Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory☆
Mary Gauvain, in Encyclopedia of Infant and Early Childhood
Development (Second Edition), 2020
Informal and Formal Learning
Vygotsky also considered imaginative play as an activity that provides
children with experience in the zone of proximal development. There
are two ways that imaginative play allows the child to function beyond
her actual developmental level (Göncü and Gaskins, 2010). First, the
rules of play (e.g., when playing doctor) serve as support for the child
and create a ZPD where the child can function beyond her existing
level of development. Second, in play the child separates the usual
meaning of objects and actions (e.g., a stick might become a horse)
and, thus, the child comes to understand she can use one object to
represent the meaning of another object, again extending current
understanding.
Vygotsky's theory has profound implications for applied psychologists,
especially for researchers concerned with education and classroom
learning. For example, ‘scaffolding’, a form of instruction inspired by
Vygotsky's ideas, is the process by which the more knowledgeable
partner adjusts the amount and type of support he or she offers to the
child so that it fits with the child's learning needs over the course of
the interaction. By careful monitoring of the child's progress, the
teacher adjusts the task to make it manageable for the child and
provides assistance as needed. In scaffolding, the teacher gradually
reduces the amount of support as the child becomes more skilled, so
that eventually the child can execute the task independent of the more
experienced partner's help.
Learners benefit from participating in this type of classroom
arrangement, and extensions of this idea can be found in the method
of ‘reciprocal instruction’ introduced by A. Palinscar and A. Brown
(Palinscar, 2013). This tutoring approach, which is based on the ideas
of the zone of proximal development and scaffolding, enhances
children's reading comprehension by having the learner work in close
and supportive collaboration with more experienced partners who help
children develop skills critical to comprehension, such as explication
and elaboration. A. Brown and her colleagues also introduced a
related classroom application called the ‘community of learners model’
(National Academy of Sciences, 2018). In this approach, adults and
children work together in shared activities, peers learn from each
other, and the teacher serves as an expert guide who facilitates the
processes by which the children learn. The teacher uses the
technique of scaffolding to support children's learning and the
students, who vary in knowledge and ability, actively help each other
learn through their interchanges. Other extensions of the idea of the
ZPD are evident in educational practices that use resources from
home and community settings, such as linguistic and cultural
experiences, to support or scaffold children's classroom learning (Moll,
2014).
The Effects of Parent-Child Interaction and Media Use on
Cognitive Development in Infants, Toddlers, and
Preschoolers
Tiffany A. Pempek, Alexis R. Lauricella, in Cognitive Development in Digital Contexts, 2017
Parent-Child Interaction
Research has demonstrated the importance of positive parent-child interactions across the first
few years of life for cognitive development as well as social and emotional growth (e.g., Carew,
1980; Clark-Stewart, 1973; Hart & Risley, 1995). Two specific cognitive activities influenced by
engagement with parents are play and language skills. The classic theory of cognitive
development proposed by Lev Vygotsky underscores how social interaction can facilitate the
development for play, language, and other cognitive skills, such as attention and memory.
While Vygotsky's theory focuses on social interaction with any individual more advanced than
the child, his position is pertinent to the types of engagement that may occur between parents and
children. Of particular relevance, Vygotsky discusses the zone of proximal development, or the
distance between the child's current developmental level and the level of their potential
development (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky proposed that, within the zone of proximal
development, interactions with others lead to internalization of cognitive processes first achieved
in the social context (Vygotsky, 1978). The child will be able to utilize these cognitive skills on
their own in new contexts once they are mastered through social interaction. Vygotsky's theory is
reflected in modern research findings demonstrating that interactions with a parent can provide
“scaffolding” to enhance the child's cognitive abilities (e.g., Dodici, Draper, & Peterson, 2003;
Fiese, 1990; Slade, 1987).
In this way, parent-child interaction plays an important role in the development of early language
and literacy skills. Hart and Risley's (1992, 1995) seminal longitudinal study of language
exposure during the first 3 years of life found that greater amounts of parental language input
correlated with better language outcomes in their children, such as larger vocabulary size and
stronger cognitive abilities in general. Similarly, the amount of language used during the first
3 years, along with parental responsiveness and guidance, has been associated with positive
literacy outcomes for low-income children entering kindergarten (Dodici et al., 2003). Beyond
the amount of parental language input, the quality of social exchanges is also important for
language acquisition. In particular, many studies have indicated that parental language input is
most beneficial when it is contingent to the child's communicative bids, as demonstrated by
positive effects of sensitive and responsive parenting behaviors and conversational turn-taking
(e.g., Golinkoff, Can, Soderstrom, & Hirsh-Pasek, 2015; Hoff-Ginsberg, 1990; Masur, Flynn, &
Eichorst, 2005; Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2001; Zimmerman et al., 2009). Hart and Risley
(1999) describe the combination of parental responsiveness, turn-taking, and talkativeness when
engaging with their child in conversation as the “social dance” of American families. They argue
that this dance between parent and child is crucial for children's successful language
development.
A second area in which parent interaction can have a significant impact is young children's play.
Play is a valuable activity that yields positive outcomes for cognitive, social, emotional, and
physical development (for a review, see Ginsburg, 2007). Parents may enhance the positive
effects of play by engaging with their child. In fact, parent-child interaction has been shown to
increase both the quantity and quality of play in young children. For instance, both free-play and
structured play sessions with the mother led to more advanced symbolic play compared to
solitary play for children between 1 and 2 years of age (Fiese, 1990). Similarly, for preschoolers,
maternal behaviors such as physical and verbal stimulation, involvement, and positive tone were
associated with more mature play and better interactions with peers and caregivers (Alessandri,
1992). Active parental interaction (e.g., focusing on the child, showing interest, initiating, or
extending play) has also been associated with longer play episodes and move advanced symbolic
play (Slade, 1987). Thus, early cognitive development appears to be enhanced to the extent that
parents enrich the play experience by actively engaging their children in these ways.
While some parental behaviors directed toward children appear to be beneficial for their early
development, others lead to negative outcomes. For instance, behaviors by parents such as
intrusiveness and questioning or instructing in a way that directs the child's attention have been
associated with decreases in children's symbolic play (Fiese, 1990). Likewise, restricting
children's behavior by terminating their activity or redirecting their attention to a new task has
been associated with slower rates of cognitive and social development, which contrasts with
supportive behaviors, such as maintaining children's focus on an activity, that are associated with
faster rates of cognitive and social development (Landry, Smith, Miller-Loncar, & Swank, 1997).
Taken together, research and theory on early parent-child interaction point to many ways in
which parental engagement can benefit cognitive growth. The social interaction between parents
and children during the early years of development has a powerful influence on children's
development of cognitive skills, such as language. Certain parental behaviors support children's
development during play as well, which can be crucial for development since children spend
much of their day in this activity. While there is opportunity for parent-child interaction to be
supportive, parental behaviors such as interrupting or redirecting attention can be detrimental.
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Dochy (1989) explained that modular learning's most important consideration is the student. The author
explained that learners want a more individualized approach to the course content so that his/her prior
knowledge and personal characteristics are taken into account. Further, modularization will generally
allow a student to learn at his or her own pace. By definition, an appropriate pace may allow the learner
to skip modules if they already know the material. Offering pre-tests for each module is therefore a
critical element to modularization. If the student achieves a passing score, they may skip the section. If
he or she does not taken the section, a post test is administered. Only upon successful completion can
the student continue on with the next module in the course. Douchy pointed out that modular learning
is often best achieved through computer based courses.
Gahutu (2010) studied modular learning as it applied to a physiology course at the National
University of Rwanda. Students reported that they learned best when the teaching was less theoretical,
and they could work through material using practical classes and demonstrations. However, to make the
problem based approach successfull, they need a greater access to outside materials that might be
available through the library and the Internet. Overall, the Rawandan students reported greater
satisfaction with the modular, self directed approach to learning than with the more traditional style
previously used in the classroom.
Creative thinking, collaboration, and decision making will be conducted by the educators who
will also be responsible for the implementation and delivery of new educational platforms. This is
becoming more evident in higher education and the shift to a growing online learning delivery system
that is responsive to the needs of the learner. The mere notion of equipping students with a laptop
computer falls short of delivering a sound approach to learning. It is the task of educators to create
active learning activities so that students can meet benchmarked outcomes, strengthen specific
competencies, and st become prepared to address the demands of the 21 century workplace.
Educators must heed the advice from noted researchers (Shepard, 2003; Laurillard,
2002; Powell, Wright, Newland, Creed, and Logan, 2008), who argue that students watching a computer
video presentation does not ensure that the learner is engaged and properly interacting with the
medium in order to reinforce the learning process. Just because the technology teaching tool is used
does not mean that the student is actively learning. Innovations in educational technology are not the
singular answer. Rather a thoughtful learning approach is required that enables learners to engage in a
variety of different learning styles which increases an individual's ability to transfer information to long
term memory.
The technology is present and evolving. What is missing from the profession of teaching.
According to Cross (1998), technology is “the ability to advance the teaching profession through a
shared base of knowledge about human learning”. The purpose of paper is designed to meet this
challenge and develop a sound foundation based on understanding what modular learning is and how
this approach can best serve adult learners.
Modular learning is a student-centered, andragogical approach where outcomes are
achieved by breaking down a body of knowledge into its individual components. Learners are able to
utilize prior knowledge to assess what information is known and complete modules related to areas that
still need to be learned. Students must demonstrate mastery over relevant outcomes and competencies
within each module in order to move forward, which shifts greater responsibility to the student as their
learning becomes self-initiated, self-paced, and selfmonitored. Technological advances, combined with a
modular learning approach, help students prepare, practice, and perform appropriate skills and become
more insightful decision-makers and leaders in both academic and professional settings (Friestad-Tate,
Hancock, and McCoy, 2013). Guidelines for course developers As with any change initiative, it is
important for leaders of change to take a systematic approach that allows common understanding of
key terms to be understood by all. This may take added time, but the extra effort is a worthy endeavor.
For developers of modular learning curriculum it is crucial to reinforce the focus on the unique needs of
the learner, their learning style, and the pace of learning which is most often self-initiated. Emphasis
should be placed on why the learning needs to take place with clear explanations of workloads,
instructions, and process to navigate through simulations, demonstrations, and videos. Strong and
effective education is executed from the inside, not outside, the institution. It must be recognized that
an increasing number of students are digital natives who are accustomed to computer-based training.
However the developers of modular learning curriculum must not be complacent. They need to be
aware that when a student watches a computer video presentation in a module, we can not assure that
the student is truly engaged and properly interacting. Just because the technology teaching tool is
running, does not mean that the student is actively learning; not everyone learns best sitting in solitude
at a computer terminal. Educational developers need to ensure that modular learning courses are
designed, developed, and implemented properly Guidelines for instructors The instructor's role in
modular learning shifts from the disseminator of knowledge to that of a coach and facilitator, who
assists learners, positively motivating students to complete modules, directs learners to supportive
resources, and links relevancy of learning objectives to real world context. The instructor reinforces the
precepts of modular learning with an active learning environment of problem-based scenarios that will
teach skills which organizations are seeking from employees. A modular learning curriculum will demand
that instructors adopt a paradigm shift. Proper and ongoing faculty
Change and innovation A leader may initiate change, but it is the responsibility of organizational
stakeholders to implement change processes over time. There is high value in taking a step back to
investigate the literature and exposing a deeper understanding of the buzzwords leaders use to initiate
change, as that increases the ability to embrace organizational change more effectively. While there is
an acceptance in the use of technology, which has paved the way for modular learning, it is important to
note that modular learning can be successful using any delivery method. Modular learning can serve as
an effective tool in an online educational setting as a means to help students most effectively utilize
their time and knowledge toward achieving goals. Modular learning has been in practice for many
decades, but at this moment there exists an incredible opportunity to the remarkable learning process
with the power of exploding technological innovation. As educators and researchers in a leading online
university, educators are poised to offer contributions to the next “Gutenberg” or “printing press”
moment in education, which captures the dramatic way human thinking produces a revolutionary
movement. The original “Gutenberg moment”, which took hundreds of years, created the mass
production of books, lower unit cost, democratized ownership of knowledge, and assured consistency
and quality in transferring knowledge. Today, the innovation and impact of change has accelerated
exponentially. Modular learning coupled st with technological innovations of the 21 century may
produce the next “printing press” moment.
References [1]. Alexander, C. (1979). The timeless way of building. New York: Oxford University
Press. [2].Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham: SRHE/OU Press. [3].
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational
Researcher, 32–42. [4]. Chaudron, D. (2013). Begin at the beginning in organizational change.
Organizational Change Consultancy. Retrieved on July 15, 2013 from:
http://www.organizedchange.com/nmdb/index.htm [5]. Connell, C. (2013). Starbucks, Wal-Mart
offering classes for college credit. Retrieved on April 15, 2013 from: http://www.kcci.com/news/projecteconomy/StarbucksWal-Mart-offer ing-classes-for-col lege-credit/- /9356884/19750390/-/item/0//wapxgl/-/index.html. [6]. Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing
among 5 traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. [7]. Cross, K. (1998). Classroom Research:
Implementing the Scholarship of Teaching. New Directions For Teaching And Learning, (75), 5-12. [8].
Davenport, J. (1987). A way out of the andragogy morass. Lifelong Learning: An Omnibus of Practice, 11
(3), 17-21. [9]. Dobrovolny, J. (2006). How adults learn from selfpaced, technology-based corporate
training: New focus for learners, new focus for designers. Distance Education, 27(2), 155-170. DOI
10.1080/01587910600789506. [10]. Dochy F, Open Univ. H, (2013). And O. Modularization and Student
Learning in Modular Instruction in Relation with Prior Knowledge. [serial online]. January 1,
1989;Available from: ERIC, Ipswich, MA. Accessed May 14, [11]. Friestad-Tate, J., Hancock, C., McCoy, C.
(2013). Understanding modular learning – Developing a strategic plan to embrace change. Paper
presented at the Institute
This study is based on Spiro’s theory of cognitive flexibility (Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, &
Coulson, 1999). This is a learning theory that enables teachers to promote the use of educational
technologies in the learning process. Therefore, the theory was used to guide the instructional design of
the e-learning module in the topic ‘Transistors’. Kearsley (2000) sums up the principles of cognitive
flexibility theory into four; (i) Learning activities must provide multiple representations of content; (ii)
Instructional materials should avoid oversimplifying the content domain and support context-dependent
knowledge; (iii) Instruction should be casebased and emphasise knowledge construction and not
transmission of information; and (iv) Knowledge sources should be highly interconnected rather than
compartmentalised. Thus, cognitive flexibility theory encourages the learner to integrate various aspects
or perspectives of knowledge to different learning contexts.
Boger-Mehall (2003) observed that the way students are taught has a significant influence on
the type of cognitive structures they create and that encouraging cognitive flexibility requires a flexible
teaching environment. This is because it can provide the variability needed to present complex and illstructured knowledge domains and to help students explore more than one perspective on a topic or
issue (Swain, Greer, & van Hover, 2001). The study tested one null hypothesis at an alpha level of
significance of 0.05 which states: HO1: There is no statistically significant difference in attitudes towards
the topic “transistors” between students taught using the e-learning module and those taught using the
conventional method.
PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT FRAMEWORK
by David A. Gualin
The
framework
above
was
proposed
by
Hoover-Dempsey
mentioned by Wade, 2016) but with modifications.
allows
three
concretely
primary
provide
mechanisms
efforts
of
through
parent
The framework
which
parents
involvement
results to positive academic output for the child.
efforts
are
(1)
modeling,
(2)
reinforcement,
(as
and
that
can
would
The three
(3)
direct
instruction.
Avvisati and others (2010) explains that “modeling theory
predicts that children will emulate their parents’ behavior; by
devoting interest and time to activities related to schooling,
parents thus enhance the possibilities that children do well in
school.”
This is seen in parents involvement in activities such
as Parent-Teacher Conferences.
“Reinforcement indicates the mechanism by which parent give
their children interest, attention, praise and rewards related to
behaviors that lead to school success” (Avvisati and others,
2010).
The parent can provide both psychological and material
reinforcement to the child by providing words of encouragement,
advice and even a treat to a local restaurant.
Finally, parents can influence their children’s educational
outcomes by direct instruction.
This includes a requirement set
by the parent to the child and providing explanation, resources
and encouragement to finish these school requirements.
Avvisati and others (2010) explain that the “theory predicts
that children whose parents are involved in their education will
be more likely to develop a strong, positive sense of efficacy for
successfully achieving in school-related tasks than will children
whose
parents
are
not
involved.”
References:
Avvisati , Francesco and others (2010). Parental Involvement in School : A
Literature
Review,
Retrieved
on
October
14,
2017
from https://www.cairn.info/revue-d-economie-politique-2010-5-page-759.html
Wade, Catherine (2016, June). Parent Engagement in ECEC Why is it important;
What is it; Can we improve it?
and
Care
Conference,
Paper presented at the Queensland Early Education
Brisbane,
retrieved
on
January
from https://www.slideshare.net/CandKAus/parent-engagement-in-ecec
24,
2018