students to have an
effort to cope with more challenges from
the adapted texts. A teacher has to be
conscious that gradually the students will
have to struggle themselves to face the
authentic texts without having any
adaptation
Supplementing the existing textbooks
used to teach is another effort to cover the
weakness of the available textbooks that
do not match the syllabus/curriculum or
objectives of teaching/learning. The
supplementary teaching/learning materials
can vary according to the availability of the
materials or the creativity of the teachers.
Creating their own materials is the
teacher's last effort to develop learning
materials
instead
of
adapting
or
supplementing the existing textbooks or
authentic texts. There should be
fundamental bases in order to create own
materials,
among
others,
teaching
objectives or instructional goals (Dick and
Carey, 1990), students' needs, and
topic-based planning (Pinter, 2006:124).
Dick and Carey (1990) suggest a long
procedure
to
develop
instructional
materials after identifying instructional
goals. There are five steps between
identifying instructional goals up to
instructional
materials
development:
conducting
instructional
analysis,
identifying
entry
behaviors
and
characteristics,
writing
performance
objectives, developing criterion-referenced
test items, and developing instructional
strategy. The next step is developing and
selecting instructional materials. With
these steps, Dick and Carey want to
emphasize the accuracy of all the
components in the system approach of
instructional
design,
including
the
accuracy of developing and selecting
instructional materials.
A teacher can also develop learning
materials on the basis of the student's
needs (Pinter, 2006). This situation would
happen when a teacher is facing new
students. In order to meet the student's
needs in English, an English teacher has
to find out what English competence the
students want to achieve. After knowing
the English competence that the students
want to achieve, the teacher develops the
learning materials to help the learners
achieve the English competence they
want.
Creating its own materials based on
Topic-based planning means that the
materials developed for the learning
materials should be based on the topic
already chosen and, therefore, all the
activities in all areas of the curriculum
should be related to that one broad topic.
DEVELOPING LEARNING MATERIALS
FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES
In this section, the application of the
principles and procedures of developing
learning materials is described focusing on
materials
development
for
specific
purposes of teaching English. In order to
develop learning materials for specific
purposes, one thing that should become
the starting point is the learner's needs.
This is in line with the first step of
developing learning materials for general
purposes as well as that for English as a
specific purposes (ESP) proposed by
Hutchinson and Waters (1989:3) which
states that ESP is based on designing
courses to meet learners’ needs.
Learners' needs can be identified by the
teachers from the target learners from
whom they are going to develop the
materials. Very often, learners' needs
have been formulated by the institution
where the learners are learning in the form
of learning objectives. These learning
objectives can be made more specific in
the form of a syllabus which according to
Hutchinson and Waters (1989:80) means
a document that says what will (or at least
what should) be learned. There are at
least eight types of syllabus that can be
used to analyze learners' needs: topic
syllabus, structural/situational syllabus,
func-tional/notional
syllabus,
skills
syllabus,
situational
syllabus,
functional/task-based
syllabus,
discourse/skills syllabus, and skills and
strategies syllabus. Any syllabus can be
used as far as the syllabus can
accommodate the analysis of the learner's
needs.
In addition to the system approach
proposed by Dick and Carey (1990)
described in the previous section,
Hutchinson and Waters (1989:90-94)
propose four approaches to the course
design process: a language-centered
approach, a skills-centered approach, a
learning-centered approach, and the post
hoc approach. In a language-centered
approach, there are five steps to follow,
that is, analyzing the target situation,
writing the syllabus, writing or selecting
texts to illustrate items in the syllabus,
writing exercises to practice items in the
syllabus, and devising tests for assessing
knowledge of the items in the syllabus. In
a skills-centered approach, there are six
steps to follow: analyzing target needs,
select-ing interesting and representative
texts, devising a hierarchy of skills to
exploit the texts, ordering and adapting
the texts as necessary to enable a focus
on
the
required
skills,
devising
activities/techniques to teach those skills,
and devising a system to assess the
acquisition of the skills. In a learning
centered-approach, there are three chains
of procedures: (1) analyzing the learning
situation,
creating
interesting
and
enjoyable
materials,
checking
the
language and skills content of materials,
and making necessary adjustments; (2)
analyzing target situations, establishing
general syllabus of topics and tasks,
creating
interesting
and
enjoyable
materials, and checking language and
skills content of materials and making
necessary adjustments; (3) analyzing
target situations, establishing general
syllabus of topics and tasks, producing
detailed language/skills syllabus, and
checking language and skills content of
materials
and
making
necessary
adjustments. In the post hoc approach,
there are only two steps in the procedure:
writing materials on undefined criteria and
writing a cosmetic syllabus to satisfy
sponsors, teachers, students, etc.
To develop these learning materials, a
teacher has to follow the correct
procedure
of
developing
learning
materials. I would like to suggest two
major steps to develop these learning
materials. First, a teacher has to learn the
learner's needs and especially the
syllabus, choose item by item from the
syllabus one by one, and then develop the
materials. Second, s/he has to develop
the learning materials according to the
nature of the learning materials and the
principles as well as the procedure of
developing the learning materials.
Concerning the nature of the learning
materials, a teacher has to be able to
differentiate the materials for the content
and language. For listening and content
materials, for example, a teacher can
select the existing materials in the form of
a cassette, CD-ROM, video, or any other
audio materials that can help the learners
to achieve the basic needs that the
teacher has formulated. In case the
materials do not exactly help the learners
to achieve the expected competence, the
teacher can add or modify the existing
materials or even the teacher can develop
his/her own materials.
In dealing with the principles of developing
learning materials, in addition to the
nature of the learning materials that a
teacher has to consider when s/he
develops learning materials, a teacher can
apply any one or more principles of
developing materials stated previously.
Principle number 1 suggested by
Tomlinson (1998:7-21), for example, that
materials should achieve impact. He
explains further The impact is achieved
when materials have a noticeable effect
on learners, that is, when the learner's
curiosity, interest, and attention are
attracted. These materials can achieve
impact through the novelty of, for example,
unusual topics, illustrations, and activities;
through a variety of, for example, using a
number of different instructor voices on a
cassette;
through
the
attractive
presentation, for example, using attractive
colors; and through appealing content, for
example, topics of interest to the target
learners, new topics, universal themes,
etc. Therefore, even only by referring to
one principle of developing learning
materials --- impact --- a teacher can
develop various materials.
The procedure of developing learning
materials which consists of the design,
implementation, and evaluation has to be
implemented as well in order to produce
more accurate learning materials. The
design steps include the formulation of the
first draft of the learning materials which
have considered the syllabus, the target
needs, the choice of the suitable nature of
learning materials, and the principles of
developing learning materials. Having the
complete draft of the learning materials, a
teacher has to implement the materials for
the
target
learners
in
a
real
teaching-learning
situation.
Any
weaknesses found in the try-out or in the
implementation of the materials have to be
considered to re-vise the learning
materials. This is what is called the
evaluation step in materials development.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Developing teaching/learning materials
has been described from the points of
view of the definition, the principles, the
procedure, and the practical undertaking
of them in the case of developing learning
materials for ESP.
Developing teaching/learning materials for
ESP is more demanded than that for
general English because the availability of
ESP learning materials in public is very
rare. Because of this, it is suggested that
teachers of ESP develop their own
specific materials for their own target
language learners. In developing the ESP
learning materials, every teacher can
follow any approach he/she is familiar with
and he/she can develop his/her teaching
materials by applying the principles and
procedures
of
language
teaching
materials including formulating their
teaching objectives and syllabus, adapting
and or supplementing the existing
materials, and or creating their own
materials.
This paper is my idea as the combination
of
the
theory
of
developing
teaching/learning materials (Tomlinson,
1998, 2001; Pinter, 2006), the idea of
instructional design as proposed by Dick
and Carey (1990), and the course design
of ESP as proposed by Hutchinson and
Waters (1989). There may be some other
possible
ways
of
developing
teaching/learning materials than the one
described in this paper. As the
consequence, the same level of specific
language for the same level of students
may have different teaching/learning
materials especially if the materials
developer and the proficiency level of the
students are different.
Therefore, there will never be perfect
teaching/learning materials that can be
used anywhere, anytime for the same
level of students. I strongly suggest that a
teacher develop his/her own teaching
materials for his/her own specific target
learners. If a teacher has to use a
textbook for some reason, still s/he has to
adjust it with the target learners. There
may be some parts of the textbook which
are not exactly suitable for the target
learners. A teacher is somewhere in the
middle where s/he uses a textbook for
his/her learners to learn but there is also
some space for individual teachers to
contribute.
—----------------------------------------------------What Are The Types Of Teaching Aids?
What are teaching aids?
Education is an integral part of society.
Everyone must get an education and
teaching students is not an easy
profession and even getting knowledge is
not easy as it sounds. So, teaching aids
are necessary today. It promotes students
to learn and engages them in learning in
various engaging ways. The meaning of
teaching aids is a tool that helps to
understand both are them.
For years, only textual structure had been
followed to teach, but now different types
of teaching aids are available such as
video audio, and others.
These different types of teaching aids
require different tools such as computers
and laptops to establish an interaction with
students with effectiveness.
These teaching aids assist in faster
learning,
enhance
students-teachers’
interaction, make students take active
involvement, etc. The importance of
teaching aids is high as it combines both
textual material with visual matter, audio
and videos to teach students and it
enhances the learning experience of
students and the teaching experience of
teachers. Students tend to learn fast when
they are taught with visual representation.
There are many types of teaching
educational aids available but only a
teacher has to decide with their skills
which tool will work for their students.
What Are The Needs For Teaching Aids
Teachers use a variety of tools to make
the process of teaching and learning
simple, interesting, and effective which
makes it easier for the teacher to teach
even the most difficult subject. It also
makes sense and saves time as students
learn very quickly by watching rather than
reading. Therefore teachers use teaching
aids.
● There are many students with a
tendency to forget easily. Such
students can get benefits from
teaching aids.
● Teaching aids make the subject
interesting and encourage students
to learn it in depth.
● Teaching aids help to understand
the concept easily and grasp it
completely.
● With teaching aids, students can
understand the concept by making
the proper image of the topic.
● Teaching
aids
enhance
the
conceptual thinking of students.
● Teaching aids do not make the
concept boring instead it creates
an environment of interest and
makes it interesting to learn.
● With the help of teaching aids,
students can learn with accuracy
and even faster.
● It is proved that learning with visual
representation stays in memory for
a longer time than textual
representation. It impacts better
with direct experience.
Examples of teaching aids
There
aids:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
are so many examples of teaching
Actual objects
Flash Cards
Slides
Charts
Pictures
Maps
Bulletin Boards
Models
Thus, these are examples of teaching
aids, it is very helpful for teachers and also
students.
Classification Of Teaching aids
Different lists of teaching
classified as follows:
aids
are
●
Traditional
Teaching
Aids:
Traditional teaching aids include
learning
through
Books,
Periodicals, blackboards, etc.
●
Visual Teaching Aids: Visual
Teaching aids include posters,
model, figures, charts, graphs, etc.
It also includes graphics such as
diagrams,
cut-outs,
globes,
objects, cartoons, info graphs,
bulletin boards, flannel boards,
pictures, maps, and others.
●
Mechanical
Teaching
Aids:
Mechanical teaching aids include
an Audio teaching machine, tape
recorder, radio, motion picture,
Projector,
epidiascope,
and
filmstrips.
●
Audio-Visual Teaching Aids:
This type of teaching aid includes
video, Cassettes, Films, television,
and others.
●
Visual Material Teaching Aids:
Outline charts, organization charts,
tabular charts, flow charts, etc. are
also used in visual Material
Teaching aids.
subject-related picture to the
students so that they can be
shown and explained. The things
taught through the picture can be
remembered by the students for a
long time, as well as the pictures
can be easily shown in the
classroom.
Types of Teaching Aids
Following are
teaching aids:
the
different types of
●
Map: We use the map only when
we have to teach the students
about
historical
events
and
geographical elements or places.
While using the map, teachers
should take care of some points
such as names, titles, directions,
signs, etc. should be written on it.
●
Sketch: We need a drawing only
when we do not have any real
substance or model or map. In
such conditions, we show students
by drawing a drawing or sketch on
a blackboard or on a whiteboard,
like making a map of India,
showing any state, etc.
●
Graph: A teacher uses graphs
only when he has to show any
increasing or decreasing pattern. A
graph is used in many subjects
such as geography, history,
mathematics, science, or also to
explain climate. And graphs are
used to give information about
population etc. as well. Also, the
graph is most commonly used in
teaching mathematics and science.
●
Chart: The chart is used in Hindi,
English,
Geography,
History,
Economics, Civics, Mathematics,
and Science. For example, to show
various forms of nouns in grammar
in English or Hindi.
Bulletin board: A bulletin board is
a board where students display
pictures, villages, figures, articles,
1. Visual Aids
Teaching aids that include learning
through visual representation are called
visual aids. Visual aids are the kind of
material that we can see with our eyes. It
is the most important teaching aid that
teachers
always
use
in
their
teaching-learning process every day like
books,
blackboards,
chalk,
duster,
indicator, picture, maps, graphs, charts,
posters, bulletin boards, museums,
projectors, and also important visual aids.
●
●
●
Ground substance: The ground
substance is the substance that
the student can see and touch.
The
student
inspects
and
examines
by
touching
and
observing matter, which develops
the student’s senses, as well as
the development of his thinking,
understanding,
and observing
power.
Model: When the actual substance
cannot be brought into the
classroom or its size is so large or
it is not available then teachers
prepare its sample or model which
is shown in the classroom so that
the student can easily be explained
it.
Image: Pictures affect students
very much. Students are lost in
reality by seeing pictures, so
teachers also present any story or
science
or
any
other
●
or essential information in relation
to the country’s political, economic,
and social problems. Bulletin
boards continuously increase the
knowledge of the students.
●
●
Museum: The museum is also an
important tool of education to
increase the knowledge of the
students in which all the objects
are kept in one place, making the
text more interesting and alive with
these objects. The museum
collects items that are very helpful
in subjects like geography, history,
mathematics, and science.
Projector: Projectors play the
most important role among the
most used tools in the modern
education
system.
Teaching-learning is made more
simple and more interesting
through projectors. Through the
projector, the students get a
different kind of enjoyment and
memory,
development
of
observational power, curiosity, etc.
●
Slides and Films: Slides and film
are used as teaching aids and a
projector is used for this. Slides of
pictures or film strips can be shown
by the projector in a sequence to
give students knowledge.
●
Globe: With the help of the globe,
children are shown the boundaries
of the continent, ocean, river, and
mountain.
In
the
topic
of
geography, the globe is used for
the most part, to tell students about
the shape of the earth, northern
and southern hemisphere, and
latitude and longitude lines.
Audio Aids
This teaching aid targets to enhance the
listening and communication skills of the
students. There are some students in
every classroom who are auditory
learners, such students can get benefit
from audio aids. Audio aids are included in
audio content such as gramophone, radio,
telephone, teleconferencing, and tape
recorders in which students develop their
mental powers and hearing powers by
listening to content.
●
Radio: Through radio, children are
informed
about
the
latest
happenings
and
information.
Teaching programs related to
different subjects of different
classes are narrated on the radio
which develops the ability of the
student's
learning,
listening,
understanding, and remembering
as well.
●
Tape Recorder: Tape-recorder is a
popular tool in the education world.
With the help of a tape recorder,
students can enjoy and learn
through speeches of great leaders
and poems of famous writers, their
stories, and the music of famous
artists. It helps to correct all errors
and thoughts related to students’
speed of speech.
●
Teleconferencing: With the help
of teleconferencing, students can
be informed. Teleconferencing is a
medium through which many
schools can be linked together.
Different teachers and different
children
can
gain important
information by talking through
teleconferencing.
Audio-Visual Aids
Technology has developed and enhanced
the experience of students with the
addition of Audio-Visual educational aids.
●
Films:
There
are
many
advantages of movies or cinema in
the field of education. The
knowledge gained by it is more
useful than in other mediums
because students can learn well by
watching and listening. By showing
movies, documentaries, and films,
children can be easily given
knowledge of different countries,
places, and events.
●
Television: All the benefits from
cinema or film can also be derived
from television, but its scope is
much wider than cinema. In
today’s modern era, television
broadcasts
many
types
of
educational programs in addition to
entertainment
programs
to
increase the knowledge of children
It is also used by universities like
IGNOU and UGC to broadcast
various types of educational
programs with the help of satellites
so that the students can learn.
●
Computer: The use of computers
is one of the most used tools in the
modern education system. With
the help of this electronic device,
the education world has got a
golden opportunity for learning.
The use of computers can be seen
not only in the education world but
also in different areas of their life.
A Learning aid is a process when we
understand
can
others.
Learning
strategists understand the learn from
lectures, reading, preparing, etc. It
enhances learning and retention by the
learner.
With the help of different types of teaching
aids, the teacher makes teaching and
learning interesting and attractive. It helps
students in their mental development. With
its help, the teacher saves time in
explaining any topic. So, teaching aids are
important tools in the education system.