English
Quarter 3- Module 1:
Expanding Ideas Using Principles of Cohesion and Coherence
Study the picture very carefully then answer the questions that follow. You may share your
ideas with your parents or siblings at home
Process Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Why should bridges be built?
How would people’s lives be affected if there were no bridges?
Have you experienced crossing a bridge? When? Why did you do that?
How can you relate this picture to academic or creative writing in
English?
Cohesion and Coherence
The words 'cohesion' and 'coherence' are often used together with a similar meaning,
which relates to how an academic text joins together to make a unified whole. Although they
are similar, they are not the same. Cohesion relates to the micro level of the text, i.e. the
words and sentences and how they join together.
If a text has cohesion, the clauses within the text are connected logically; they work
together and flow smoothly. Cohesion operates between clauses, sentences and paragraphs,
and it is achieved with appropriate use of structure, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore,
cohesion exists at the clause level of essays.
To achieve cohesion, every clause should be linked in some way to the clause or
sentence before and after it. As a writer, it is your responsibility to clearly show how these
clauses are linked by using cohesive devices.
Examples of Cohesive Devices
Linking words provide greater cohesion by making it more explicit or signaling how ideas relate to
one another.
1
Linking Words to Add
These are connectors and linking words to add:
and
Finally
again
Further
then
Furthermore
besides
Nor
too
equally important
next
moreover
Examples
•
Furthermore,
thousands
of
overcrowded prisons without charge or trial.
•
•
•
It is equally important to listen to what others think of what we do, so we can do it better.
people
suffer
detention
in
Moreover, he is considered to be a founder of the professional national dramatic art
After nine months of pregnancy, the time has finally arrived Linking
Words to Compare
These are linking words to compare:
whereas
by comparison
but
where
yet
compared to
on the other hand
up against
however
balanced against
nevertheless
in contrast
on the contrary
although
meanwhile
Examples
after all
•
However, the tropical lowlands are where illegal coca growing and cocaine refining is
concentrated.
•
•
•
•
Meanwhile, the population remains very concerned about the fate of those in prison.
•
•
On the other hand, most people tend to trust their experience
On the contrary, those weapons endanger peace and stability.
The region is relatively well off by comparison with the rest of the developing world.
These
figures
Southeast Asia.
are relatively low,
compared to Africa
In contrast, nobody has dared to contest the truths they contain.
2
or
Linking Words to Prove
These are linking to prove something or state your reasons:
because
moreover
for
besides
since
indeed
for the same reason
in fact
obviously
in addition
evidently
in any case
furthermore
that is
Examples:
•
•
•
•
Please enter a valid email address since you will be sent an email including a link to activate
your account.
Evidently previous rights are not taken into account.
Indeed, this is a historic moment you are presiding over
In fact, if left unchecked bacteria levels can double in number every 20 minutes.
Linking Words to Show Sequence
These connectors or linking words are used to show sequence:
first
second
third
so forth
next
then
following this
now
at this point
after
afterward
subsequently
finally
consequently
previously
before this
simultaneously
concurrently
Therefore
hence
next
soon
Examples:
• Afterward, Ulises told us that he thought it was a miracle.
•
•
Consequently, health information is included in this definition.
Concurrently, there was also an incursion by troops into their territory.
Linkers to Give an Example:
3
For example
For instance
In this case
In another case
On this occasion
in this situation
take the case of
to demonstrate
to illustrate
as an illustration
Examples
•
•
Take the case of domestic violence, for example.
To
illustrate
this concept,
it
classification of crimes by order of conduct.
is
relevant to
invoke
Linking Words To Summarize or Conclude:
as I have said
therefore
hence
accordingly
as I have shown
thus
to conclude
consequently
summing up
on the whole
in brief
in conclusion
Example:
•
Hence the crucial role of translation was emphasized.
Linking Words to Show Exception:
Yet
Despite
Still
Of course
However
Once in a while
Nevertheless
Sometimes
In Spite of
Example:
•
Nevertheless, significant progress has already been made in a number of fields.
Linking Words to Show Time
Immediately
Thereafter
soon
after a few hours
Finally
Then
Later
Previously
4
the
Formerly
First
Second
Then
Example:
Formerly, this was possible only through a judicial procedure.
Linking Words to Repeat:
in brief
as I have said
as has been noted
as I have noted
Examples:
•
•
In brief, a modern city with a high quality of life.
As has been noted before, the passage of legislation is one thing and its application and
enforcement is another.
Linking Words to Emphasize
Definitely
Extremely
Obviously
In fact
Indeed
In any case
Absolutely
Positively
Naturally
Surprisingly
Always
Forever
Perennially
Eternally
Never
Emphatically
Unquestionably
Without a doubt
Certainly
Undeniably
Without a reservation
Examples
• Indeed, this is an historic moment you are presiding over.
• In fact, most of the islands cannot rely on their domestic market.
•
This is unquestionably a very positive result and even better than expected
Cohesion is therefore related to ensuring that the words and sentences you use stick
together. Good cohesion is achieved through the following five main methods, each of
which is described in more detail below:
*repeated words/ideas
*reference words
*transition signals
*substitution
*ellipsis
5
Repeated words/ideas
One way to achieve cohesion is to repeat words, or to repeat ideas using
different words (synonyms). Study the following example. Repeated words (or
synonyms) are shown in bold.
Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that
your writing coheres or 'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to
follow the main ideas in your essay or report. You can achieve good cohesion by paying
attention to five important features. The first of these is repeated words. The second
key feature is reference words. The third one is transition signals. The fourth is
substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.
In this example, the word cohesion is used several times, including as a verb
(coheres). It is important, in academic writing, to avoid too much repetition, so using
different word forms or synonyms is common. The word writing is also used several
times, including the phrase essay or report, which is a synonym for writing. The words
important features are also repeated, again using synonyms: key feature, important
aspect.
Reference words
Reference words are words which are used to refer to something which is
mentioned elsewhere in the text, usually in a preceding sentence. The most common
type is pronouns, such as 'it' or 'this' or 'these'. Study the previous example again. This
time, the reference words are shown in bold.
Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that
your writing coheres or 'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to
follow the main ideas in your essay or report. You can achieve good cohesion by paying
attention to five important features. The first of these is repeated words. The second
key feature is reference words. The third one is transition signals. The fourth is
substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.
The words it, which and these are reference words. The first two of these, it and
which, both refer to 'cohesion' used in the preceding sentence. The final example,
these, refers to 'important features', again used in the sentence that precedes it.
Transition signals
Transition signals, also called cohesive devices or linking words, are words or
phrases which show the relationship between ideas. There are many different types,
the most common of which are explained in the next section on transition signals.
Some examples of transition signals are:
•
•
•
•
for example - used to give examples
in contrast - used to show a contrasting or opposite idea
first - used to show the first item in a list
as a result - used to show a result or effect
Study the previous example again. This time, the transition signals are shown in
bold. Here the transition signals simply give a list, relating to the five important
features: first, second, third, fourth, and final.
Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that your
6
writing coheres or 'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to follow
the main ideas in your essay or report. You can achieve good cohesion by paying
attention to five important features. The first of these is repeated words. The second
key feature is reference words. The third one is transition signals. The fourth is
substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.
Substitution means using one or more words to replace (substitute) for one or more
words used earlier in the text. Grammatically, it is similar to reference words, the main
difference being that substitution is usually limited to the clause which follows the
word(s) being substituted, whereas reference words can refer to something far back in
the text. The most common words used for substitution are one, so, and auxiliary verbs
such as do, have and be. The following is an example.
Drinking alcohol before driving is illegal in many countries, since doing so can
seriously impair one's ability to drive safely.
In this sentence, the phrase 'doing so' substitutes for the phrase 'drinking
alcohol before driving' which appears at the beginning of the sentence.
Below is the example used throughout this section. There is just one example
of substitution: the word one, which substitutes for the phrase 'important features'.
Ellipsis means leaving out one or more words, because the meaning is clear
from the context. Ellipsis is sometimes called substitution by zero, s ince essentially
one or more words are substituted with no word taking their place.
Below is the example passage again. There is one example of ellipsis: the phrase
'The fourth is', which means 'The fourth [important feature] is', so the words
'important feature' have been omitted.
Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that
your writing coheres or 'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to
follow the main ideas in your essay or report. You can achieve good cohesion by
paying attention to five important features. The first of these is repeated words. The
second key feature is reference words. The third one is transition signals. The fourth
is substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.
Coherence in Writing
Coherence refers to the “rhetorical” aspects of your writing, which include
developing and supporting your argument, synthesizing and integrating readings,
organizing and clarifying ideas.
Coherence in writing is the logical bridge between words, sentences, and
paragraphs. Coherent writing uses devices to connect ideas within each sentence and
paragraph. Main ideas and meaning can be difficult for the reader to follow if the
writing lacks coherence.
Coherence, in contrast with cohesion, relates to the organization and
7
connection of ideas and whether they can be understood by the reader, and as such is
concerned with the macro level features of a text, such as topic sentences, thesis
statement, the summary in the concluding paragraph (dealt with in the essay
structure section), and other 'bigger' features including headings such as those used
in reports.
Coherence can be improved by using an outline before writing (or a reverse
outline, which is an outline written after the writing is finished), to check that the
ideas are logical and well organized. Asking a peer to check the writing to see if it
makes sense, i.e. peer feedback, is another way to help improve coherence in your
writing.
Coherence Between Words
Between each word, coherence can be created by parallelism. Parallel structure
means using similar grammatical constructions between words in sentences.
Parallelism is particularly important for words in lists. If you're writing a list of things
someone likes to do, then each activity in the list should take the same grammatical
form. For instance, if one verb in the list takes on the '-ing' gerund form, like 'running,'
then the other verbs in the list should also be in the gerund form. An incoherent
structure would be to say:
Sarah likes to jump, running, and skate. Instead,
the list should be parallel like this: Sarah likes
jumping, running, and skating.
Coherence Between Sentences
Coherence can be created between sentences through repetition and
transitional devices. Repetition of words across sentences helps to reiterate the same
ideas between sentences. One way to use repetition to create coherence is to repeat
the same word or phrase at the end of one sentence and the beginning of the next
sentence to show how the ideas connect. Here is an example of sentences that create
coherence through repetition:
The most important part of an essay is the thesis statement. The thesis
statement introduces the argument of the essay. The thesis statement also helps to
create a structure for the essay.
In this example, the repetition of the phrase 'thesis statement' helps to unify
the three sentences. It is a phrase that ends the first sentence and transitions into the
next sentence by starting with that same phrase.
Another way to create coherence between sentences is through transitional
devices. There are many types of transitional devices that show time and help ideas
flow smoothly. Transitional words, such as 'first', 'later', and 'then', are a few examples
of transitional devices that show time to help ideas flow more smoothly. Transitional
devices are like signposts that tell the reader what is coming up ahead and where
8
the discussion is going.
Coherence Between Paragraphs
Transitional words can also be used between paragraphs. Words such as: Therefore
However
Yet Thus
First
Later
Then
Other ways to create coherence between paragraphs include having a
consistent paragraph structure and point of view.
The structure of a coherent paragraph includes a topic sentence, which focuses
on the main idea. The topic sentence usually comes first in a paragraph. The topic
sentence is followed by supporting sentences that develop the idea, and finally, a
concluding sentence to tie it all together.
Transitional words then bridge the gap between paragraphs, and the structure starts
anew with another topic sentence for the next paragraph.
Finally, consistent point of view is a way to create coherence between
paragraphs. Point of view is the narrator's position in telling the story. The types of
point of view in writing are:
Four Points of View for Writing First
Person
The first person point of view is told from one of the character's points
of view, typically the protagonist. The story will use pronouns like "I" and "we"
throughout to indicate the narrator's involvement in the book's events. This narrative
point of view is often used in fiction to help draw the reader into the text. Since the
reader is aware of the narrator's unvoiced feelings and thought processes, it can make
him feel like he's taking part in the story himself. First person point of view is also
used in many autobiographies, as the author is retelling the stories of her own life.
Second Person
The second person point of view is the most rarely used because it's very
difficult to maintain throughout a longer story. This point of view uses "you" to
address another person. While this method can be useful in instructional essays, it
can easily confuse readers in fiction and nonfiction pieces. Occasionally, fiction
writers have used the second person point of view to allow a story's narrator to
directly address his younger self.
Third Person
Third person point of view involves a narrator relaying the characters' stories
through the use of pronouns such as "he," "she" or "they." This point of view is used
in both fiction and nonfiction writing, and is also the standard for formal essays and
9
academic works. It is the most flexible and widely used point of view and adds a sense
of objectivity to the work as the events or facts unfold on their own.
Alternating Points of View
While most authors choose one point of view and stick with it throughout the
entire work, a small number choose to tell their stories through alternating points of
view. This approach is often used in fiction -- a first person and third person pairing
is especially common. For example, a narrator may tell the bulk of a story, then the
point of view may switch to the first person to help the reader better understand the
feelings of the protagonist.
10
English 10
Quarter 3- Module 2: Enhancing Speaking Skills Through a Toast Speech
Whether at a company party, family celebration, or just a night out with friends, chances
are you’ll be hearing a toast on holidays. Toast might not seem like a big deal, but they are
important rituals of connection that bring us together. In English class, we can use toasts to
practice and enhance speaking skills.
How to Give an Awesome Toast:
A. The Hook
People decide if they like your toast within the first seven seconds. If you don’t hook
your audience immediately, you will lose them.
The biggest mistake toasters make is: Starting with “I,” “me” or “my.”The hook is
a one- to three-line description of the toastee. It should be juicy, funny, or mysterious. This is
the first line of your speech.
Example:
Tonight you will learn why Spencer always was called “Mini-Mom.” She carries
snacks in her purse, has a first aid kit on hand at all times, and is extremely good at letting
you know when you broke a rule.
The best story I have about Spencer starts with an outdoor toilet. I knew we would be
best friends when she was the only person waiting in line at the concert Porta Potties who
would give me some of her extra toilet paper. THAT is the definition of true sharing—Mrs.
Jones you taught her well.
B. The Background
Give the audience some background on why you’re giving a toast in the first place.
However, there is a right and wrong way to give background.
DO
Punch up the context.
Keep it short.
Cue up a story to come later.
DON’T
Don’t waste the opportunity for a
good joke.
Don’t skim over the delicious details.
Don’t make it sound like everyone
else’s.
Example:
Spencer and I have worked together for the last five years and, as you will learn, she is
also the sole reason I was kicked off the office softball team. But first, let me tell you a less
embarrassing story…
C. 1-2-3 Punch
After your hook and a brief background, you are ready for 1, 2, or 3 stories depending
on how much time you have been allotted. Rule of thumb:
•
•
•
Under 2 minutes: Hook, Background, 1 Story, Clink
2-5 minutes: Hook, Background, 2 Stories, Clink
Over 5 minutes: Hook, Background, 3 Stories, Clink
The stories you pick are key to giving a killer toast. The perfect story has the following
elements:
• Someone is a little embarrassed. It can be you, the toastee, or a mutual friend.
11
But you want the audience to cringe just a little.
•
•
•
•
Strong sensory elements. A smelly frat house, a drippy burrito, a sticky car
seat—the more your audience can picture (and smell and taste) your story, the
more they will be captivated.
Reference audience members. As much as possible reference and call out people
in the audience. It will get you easy laughs and keep people engaged.
A punch line. Your story has to end on a funny line, a shocking tidbit, or an ahhshucks gush. You want the audience to be either laughing, shaking their heads
and saying ‘oh no,’.
A tie-in. The easiest way to do this is to either warn them to look out for a
behavior during the event (If you see Spencer run up to the buffet, you’ll know
why!)
D. The Clink
It’s your opportunity to offer well wishes, thanks, and gratitude toward the
toastee and anyone else in the room. Specifically:
•
•
•
Thank the hosts.
Offer good wishes or congratulations.
Bring in the audience to make those thanks and wishes with you.
Toast Quick Tips you should keep in mind:
• When in doubt, ask permission: If you are worried a joke is too embarrassing or
inappropriate, then ask a friend or ask the toastee Better safe than sorry.
• Never curse. Ever. There will be kids. There will be a conservative grandmother. Just
don’t.
• Bring a glass. At the end of your toast, you will want to make a toast. Don’t forget to
bring up a glass (and practice holding one while you deliver).
Most importantly, remember that your toast is an act of love. The greatest gift you can give
another human being is sharing your love for them in public. It honors them, it honors your
relationship, and it shows others you are proud to have them in your life. So don’t just have an
okay toast, have an awesome one.
What else do you need to consider in delivering toasts or other speeches?
A. Use Appropriate Language
By appropriate, we mean whether the language is suitable or fitting for ourselves, as the
speaker; our audience; the speaking context; and the speech itself.
✓ Appropriate for the Speaker
The language you select should be suitable for you, not someone else. If you’re a firstyear college student, there’s no need to force yourself to sound like an astrophysicist even
if you are giving a speech on new planets. One of thebiggest mistakes novice speakers make
is thinking that they have to use million-dollar words because it makes them sound
smarter. Actually, million-dollar words don’t tend to function well in oral communication
to begin with, so using them will probably make you uncomfortable as a speaker.
✓ Appropriate for the Audience
Let’s say that you’re an engineering student. If you’re giving a presentation in an
engineering class, you can use language that other engineering students will know. On the
other hand, if you use that engineering vocabulary in a public speaking class, many audience
members will not understand you. Audience analysis is a key factor in choosing the language
to use in a speech.
12
✓ Appropriate for the Context
The language you may employ if you’re addressing a student assembly in a high school
auditorium will differ from the language you would use at a business meeting in a hotel
ballroom. If you’re giving a speech at an outdoor rally, you cannot use the same
language you would use in a classroom. Recall that the speaking context includes the
occasion, the time of day, the mood of the audience, and other factors in addition to the
physical location
✓ Appropriate for the Topic
Appropriateness of language involves whether the language is appropriate for your specific
topic. For example, if your speech topic is the dual residence model of string theory, it makes
sense to expect that you will use more sophisticated language than if your topic was a basic
introduction to the physics of, say, sound or light waves.
B. Use Vivid Language
Good vivid language usage helps an audience member truly understand and imagine
what a speaker is saying. Two common ways to make your speaking more vivid are through the
use of imagery and rhythm.
Imagery
The goal of imagery is to help an audience member create a mental picture of what a
speaker is saying. A speaker who uses imagery successfully will tap into one or more of the
audience’s five basic senses (hearing, taste, touch, smell, and sight). Three common tools
of imagery are concreteness, simile, and metaphor.
1. Concreteness
Imagine you’ve decided to give a speech on the importance of freedom. Instead
of defining what the term mean, you could use real examples where people’s freedom
to think or freedom to behave has been stifled. Ultimately, the goal
of concreteness is to show an audience something instead of talking about it abstractly.
2. Simile
Speakers use similes to help an audience understand a specific characteristic being described
within the speech.
-The thunderous applause was like a party among the gods.
-After the revelation, she was as angry as a raccoon caught in a cage.
You can always alter the image to make it stronger or weaker depending on what your
aim is.
3. Metaphor
In the case of a metaphor, one of the comparison items is said to be the other
(even though this is realistically not possible).
Example:
Love is a battlefield.
It is understood that the speaker does not mean the comparison literally.
Rhythm
Rhythm refers to the patterned, recurring variance of elements of sound or speech. Think
about your favorite public speaker. If you analyze his or her speaking pattern, you’ll notice
13
that there is a certain cadence to the speech. While much of this cadence is a result of the
nonverbal components of speaking, some of the cadence comes from the language that is
chosen as well. Let’s examine four types of rhythmic language: parallelism, repetition,
alliteration, and assonance.
✓ Parallelism
For example, look at the following two examples and determine which one sounds better
to you:
“Give me liberty or I’d rather die.”
“Give me liberty or give me death.”
Technically, you’re saying the same thing in both, but the second one has better
rhythm, and this rhythm comes from the parallel construction of “give me.” The lack
of parallelism in the first example makes the sentence sound disjointed and ineffective.
✓ Repetition
Repetition as a linguistic device is designed to help audiences become familiar with a short
piece of the speech as they hear it over and over again. By repeating a phrase during a speech,
you create a specific rhythm. Probably the most famous and memorable use of repetition
within a speech is Martin Luther King Jr.’s use of
“I have a dream” in his speech at the Lincoln Memorial on August 1963 during the March
on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. In that speech, Martin Luther King Jr. repeated the
phrase “I have a dream” eight times to great effect.
✓ Alliteration
Another type of rhythmic language is alliteration, or repeating two or more words in a series
that begin with the same consonant. There are two basic types of alliteration:
Immediate juxtaposition occurs when the consonants clearly follow one after the other—as
we see in the Harry Potter example.
Non-immediate juxtaposition occurs when the consonants are repeated in
nonadjacent words (e.g., “It is the poison that we must purge from our politics, the
wall that we must tear down before the hour grows too late”) (Obama, 2008).
✓ Assonance
Assonance gets its rhythm from repeating the same vowel sounds with different
consonants in the stressed syllables. Rhymes like “free as a breeze,” “mad as a hatter,”
and “no pain, no gain” are examples of assonance, speakers should be wary of relying
on assonance because when it is overused it can quickly turn into bad poetry.
C. Use Inclusive Language
Inclusive language is language that avoids placing any one group of people above or below
other groups while speaking. Let’s look at some common problem areas related to language
about gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and disabilities.
✓ Gender-Specific Language
The first common form of noninclusive language is language that privileges one of the
sexes over the other. There are three common problem areas that speakers run into while
speaking: using “he” as generic, using “man” to mean all humans, and gender typing
jobs.
➢ Generic “He”
14
The generic “he” happens when a speaker labels all people within a group as “he” when in
reality there is a mixed sex group involved. Consider the statement, “Every morning when
an officer of the law puts on his badge, he risks his life to serve and protect his fellow citizens.” In this
case, we have a police officer that is labeled
as male four different times in one sentence. Obviously, both male and female
police officers risk their lives when they put on their badges. A better way to word the sentence
would be, “Every morning when officers of the law put on their badges, they risk their lives to serve
and protect their fellow citizens.” Notice that in the better sentence, we made the subject
plural (“officers”) and used neutral pronouns
(“they” and “their”) to avoid the generic “he.”
➢ Use of “Man”
In the second half of the twentieth century, society became more aware of gender bias
in language. For example, instead of using the word “man,” you could refer to the “human
race.” Instead of saying, “hey, guys,” you could say, “OK, everyone.” By using gender-fair
language you will be able to convey your meaning just as well, and you won’t risk alienating
half of your audience.
✓ Gender-Typed Jobs
Speakers sometimes also use a gender-specific pronoun to refer to an occupation that has
both males and females.
✓ Ethnic Identity
Ethnic identity refers to a group an individual identifies with based on a common culture.
For example, within the United States we have numerous ethnic groups, including Italian
Americans, Irish Americans, Japanese Americans, Vietnamese Americans, Cuban Americans,
and Mexican Americans. As with the
earlier example of “male nurse,” avoid statements such as “The committee is made up
of four women and a Vietnamese man.” Instead, say, “The committee is made up of
four women and a man”.The best thing you can do is ask a couple of people who belong
to an ethnic group how they prefer to label themselves.
✓ Sexual Orientation
Another area that can cause some problems is referred to as heterosexism. Heterosexism
occurs when a speaker presumes that everyone in an audience is heterosexual or that oppositesex relationships are the only norm. Others prefer for more gender neutral terms like “spouse”
and “partner.”
✓ Disability
The last category of exclusive versus inclusive language that causes problems for some
speakers relates to individuals with physical or mental disabilities.
Exclusive Language
Inclusive Language
15
Handicapped People
People with disabilities
Insane Person
Person with a psychiatric disability (or label the
psychiatric diagnosis, e.g. “person with
schizophrenia”)
Person in a
wheelchair
Person who uses a wheelchair
Exclusive
Language
Inclusive Language
Crippled
Person with a physical disability
Special
needs
program
Accessible needs program
Mentally
retarded
Person with an intellectual disability
English
Quarter 3- Module 3: Experiencing the Power of Nature
16
Directions: Read the following short story written by Jack London, a famous naturalist
around the turn of the 20 th century.
To Build a Fire
The man walked down the trail on a cold, gray day. Pure white snow and ice
covered the Earth for as far as he could see. This was his first winter in Alaska. He was
wearing heavy clothes and fur boots. But he still felt cold and uncomfortable.
The man was on his way to a camp near Henderson Creek. His friends were
already there. He expected to reach Henderson Creek by six o’clock that evening. It
would be dark by then. His friends would have a fire and hot food ready for him.
A dog walked behind the man. It was a big gray animal, half dog and half wolf. The
dog did not like the extreme cold. It knew the weather was too cold to travel.
The man continued to walk down the trail. He came to a frozen stream called
Indian Creek. He began to walk on the snow-covered ice. It was a trail that would
lead him straight to Henderson Creek and his friends.
As he walked, he looked carefully at the ice in front of him. Once, he stopped suddenly,
and then walked around a part of the frozen stream. He saw that an underground
spring flowed under the ice at that spot. It made the ice thin. If he stepped there, he
might break through the ice into a pool of water. To get his boots wet in such cold
weather might kill him. His feet would turn to ice quickly. He could freeze to death.
At about twelve o’clock, the man decided to stop to eat his lunch. He took off
17
the glove on his right hand. He opened his jacket and shirt, and pulled out his bread
and meat. This took less than twenty seconds. Yet, his fingers began to freeze.
He hit his hand against his leg several times until he felt a sharp pain. Then
he quickly put his glove on his hand. He made a fire, beginning with small pieces of
wood and adding larger ones. He sat on a snow-covered log and ate his lunch. He
enjoyed the warm fire for a few minutes. Then he stood up and started walking on
the frozen stream again.
A half hour later, it happened. At a place where the snow seemed very solid, the
ice broke. The man’s feet sank into the water. It was not deep, but his legs got wet to
the knees. The man was angry. The accident would delay his
arrival at the camp. He would have to build a fire now to dry his clothes and boots.
He walked over to some small trees. They were covered with snow. In their
branches were pieces of dry grass and wood left by flood waters earlier in the year. He
put several large pieces of wood on the snow, under one of the trees. On top of the
wood, he put some grass and dry branches. He pulled off his gloves, took out his
matches, and lighted the fire. He fed the young flame with more wood. As the fire grew
stronger, he gave it larger pieces of wood.
He worked slowly and carefully. At sixty degrees below zero, a man with wet
feet must not fail in his first attempt to build a fire. While he was walking, his blood
had kept all parts of his body warm. Now that he had stopped, cold was forcing his
blood to withdraw deeper into his body. His wet feet had frozen. He could not feel his
fingers. His nose was frozen, too. The skin all over his body felt cold.
Now, however, his fire was beginning to burn more strongly. He was safe. He
sat under the tree and thought of the old men in Fairbanks. The old men had told
him that no man should travel alone in the Yukon when the temperature is sixty
degrees below zero. Yet here he was. He had had an accident. He was alone. And he
had saved himself. He had built a fire.
Those old men were weak, he thought. A real man could travel alone. If a man stayed
calm, he would be all right. The man’s boots were covered with ice. The strings on his
boots were as hard as steel. He would have to cut them with his knife.
He leaned back against the tree to take out his knife. Suddenly, without
warning, a heavy mass of snow dropped down. His movement had shaken the young
tree only a tiny bit. But it was enough to cause the branches of the tree to drop their
heavy load. The man was shocked. He sat and looked at the place where the fire had
been.
The old men had been right, he thought. If he had another man with him, he
would not be in any danger now. The other man could build the fire. Well, it was up
to him to build the fire again. This time, he must not fail.
The man collected more wood. He reached into his pocket for the matches. But his
fingers were frozen. He could not hold them. He began to hit his hands with all his
force against his legs.
After a while, feeling came back to his fingers. The man reached again into his
pocket for the matches. But the tremendous cold quickly drove the life out of his
fingers. All the matches fell onto the snow. He tried to pick one up, but failed.
The man pulled on his glove and again beat his hand against his leg. Then he
took the gloves off both hands and picked up all the matches. He gathered them
together. Holding them with both hands, he scratched the matches along his leg. They
18
immediately caught fire.
He held the blazing matches to a piece of wood. After a while, he became aware
that he could smell his hands burning. Then he began to feel the pain. He opened
his hands, and the blazing matches fell on to the snow. The flame
went out in a puff of gray smoke.
The man looked up. The dog was still watching him. The man got an idea. He
would kill the dog and bury his hands inside its warm body. When the feeling came
back to his fingers, he could build another fire. He called to the dog. The dog heard
danger in the man’s voice. It backed away.
The man called again. This time the dog came closer. The man reached for his
knife. But he had forgotten that he could not bend his fingers. He could not kill the
dog, because he could not hold his knife.
The fear of death came over the man. He jumped up and began to run. The
running began to make him feel better. Maybe running would make his feet warm. If
he ran far enough, he would reach his friends at Henderson Creek. They would take
care of him.
It felt strange to run and not feel his feet when they hit the ground. He fell
several times. He decided to rest a while. As he lay in the snow, he noticed that he was
not shaking. He could not feel his nose or fingers or feet. Yet, he was feeling qu ite
warm and comfortable. He realized he was going to die.
Well, he decided, he might as well take it like a man. There were worse ways to die.
The man closed his eyes and floated into the most comfortable sleep he had
ever known.
The dog sat facing him, waiting. Finally, the dog moved closer to the man and
caught the smell of death. The animal threw back its head. It let out a long, soft cry to
the cold stars in the black sky.
And then it tuned and ran toward Henderson Creek…where it knew there was
food and a fire.
Sources: http://www.manythings.org/voa/stories/To_Build_a_Fire__By_Jack_London.html
After learning about the author and having read the story, you can easily
identify the relevance between the historical background of the author and his written
work entitled “To Build a Fire”.
Historical context is an important part of life and literature, and without it,
memories, stories, and characters have less meaning. It refers to social, religious,
economic, and political conditions that existed during a certain time and place.
Basically, it’s all the details of the time and place in which a situation occurs, and those
details enable us to interpret and analyze works or events of the past, or even the
future, rather than merely judge them by contemporary standards.
“To Build a Fire” is a story that reflects the character of Americans and shows
their strengths and weaknesses. Americans are known to be independent,
19
adventurous, courageous, and full of endurance. This story is all about an unnamed man
who had a disastrous trek across the Yukon Territory near Alaska. He was accompanied by
a dog and he was struggling to save himself from freezing to death.
The story took place in the Klondlike region of Canada during the “gold rush”, it was
winter in the far north where temperatures can fall to minus seventy- five degrees
Fahrenheit and the sun does not rise for days, which the author had his own experience
traveling across the harsh, frozen terrain of Alaska and Canada in 1987-1998.
The story shows the exact time and place of the historical events in the
story.
Directions: Use the short story To Build a Fire by Jack London to answer the following
questions.
Step 1: Character Analysis
1. Write a brief (one solid paragraph) character analysis of “the man”. Here are a
few questions you may want to ask yourself when writing your analysis (please
don’t feel limited by these questions; they are merely suggestions):
2. How would you describe the man in London’s story?
3. How does the man behave in relation to his environment?
4. How is the relationship between the man and the dog discussed at first?
5. What did the dog instinctively understand that the man did not?
6. How do the man and the dog’s relationship symbolize the man’s
relationship to his environment?
Step 2: Setting
1. How would you describe the setting in this opening paragraph? How does it make
you feel as a reader?
2. What is the main conflict of the story? How does the setting create conflict?
3. Why do you think the author chose this setting? Would the story be as effective in
another setting? Why or why not?
Step 3: Conclusion
1. What is the significance of the dog’s final movement towards civilization at the end
of the story? What does this suggest about the dog’s relationship to nature? Is instinct
driving this movement?
2. If you were the author, how would you end the story?
Step 4: Discussion
Discuss and relate the social conditions during that time to show how the story was
written. Identify the possible reasons why the author wrote the story by doing these:
a. Make a timeline showing Realism and Naturalism as literary periods in the 19th to
20th centuries. Give particular events that led to these historical phenomena.
20
b. Go back in time and check whether there were situations similar to what’s happening
now in our society. Discuss this in paragraphs. Make sure to highlight the important
events/periods.
c. Make a connection between the story and what’s happening now in our country by
composing a song. Make it short but meaningful.
d. Imagine that you are in a time machine. Compare and contrast what will happen in
the future if the problems we are experiencing now will prevails or change. Prepare a
simple illustration on a bond paper.
English
Quarter 3- Module 4: Recognizing the Gift of Nature
Elements of a Short Story
PLOT
The plot is how the author arranges events to develop his basic idea; It is
the sequence of events in a story or play. The plot is a planned, logical series of events having a
beginning, middle, and end. The short story usually has one plot so it can be read in one sitting. There
are five essential parts of plot:
1. Introduction - The beginning of the story where the characters and the setting is revealed.
2. Rising Action - This is where the events in the story become complicated and the conflict in
the story is revealed (events between the introduction and climax).
3. Climax - This is the highest point of interest and the turning point of the story. The reader
wonders what will happen next; will the conflict be resolved or not?
4. Falling action - The events and complications begin to resolve themselves. The reader knows
what has happened next and if the conflict was resolved or not (events between climax and
denouement).
5. Denouement - This is the final outcome or untangling of events in the story.
It is helpful to consider climax as a three-fold phenomenon:
a. the main character receives new information
b. accepts this information (realizes it but does not necessarily agree with it)
c. acts on this information (makes a choice that will determine whether he/she gains his
objective).
POINT OF VIEW
Point of view, or p.o.v., is defined as the angle from which the story is told.
1) Innocent Eye - The story is told through the eyes of a child (his/her judgment being different
from that of an adult).
2) Stream of Consciousness - The story is told so that the reader feels as if they are inside the
head of one character and knows all their thoughts and reactions.
3) First Person - The story is told by the protagonist or one of the characters who interacts closely
with the protagonist or other characters (using pronouns I, me, we, etc). The reader sees the
story through this person's eyes as he/she experiences it and only knows what he/she knows or
feels.
4) Omniscient- The author can narrate the story using the omniscient point of view. He can move
from character to character, event to event, having free access to the thoughts, feelings and
motivations of his characters and he introduces information where and when he chooses.
There are two main types of omniscient point of view:
5) Omniscient Limited - The author tells the story in third person (using pronouns they, she,
21
he, it, etc). We know only what the character knows and what the author allows him/her to tell
us. We can see the thoughts and feelings of characters if the author chooses to reveal them to us.
6) Omniscient Objective – The author tells the story in the third person. It appears as though a
camera is following the characters, going anywhere, and recording only what is seen and heard.
There is no comment on the characters or their thoughts. No interpretations are offered. The
reader is placed in the position of spectator without the author there to explain. The reader has
to interpret events on his own.
CHARACTER
There are two meanings for the word character:
1. Persons in a work of fiction. Short stories use few characters. One character is clearly
central to the story with all major events having some importance to this character- he/she is
the protagonist. The opposer of the main character is called the antagonist.
2. The Characteristics of a Person. In order for a story to seem real to the reader its characters
must seem real. Characterization is the information the author gives the reader about the
characters themselves. The author may reveal a character in several ways:
his/her physical appearance
what he/she says, thinks, feels and dreams what he/she
does or does not do
what others say about him/her and how others react to him/her Characters are
convincing if they are: consistent, motivated, and
life-like (resemble real people)
Characters are...
Individual - round, many sided and complex personalities.
Developing - dynamic, many sided personalities that change, for better or worse, by the end
of the story.
Static - Stereotype, have one or two characteristics that never change and are emphasized e.g.
brilliant detective, drunk, scrooge, cruel stepmother, etc.
SETTING
The time and location in which a story takes place is called the setting. For some stories the
setting is very important, while for others it is not. There are several aspects of a story's setting to
consider when examining how setting contributes to a story (some, or all, may be present in a story):
1.
2.
3.
4.
Place - geographical location. Where is the action of the story taking place?
Time - When is the story taking place? (Historical period, time of day, year, etc.)
Weather conditions - Is it rainy, sunny, stormy, etc.?
Social conditions - What is the daily life of the characters like? Does the story contain local
color (writing that focuses on the speech, dress, mannerisms, customs, etc. of a particular
place)?
5. Mood or atmosphere - What feeling is created at the beginning of the story? Is it bright
and cheerful or dark and frightening?
CONFLICT
Conflict is essential to plot. Without conflict there is no plot. It is the opposition of forces which
ties one incident to another and makes the plot move. Conflict is not merely limited to open arguments,
rather it is any form of opposition that faces the main character. Within a short story there may be only
one central struggle, or there may be one dominant struggle with many minor ones.
There are two types of conflict:
1. External - A struggle with a force outside one's self.
2. Internal - A struggle within one's self; a person must make some decision, overcome
pain, quiet their temper, resist an urge, etc.
There are four kinds of conflict:
22
1. Man vs. Man (physical) - The leading character struggles with his physical strength against
other men, forces of nature, or animals.
2. Man vs. Circumstances (classical) - The leading character struggles against fate, or the
circumstances of life facing him/her.
3. Man vs. Society (social) - The leading character struggles against ideas, practices, or
customs of other people.
4. Man vs. Himself / Herself (psychological) - The leading character struggles with
himself/herself; with his/her own soul, ideas of right or wrong, physical limitations, choices, etc.
THEME
The theme in a piece of fiction is its controlling idea or its central insight. It is the author's
underlying meaning or main idea that he is trying to convey. The theme may be the author's thoughts
about a topic or view of human nature. The title of the short story usually points to what the writer is
saying and he may use various figures of speech to emphasize his theme, such as: symbol, allusion,
simile, metaphor, hyperbole, or irony.
Some simple examples of common themes from literature, TV, and film are: Things are not
always as they appear to be.
Love is blind. Believe in
yourself.
People are afraid of change. Don't judge a
book by its cover.
What is theme?
The theme is the controlling idea. It is the life lesson to be learned from the story. The big idea
of the author’s message.
In order to discover the theme you need to look at:
a. What a character learns/discovers (characters’ actions)
b. Conflict in the story
c. Series of events that take place (plot)
All these elements of a story affect the theme
So how do the elements of the story affect the theme?
- If the conflict of a given story was a change then the story would take a different path
- Therefore, it would change the actions of the characters, which at the same time could change
the plant
Since the theme is the main idea, topic plus the message the author is trying to convey; all the
changes precisely mentioned will directly alter the theme of that story.
Directions: Read the selection and do the activity below by identifying the elements of the fiction story.
A Day in the Country
by Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (1860-1904)
Between eight and nine o'clock in the morning.
A dark leaden-coloured mass is creeping over the sky towards the sun. Red zigzags of lightning gleam
here and there across it. There is a sound of far-away rumbling. A warm wind frolics over the grass,
bends the trees, and stirs up the dust. In a minute there will be a spurt of May rain and a real storm will
begin.
Fyokla, a little beggar-girl of six, is running through the village, looking for Terenty the cobbler. The
white-haired, barefoot child is pale. Her eyes are wide- open, her lips are trembling.
"Uncle, where is Terenty?" she asks every one she meets. No one answers. They are all preoccupied with
23
the approaching storm and take refuge in their huts. At last she meets Silanty Silitch, the sacristan,
Terenty's bosom friend. He is coming along, staggering from the wind.
"Uncle, where is Terenty?"
"At the kitchen-gardens," answers Silanty.
The beggar-girl runs behind the huts to the kitchen-gardens and there finds Terenty; the tall old man
with a thin, pock-marked face, very long legs, and bare feet, dressed in a woman's tattered jacket, is
standing near the vegetable plots, looking with drowsy, drunken eyes at the dark storm-cloud. On his
long crane-like legs he sways in the wind like a starling-cote.
"Uncle Terenty!" the white-headed beggar-girl addresses him. "Uncle, darling!"
Terenty bends down to Fyokla, and his grim, drunken face is overspread with a smile, such as come
into people's faces when they look at something little, foolish, and absurd, but warmly loved.
"Ah! servant of God, Fyokla," he says, lisping tenderly, "where have you come from?"
"Uncle Terenty," says Fyokla, with a sob, tugging at the lapel of the cobbler's coat. "Brother Danilka has
had an accident! Come along!"
"What sort of accident? Ough, what thunder! Holy, holy, holy…. What sort of accident?"
"In the count's copse Danilka stuck his hand into a hole in a tree, and he can't get it out. Come along,
uncle, do be kind and pull his hand out!"
"How was it he put his hand in? What for?"
"He wanted to get a cuckoo's egg out of the hole for me."
"The day has hardly begun and already you are in trouble…."Terenty shook his head and spat
deliberately. "Well, what am I to do with you now? I must come… I must, may the wolf gobble you up,
you naughty children! Come, little orphan!" Terenty comes out of the kitchen-garden and, lifting high
his long legs, begins striding down the village street. He walks quickly without stopping or looking from
side to side, as though he were shoved from behind or afraid of pursuit. Fyokla can hardly keep up with
him.
They come out of the village and turn along the dusty road towards the count's copse that lies dark blue
in the distance. It is about a mile and a half away. The clouds have by now covered the sun, and soon
afterwards there is not a speck of blue left in the sky. It grows dark.
"Holy, holy, holy…" whispers Fyokla, hurrying after Terenty. The first rain- drops, big and heavy, lie,
dark dots on the dusty road. A big drop falls on Fyokla's cheek and glides like a tear down her chin.
"The rain has begun," mutters the cobbler, kicking up the dust with his bare, bony feet. "That's fine,
Fyokla, old girl. The grass and the trees are fed by the rain, as we are by bread. And as for the thunder,
don't you be frightened, little orphan. Why should it kill a little thing like you?"
As soon as the rain begins, the wind drops. The only sound is the patter of rain dropping like fine shot
on the young rye and the parched road.
"We shall get soaked, Fyokla," mutters Terenty. "There won't be a dry spot left on us….Ho-ho, my girl!
It's run down my neck! But don't be frightened, silly….The grass will be dry again, the earth will be dry
again, and we shall be dry again. There is the same sun for us all."
A flash of lightning, some fourteen feet long, gleams above their head. There is a loud peal of thunder,
and it seems to Fyokla that something big, heavy, and round is rolling over the sky and tearing it open,
exactly over her head.
"Holy, holy, holy…" says Terenty, crossing himself. "Don't be afraid, little orphan! It is not from spite
that it thunders."
Terenty's and Fyokla's feet are covered with lumps of heavy, wet clay. It is slippery and difficult to walk,
but Terenty strides on more and more rapidly. The weak little beggar-girl is breathless and ready to
drop.
But at last they go into the count's copse. The washed trees, stirred by a gust of wind, drop a perfect
waterfall upon them. Terenty stumbles over stumps and begins to slacken his pace.
24
"Whereabouts is Danilka?" he asks. "Lead me to him."
Fyokla leads him into a thicket, and, after going a quarter of a mile, points to Danilka. Her brother, a
little fellow of eight, with hair as red as ochre and a pale sickly face, stands leaning against a tree, and,
with his head on one side, looking sideways at the sky. In one hand he holds his shabby old cap, the
other is hidden in an old lime tree. The boy is gazing at the stormy sky, and apparently not thinking of
his trouble. Hearing footsteps and seeing the cobbler he gives sickly smile and says:
"A terrible lot of thunder, Terenty….I've never heard so much thunder in all my life."
"And where is your hand?"
"In the hole….Pull it out, please, Terenty!"
The wood had broken at the edge of the hole and jammed Danilka's hand: he could push it farther in,
but could not pull it out. Terenty snaps off the broken piece, and the boy's hand, red and crushed, is
released.
"It's terrible how it's thundering," the boy says again, rubbing his hand. "What makes it thunder,
Terenty?"
"One cloud runs against the other," answers the cobbler. The party come out of the copse, and walk
along the edge of it towards the darkened road. The thunder gradually abates, and its rumbling is heard
far away beyond the village.
"The ducks flew by here the other day, Terenty," says Danilka, still rubbing his hand. "They must be
nesting in the Gniliya Zaimishtcha marshes….Fyokla, would you like me to show you a nightingale's
nest?"
"Don't touch it, you might disturb them," says Terenty, wringing the water out of his cap. "The
nightingale is a singing-bird, without sin. He has had a voice given him in his throat, to praise God and
gladden the heart of man. It's a sin to disturb him."
"What about the sparrow?"
"The sparrow doesn't matter, he's a bad, spiteful bird. He is like a pickpocket in his ways. He doesn't
like man to be happy. When Christ was crucified it was the sparrow brought nails to the Jews, and called
'alive! alive!' "
A bright patch of blue appears in the sky.
"Look!" says Terenty. "An ant-heap burst open by the rain! They've been flooded, the rogues!"
They bend over the ant-heap. The downpour has damaged it; the insects are scurrying to and fro in the
mud, agitated, and busily trying to carry away their drowned companions.
"You needn't be in such a taking, you won't die of it!" says Terenty, grinning. "As soon as the sun warms
you, you'll come to your senses again….It's a lesson to you, you stupids. You won't settle on low ground
another time."
They go on.
"And here are some bees," cries Danilka, pointing to the branch of a young oak tree.
The drenched and chilled bees are huddled together on the branch. There are so many of them that
neither bark nor leaf can be seen. Many of them are settled on one another.
"That's a swarm of bees," Terenty informs them. "They were flying looking for a home, and when the
rain came down upon them they settled. If a swarm is flying, you need only sprinkle water on them to
make them settle. Now if, say, you wanted to take the swarm, you would bend the branch with them
into a sack and shake it, and they all fall in."
Little Fyokla suddenly frowns and rubs her neck vigorously. Her brother looks at her neck, and sees a
big swelling on it.
"Hey-hey!" laughs the cobbler. "Do you know where you got that from, Fyokla, old girl? There are
Spanish flies on some tree in the wood. The rain has trickled off them, and a drop has fallen on your
neck—that's what has made the swelling."
25
The sun appears from behind the clouds and floods the wood, the fields, and the three friends with its
warm light. The dark menacing cloud has gone far away and taken the storm with it. The air is warm
and fragrant. There is a scent of bird-cherry, meadowsweet, and lilies-of-the-valley.
"That herb is given when your nose bleeds," says Terenty, pointing to a woolly- looking flower. "It does
good."
They hear a whistle and a rumble, but not such a rumble as the storm-clouds carried away. A goods
train races by before the eyes of Terenty, Danilka, and Fyokla. The engine, panting and puffing out black
smoke, drags more than twenty vans after it. Its power is tremendous. The children are interested to
know how an engine, not alive and without the help of horses, can move and drag such weights, and
Terenty undertakes to explain it to them:
"It's all the steam's doing, children…. The steam does the work…. You see, it shoves under that thing
near the wheels, and it…you see…it works…"
They cross the railway line, and, going down from the embankment, walk towards the river. They walk
not with any object, but just at random, and talk all the way…. Danilka asks questions, Terenty answers
them…
Terenty answers all his questions, and there is no secret in Nature which baffles him. He knows
everything. Thus, for example, he knows the names of all the wild flowers, animals, and stones. He
knows what herbs cure diseases, he has no difficulty in telling the age of a horse or a cow. Looking at
the sunset, at the moon, or the birds, he can tell what sort of weather it will be next day. And indeed, it
is not only Terenty who is so wise. Silanty Silitch, the innkeeper, the market-gardener, the shepherd,
and all the villagers, generally speaking, know as much as he does. These people have learned not from
books, but in the fields, in the wood, on the river bank. Their teachers have been the birds themselves,
when they sang to them, the sun when it left a glow of crimson behind it at setting, the very trees, and
wild herbs.
Danilka looks at Terenty and greedily drinks in every word. In spring, before one is weary of the warmth
and the monotonous green of the fields, when everything is fresh and full of fragrance, who would not
want to hear about the golden may-beetles, about the cranes, about the gurgling streams, and the corn
mounting into ear?
The two of them, the cobbler and the orphan, walk about the fields, talk unceasingly, and are not weary.
They could wander about the world endlessly. They walk, and in their talk of the beauty of the earth do
not notice the frail little beggar-girl tripping after them. She is breathless and moves with a lagging step.
There are tears in her eyes; she would be glad to stop these inexhaustible wanderers, but to whom and
where can she go? She has no home or people of her own; whether she likes it or not, she must walk and
listen to their talk.
Towards midday, all three sit down on the river bank. Danilka takes out of his bag a piece of bread,
soaked and reduced to a mash, and they begin to eat. Terenty says a prayer when he has eaten the bread,
then stretches himself on the sandy bank and falls asleep. While he is asleep, the boy gazes at the water,
pondering. He has many different things to think of. He has just seen the storm, the bees, the ants, the
train. Now, before his eyes, fishes are whisking about. Some are two inches long and more, others are
no bigger than one's nail. A viper, with its head held high, is swimming from one bank to the other.
Only towards the evening our wanderers return to the village. The children go for the night to a deserted
barn, where the corn of the commune used to be kept, while Terenty, leaving them, goes to the tavern.
The children lie huddled together on the straw, dozing.
The boy does not sleep. He gazes into the darkness, and it seems to him that he is seeing all that he has
seen in the day: the storm-clouds, the bright sunshine, the birds, the fish, lanky Terenty. The number
of his impressions, together with exhaustion and hunger, are too much for him; he is as hot as though
he were on fire, and tosses from side to side. He longs to tell someone all that is haunting him now in
the darkness and agitating his soul, but there is no one to tell. Fyokla is too little and could not
understand.
"I'll tell Terenty to-morrow," thinks the boy.
26
The children fall asleep thinking of the homeless cobbler, and, in the night, Terenty comes to them,
makes the sign of the cross over them, and puts bread under their heads. And no one sees his love. It is
seen only by the moon which floats in the sky and peeps caressingly through the holes in the wall of the
deserted barn.
RESPOND TO READING
Directions: Read and understand each question then answer the following.
1. Why do you think Terenty helped the orphans? What did he portray in the life of the children?
2. Explain the relevance of the following lines to your life.
3. “The grass and the trees are fed by the rain, as we are by bread. And as for the
thunder, don’t you be frightened, Little orphan.”
4. Why did Danilka say that there is no secret in nature that baffles in Terenty?
5. How does Terenty recognize the gift of nature? Give some details from the text.
English
Quarter 3 – Module 5: Argumentative Essay
Argumentative Essay
The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to
investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on
the topic in a concise manner.
It is a type of essay that presents arguments about both sides of an issue. It could be
that both sides are presented equally balanced, or it could be that one side is presented
more forcefully than the other. It all depends on the writer, and what side he supports
the most.
The general structure of an argumentative essay follows this format:
27
Introduction:
An introduction, or introductory paragraph, falls in the start of an essay. It is the
first paragraph, which is also called “a gateway” of an essay. It is because it attracts the
attention of readers to the essay and gives them background information about the topic.
It also introduces the thesis statement of the essay, which is the heart of an essay, and tells
what is to be discussed in the body paragraphs.
However, some essay writers and professors suggest that the thesis should not come
at the end, but should fall at the start of the introduction. Most of the academicians agree
that a thesis statement should fall at the end of the introduction.
Elements of an Introduction
Generally, an introduction has four integral elements which come in a sequence, one after
the other. They are as given below:
*Hook or attention grabber
*Background information
*Connect
*Thesis statement
Hook: A hook is the first sentence of an introduction. It is also called an “attention
grabber.” As the name suggests, it is intended to hook readers, or grab their attention. It
therefore must be attractive, charming, and readable to encourage readers read the entire
piece. A hook could be a good quote, a good verse, or a good incident, anecdote, or an
28
event.
Background Information: Background information takes most of the space in an
introduction. It normally comes after the hook, which is just as single sentence. However,
background information in a short essay could take three to four sentences, and more in
a long essay. Its purpose is to introduce the readers to the background of the topic, so
that they should be able to expect what is to come next and then read it.
Connect: This is just a short sentence which connects the background information with the
thesis statement. It is often missed in short essays, where background information is
directly connected with the thesis statement. However, in longer essays, it is a short
sentence that starts with a transition, and connects the background information with the
thesis statement. Its purpose is to let the readers connect with the major themes of the
essay.
Thesis Statement: This element comes directly after the connect, and is often called the
heart, core, or central point of the essay. Without a thesis statement, an essay cannot be
called a good essay, as it misses its thesis or central point of argument. In a five-paragraph
essay, the thesis statement should comprise a single sentence, with three points of
evidence that are discussed in body paragraphs. However, in longer essays, it could be
longer. It could be two or three sentences, with each sentence having two or three
evidences
and
a
counterargument.
Body Paragraph:
Body paragraphs that include evidential support (Evidential support whether
factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).
Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will
allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates
an ease of readability for one’s audience.
It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical
connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph.
29
The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current
information to support the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some
factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis.
HANDY GUIDE IN CRAFTING STRONG BODY PARAGRAPHS
>
1. INSERT A TOPIC SENTENCE:
Encapsulates and organizes an entire paragraph. Although topic sentences may
appear anywhere in a paragraph, in academic essays they often appear at the beginning.
When creating a topic sentence, ask yourself what’s going on in your paragraph. Why
you have chosen to include the information you have? Why is the paragraph important
in the context of your argument or thesis statement?
>2. EXPLAIN YOUR TOPIC SENTENCE:
Does your topic sentence require further explanation? If so, add 1-2 sentences
explaining your topic sentence here.
>3. INTRODUCE YOUR EVIDENCE:
Most academic papers require students to integrate evidence (often quotes, but it can
also include statistics, figures, common sense examples, etc.) to support the claim/s)
made in the paragraph and/ or a paper as a whole. When including evidence, make sure
it is integrated smoothly into the text of the paper. Readers should be able to move from
your words to your evidence without feeling a logical or mechanical jolt.
When introducing quotes, always a) identify the source and b) summarize to provide
context. Many terms may be used to introduce quoted material: asserts, believes,
claims comments, confirms, declares, defines, describes, explains, indicates, makes
clear, proposes, etc. However, these terms are not interchangeable. Make your choice
based on your meaning.
>4. INSERT YOUR EVIDENCE
Insert / drop-in your supporting evidence (often quotes but again, evidence can also be
in the form of personal examples, facts, statistics, etc.)
>5. UNPACK YOUR EVIDENCE
Explain what the quote means and why it is important to your argument. The author
should agree with how you sum up the quotation---this will help you establish
credibility, by demonstrating that you do know what the author is saying even if you
don’t agree. Often 1-2 sentences tops (unless your evidence is particularly long or
complicated that is).
>6. EXPLAIN YOUR EVIDENCE
No matter how good your evidence is, it won’t help your argument much if your reader
doesn’t know why it’s important. Ask yourself: how does this evidence prove the point
you are trying to make in this paragraph and/ or your paper as a whole? Can be opinion
based and is often at least 1-3 sentences.
>7. INSERT A CONCLUDING SENTENCE
End your paragraph with a concluding sentence or sentences that reasserts how your
paragraph contributes to the development of your argument as a whole.
Sample outline of a Claim for an Argumentative Essay: Make It Easy
30
➢ “The sport plays an extremely important role in combination with healthy
eating.” (Thesis)
➢ The nutritionists from Stanford University have proved that fats go more rapidly
why a person eats healthy and does sports (first claim).
➢ It is well-known from biology classes that there are healthy fats and unhealthy
ones. The latter makes the process of losing weight slower (second claim).
➢ There are no examples of people who were eating fast foods and doing sports
who have perfect bodies now (the third claim as disapproving opposite point).
➢ Therefore, considering all the official research and no clear
evidence for
opposite point, we may assume that sports are effective only while eating
healthy (an outline).
CONCLUSION
A conclusion is the last paragraph of an essay. It occurs after the body paragraphs have said
what they have to say. It is comprised of three important elements:
1. Rephrasing of the thesis statement
2. Summary of main ideas
3. Concluding Remarks
The first element, the rephrasing of the thesis statement, is to remind readers about the
topic discussed in the essay. It usually breaks the thesis statement into three parts, and
put it in two or three sentences.
The second element summarizes all of the main points of the essay. It usually contains
three or more sentences. It could be that these main points are the same given in the thes is
statement before it, repeating them for emphasis. However, mostly these main points are
other than the ones given in the thesis statement.
The concluding remarks are the final remarks of the essay. These remarks could be a call
to action, a suggestion, a recommendation, or a wakeup call. It could be a final question
mark demanding further detailed response, or it could be an ending statement.
STEPS IN WRITING AN ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY:
•
•
•
•
•
STEP 1
> Brainstorm
FOR
> <
AGAINST
STEP 2
> Choose your position- decide which position has the strongest
argument
STEP 3 > Plan your essay
STEP 4
>
Write the Essay
STEP 5
>
Edit your Writing
Make It Sound Better!
1. Add linking words: however,/ moreover/although/despite etc.
2. Look for better vocabulary- use more specific; e.g. “good”
3. Check you have both long and short sentences
4. Do you repeat yourself?
5. Is your argument clear?
Final STEP: Polish your writing---punctuation, spelling, clarity etc…
31
English
Quarter 3 Module 6: Writing Techniques
Informative, Persuasive and Argumentative Writing
Writing is an important form of communication. It allows the students to put their
feelings and ideas on paper, to organize their knowledge and beliefs into convincing
arguments and to convey meaning through well- constructed text. It is process of using
symbols to communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form. Good writers use different
writing techniques to fit their purpose for writing.
Informative writing provides information and explanations in a straight forward
manner to the readers. Informative essays are a type of writing that explains a certain issue
or a topic. The writer of an informative essay is kind of like a reporter at a newspaper: only
there to state the facts, not to offer any sort of opinion. In this type of an essay, the writer
should refrain from pointing out his personal ideas and beliefs. The purpose of an
informative writing is to educate others on a certain topic.
Characteristics of an Informative Writing
•
•
•
•
Explain its importance
Present the latest research on a topic
Compare viewpoints on a controversial subject
Analyze a cause-effect relationship
Parts of an Informative Writing Introduction
The beginning, or introduction, needs to present the topic and grab your reader’s
attention. It needs to include the focus sentence for the entire essay. The first paragraph
starts with a general idea and gradually and more specific. Give some background
information about the key words and terminology.
Body
The body of your informative essay should provide all the necessary
information and materials to your reader. It has to piece out fully the lack of information on
this issue. Use various sources, facts and expert judgments. Make sure all your facts are
accurate. Create an outline that will organize your facts in a logical way. If a simple persuasive
essay contains one statement for one paragraph and relevant evidence, then, in our case,
each paragraph must contain a certain informative facts line.
Conclusion
You should restate about the seriousness of issue and summarize the facts for and against
the main topic. You should never introduce some new information or ideas in the conclusion.
Its main purpose is to round off your informative essay by summing up.
The Structure of an Informative Essay
When it comes to structure, an informative essay follows the same basic principles as
argumentative writing. The main difference between the two is the purpose. While an
argumentative essay is designed to persuade the reader to agree with the position argued in
32
its claim, an informative essay’s sole purpose is to educate the reader.
Structure your informative essay using multiple paragraphs that follow a logical order
and include relevant information that is properly cited. The introductory paragraph should
include a general introduction to the topic followed by a clear thesis statement that will serve
as the road map for the rest of the essay. Each body paragraph should include a topic
sentence that addresses the specific subtopic of that paragraph followed by at least two pieces
of relevant evidence from reliable sources that are properly cited. End each body paragraph
with at least two or three sentences that clearly show how the evidence presented in the lines
above relate to and support the thesis statement.
Features of Informative Writing
The key feature of informative writing is unbiased information about a given topic
that is presented in a way that helps the reader truly understand the subject. It uses language
that is easy to comprehend, and if technical terms are included, clear definitions and
explanations of those terms are also included.
When educating readers about a given topic, it is important to only include the most
relevant and essential details. Informative writing uses a variety of sentence structures to
keep the reader from getting bored, and ideas are organized in a way that makes sense. Each
body paragraph should focus on explaining a single idea that was introduced in the thesis
statement and that develops the topic in a logical manner.
The concluding paragraph in an informative essay or article should summarize the main
points made throughout the essay and should also restate the thesis statement in a new way.
Never introduce new evidence in the conclusion. New evidence only belongs in the body
paragraphs where it can be properly explained
What is persuasive writing technique?
Persuasive techniques definition
It is a written form of an oral debate. Persuasive writing technique is an interesting
style of writing for the students.
Especially relevant, using this technique a writer can convince a reader that his
opinion of a topic is correct. Furthermore, the selection of words is the most important factor
while writing persuasively. The reader should understand what the writer wants to say.
Besides that, they should write logical arguments and create a strong close argument. Most
noteworthy for a student is to know the different techniques of persuasive writing.
Besides that, they should write logical arguments and create a strong close argument.
It is important for a student to know the different techniques of persuasive writing.
A writer uses different ways to persuade people. There are different techniques in
persuasive writing. Let’s discuss in detail the techniques of persuasive writing and why it is
important to write persuasively.
33
How to use Persuasive language Words?
There are a number of persuasive language words and phrases used for persuading
the reader. A writer attracts the reader’s attention by using different ways to persuade in
writing. It is important for a student to know how they should use persuasive language
words.
The writer uses a number of persuasive language words to attract the reader’s
attention.
Some of the examples include – for this reason, because, I believe, as evidence shows
etc.
The teachers can display a list of these words and phrases. This will help the student
to easily use them when writing persuasive essays.
In addition, the teachers can display a list of these words and phrases. Therefore, this
will help the student to easily use them when writing persuasive essays.
Persuasive writing attempts to convince the reader that the point of view of the writer is valid
or best. Usually it is an opinion supported by evidence and research. Persuasive writing
intends to convince readers to believe in an idea or opinion and to do an action. Many
writings such as criticisms, reviews, reaction papers, editorials, proposals, advertisements,
and brochures use different ways of persuasion to influence readers.
Characteristics of Persuasive Writing
•
•
•
•
State the facts of the case
Prove the topic with your arguments
Disprove your opponent's arguments
End the essay
Example of Persuasive Paragraph
Many students really do not like the lunch their school has to offer. Parents pay for it
because they feel their child will get healthy food and it is convenient for them to provide it.
Yet, many students throw much of it out because they do not like their choices. The school
lunch menu needs to be changed in order to give students more choices, save money being
wasted, and provide healthier, nutritional benefits.
Parts of Persuasive Writing Introduction
The topic sentence cannot be a fact, because facts can be debated. Topic
sentence is a statement of position. That position must be clear and direct.
Body
The writer uses specific evidence, examples, and statistics and no
generalizations or personal opinions to persuade the reader that the stated position is a
34
valid one.
Conclusion
When closing the essay, it is important to clearly redefine the topic and restate the
most compelling evidence cited the same way it was stated in the essay is a valid one.
What Is an Argumentative Essay?
An argumentative essay is a piece of writing that takes a stance on an issue. In a good
argumentative essay, a writer attempts to persuade readers to understand and support
their point of view about a topic by stating their reasoning and providing evidence to back
it up.
Argumentative essay writing is a common assignment for high school and college
students. Generally, argumentative essay topics are related to science, technology, politics,
and health care.
Argumentative writing tries to convince his audience that his opinion is valid. An
argumentative essay contains a combination of facts and writer’s personal ideas. A writer
preparing to start an argumentative essay has to do a lot of research and gather evidence to
prove and defend his point. An argumentative essay is biased and subjective, although the
writer has to be aware of the opposing views on the subject.
Characteristics of an Argumentative Writing
•
•
•
Presents or explains the issue or case
Gives reasons and supports these reasons to prove its point.
Refutes opposing arguments.
Example of Argumentative Paragraph
Have you ever wanted to give someone the perfect birthday present, but didn’t know
what to do? There is a yummy, sweet, solution that will show that special someone how much
you care –make a delicious cake! It is easier than you may realize. Regardless of if you’re a
natural chef in the kitchen or do not know a teaspoon from a table spoon, baking a cake is an
easy task that can make anyone look like a “Cake Boss.” All you need is a little time, love, and
the necessary ingredients from the grocery store.
Parts of an Argumentative Writing Introduction
First is the introductory paragraph. It introduces the problem and gives the background
information needed for the argument and the thesis statement.
Body
Each supporting paragraph must have a distinct (clear) controlling topic and all other
sentences must factually relate to it. Transition words and phrases are important in helping
the reader follow along and reinforce your point.
Conclusion
35
The concluding paragraph should restate the thesis and main supporting ideas. Never
introduce new information in the conclusion. Finish with a strong statement that reinforces
your position in a meaningful and memorable way.
How to Outline an Argumentative Essay in 4 Steps
Argumentative essays should have a straightforward structure so they are easy for
readers to follow. The goal of an argumentative essay is to clearly outline a point of view,
reasoning, and evidence. A good argumentative essay should follow this structure:
1. Introductory paragraph. The first paragraph of your essay should outline the topic,
provide background information necessary to understand your argument, outline the
evidence you will present and states your thesis.
2. The thesis statement. This is part of your first paragraph. It is a concise, one-sentence
summary of your main point and claim.
3. Body paragraphs. A typical argumentative essay comprises three or more paragraphs
that explain the reasons why you support your thesis. Each body paragraph should cover
a different idea or piece of evidence and contain a topic sentence that clearly and
concisely explains why the reader should agree with your position. Body paragraphs are
where you back up your claims with examples, research, statistics, studies, and text
citations. Address opposing points of view and disprove them or explain why you
disagree with them. Presenting facts and considering a topic from every angle adds
credibility and will help you gain a reader’s trust.
4. Body paragraphs. A typical argumentative essay comprises three or more paragraphs
that explain the reasons why you support your thesis. Each body paragraph should cover
a different idea or piece of evidence and contain a topic sentence that clearly and
concisely explains why the reader should agree with your position. Body paragraphs are
where you back up your claims with examples, research, statistics, studies, and text
citations. Address opposing points of view and disprove them or explain why you
disagree with them. Presenting facts and considering a topic from every angle adds
credibility and will help you gain a reader’s trust.
How to Write a Thesis Statement in 3 Steps
Your thesis statement is only one sentence long, but it’s the most important part of
your argumentative essay. The thesis appears in your introductory paragraph, summarizes
what your argumentative essay will be
about, and primes the reader for what’s to come. These steps will help you get your point
across clearly and concisely:
1. Turn the topic into a question and answer it. Set up a big question in the title of your
essay or within the first few sentences. Then, build up to answering that question in your
thesis statement. For example, in your title or introduction, you could pose the question,
“What is the best type of sandwich?” And then answer with your thesis statement: “The
best type of sandwich is peanut butter and jelly.” This method is effective because
intriguing questions draw readers in and encourage them to keep reading to find the
answer
2. Body paragraphs. A typical argumentative essay comprises three or more paragraphs
that explain the reasons why you support your thesis. Each body paragraph should cover
36
a different idea or piece of evidence and contain a topic sentence that clearly and
concisely explains why the reader should agree with your position. Body paragraphs are
where you back up your claims with examples, research, statistics, studies, and text
citations. Address opposing points of view and disprove them or explain why you
disagree with them. Presenting facts and considering a topic from every angle adds
credibility and will help you gain a reader’s trust.
3. Body paragraphs. A typical argumentative essay comprises three or more paragraphs
that explain the reasons why you support your thesis. Each body paragraph should cover
a different idea or piece of evidence and contain a topic sentence that clearly and
concisely explains why the reader should agree with your position. Body paragraphs are
where you back up your claims with examples, research, statistics, studies, and text
citations. Address opposing points of view and disprove them or explain why you
disagree with them. Presenting facts and considering a topic from every angle adds
credibility and will help you gain a reader’s trust.
5 Types of Argument Claims
Once you decide what you’re arguing and know your thesis statement, consider how you’ll
present your argument. There are five types of argument claims that can drive your essay:
1. Fact: whether the statement is true or false.
2. Definition: the dictionary definition of what you’re arguing, plus your own
personal interpretation of it.
3. Value: the importance of what you’re arguing.
4. Cause and effect: what causes the problem in your essay and what effects it
has.
5. Policy: why the reader should care and what they should do about it after reading.
3 Main Types of Arguments and How to Use Them
There are three main ways to structure an argumentative essay. Choose one of the
following or combine them to write your persuasive paper:
1. Classical. Present the main argument, state your opinion, and do your best to convince
the reader why your stance is the right one. Also called Aristotelian, this is the most
popular strategy for making an argument because it’s the simplest line of thinking to
follow. It’s effective when your audience doesn’t have a lot of information or a strong
opinion about your topic, as it outlines the facts clearly and concisely.
2. Rogerian. Present the problem, acknowledge the opposing side of the argument, state
your point of view,
37
English
Quarter 3 Module 7: Composing an Independent Critique of a Chosen Selection
Read the sample critique below and answer the process questions.
38
Source: https://writingcenter.ashford.edu/sites/default/files/inlinefiles/Sample%20Article%20Critique_Neutral.pdf
Source: https://writingcenter.ashford.edu/sites/default/files/inlinefiles/Sample%20Article%20Critique_Neutral.pdf
39
Process Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is the title of the article that is being critiqued?
How many paragraphs does this critique consist of?
How do you call the first paragraph of a critique? What does it contain?
How many paragraphs does the body of this essay contain? What
particular things are being discussed in each of the body paragraph?
5. How do you call the last paragraph of the critique? How is it stated?
6. What are the contents of this critical essay that makes it different from
other essays?
7. What do you think are the parts of a critique paper?
What is a critique?
A critique is a french word that means critical assessment. Critiquing is an
in-depth evaluation of the story for the purpose of giving the reading public
insight into a certain story or write-ups. Writing critique requires you to
reassemble the elements in such a way that your intended audience has a
better understanding of the story’s strengths, weaknesses, and highlights.
Like an essay, a critique uses a formal, academic writing style and has
a clear structure, namely: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The
body of a critique includes a summary of the work and a detailed evaluation.
The purpose of an evaluation is to gauge the usefulness or impact of a work
in a particular field. Lastly, the conclusion includes the overall evaluation of
the work.
As a reviewer and critic, you must not simply rely on mere opinions;
rather, you must use both proofs and logical reasoning to validate your
comments. You must process ideas and theories, revisit and extend ideas in
a specific field of study and present an analytical response to the subject of
your review.
A critique is a genre of academic writing that briefly summarizes and
critically evaluates a work or concept. Critiques can be used to carefully
analyze a variety of works such as:
•
•
•
•
•
Creative works – novels, exhibits, film, images, and poetry
Research – monographs, journal articles, systematic reviews, and
theories
Media – news reports and feature articles
Designs- industrial designs, furniture, fashion design
Graphic designs- posters, billboards, commercials and digital media
How to write a critique
Before you start writing, it is important to have a thorough understanding of
the work that will be critiqued.
40
•
•
•
•
•
Study the work under discussion.
Make notes on key parts of the work or provide annotations.
Develop an understanding of the main argument or purpose being
expressed in the work.
Relate the work to a broader issue or context.
Verify claims of the work.
Structure of Critique
A critique can be structured in several ways. The following example,
however, showcases the main features of a critique. These are introduction,
summary, evaluation, conclusion and reference list.
4
1. Introduction
Typically, the introduction is short (less than 10% of the word length)
and you should:
• Introduce the author and the title of the work being critiqued.
• State the author’s main point. The main point is what the author wants
the reader to do after reading it.
• Explain the context in which the work was created. This could include
the social or political context, the place of the work in a creative or
academic tradition, or the relationship between the work and the
creator’s life experience.
• Have a concluding sentence that signposts what your evaluation of
the work will be. For instance, it may indicate whether it is a positive,
negative, or mixed evaluation.
2. Summary
• Briefly summarize the entire work.
• Briefly summarize the main points and objectively describe how the
creator portrays these by using techniques, styles, media,
characters, or symbols.
• Discuss the main point of the author objectively.
Remember:
The summary should not be the focus of the critique and is
usually shorter than the critical evaluation.
3. Evaluation
1. Provide a systematic and detailed assessment of the different elements
of the work such as the accuracy of the information, hidden
assumptions, clarity of language and organization.
2. Contain the strengths and weaknesses of the work.
3. Examine the work and evaluate its success in light of its purpose.
This evaluation is written in formal academic style and logically
41
presented. Group and order your ideas into paragraphs. Start with the
broad impressions first and then move into the details of the technical
elements. For shorter critiques, you may discuss the strengths of the
works, and then the weaknesses. In longer critiques, you may wish to
discuss the positive and negative points of each key critical question in
individual paragraphs.
To support the evaluation, provide evidence from the work itself,
such as a quote or example, and you should also cite evidence from related
sources. Explain how this evidence supports your evaluation of the work.
4. Conclusion
This is usually a brief paragraph, which includes:
1. Overall evaluation of the work
a statement indicating the overall evaluation of the work;
2. Summary of the key points
a summary of the key reasons identified during the critical evaluation,
why this evaluation was formed; and
3. Recommendations
in some circumstances, recommendations for improvement on
the work if it’s necessary.
5. Reference List
Include all resources cited in your critique.
English
Quarter 3 Module 8: Approaches to Literary Criticism
Being an effective reader requires skills and understanding in decoding, text use and
text analysis. Each of these skills and understandings is crucial in its own right, but they all
take place within overall focus on meaning making, which is the central purpose of all
literate behavior.
In this lesson you will be able to learn the different reading approaches that can be
used as your guide in critiquing literary selections.
In this module you will learn the different literary approaches: the formalist approach,
the feminist approach, the moralist approach, Marxist approach and historical approaches in
reading that are essential for you to critique literary selections. Express your understanding
through sharing what’s on your mind about those reading approaches. Complete the
speech balloon below?
42
Reading effectively requires approaching texts with a critical eye: evaluating what
you read for not just what it says, but how and why it says it. Effective reading is central to
both effective research (when you evaluate sources) and effective writing (when you
understand how what you read is written, you can work to incorporate those techniques
into your own writing). Being an effective reader also means being able to evaluate your
own practices, working to develop your critical reading skills.
Literary criticism is the study discussion, evaluation, and interpretation of literature.
With the aid of different literary critical approaches, the reader can easily evaluate and
interpret literary texts.
The following are the different approaches that can be used in interpreting and
adapting literature.
•
•
The Formalist Approach Formalist Criticism emphasizes the form of a literary work. It
regards literature as a “unique form of human knowledge that needs to be examined
on its own terms.” All the elements: style, structure, tone, imagery is found within a text
are necessary for understanding the work are contained within the work itself. The primary
goal for formalist critics is to determine how elements work together with the text’s content
to shape its effects upon readers.
Strengths:
o Develops close-reading skills
o Great for analyzing poetry
o Basis for other language-centered theories
The Feminist Approach Feminist Criticism is concerned with the role, position, and influence
of women in a literary text. - Asserts that most literature throughout time has been written
by men, for men. - Examines the way that the female consciousness is depicted by both male
and female writers.
o How culture determines gender
o
How gender equality is presented in the text
o
How gender issues are presented in literary works and other aspects of human
production and daily life
o
o
•
How women are socially, politically,
economically oppressed by patriarchy
psychologically,
and
How patriarchal ideology is an overpowering presence
Marxist Approach is concerned with differences between economic classes and implications
of a capitalist system, such as the continuing conflicts between the working class and the
43
elite. Hence, it attempts to reveal that the
ultimate source of people’s experience is the socioeconomic system. The
common aspects looked into when using Marxist criticism are as follows:
Social class as represented in the work
Social class of the writer/creator Social class
of the characters
Conflicts and interactions between economic classes
•
Historical Criticism. This approach “seeks to understand a literary work by investigating the
social, cultural, and intellectual context. Its prime goal is to understand the effect of a literary
work upon its original readers. Provides background information necessary to understand
how literary texts were perceived in their time. - Shows how literary texts reflect ideas and
attitudes of the time in which they were written.
•
Moralist Criticism. To judge literary works according to moral rather than formal principles.
-Judging literary works by their ethical teachings and by their effects on
readers.
What’s More
Directions: Write a close analysis about the Poem “Hope is the Thing with Feathers” by
Emily Dickinson using Formalist, Feminist, Marxist, Moralist and Historical
approaches in reading.’
“Hope is the Thing with Feathers
By: Emily Dickinson
‘Hope’ is the thing with feathers- That
perches on the soulAnd sings the tune without words- And
never stops-at allAnd sweetest – in Gale- is heard- And
sore must be the storm- That could abash
the little Bird That kept so many warm
I’ve heard it in the chilliest land- And on
the Strangest Sea- Yet, never, in
Extremity,
It asked a Crumb – of Me.
44
How does the persona deal with the circumstances that he is in?
Sonnet 29
(George Santayana (1863-1952)
What riches have you that you deem me poor, Or what
large comfort that you call me sad?
Tell me what makes you exceeding glad:
Is your earth happy or your heaven sure? I hope for
heaven, since stars endure
And bring such tidings as our fathers had. I know no
deeper doubt to make me mad, I need no brighter
love to keep me pure.
To me the faiths of old are daily bread;
I bless their hope, I bless their will to save,
And my deep heart still meaneth what they said. It makes
me happy that the soul is brave,
And, being so much kinsman to the dead, I walked
contented to the people grave.
George Santayana
Source: http://www.rrb3.com/breaker/poetry/poems%20by%20others/sonnet 29.htm
45