🗾 Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders European Economic Community (The Common Market) created in 1952 A major multistate, multipurpose confederation based on treaties for economic. political, cultural & economic cooperation among 28 state members a political & economic ties that ensures the countries cooperation France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands + Treaty of Rome Is now known as the European Union (EU) has 28 states, 504 million citizens, with 24 languages operating The world’s largest economy characterized by diversity, growth, prosperity Governed by effective legislative, executive, administrative, & judicial branches Operates on democratic principles & exhibit strong political institutionalization Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 1 Has collective security that prevents states from going war against one another which also makes EU a formidable military power such that no country in the world is likely to challenge one of its members Has open borders which allow the unrestricted movement of people across all EU countries Still one of the most remarkable recent efforts to establish institutions that overcome historical conflict & facilitate cooperation States are among the millions of political actors whose interests & actions cross national borders Problems in the EU EU is still a loosely connected confederation Long-held cultural & national identities are a major obstacle to complete integration Voting consensus is still hard to achieve since some of the 28 countries disagree or act on their own national interests Some still use their national currencies Weaknesses are a shared problem (revealed during the eurozone crises in Greece, Ireland, Portugal) Does not have a coherent military policy or standing military Lisbon Treaty of 2009 approved by all members increased coherence in collective policymaking thru an integrated, majority-based political framework under a strong president Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 2 Foreign policy state’s decisions & actions in relation with all actors operating outside the state’s borders International Relations politically relevant interactions among two or more different actors from different states Perspectives on States’ Behaviors States’ Motives from Alternative Perspectives: Realism, Liberalism, Constructivism Security Especially influence by politics that occurs across states’ borders in which states remain critical actors Security Dilemma faced by every state because the politics between them & among states occurs in an international system that is generally assumed to be Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 3 anarchic meaning that the state’s security is always at risk because there is no overarching authority that can consistently impose order & good behavior on all the states in their relations with one another & w/ other actors in the global system REALISM Realism States like people are naturally disposed to base behavior on selfinterests, the core of this interest: survival Focuses on the security dilemma: ”There is no supreme authority, no transborder institution, no international rules that will necessarily protect the state from predatory behavior by other actors in the international system” Military Power - maximized by state to protect itself; ensure security, survival States are in constant competition for power because “Power is a zerosum commodity” - increase in power for one actor has equivalent decrease for others Maximizing national interests & ensuring security goals main reason why states make or break treaties, declare war, cooperate with other countries Neorealism Broader realism state’s capacity to survive & prevail can be based on other forms of power: economic knowledge, diplomatic, power. attaches significance on structure of international system: how many powerful states exist Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 4 States make calculated decisions based on its power capacities, external & internal environments, assessments of its best chances at security LIBERALISM Liberalism Each state will make decisions and act in the international system based on its OWN MIX Of principles, might encourage cooperation States can have multiple goals, aggressive, power-maximizing behavior is NOT inevitable States may also take actions in the politics across borders that support other values such as economic prosperity, political stability, peace, or spread of democracy Diverges from realism in emphasizing key groups within the state can influence array of preferences that lead to action in the international system Neoliberalism a variation of liberalism It is possible to establish well-designed transnational institutions that can harmonize the mixed motives of multiple states, facilitate cooperative behavior among states, establish rules of behavior that are somewhat stable, create situations that are positive sum - some gain, no one loses CONSTRUCTIVISM Constructivism Analysis of politics across borders must recognize that each state & the key actors who influence the state’s actions develop unique understandings of the relevant events & institutions based on their particular knowledge, experiences, norms, & habits. Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 5 Neither realism nor liberalism is adequately sensitive to the “socially constructed” nature of the identities & norms that shape beliefs & guide actions taken by individuals, groups, & states in the international system Condition/institution can have very different meanings for different actors and these meanings determine its influence on actions by a state Nonstate Actors have significant role in influencing value preferences that result in state’s actions Feminist IR Analyzes topics from the frames of reference & assumptions of feminist theories & gender studies interesting alternative against liberalism. realism, and constructivism Critiques the focus on anarchy of international system/ behaviors In general, IR theory has neglected to consider the role in international relations of half of the population or the effects of a predominantly male leadership on behavior Men & women “engage in politics in different ways.” Women in Power inclined toward cooperative interactions & nonviolent solutions states would somewhat interact less aggressively ∵ ∵ Geopolitical Perspective Geopolitics assumes that the geography of a state - physical characteristics (strategic location, topography) & natural & human resources (population size, fossil fuel resources, arable Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 6 land, water) might significantly affect both internal & external politics of the state State’s geography can be a source of both opportunities & constraints on its political actions in the international system. Cooperation & competition two dominant patterns in international relations Politics across borders is mix of cooperation & competition Cooperation can be beneficial & have fewer costs if pursued with other states & transborder actors Competition is always a possibility as states come into conflict with other actors in their pursuit for their goals State’s goals constrained by many factors - within & outside the borders Internal influential factors: ⚬ History & political Culture ⚬ Major political leaders’ style ⚬ Political structures’ nature Mechanisms of Political Cooperation Across Borders The various ways in which states cooperate. State has inherent preference to establish arrangements thru which such cooperation can be nurtured Altruism State acts in accordance with moral principles - not national interests State may provide humanitarian aid with no expectation of direct benefits or make a unilateral decision to reduce military Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 7 capabilities or carbon emissions to improve the global environment Accommodation State willingly makes concessions on one or more values of importance to promote an acceptable outcome or nonviolent resolution to resolve dispute with another actor Involve compromise in which states find a common ground or make a disproportionate level of concessions in an attempt to improve its relations or avoid conflict with another actor Neutrality State claims to be “impartial” among competing states to refrain from supporting any states in conflict Key goal: avoid being drawn into dispute with other states Examples of Neutral States: Austria, Finland, Sweden, Switzerland Diplomacy & Interstate Agreements Diplomacy one of the widely used mechanisms to communicate and enhance cooperation Enable state’s skilled representatives to engage in regular discussions & negotiations with representatives of other states Array of actors & institutions are maintained to attempt to further state’s interest & resolve potential problems with others thru “normal diplomatic channels” & informal communication.” Traditional Democracy’s essence: ”Face-to-face strategic discussions between diplomats on behalf of other countries” Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 8 Modern communications technology (video-conferencing) are now new ways for leaders to interact. Every public utterance is recorded, made available 24/7 and is accessible, and broadcasted thru some medium (YouTube, AlJazeera) Special form of diplomacy: ☛ Top leaders meet to share views & seek common policy ground ☛ Including one-on-one meetings on any given week ☛ Prime ministers and chief executives travel to meet their counterparts ☛ Made possible thru G20 where leaders hold a summit in St. Petersburg, Russia G20 Global group of key industrial & emerging-market countries tat focuses on financial issues G8 Leaders of a more powerful elite group also meet periodically to discuss shared policy concerns Major Diplomatic Groupings of States (G8 & G20) Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 9 Others include: ASEAN (S. Asia), MERCOSUR (L. America). the Organization of African State (OAS) Bilateral & Multilateral Agreements Helps establish more explicit cooperation Prominent ones: Treaties & [International] Regimes Treaties formal agreements between states that they will cooperate/assist one another usually in the domains of military, economic, or political interactions A contract between states The agreement is binding on all signatories Involves a limited set of countries International Regimes signify a set of norms, rules, procedures accepted by many countries that guide their behavior regarding a certain issue area. Has limited number Like treaties but have large signatories & compliance is less rigorously enforced Establish permanent organization where member states can enact, modify, implement the agreements & facilitate crossnational cooperation Ex: The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the largest most powerful & controversial int. regimes est. 1996 has 159 members goal: “enable trade, to the extent possible, flow freely in a ↪ ↪ ↪ ↪ smooth & predictable manner among ALL countries” Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 10 ↪ Works with members to establish & enforce policies that eliminate all barriers to global free trade ↪ WTOs Critiques: 1. Policies, rules, agreements benefit the financial elites & multinational corporations that dominate the global trade 2. The “free trade” increase the profits of multinational corps but reduce the power of the workers which are indifferent to human rights violations, fail to protect the environment, undermine the sovereignty of national governments” 3. The WTO is one of the most powerful, secretive, antidemocratic bodies on Earth 4. Main results of their actions are to preside over the greatest transfer in history of real economic & political power AWAY from nation-states top global corporations, run roughshod over rights of nations & people, causing environmental & social harms Formal & Informal Agreements Direct day-to-day interactions among most states that are substantially governed by a variety of formal & informal agreements Treaties & regimes are the most important Only binding if participating states are willing to abide by their conditions or wiling to submit disputes to some form of resolution Reasons for and why Agreements can collapse: 1. Some participants might find that their national goals are not served so they either ignore or violate the agreement 2. Participants might have different interpretations of what actions are deemed acceptable under the agreement Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 11 3. Fulfillment of the key objectives in the agreement may be impossible. International Law Most states define reasonable behavior based on “their own political interests than shared abstract moral rules.” International Law broadest attempt to formalize & constrain interactions among states De Jure Belli Et Pacis (1625) By Hugo Grotius Emphasized natural law - universal principles of behavior that are recognizable through human reason & human nature that direct us to act with goodness; guide the relations among states, restrain hostile or destructive interactions Supplanted by positivist law - explicit written agreements that define both appropriate & unacceptable behaviors among states in the form of international treaties or conventions - Attempted to adjudicate geographic boundaries, regulate state’s environmental resources, establish states’ rights & limits over nonnational resources - Attempt to distinguish acceptable from unacceptable behaviors during conflicts among states - Effectivity depends on the willingness of states to comply since some may agree but still openly violate them or later deny accusations of their violation The International Court of Justice ↳ Has not only been used to adjudicate disputes but also to hold accountability Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 12 or ICJ / World Court Est. 1946 Adjudicate violations of positivist international law Offer advisory opinions on issues of international law Part of the UN Valuable mechanism for conflict resolution bet. states Has jurisdiction only if both parties accept its ruling Less than one third of the UN have agreed to the court’s ruling in matters affecting them During high political /economic stakes, states often reject the court’s jurisdiction or ruling Ex: United States Has been inactive prior to the 1990s - 64 cases only - 19 advisory opinions - handled very few cases At present: - 14 cases yearly - deals more with political violence - issues numerous advisory opinions each year - Uses expanded international law to arrest & prosecute leaders & other leaders accused of HR violations International Criminal Court at the Hague court of last resort can take up cases of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes if any of the 122 countries is not prepared to handle such case in its national court system Examples: Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 13 Helsinki Agreement - binds combatants to use no glass-filled projectiles or other forms of violence that cause unnecessary suffering Geneva Convention - prohibits use of poison gasses - captured soldiers must be treated with dignity International Organizations International Organizations broad term form for many transnational institutions whose core objective is to include actions to influence the behavior & policies of states & other transborder actors some attempt to resolve conflict Much focus on specific areas that are of global significance in the economic, social, environmental, cultural, or political domain & in their actions facilitate cooperation across borders ◈ Transnationalism institutions / actors that engage in a significant array of activities that cross state borders States’ Purposes for Joining IGOs: i. Provide forum for communication among states ii. Implement policies that respond to political, social, or economic problems transcending national boundaries iii. Enact international laws & treaties iv. Intervene in disputes between states Three Major Types of International Orgs: Intergovernmental organizations (IGO) NGOS Multinational corporations (MNC) Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 14 1. Intergovernmental organizations Political institutions whose members are states NOT private groups/individuals Less than 300 in number Have vast potential to shape politics across borders Most are regional - EU, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, ASEAN, WTO, International Money Fund, WHO Most powerful International organizations: 1. League of Nations est. 1921 served as mechanism for collective security against aggression 2. United Nations The UNITED NATIONS ‣est. 1945 ‣ an international org dedicated to managing international security ‣ Has improved political climate ‣ highly effective setting where rivals can engage in continuing diplomacy ‣ within the Security Council & Gen. Assembly, UN officials & reps from various countries can attempt to mediate conflicts & prevent escalation to war ‣ Also passes resolutions that might constrain certain countries form acting in opposition to moral force of international public opinion ‣ Has contributed to “preventative diplomacy” — limiting extensive political & military involvement of major powers during conflicts between other countries ‣ Other main goals: improve the relations among states & help countries improve the health, welfare, human rights ‣ Also attempted to mitigate global problems & enhance quality of human life in areas like in human rights, agricultural development, environmental protection, refugees, disaster relief in coordination Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 15 with the Gen. Assembly, Economic & Social Council, UNESCO, UNCTAD, WHO ‣ UN still lacks power to prevent all interstate conflict ‣ Many states threaten to withdraw their support when UN’s actions at variance with the states’ perceptions of their national interest ‣ Still UN contributes greater cooperation, reduced human suffering, reduced conflict ‣ Won Nobel six times UN Peacekeeping Operations can intervene between combatants an impartial, multinational military & civilian force authorized by the UN Security Council to stand between combatants to ease tensions Force is used ONLY in defense United States & Soviet Union used their veto power to block many potential peacekeeping initiatives during Cold War Post-Cold War: ‣ The peacekeeping operations expanded ‣ 50 peacekeeping operations have been deployed since 1990 Was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988 Differs from past operations since their central objective is to establish internal peace among factions within a country Ex: 13 peacekeeping ops were mainly aimed to prevent political violence among groups within the country. Study of 124 peacekeeping actions, showed that they have been generally successful in ending violence & increasing democratization’s likelihood Five Principal Organs of the UN with Specific Functions: Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 16 2. Nongovernmental Organizations Composed of nonstate actors (private individuals & groups) who work actively in a particular issue area to provide information, promote public policies, provide services that might otherwise be provided by governments International NGOS work with one another, governments and with IGOs to address problems that cross state borders Has a total of more than at least 50,000 with 5,000 major NGOS very active in many countries Also deliver goods & services Enjoy higher public trust & have a growing economic base (more than $1 trillion) Important in shaping national & international politics, governance processes, & markets Most influential institutions of the 21st century International NGOS are committed to furthering political & social issues with transnational dimensions Actions & effectiveness can be analyzed in same framework with national interest groups Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 17 Encourage concerned people & even governments of other states to write letters, organize demonstrations, boycotts, engage in political actions to pressure a government or transnational actor to change its practices Examples of international NGOS: Greenpeace Wildlife Federation, Amnesty Union of Concerned Scientists Amnesty International - widely known international NGO concerned with promotion of human rights protection - engaged in campaigns to focus attention & pressure governments violating rights of their citizens 3. Multinational Corporations (MNCS/Transnational Corporations) Powerful firms that produce & sell diversity of goods in many countries in pursuit of private profit Global impacts are based on sheer economic weight as some of the richest institutions in the world Only 63% of the top 150 economic units are countries; 87 (58%) are MNCs! Those that engage in financial services can shift assets in nanoseconds since they operate primarily in virtual world and can result in rapid credit crunch/run on the currency & thus, can influence government’s policy in ways that serve the MNC’s goals Greatly challenge the sovereignty & autonomy of the state since they can avoid most laws & taxes of states and pressure states to enact favorable policies They monopolize production & distribution of important goods in the world marketplace, squeeze out small firms, widen the economic gap between poor and rich countries Remains “most controversial actor in the international political economy” Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 18 MNCs Features enhance flexibility & bargaining power in dealing with governmental institutions & political economy in any state Increase MNCs autonomy, influence, profitability at the expense of the host country’s political economy & government which must make costly concessions to get a share of MNCs operations & are constantly vulnerable to MNC’s decisions 1. Functions as globalized network Since operations are spread across many countries, it can exploit opportunities and avoid problems in any host country, even in its own home country Enables them to pressure governments to competing for a share of its operations by providing MNCs with large financial inducements & minimizing state’s regulatory constraints on MNCs undesirable activities 2. Diversification enables it to shift its balance of production among a variety of different goods, reducing its dependence on any single country or any land, labor, or capital 3. MNCs can transform itself, breaking off into units into independent companies, engaging in mergers, launching new areas of activity, even shutting down entire divisions Power Politics Across Borders Power Politics Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 19 Sometimes result in violence Examples: - Power is exercised when one actor (A) uses its actions/resources to cause another actor (B) to do something that B would otherwise not do *A & B = both states or also nonstate actors (NGOS, IGOs, MNCs) During unsuccessful cooperative approaches, state or other transborder actor may attempt to persuade the other actor to behave in a manner that the other actor does not view as in its best interests - behavior does serve the actors’ goals in ways it does not realize or that the behavior is morally / ethically the right thing to do It takes more than persuasion for a state or transborder actor to behave against what it perceives to be self-interest. Soft Power Can be successfully used A variation on the power/influence theme One state so admires another state’s values, policies, culture that the first state agrees to go along with the admired state’s demands Exchange Power A state or nonstate can offer something of value to another state to cause the other state to do something it would otherwise not do The state can threaten or act to withhold something of considerable value to another state in attempt to induce compliance May be used in many ways by the power-exercising state to force the needy state to comply with its wishes esp. if it is in need of a new goods Sanction Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 20 strategy in which a group of states withhold a desired good to pressure a state Used by IGOS (ex: UN) to alter a country’s behavior without using violence Ex: withhold food, loans, replacement parts, other goods Can be an effective mechanism of coercion Transnational Systems of Power may be used when soft or exchange power do not resolve conflicts/differences Helps prevent direct conflict or major conflict between competing states 1. Balance of Power rough equality in the power resources (political, economic, military) that can be exercised by sets of competing states Actor is prevented from taking advantage of others because of the power other actors have to retaliate There is rough equilibrium of power between competing states & discourages any state from taking aggressive action against rivals because the state fears effective retaliation (a.k.a regional or global balance of power) SIX KEY ELEMENTS IN BALANCE OF POWER Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 21 Bipolar Balance-of-power System replaced the classic balance-of-power system after World War II US & its allies balanced against Soviet Union & its allies Each bloc attempted to achieve HEGEMONY - sustained domination of the international system Multipolar System The system of power from Early 1970’s to Soviet Union’s breakup in 1991 US & Soviet’s coherence bloc declined since China, Japan, Western Europe, other groupings of nonaligned states began to act with greater independence US & Soviet continued to be preeminent global powers & to engage in massive buildup of military capability & nuclear weapons Result was an arms race that produced nuclear arsenals capable of annihilation of total human kind Continued even during post Cold-War era esp. thru U.S. Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) form of balance-of-power politics that evolved is a dangerous & irrational mechanism for regulating relations among powerful states in the nuclear age Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 22 Unipolar Period System A characteristic by economic & military dominance of U.S. International system is controlled by A SINGLE HEGEMON Domination & Dependence Some states are more powerful than others THREE PRIMARY FORMS OF LEVERAGE 1. Economic 2. Military 3. Political Colonialism characterized by one state having extensive dominance over another state using manipulation or control of key economic & military structures for the benefit of the dominant state Reasons for colonization or altering another state’s actions: 1. Subordinate state can provide resources - human & physical for the dominant state Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 23 2. Subordinate state can be a controlled market for the dominant state’s products 3. Subordinate state can serve important strategic functions - buffer between rivals or staging area for political & military objectives 4. State with missionary zeal might dominate another state to ensure that its values (political or religious) guide the subordinate state. 5. To gain international prestige The Different Styles of dominant states 1. Segregationist Style - pure exploitation - no attempts to improve political, economic, social systems of subordinate state 2. Assimilationist Style - makes some attempt to transform subordinate state into an external extension of itself 3. Indirect Rule - dominant state works with traditional leaders & institutions of governance & culture in subordinate state as intermediaries in its control - also introduces modern forms of dominant state that will eventually supplant traditional forms ex: British colonialism Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 24 Neocolonialism given to new more indirect forms of domination & dependence that are nearly as powerful as those under colonialism Dominant state can an maintain domination thru economic leverage May also control supposedly “independent” subordinate state thru foreign aid, loans, technology transfer, military support, economic intervention Dominant state’s manipulation is relatively invisible & its interest are served by subtle alliance with the elite subordinate country, MNCs, other transnational actors Patterns established under colonialism evolved into a world system of dominance & dependence that’s global & systemic Globalization GLOBALIZATION replaced the Cold War Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 25 the increasing integration of diverse economic, social, cultural, military, & environmental phenomena by means of dense networks of action & information that rapidly span vast distances around the world Guided by globalism - state of the world involving networks of interdependence at multinational distances Basically the increase level in globalism Two (2) Defining characteristics of such networks affect globalism: — Networks are increasingly dense — Involve extremely rapid transmission of phenomena across substantial distances Is transforming international systems in uncontrollable ways & not understood Aspects of Human existence affected by globalization: ECONOMIC FACTORS Worldwide market political economy with private economic factors minimally constrained by states/borders, open capital markets, vigorous competition, reduced state control over the economy FOUR MAJOR DOMAINS OF GLOBALISM: 1. Economic globalism - long-distance flows of goods, services, capital, & information that shape market exchanges - less costly imports, instantaneous transfers of financial capital 2. Social & Cultural Globalism movement of people, ideas, information, images that affect people and cultures where they flow 3. Military Globalism Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 26 Long-distance networks of interdependence in which threats/exercise of force is employed 4. Environmental Globalism long-distance transport of materials & biological substances via natural movement (ozone depletion, bird flu) or thru human agency (AIDS, HIV) Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 27 Three Major Trends that will likely shape the near-term evolution of politics across borders: 1. Military Power remains significant in state relations 2. Intense Economic competition - May split allied countries during Cold War 3. State-centered system is evolving toward transnational entities which are vital Chapter 11: Politics Across Borders 28
